Prof. A.

Murat Tekalp Digital Video Processing, 2E, Prentice Hall, 2015

LECTURE 1:
M-D SIGNALS AND TRANSFORMS
• M-D Signals
– Finite-Extent Signals and Periodic Signals
– Symmetric Signals
– Special signals
• M-D Transforms
– MD-FT for Continuous Signals
– MD-FT for Discrete Signals
– MD-DFT
– MD-DCT
– MD-Wavelet
Chapter 1 Multi-dimensional Signals and Systems 1
Prof. A. Murat Tekalp Digital Video Processing, 2E, Prentice Hall, 2015

Finite-Extent Signals
Finite-extent signals are defined over a finite support.
• Quarter-plane (QP) support
• Half-plane (HP) support
• Non-symmetric half-plane (NSHP) support
• Wedge support

n2
 

n1

Chapter 1 Multi-dimensional Signals and Systems 2

Prof. A. Murat Tekalp Digital Video Processing, 2E, Prentice Hall, 2015

Periodic Signals
• Definition: ̃ ̃

| and
• Arbitrary periodicity
• Rectangular-periodicity: diagonal

Chapter 1 Multi-dimensional Signals and Systems 3

Prof. A. Murat Tekalp Digital Video Processing, 2E, Prentice Hall, 2015

Periodic Extension of Finite-Extent Signals

• Finite-extent signals and periodic signals are isomorphic to

each other.
– Given a periodic signal, the main period is finite-extent
– Given a finite extent signal, we can always define its
periodic extension

̃ , ,

Chapter 1 Multi-dimensional Signals and Systems 4

Prof. A. Murat Tekalp Digital Video Processing, 2E, Prentice Hall, 2015

Symmetric Signals
• Two-fold (NSHP) symmetry
, ,

• Four-fold (QP) symmetry

, , ,

• Circular symmetry
– A signal , is circularly symmetric if it is only a
function of distance from the origin. Circular
symmetry implies four-fold symmetry.

Chapter 1 Multi-dimensional Signals and Systems 5

Prof. A. Murat Tekalp Digital Video Processing, 2E, Prentice Hall, 2015

Separable Signals
• An MD signal (function) is separable if
, ,⋯, ⋯
• A finite support 2D signal , can be represented by
a matrix . If the signal is separable, then the matrix can
be written as the outer product , where the
vectors and denote samples of 1D signals
and , respectively.
• While a general matrix has degrees of
freedom, the outer product has degrees of
freedom.

Chapter 1 Multi-dimensional Signals and Systems 6

Prof. A. Murat Tekalp Digital Video Processing, 2E, Prentice Hall, 2015

Special Signals: 2D Kronecker Delta

• MD Kronecker-delta signal
1 ⋯ 0
, ,⋯,
0 otherwise

• 2D discrete time signals can be expressed as shifted and

weighted sum of Kronecker delta signals.
s(1,1)
s(0,1) s(3,1)
n2
s(0,0) s(4,2)
s(1,0)

n1

Chapter 1 Multi-dimensional Signals and Systems 7

 Prof. A. Murat Tekalp Digital Video Processing, 2E, Prentice Hall, 2015

Special Signals: 2D Spatial Frequency Patterns

• Horizontal pattern
, cos
• Vertical pattern
, cos
• 45-degree orientation
, cos
• Complex exponential
– A 2D discrete complex exponential signal
,
is rectangularly periodic in , with period , if and
where , , and are unitless integers, and the units of
and are radians.
Chapter 1 Multi-dimensional Signals and Systems 8
 Prof. A. Murat Tekalp Digital Video Processing, 2E, Prentice Hall, 2015

2D Fourier Transform of Continuous Signals

• Forward transform

, ,
,
• Inverse transform
1
, ,
2 ,
• MD Fourier transform is complex
, , , , ,
• Frequency variables
2 , cycles/mm, radians/mm

Chapter 1 Multi-dimensional Signals and Systems 9

 Prof. A. Murat Tekalp Digital Video Processing, 2E, Prentice Hall, 2015

Convergence of the Fourier Transform

The 2D signal , may have an infinite extent.
• Uniform convergence: The double integral converges uniformly and is a
continuous function of and if
∬ , ∞; i.e., , is absolutely integrable.
• Mean-square convergence: If , exists but has discontinuities, then a
weaker form of convergence applies. For example, ,
sin ⁄ sin ⁄ is not absolutely integrable, but its Fourier transform
converges in the mean square sense. We observe the Gibbs effect around points
of discontinuity.
• Generalized convergence: In some cases, neither uniform nor mean-square
convergence applies, but , may still be defined using the Dirac delta
function , . For example, , 1 for all , , is not
absolutely integrable, but its Fourier transform is defined in the generalized
sense as , , .
Chapter 1 Multi-dimensional Signals and Systems 10
 Prof. A. Murat Tekalp Digital Video Processing, 2E, Prentice Hall, 2015

2D Fourier Transform: Coordinate Transforms

• Let , ,
denote an affine transformation of coordinates. If , is the
2D Fourier transform of , , then the 2D Fourier transform
of , is given by
1
, ,

• Translation: 1, 0.
, ,
• Rotation: 0, cos, sin,; where
1.
, cos sin , sin cos
Chapter 1 Multi-dimensional Signals and Systems 11
 Prof. A. Murat Tekalp Digital Video Processing, 2E, Prentice Hall, 2015

Projection Slice Theorem

• Let , have Fourier transform , , and
denote the Radon transform of , defined by

cos sin , sin cos

which projects , to a line through the origin with angle .

Then,
cos , sin
where denotes the 1D Fourier transform of
for
each angle .
• The projection-slice theorem is fundamental to how several
medical imaging modalities, e.g., computer tomography, works.
Chapter 1 Multi-dimensional Signals and Systems 12
 Prof. A. Murat Tekalp Digital Video Processing, 2E, Prentice Hall, 2015

Projection Slice Thm. (cont’d)

• Proof for the case 0
Projection of , on the horizontal axis is defined by

Taking the 1D Fourier transform of the projection yields

, ,0

Chapter 1 Multi-dimensional Signals and Systems 13

 Prof. A. Murat Tekalp Digital Video Processing, 2E, Prentice Hall, 2015

2D Fourier Transform of Discrete Signals

• Forward transform is periodic with period 2 2

, ,

• Inverse transform
1
, ,
2
• Properties:
– , real implies , has conjugate symmetry.
– , is two‐fold symmetric implies , is real
, ∗ , → , ∗ ,
Chapter 1 Multi-dimensional Signals and Systems 14
 Prof. A. Murat Tekalp Digital Video Processing, 2E, Prentice Hall, 2015

2D Discrete Fourier Transform

• 2D DFT can be obtained by sampling , of a finite-extent
signal , or by computing the Fourier series coefficients of
the periodic extension ̃ ,

, ,

• Normalized frequency variables

2 2
and
∆ ∆ ∆ ∆
2 and 2
Chapter 1 Multi-dimensional Signals and Systems 15
 Prof. A. Murat Tekalp Digital Video Processing, 2E, Prentice Hall, 2015

Computation of 2D Discrete Fourier Transform

• Since 2D complex exponentials are separable, 2D DFT can be
computed as a cascade of two 1D DFTs, first on the rows of
, , then on the columns of , as

, ,

where

, ,

is the 1D DFT over the row of the image.

Chapter 1 Multi-dimensional Signals and Systems 16
 Prof. A. Murat Tekalp Digital Video Processing, 2E, Prentice Hall, 2015

Computation of 2D IDFT
• Inverse 2D DFT can be computed using the forward FFT algorithm
by first conjugating , , then computing 2D forward DFT,
and again taking the complex conjugate of the result, since we have

1
, ,

∗
1 ∗
,

Chapter 1 Multi-dimensional Signals and Systems 17

 Prof. A. Murat Tekalp Digital Video Processing, 2E, Prentice Hall, 2015

Properties of 2D Discrete Fourier Transform

• 2D DFT is rectangularly periodic
, , , for all ,
• , real implies , is Hermitian symmetry
| 0,0 | | 1,0 | | 2,0 | | 3,0 | 2,0 1,0
| 0,1 | | 1,1 | | 2,1 | | 3,1 | | 4,1 | | 5,1 |
| 0,2 | | 1,2 | | 2,2 | | 3,2 | | 4,2 | | 5,2 |
| 0,3 | | 1,3 | | 2,3 | | 3,3 | 2,3 1,3
0,2 5,2 4,2 3,2 2,2 1,2
0,1 5,1 4,1 3,1 2,1 1,1

0 1,0 2,0 0 2,0 1,0

0,1 1,1 2,1 3,1 4,1 5,1
0,2 1,2 2,2 3,2 4,2 5,2
0 1,3 2,3 0 2,3 1,3
0,2 5,2 4,2 3,2 2,2 1,2
0,1 5,1 4,1 3,1 2,1 1,1

Chapter 1 Multi-dimensional Signals and Systems 18

Prof. A. Murat Tekalp Digital Video Processing, 2E, Prentice Hall, 2015

Properties of 2D DFT (cont’d)

• Circular Shift
, ↔ ,

• Circular Convolution
, ⊛⊛ , ↔ , ,
• Parseval’s Theorem:

1
, ,

Chapter 1 Multi-dimensional Signals and Systems 19

 Prof. A. Murat Tekalp Digital Video Processing, 2E, Prentice Hall, 2015

2D Discrete Cosine Transform

• Symmetric extension for type II DCT is given by
2 1 , 0 2 1

• The algorithm to compute -point DCT of -point signal

using 2 -point FFT is as follows:
1) Form 2 -point symmetrically extended signal .
2) Compute , 0, … , 2 1, the 2 -point DFT of .
⁄
3) , 0, … , 1, where

• The high frequency coefficients of the DCT contains less energy

compared with those of the DFT due to symmetric extension.
Chapter 1 Multi-dimensional Signals and Systems 20
 Prof. A. Murat Tekalp Digital Video Processing, 2E, Prentice Hall, 2015

2D Discrete Wavelet Transform (DWT)

• 2D DWT is a multi-scale image representation.

• Discussion of 2D DWT is delayed until we study FIR filtering

and multi-scale image representations in Chapter 3.
Chapter 1 Multi-dimensional Signals and Systems 21
 @Copyright 2015 Prof. A. Murat Tekalp Digital Video Processing Fall 2015

Display of 2D Signals and Transforms

• Two-dimensional functions can be displayed as gray-scale plots, isometric
(surface) plots, or contour plots, which are supported by MATLAB.
• Appropriate scaling is important for gray-scale plots, e.g., to display 2-D Fourier
transform of images, or to compare multiple images. Common approaches for
scaling are linear min/max scaling and nonlinear scaling. For example, log scaling
for Fourier magnitude is given by
, log 1 ,
where D() denotes the display image and F() denotes the actual Fourier transform.
• Surface plots give the appearance of 3D drawing. A wire mesh or a shaded solid
can represent the surface. Some portions of the surface may be occluded. This is
very useful to display point spread functions and frequency response of systems.
• In contour plots, all points that have a specific value are connected to form a
continuous line. This type of plot is useful locating minima and maxima of two-
dimensional functions.
Chapter 1 Multi-dimensional Signals and Systems 22