Leviathan: text XIII

Wednesday, October 13, 2021

Thomas Hobbes
Page 76

(unlike ancient philosophers who proposed a theory of ethics as theological (they aim at determine the
end of human actions); modern theory of ethics are not theological but Deontological (they understand
human conduct not as an end but in terms of a duty to be performed; the diff is that ancient looks for
ends, whereas modern look for causes; science search for causes; in ethics, search for causes of human
behavior))

Hobbes identified the ultimate cause of human conduct in egoism (all human actions are ruled by
egoism)
Human beings are motivated by selfish interest
Fundamental facts of human nature cannot be changes

What are those fundamental facts of human nature?

(1) Fact of self-love: human beings are motivated only by their self-preservation
Another fact of human life is that the (2) necessity of life is scares: human beings preserve themselves
must search for necessity of life like food, shell; human compete with one another to procure for
themselves this necessity
The third factor of human life is that (3) humans are vulnerable to external agent (they are all equal and
equally vulnerable to external agents)

These fundamental facts of human nature are selfish and egoistic (lack generosity and capacity for
mutual love by nature)
If they do not modify the conduct of life in order to contain the destructive force of the fundamental
principle of human life which is egoism, then life will be horrible and solitary and brutish
If human beings were left for themselves without laws, rulers who inforce the laws and contain the
destructive force, then life will be brutish and horrible

This condition in which no laws and man are left for themselves and left to the principle of egoism (no
constraints), is the state of nature where no laws or rulers
Today, such condition does not exist (there are ruler everywhere)

This text: Description by Hobbes of what life is like when no state; Hobbes imagine what life would like
when no rulers (State of nature) > horrible state; man in war against each other's which is a
consequence of that human beings are motivated by self-love and self-preservation and by the fact
that the goods of life that human needs are scarce and vulnerability of humans to external agents
Therefore, humans try to contain this destructive force of this principle of egoism that governs their life
by moral principles and laws and put rulers to inforce the laws.
So decent life is possible only in a state where there are laws and ruler to contain the egoistic force.
Why should we live in a state? > bcz life outside the state is horrible. If human beings are dominated
only by egoistic motives then they will be in a state of war.

Text: Leviathan (metaphor for the state as a monster/ horrible bcz state impose ruler and laws which
humans have to follow and if not > punishment (this is the monster: limit the freedom of human beings
prevent them from doing what they want to do and suppresses the egoistic motives which dominate
human beings); the state contains the egoistic motives; but given the fundamental fact of human nature
and life, life within the state (under the rule of monster) is better than outside (outside, life is horrible
and war of all against all) by Thomas Hobbes

XIII: of the natural condition of mankind as concerning their felicity and misery:
Conclusion: state of nature is a condition in which all humans are in war against each other's (war of all
against all); this is the conclusion at which Hobbes seeks to arrive.

Nature has make man equal; in the state of nature (where no laws), all man are equal both physically
(strength) and in mental capabilities. This does not mean that all are the same and have exactly the
same physically; some are stronger or more intelligent than others; equal is not absolute equal (> more
or less); but even if there is diff, none of man is so strong than other that he is able to dominate others.
The diff is not so big as to allow one man to dominate the others; weaker have the capacity to subdue
the stronger:
• Secret machination: weaker man can assault the stronger from behind > this will give the weaker
an advantage and the stronger cannot defend himself in such situation
• Confederacy: weak can get together and dominate the stronger

This is the first claim: (1) all man are equal (prevent the formation of empery by stronger man to
others); no man is strong enough to impose rulers on others

Form this equality, other consequences arise:

What are the ends of a man? > human beings aim at an end which is their own self-preservation and
survival. This is the fundament motives of human actions. It is a cause more than an aim
Delectation: sexual pleasure to reproduce
Self-preservation is the motif behind human action (aim at self-preservation)
(2) Human beings aim at self-preservation by ensuring for themselves the means of their own
preservation (food, shelter…)
Human beings may desire the same things and they cannot both enjoy (> only one; the necessity of life
are scares and not enough for everybody; not enough goods to satisfy their needs and they become
enemies and compete)
(3) There is scarcity of resources and necessity of life
>>>> Human compete for the search for the necessity of life

Life then in the condition of state of nature is dangerous

Suppose that a man have a convenient seat (found a shelter for himself and eat in it after hunting); but
other humans are hungry and therefore those hungry man invade the shelter of the man eating; they
force him to leave his shelter; this is competition that leads to instability of life

So far we did not reach the conclusion, there is SOME (that are in war) that are in competition with
other (that killed an animal and have shelter)

Even there is competition to procure the means of self-preservation, man distrust each other's (in a
state of nature)
The best way for human in state of nature to protect themselves is not to go stay in defense but to go
in acts of prevent others to attack
The best defense for man is to go on attack themselves in order to prevent others from attack (go to
attack before others think attacking him)
(preventive strike)

Example of 2001 attack on America, the president announce war against terrorism and then he attack
Iraq even before investigations and put sanctions… America attack first even before the enemy
endanger Americans (and not to give the possibility for enemy to gain power again) > best defense
In a state of nature when there is competition to procure their own preservation, the best defense way
(every human beings is subjected to attack from others) to protect is to go attack (preventive strike)
Attack first the potential competitor before the enemy thought attacking (this is anticipation;
preventive strike; attack to prevent strike)
Human undergo with preventive strike act as long as he is in danger (he will perform this acts until he
clear the territory from all possible enemies)
This man will be called strong and everybody will think twice before attacking him
Man in a state of nature is obliged by reasons to go and attack; it is a rational thing to do
If a man do not do this, he will be acting irrationally and put himself in danger

>> Self-preservation is the fundamental motif of human actions in a state of nature; the most rational
way for human to guarantee self-preservation is to go on attack in act of preventive strike

All man are in war with each other bcz each man understand rationally that the best way to protect
himself is to go on attack before others attack him
This step that trigger the war of all against all

SO:

3 causes of war a man make in a state of nature:

(1) Competition leads man to attack for gain and procure for himself the necessity of life
The second is (2) safety/ diffidence: man are distrustful and they do anything to protect themselves and
attack to prevent strikes for their own protection
Third is (3) reputation/ glory: attack on those causing danger on him is not enough; it is rational also to
attack also those who do not cause danger on him but may become dangerous in the future, and going
on attack against them give a man a reputation of strong man so that in the future others think twice
before attacking him.

As long as there is state of nature with no state, no laws, man are in war of all against all

In state of nature, no place for industry (man do not make anything) bcz whatever they make is not
secure and may be taken from them at any time
No agriculture also: no guarantee of property
No navigation, no transportation, no building (what is the point of building a house if at any time I am in
danger of losing it); no machines; no conception of time (only considered by here and now; no plans for
future; live in present for their survival; no memory of the past also); no society (this man live by
himself; distrust each other and do not interact with each other's; no language developed also and no
literature and no art)
Man live a life of fear, danger…
Poor in the sense of culture (no art, no language, no food for the human spirit); it is a life of animals; and
therefore all that lead to a short life (man may die when he is attacking or defending)

Given these fundamental facts about human nature that is motivated by selfishness, egoism, self-
preservation, habitat, and scarcity of necessity of life and competition >> all those lead to a life in a
condition of selfish egoistic motive of human conduct and lead to uncivilized, poor, brutal life

This is the big picture that Hobbes offer when man is dominated by the principle of egoism

If man live in no laws to restraint the egoistic motives, then life is horrible, war, solitary… SO what to do?

Life of war and no government and laws, no one to inforce laws > no concept of justice and injustice;
no one knows; human only preserve themselves
Man in order to fall in conditions of domination by egoistic motives, man should restrain by coming
together; rationally human understand that best way to protect is not by war, it is by coming together
and make an external authority that make and impose the laws to guarantee the security of humans
>> So human beings can have their preservation guaranteed not by themselves but by an authority
they put by agreement
State protect them

So as long as man are in competition, they are right to use force but by using force to protect
themselves, they will be in a constant war > so they sign an agreement together to seek peace
Laws and state guarantee peace and protection >> we can get a society and man strat doing goods and
things, languages.. Leading to a civilized society and decent life and peaceful long life.
But civilized life is plausible when man learn how to restraint their egoistic motives and seek peace.
So a man announce that no more violence and make an authority and recognize the freedom of others >
man live in peace.
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