Mathematical Methods for Economics: Preliminaries-II

Discipline Courses-I
Semester-I
Paper II: Mathematical Methods for Economics: Preliminaries-I
Unit-I
Lesson: Preliminaries-II
Lesson Developer: Sanjeev Kumar
College/Department: Dyal Singh College, University of Delhi

Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi

1
 Mathematical Methods for Economics: Preliminaries-II

“The master economist must possess a rare combination of gifts.

... He must be mathematician, historian, statesman, philosopher to some degree.”
J. M. Keynes

CONTENTS:

 2.0 Learning outcomes of the chapter

 2.1 Mathematical proof technique

 Introduction
 Direct and indirect proof
 Proof by mathematics induction
 Deductive vs. inductive reasoning
 Problem set

 2.2 Set , set operation and Venn diagrams

 Introduction
 Set and types of set
 Set operation
 Venn diagrams
 Law of relating of set theory
 Problem set and answers

 2.3 Relations and their properties

 Relation
 Directed graphs
 Inverse Relation
 Basic characteristics of binary relation
 Combining relation
 Composition
 Problem set

 2.4 Functions and its types

 Function
 Types of Functions
 Properties of functions
 Problem set and answers

 References

 2.0 LEARNING OUTCOMES OF THE CHAPTER

Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi

2
 Mathematical Methods for Economics: Preliminaries-II

After completion of the present chapter, you should be able to;

 Understand mathematical proof technique, i.e., direct and indirect proof

 Understand set, set operation, Venn diagrams and their implication
 Describe the uses of set theory
 Explain the term of relations, types and their properties
 Understand the term of function, types, operation and their properties
 Determine whether a set of numbers or a graph is a function
 Describe the symmetry of a graph as odd or even function

2.1 MATHEMATICAL PROOF

 Introduction

According to R. Dedekind, "in science, what can be proved should not believed
without proof". Theorems are the most important outcome of the every branch of
mathematics. Proof of these theorems is the heart of mathematics and it distinguishes
mathematics from the other disciplines. In simple way, we can say, "a proof is a chain of
reasoning that establishes the truth of particular statement or a proposition. For example
Pythagoras theorem is an important proven result in this direction.

Example: Prove that the sum and product of any three consecutive even numbers is
always a multiply of 6 and a multiply of 8 respectively.

Proof: These three consecutive numbers must be multiply of 2, so, we can write
these number; 2N, 2N + 2 and 2N + 4. Where N is an whole number.

Let we take first case; the sum of three consecutive numbers are;

2N + (2N +6) + (2N + 4)

= 6N (N + 1)

= 6 (N + 1)

Which is six times of (N+1). Hence proved

In second case; the products of three consecutive numbers are;

2N  (2N +2)  (2N + 4)

= 2N  2(2N +1)  2(N + 2)

= 8N(N +1)  (N + 2)

Which is eight times of N (N + 1) (N + 2). Hence proved.

 Direct and Indirect Proof

Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi
3
 Mathematical Methods for Economics: Preliminaries-II

Direct Proof:

A direct proof is a mathematical argument that uses rules of inference to derive the
conclusion from the promises.

Example: The sum of two even numbers is even

Proof: Le x and y are two even numbers and there exist m and n are integers, such
that

x = 2m and y = 2n

Then, the sum, x+y = 2m + 2n

= 2(m + n)

This is even number. Hence proved.

Indirect Proof:

An indirect proof is a mathematical argument that uses rules of inference to derive

the negation of the conclusion. Sometime, it is more convenient to prove implication by an
indirect proof.

P  Q is equivalent to not Q  not P

Contradiction: It is the third method of proof sometimes. It is useful and based on

fundamental logical principle.

Example: By using above three methods to prove that

-x2 + 4x -3 > 0  x > 0

Solution:(i) Direct Proof:

Given; -x2 + 4x -3 > 0

Adding both side x2 + 3 in the inequalities

Then -x2 + 4x -3 + x2 + 3> x2 + 3

4x >3 x2 + 3

And, we know, x2 + 3 3 for all x

So, we have 4x> 3

Then, x > 3/4, in particular, x > 0

x> 3/4  x > 0

(ii) Indirect Proof; let x  o, then 4x  0

Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi

4
 Mathematical Methods for Economics: Preliminaries-II

So, -x2 + 4x -3 is the sum of three non positive terms, then, it is  0

(iii) Contradiction Proof: suppose the statement is not true then there exist an
x such that;-x2 + 4x -3>0 and x>0

But if x  0, then, -x2 + 4x -3  -x2 -3  -3

Now, we have arrived at a contradiction

 Proof by Mathematical Induction

Mathematical induction is not based on inductive reasoning but it is a single base

case. In this method, we assume that if the base case is true then the infinity of other case
must also be true. We can understand of mathematical induction by taking an example of
natural numbers.

Let N =  1, 2, 3, -------  be the set of natural numbers, and P (n) is the

mathematical statement about natural numbers, then

 P(1) is true i.e. P(n) is true for n = 1

 P(n + 1) is true, whenever P(n) is true i.e. P(n) is true implies that P (n + 1) is also
true, so P(n) is true for all natural numbers

This process is called mathematical induction.

Theorem: Prove that the sum of the first n odd natural numbers is n 2

i.e. 1+3+5+7+9+-----------------+(2n-1)= n2

Proof: By induction methods, it is true for n=1

Now we take, n = k (positive integer);

Then, 1+3+5+7+9+-----------------+ (2k-1) = k2

The next odd number to be added both sides in above equation, we get,

1+3+5+7+9+-----------------+ (2k-1) + {2(k+1)-1} = k2+{2(k+1)-1}

Then, we conclude;

1+3+5+7+9+-----------------+ (2k-1) + {2(k+1)-1} = (k+1)2

So, we can say it is also true for k+1. Then, it holds for all natural numbers n.

 Deductive Vs Inductive Reasoning

The above three methods of proof are the outline of the deductive reasoning.
Basically, deductive reasoning is based on consistent rules of logic and proof is the
important part of it. The second type reasoning is called inductive reasoning which is used in
many branches of science and social science. In this reasoning; the process to draw
Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi
5
 Mathematical Methods for Economics: Preliminaries-II

conclusion is based on few observations. For example, If the price level has increased from
the last 20 years then price will also increase in next coming year. The above example
demonstrates inductive reasoning. In fact, it is no guarantee that price level will increase in
the coming year. So, inductive reasoning is not recognized as a form of proof in
mathematics.

Example: By using backward (deductive) reasoning; let x, y > 0 with x  y,

x y
Then,  xy
2

Proof: Conclusion is true if x  y  2 xy

( x+ y) >4xy
2
Conclusion is true if

Conclusion is true if x 2 + y 2 -2xy >0

Conclusion is true if x  y   0 , which is true.

2

Problem Set

1. If x2 is odd number, then x is -----------------.

2. Use direct, indirect and contradiction methods to prove that;

x2 + 3x -2 > 0 x>0

3. Use mathematical induction to prove that n<2n for all natural numbers n.

4. Prove that, the sum of square of three consecutive numbers and then subtracts two
is always a multiple of 3.

5. By using mathematical induction, prove that;

1+2+3+4+………………………………………………+n=1/2{n (n+1)}

2.3 SET THEORY

 Introduction

Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi

6
 Mathematical Methods for Economics: Preliminaries-II

Set theory is a part of discrete mathematics. In this theory, we represent discrete

objects by sets. A well-defined collection of objects is called set. These objects are called
elements or member of the set. It is denoted by ‘S’ or capital letters.

For examples: S= {1, 2, 3,……….N}

Here S is a set of natural numbers and 1, 2, 3……………N are members of Set

S = {a, b, c, d}

The set of first four alphabet in English languages

V= {a, e, I, o, u}

That is the set of vowels in English alphabet.

 Types of Sets

Finite Set: A set having finite number of elements is called finite set.

For example: S = {x, y, z}, there are only three element

Infinite Set: A set having infinite number of element is called Infinite Set.

For Example: S = {1,2,3……………………….}

Null (empty) Set: If there is no element in set then it is called Null Set. It is
denoted by  (phi)

For Example: S = { }

Unit Set: It include only one member

The Universal Set: The set of all objects is called universal set and it is denoted U.

Equal Set: If the both set have same element then they called equal set.

For example: A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {3, 2, 1}, Then, A = B, A & B are equal set.

Subset: The set A is said to be a subject of B. If every element of A is also an

element of set B. It is denoted as A  B and read as; A is subset of B.

Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi

7
 Mathematical Methods for Economics: Preliminaries-II

Proper Subset: Set A is said to be proper subset of set B. If A  B and A ≠ B

Cardinality: The cardinality of set S is denoted by S.

Let S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}

Then, S = 5 (No. of elements in set)

Proper Set: The proper set is the set of all subsets. It is denoted by P(S)

Example 1: Given S = {1}

Then P(S) = {  , {1}} and P( s )  2

Example 2: S= {a, b, c}

P(S)= {{  }, {a},{b},{c},{a, b},{b, c},{c, a},{a, b, c}}

= 2n, Here; n=3 and it represent power of the set.

=8

 Venn Diagrams
It is the diagrammatical representation of set theory. It is easy way to
understand set theory.

Complement of set: It is definite as;

A-1 = {x: x U but x ∉ A}

Disjoint Set: It is defined as;

AB = 

Cartesian product: It is defined as;

AB = {(x, y): xA and yB}

Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi

8
 Mathematical Methods for Economics: Preliminaries-II

is the symbols of Cartesian product.

Example: Given; A = {1, 2}, B = {a, b}, find AB

Solution: AB= {(1, a), (a, b), (2 ,a), (2, b)}

 Set Operations

AB (A Union B): AB is the set of those elements, which are, belongs to in set A or in
set B or in both sets;

 AB = { x x  A or xB}

Given, A = {1, 2, 3}, B= {2, 3, 4}

Then, AB = {1, 2, 3, 4}

AB (A intersection B): A common element between set A and set B are called AB.

AB = { x x  A and x  B}

Given, A = {1, 2, 3}, B = {2, 3, 4}

AB = {2, 3}

 Laws Relating to Set Theory

 Commutative Law

AB = BA and AB = BA

 Associative Law

(AB) C = A(BC) and (AB)C = A(BC)

 Distribution Law

A (BC) = (AB) (AC)

A (BC) = (AB) (AC)

Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi

9
 Mathematical Methods for Economics: Preliminaries-II

 De Morgan’s Law

(AB)C = ACBC

Or, (AB)C = AC  BC

Theorem: If the number of the element of sets A and B is finite, then

 n (AB) = n(A) + n (B) –n (AB)

 n (ABC) = n (A) + n(B) +n(C) – n (AB) – n (BC) – n(AC) + n (ABC)

Example 1: Write true (T) or False (F) for the followings;

(i) A ’  B = A  B’ (F)
(ii) A  B  A B =B (T)
(iii) XY = XZ Y=Z (F)
(iv) A (BC) = (AB)  (AC) (T)

Example 2: Given; X= {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} Y= {4, 5, 6, 7} and Z= {2, 3, 6} then find;

(i) X (YZ) (ii) X (YZ)

Solutions: (i) YZ = {2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}

 X(YZ) = {2, 3, 4, 5}

(ii) YZ = {6}

X(YZ) = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}

Example 3: In a survey of reading habits of 100 students. It was found that 50 students
used the university library, 40 students had their own library, 30 students borrowed from
friends. It was also found 20 students used both the library i.e. university & own library, 50
students used their own library as well as borrowed from friends; while 10 students used
the university library and also borrowed from friends. How many students used all the
three sources of books?

Solution: Let A, B, and C the sources of books, i.e., library, own library and borrowed
from friends
Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi
10
 Mathematical Methods for Economics: Preliminaries-II

By using theorem of set theory,

n (ABC) = n(A) +n(B)+ n(C)- n (AB) – n(AC)- n (BC +n(ABC)

Given; n(ABC) =100, n(A) = 50, n(B)= 40, n(C)= 30, n (AB) = 20,
n(BC) = 50 and n(CC) = 10

n(ABC) = n(ABC) - n(A) - n(B)- n(C)+ n (AB) + n(AC) +n (BC)

= 100 – 50-40-30+20+50+10

= 60 students

Example 4: A consumer’s consumption set is given by

C = {(x1, x2): x1 > 0, x2 >0}

And budget set is also given by

B = {(x1, x2): p1x1 + p2 x2  M}

Where x1 and x2 are quantities of goods and their respective prices are p1and p2
>0 and M>0 is income of the consumer. Illustrate in a diagram the sets;

(a) BC (b) BC

Are they convex? Bounded? How can you interpret it?

Solution: Let set C represented by rectangular diagram.

And set B represented by a triangular diagram.

.

Now, BC = C

And, BC= B, because B is a subset of C.

Yes, both are convex set and BC is bounded

And Set BC is unbounded.

Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi

11
 Mathematical Methods for Economics: Preliminaries-II

Example 5: Show graphically the region represented by the following set;

A = {(x, y): x>0 for all y and y>0 for all x.}

Is the given set Convex?

Solution: Yes, the given,

A = {(x, y): x>0 for all y and y>0 for all x.}

Set is convex to the origin.

PROBLEM SET

(1) Given, A= {1, 2, 3}, B = {2, 5, 6}, C= {5, 6, 3}

Find (i) AB (ii) A (BC) (iii) A – (BC)

Answer:

(i) AB = {1, 2, 3, 5, 6}

(ii) A (BC) = {1, 2, 3, 5, 6}
(iii) A – (BC) = {1}
(iv) ABC = {1, 2, 3, 5, 6}

(2) Draw Venn diagram for the justify of given formulae’s

(i) AB (ii) A= A (iii) A(BC)

Ans: (i) (ii) (iii)

(3) If x and y are the finite sets, then prove the followings:
(I) n(xy) = n (x) + n (y) – n (xy)
(II) n (x/y) = n (x) – n (xy)

Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi

12
 Mathematical Methods for Economics: Preliminaries-II

(4) In a class of 100 students, 60 students take economics, 50 students take

mathematics and 20 students take both. Find the number of student taking neither
the two subjects.

Answer: 10 students

(5) Given A = {1, 2, 3} and B= {, , }, then

Find Cartesian product of the given set.

Answer: A B = {(1, ), (1, ), (1, ), (2, ),(2, ),(2, ),(3, ),(3, ),(3, )}

(6) Suppose A= {a, b, c} B= {a, b, c, d} and C = {a, b, c, d, e}, then prove that A B
and BC implies AC

(7) Asked, if you will vote for ‘x’ party the following responses are recorded

Yes No Don’t Know

Male: 20 40 10
Female: 40 15 15
Youth (Just as 18 years) 20 10 10

Where A = Set of adult male S  Set of Yes answer

C = Set of adult women N  Set of No answer
Y = Set of youth

Find; (i) n(A) (ii) n(AS) (iii) n (YN)’ (iv) n[A (YN)]

Answer: (i) 20 (ii) 20 (iii) 30 (iv) 20

(8) (i) Given, A= {(x, y): x-y0}, B= {(x, y): |x| y0}, C= {(x, y): x y1}

Show that ABC and ABC are closed and convex.

(ii) Are the following sets convex/bounded/closed?

(a)Set A= {(x, y): y IxI} (b) Set B = {(x, y): y 1/IxI} (c) Set AB

Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi

13
 Mathematical Methods for Economics: Preliminaries-II

2.3 RELATIONS AND ITS PROPERTIES

Relation: A relation can be defined on set A and set B. Basically; it is a subset of

Cartesian product of sets i.e. A×B. It is given by R  A× B

If (a, b) R, It means that ‘a’ is related to ‘b’ by R.

Here, Set A  Domain of R

Set B  Co-domain or Range of R

If the both set are equal i.e., A=B then R is called a binary relations on the set A

Notation:

 aRb it means (a, b)  R

 a b it means (a, b)  R
Ř ,

Example:

Suppose A = {, β, } and B = {2, 3, 4, 5}

Let, there are three relations i.e.R1,R2and R3is given below;

R1= {(, 2), (, 3), (, 5)}

R2 = {(β, 2), (β, 3), (, 4)}

R3= {(, 2), (β, 3), (, 4)}

The above relation can be discussed by graph,

 Inverse Relation: Let R be a relation from A to B. Then inverse relation R-1 can
be defined as:

R-1 = {(b, a): (a, b)R}, Here R-1 is a relation from B to A.

It is called the inverse of the relation R.

Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi

14
 Mathematical Methods for Economics: Preliminaries-II

Example: If A {a, b, c} and B= {1, 2, 3} then find R-1?

Solution: R = A× B

= {(a,1),(a,2),(a,3),(b,1),(b,2),(b,3),(c,1),(c,2),(c,3)}

Then, R-1 = {(1,a),(2,a),(3,a),(1,b),(2,b),(3,b),(1,c),(2,c),(3,c)}

 Important Properties of Binary Relations

 R is reflexive if aRa
i.e.  a {(aA)  ((a, a)  R)}
 R is symmetric if aRb = bRa
i.e.  a  b [{(a,b)  R} and {(b,a)  R}]
 R is transitive
If aRb and bRc then aRc
i.e.  a,b,c {(a,b)  R and (b,c) R  (a,c) R}
 Identity Relation: (x,y) xRy x=y, Here R is the Identity relation.

Example 1:Suppose A {, β, } and R is the relation {(, )}.

 The above relation aRa is called reflexive.

Example 2: Given,A = {1, 2, 3}

B = {1, 2, 3} i.e. A=B
Then find xRy, if(i) R is given by y<x (ii) y=x (iii) x=2y

Solutions: The Cartesian product is given by;

A  B = {(1,1), (1,2), (1,3), (2,1), (2,2), (2,3), (3,1), (3,2),(3,3)}

(i) If y<x

 R = {(x,y): xA and yA, y<x}

= {(2, 1), (3, 1), (3, 2)}?
Here, domain is {2, 3} and range is {1, 2}

(ii) If, y = x
 R = {x: yA, y = x}
R {(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3)}
(ii) If x= 2y
 R = {x, yA, x = 2y}
R= {2, 1}
Here domain and range are {2} and {1} respectively.

Example 3: Let A is set of real numbers and the relation R defined as:

R= {(x, y): x>y>0, (x, y)A}

Then represent it graphically.

Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi

15
 Mathematical Methods for Economics: Preliminaries-II

Solution:

Example 4: If R1 and R2 are the transitive relation on a set A then R1R2 is transitive?
Solve by taking an example.

Solution: Suppose A = {2, 3}

Then R1 = {(2, 3)}, R2={(3,2)}

Therefore R1 R2= {(2, 3), (3, 2)}

Here, we note that R1 and R2 are both transitive but R1 R2 is not transitive.

Composition: Suppose R1 is the relation from A to B and R2 is the relation from B to A

Then the composition of R1 with R2 is defined as;

 (x, z)  R2oR1 yB Such that (x, y)  R1 and (y, z)  R2

Here R2oR1 is the symbol of composition.
 Let R is a binary relation on A, then;
Basis: R1 = R
Recurrence: Rn+1 = RnoR, if n1

Examples 5: Suppose A= {, β, }, B= {1,2,3,4} and C = {a, b, c, d}, find R2oR1

Solution: Let R1 = {(, 4), (β, 1)}

R2 = {(1, b), (1, d), (2, a)}

Then; R2oR1 = {(β, b), (β, d)}

PROBLEM SET

1. Let xQy is a relation based on the set of integers, given that 2x-y = 1, then prove
that the relation is not reflexive.
2. Let xRy is the relation of set of real numbers such that x/y=2. Then describe the
relation R2. Is the relation reflexive?
3. If the relation R from A to B is given by
R = {(x, y): x, y A×B, x = 2y+1}, graph the relation.
4. If x and y are the set of all real numbers then explain why the statement
y= |x| - 1 and y = x2 -1 give the same relation?
{Hint: x is the absolute value and it taken always positive}

Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi

16
 Mathematical Methods for Economics: Preliminaries-II

Functions and its types

Functions: A function from a set A to a set B is rule that assigns a unique element in B to
each element A.

Generally, function is a special case of relation. Where for each x, there is

only one corresponding y. So, we can say, a relation

(i) is also a function

(ii) is not a function

Above both conditions are given in below diagram;

The functional relationship between variables x and y is called function. If y is

function of x then it is represented by

xR y or yRx or y = f(x)

Where x  dependent variable or domain of the function

Y  independent variable or range of the function

Example: Let A= {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and B = {-1,-2, 0, 1, 2}

xA yB

And the condition is given (i) y = x2, (ii) y=x

Do these relations define functions?

Solution:

(i) The subset of A B which satisfy the condition y=x2 is

x 1 Here; Range = 1

Y = x2 1 Domain = 1

Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi

17
 Mathematical Methods for Economics: Preliminaries-II

So, this relation defines function.

(ii) The subset of AB which satisfy the condition y=x is

x 1 2 Here; Range = 1, 2

Y = x2 1 2 Domain = 1, 2
So, this relation defines function.

 Types of function

One to one function:

A function is said to be one to one function, if

f (a) = f (b) then a=b  a & b its domain

One to Many functions:

A function is said to be one to many function. If set A has more than one
image in set B.

Increasing and decreasing function:

These functions can be defined as;

 Increasing function: If a<b then f (a) f(b)

 Strictly increasing function : If a < b then f (a) < f (b)
 Decreasing function: If a < b then f (a)  f (b)
 Strictly decreasing function: If a<b then f (a) > f (b)

Rational function: It is the ratio of two polynomial functions;

The rational function is given by;

1 1
f ( x)  & g ( x)  2
x x

Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi

18
 Mathematical Methods for Economics: Preliminaries-II

Absolute value function: It is defined as;

y = f (x) = |x|

Here, Domain (D) = [0,)

Range ® = [0,)

Even function: It is the symmetry function;

Suppose, y = f (x) = x2
or, f (-x) = f (x)

Odd function: It is defined as;

Let y = f (x) = x3
Or f (-x) = -f (x)

Exponential Function: It is defined as; f(x) = ax and a > 0

Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi

19
 Mathematical Methods for Economics: Preliminaries-II

Logarithmic Function: It is defined as;

y = f(x) = logx

 Some properties of Function

 If the function is continuous then we draw the graph of function.
 Function must be defined on real number
 Function must be based on relation
 Function must also satisfy the following conditions;
 There is no negative number inside a square root.
 There is no zero in denominator
 There is no zero and no negative inside a logarithm function.

Example: In the rule that assign to each of the 50 students in a class his marks out of a
maximum of 100 marks a function? If yes, is the function one to one?

Solution: Yes,

This function is also one to one function because every student gets unique
marks out of 100 marks.

Note: The detailed discussion about the functions is given in next chapter.

Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi

20
 Mathematical Methods for Economics: Preliminaries-II

PROBLEM SET

1. Which of the following relations are functional relations? Explain

(i) Y is son of x
(ii) Y = (x-4)*3
(iii) C= f(y), consumption is proportional to Income

2. Prove that if y is a function of x and x is a function of z, then y is the function of z.

3. If X= {2, 3} and y ={2, 3, 4, 5, 6} and condition is given

(i) Y= x (ii) Y=x2 Do these relations define function?

4. Graph the following function “f”.

(i) A = {a, b, c, d}
B = {1, 2, 3}
f = {(a, 2), (b, 1), (c, 2), (d, 3)}
(ii) A = {a, b, c, d}
B = {1, 2}
f = {(a, 1), (b, 2), (c, 2), (d, 2)}

ANSWERS

1. (i) Yes (ii) Yes (iii) Yes

3. (i) Yes (ii) Yes

REFRENCES

 Allen, R.G.D, Mathematical Analysis for Economists, London: Macmillan and Co. Ltd

 Chiang, Alpha C., Fundamental Methods of Mathematical Economics, New York: McGraw Hill

 Carl P. Simon and Lawrence Blume, Mathematics for Economists, London: W .W. Norton & Co.

 Knut Sydsaeter andPeter J. Hammond,Mathematics for Economic Analysis, Prentice Hall

 Michael Hoy, John Livernois, Chris Mckenna, Ray Rees, Thantsis Stengos, Mathematics for
Economists, Addison-Wesley Publishers Ltd.

Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi

21