See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/289028142

Specification of concrete for marine environments: A fresh approach

Article  in  Aci Materials Journal · July 1999

CITATIONS READS
8 7,777

3 authors, including:

Daksh Baweja Vute Sirivivatnanon

University of Technology Sydney University of Technology Sydney
46 PUBLICATIONS   259 CITATIONS    74 PUBLICATIONS   3,164 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

Steel Corrosion in Australian Portland and Blended Cement Concretes View project

Alkali Silica Reaction of concrete and Fibre Optic, DIC Techniques for strain measurements View project

All content following this page was uploaded by Daksh Baweja on 29 February 2016.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

 ACI MATERIALS JOURNAL TECHNICAL PAPER
Title no. 96-M58

Specification of concrete for marine enviornments: a fresh

approach
by Daksh Baweja, Harold Roper, and Vute Sirivivatnanon

There is significant debate around the world regarding the most appropri-
ate test methods for assessing the performance of concretes in marine envi-
ronments. Many papers have been presented on techniques such as the
ASTM C 1202 charge transfer test method and various chloride diffusion
test methods focusing on their applicability in project specifications. Many
views are held regarding the theoretical validity of such methods and the
appropriateness of their practical applications in specifications. Some even
suggest that, given the divergence of views on the different methods of per-
formance-based assessment of concrete for marine applications, prescrip-
tive specification methods focusing on maximum water-binder ratio of
concrete, minimum binder content, and binder type should be adopted.
Specifiers, on the other hand, are looking to ways in which concrete for
marine environments can be specified with greater confidence, thereby lim-
iting their risk.
Much research work has been conducted on chloride ion penetration into
concrete and its relationships to embedded steel passivity and rate of cor-
rosion. This paper summarizes work from a series of studies conducted at
the University of Sydney. The focus of this work was on the long-term per-
formance of reinforced concrete under high-chloride conditions. Work
included the monitoring of concrete performance using half-cell potential
measurements, concrete resistivity, and the determination of gravimetric
weight loss of steel through corrosion. Corrosion rates of steel in concrete
were also measured using anodic polarization techniques. Concretes con-
sidered were made with a range of commercially available portland cement
and supplementary cementitious materials. Using the previously mentioned
information, concretes were classified on the basis of observed long-term
performance based on resistivity and the time taken for embedded steel to
reach a probable active corrosion state. The development of a method for
designing and assessing concretes for critical marine structures based on
the information is reported. Use of this method will lead to improved speci-
fications for concrete when compared with existing design specifications.
Keywords: blast furnace slag; chlorides; corrosion; fly ash; marine atmo-
spheres.
INTRODUCTION
The specification of concrete for marine environments is be-
ing extensively discussed in various industry and academic fo-
rums around the world. 1 Researchers have reported on a range
of performance-based assessment techniques for concrete in
marine environments, including chloride diffusion-based proce-
dures, 2 ionic diffusion, 3 and water penetration into concrete.4
In Australia, there is much debate as to whether the current
Australian Standard AS 36005 provisions are appropriate for in-
suring durable concrete for a specified design life normally in
the range of 40 to 60 years. This standard recommends a mini-
mum characteristic compressive strength of 50 MPa where a
structural element is exposed to tidal and splash zone condi-
tions. Minimum cover provisions are also given in this standard.
Certain public authorities in Australia who require longer struc-
tural design lives of over 100 years have specified water sorp-
tivity as a criterion for concrete in marine applications6 in
conjunction with prescriptive requirements for minimum binder
content, maximum water-binder ratio, and binder type. Other
such authorities have specified volume of permeable voids
criteria7 as part of their requirements to insure durability of con-
crete in marine environments. Other specifications for marine
environment concrete nominated limits on charge transfer, as
described by ASTM C 1202-91.8,9
The previous discussion serves to illustrate the diversity of
opinion and the importance of the issue of specification of con-
crete for marine applications as perceived by specifiers. Al-
though it is suggested by some observers that the most
appropriate method for such specification should be, in essence,
prescriptive, specifiers, and specifying authorities have real
concerns as to how their specifications can be improved. Such
groups are mindful that concrete information requirements for
design purposes and those for site quality control purposes can
be significantly different.
This paper proposes a new approach to specification of con-
crete for marine or high-chloride applications. The proposed
method of specification has been based on steel corrosion mea-
surement in concrete exposed to high-chloride conditions. Be-
tween 1987 and 1994, a major research project was conducted
on corrosion of steel reinforcement in concrete by the CSIRO
Division of Building, Construction, and Engineering in Austra-
lia. One of the aims of the investigation was to determine rela-
tionships between chloride ion penetration and the onset and
rate of corrosion of embedded steel. The study included con-
cretes made with a range of portland and blended cements and
cast at different water-binder ratios. Reinforced concrete speci-
mens were partially immersed in a simulated seawater solution
for a period of approximately five years, during which measure-
ments were taken of half-cell potential, resistivity, and steel cor-
rosion activity using anodic polarization techniques.10 The
purpose of conducting experiments was to model critical rein-
forced concrete structural elements in marine environments.
Data from the previously mentioned research have been pub-
lished in a series of papers by the authors and others.11-16 Much
of the work presented in this paper is taken from a Ph.D. thesis
undertaken by the first author.10 Half-cell potential data from
this work have been previously discussed in some de-
tail.10,11,13,14 Resistivity data relating to the concretes have also
been investigated,10,12 as has information on corrosion rates of
steel in concrete.16
ACI Materials Journal , V. 96, No. 4, July-August1999.
Received August 24, 1998, and reviewed under Institute publication policies. Copy-
right  1999, American Concrete Institute. All rights reserved, including the making
of copies unless permission is obtained from the copyright proprietors. Pertinent dis-
cussion will be published in the May-June 2000 ACI Materials Journal if received by
February 1, 2000.

ACI Materials Journal/July-August 1999 1

ACI member Daksh Baweja is a business development manager for CSR Construction
Materials. Baweja has a Ph.D. and M.S. from the University of Sydney. Baweja has
carried out research in Australia, UK, and USA and is currently involved with techni-
cal marketing activities relating to in situ concrete, precast concrete, and construction
services businesses. Baweja is active on Australian Standards covmmittees covering
supplementary cemenitious materials and design of concrete structures. Baweja is
chairman of the NSW Technical Committee of the Australian Premixed Concrete Asso-
ciation and deputy president of the Civil Engineering Foundation at the University of
Sydney.

ACI member Harold Roper is a reaserch associate at the School of Civil and Mining
Engineering, University of Sydney. Roper is a principal of Harold Roper and Associ-
ates. Roper’s research interests include consulting in the field of materials for use in
reinforced and prestressed concrete structures. Roper has thirty years experience in
cement and concrete technology and is the author of over 70 research papers on the
properties of aggregates, cements, and concretes.

Vute Sirivivatnanon is the prinicipal research scientist with the CSIRO Division of
Building, Construction, and Engineering in North Ryde, Australia. Sirivivatnanon is
project leader of a research team working in the area of cement and concrete technol-
ogy. Sirivivatnanon’s research interests include the use of mineral additives for high-
performance concrete, supplementary cementitious materials for use in concrete and Fig. 1—Water:binder ratio versus mean 28-day strength for
quality assurance of concrete cover. Sirivivatnanon has industrial experience in the concretes used.

This study outlines design tools and quality control regimes that
could be directly applied to specifications for critical marine
Table 1—Mix proportions of concretes used, kg/m3
structures. This work is based on long-term laboratory research in
W:B* = W:B = W:B = W:B = W:B = W:B = the area of corrosion of steel in concrete.
Mix 0.45 0.55 0.65 0.36 0.45 0.55
constituent C1 to C4 C1 to C4 C1 to C4 C4e C4e C4e

Cement 420 325 270 440 335 280 EXPERIMENTAL SETUP

Materials used for concretes and concrete
strength details
Total water 190 180 175 160 150 155
Details of the mix proportions used in the casting of concrete
10-mm specimens are presented in Table 1. In the main, concretes were
440 460 470 450 460 460
aggregate prepared using four binder materials: a high C3A portland ce-
20-mm ment (C1); a low C 3A portland cement (C2); a slag-blended ce-
630 655 670 635 660 675
aggregate ment containing 35 percent ground granulated blast furnace slag
Coarse 580 605 620 585 610 600
(C3); and an ASTM Class F fly ash blended cement containing
sand
25 percent fly ash (C4). A set of concretes was also cast using
Fine sand 135 140 145 130 140 145
the C4 binder together with a water-reducing and an air-entrain-
ing admixture (C4e). Most concretes were cast at four nominat-
*W:B refers to water:binder ratio ed water-binder ratios: 0.36, 0.45, 0.55, and 0.65. All concretes
Note: A water-reducing and an air-entraining admixture were added to the C4e were cast so that the achieved slump was within a range between
concretes only. The admixture dose rate was 0.5 L per 100 kg of binder.
75 and 90 mm.
Fig. 1 presents mean 28-day strength and water-binder ratio
RESEARCH SIGNIFICANCE
There is widespread debate on how to specify concrete for crit- data for each binder type considered. Reported compressive
ical marine structures. Some workers, satisfied with prescriptive strengths are averages of three individual results. Generally, the
specifications, question the reasons for pursuing and developing C1, C2, and C3 binder concretes developed similar strengths. At
performance-based techniques for assessing concrete for marine all water-binder ratios, the C4 binder concretes showed lower
applications. Many specifiers, on the other hand, urgently require 28-day strengths than those of the other concretes. The C4e con-
information and guides to help improve concrete specifications in cretes showed lower strengths at a water-binder ratio of 0.55
such harsh environments. Such groups have, in many cases, nom- when compared with the other concretes, possibly due to the ef-
inated a range of different performance criteria for concrete in ma- fects of entrained air.
rine environments in an attempt to provide better and longer
lasting structures, and to limit their potential risk. The design life Specimen Configuration and Exposure Details
for many critical marine structures could be in excess of 100 In Fig. 2, a schematic diagram of a typical slab used for rein-
years. Ultimately, performance-based procedures do impart a de- forcement corrosion investigations is presented. A reinforcing
gree of quantification into project specifications and, with this, mesh having 8-mm-diameter wires at 100-mm centers was cast
better allocation of risks associated with major contracts—issues into each slab. Slab dimensions were 300 × 300 × 56-mm, pro-
that are top of mind for specifiers and specifying authorities. This viding a clear cover-to-reinforcement of 20 mm. The slab con-
debate, therefore, necessitates the development of improved spec- figuration was chosen for a number of reasons. First, it
ification tools for assessing concretes for marine applications. It is represented small sections of structural elements typically used
not suggested that all future steel corrosion problems will be in a wide range of concrete structures. Second, it provided a
solved by the use of such new specification methodologies; rather, constant minimum cover-to-reinforcement of 20 mm. Third, it
that the incremental improvements in concrete technology and its provided nine reinforcement intersection nodes, one of which
application will result in lower future structure maintenance costs. was the location of the connection to the reinforcement. Fourth,

2 ACI Materials Journal/July-August 1999

specification and quality control of durable concrete structures.

3 ACI Materials Journal/July-August 1999

such reinforcement was typical of that cast into many concrete
structural elements.
Steel reinforcement used within each slab was sandblasted
with glass beads prior to inclusion within the concrete to pro-
vide a uniform surface to the metal and to remove all traces of
rust and other impurities from the steel surface. Slabs were cast
and moist-cured for two days. After casting and curing, slabs
were partially immersed to a depth of 40 mm in a 3 percent NaCl
solution. The slabs were stored in an air-conditioned environ-
ment at a temperature of 23 ± 2 C and a relative humidity (RH)
of 50 ± 5 percent. Chloride ion ingress into the concrete was
achieved mainly by inward and upward diffusion via the capil-
lary pores. Copper-copper sulphate corrosion potentials (CSE)
were measured using a portable electrode at eight locations (1A,
1C, 2A, 2B, 2C, 3A, 3,B and 3C) and saturated calomel corro-
sion potentials (SCE) were taken using a portable electrode over
Point 3A, as shown in Fig. 2. Earlier studies were conducted to
assess the influence of the reference electrode location (on the
slab surface) on the corrosion potential value recorded.9 It was
found that values varied depending on the degree of saturation
of the concrete as the reference electrode was moved upward
from the bottom row (Row 3 to Row 1, Fig. 2). Results showed,
however, that this had no influence on the time to reach the po-
tential jump on reinforcement within the slabs, as discussed lat-
er.
Half-cell potential measurements
Saturated calomel corrosion potential (SCE) measurements
were taken on the slabs at regular intervals over five years at
Point 3A, designated in Fig. 2. The ASTM C 876-87 standard
indicates that a probability of corrosion of greater than 90 per-
cent exists when recorded corrosion potential values are numer-
ically greater than -350 mV versus CSE (-270 mV versus SCE).
The probability of corrosion is less than 10 percent if potential
values are in excess of -200 mV versus CSE and 50 percent for
values between -200 and -350 mV versus CSE. For each slab,
the time to the potential jump value was determined and record-
ed by calculating the time taken to first reach a value of -270 mV
versus SCE. This potential was selected to conform to the value
nominated in ASTM C 876 (referenced to CSE) as representing
a 90 percent probability of active corrosion occurrence on the
reinforcement. The change between a passive to an active state
was generally found to occur over a small time period, repre-
sented by a jump in the potential-time profile. The times taken
for reinforcement within concrete slabs to reach this jump and
the times taken for reinforcement to reach a corrosion potential
of -270 mV were found to correlate closely.13 In other words,
the value of -270 mV was never achieved before the definite
jump in corrosion potential occurred.
Resistivity Measurements
Extensive studies were conduced on resistivity versus time in
both studies referenced in this paper. Resistivity of the concretes
was monitored using the Wenner Bridge four-electrode method,
a commonly used testing method for concrete structures on
site. 17,18 Locations of the resistivity electrodes on the concrete
slabs are shown in Fig. 2. Resistivity electrodes (screws) were
cast 20 mm below the concrete surface. The screws were insu-
ACI Materials Journal/July-August 1999
Fig. 2—Schematic diagram of slab (all dimensions in mm).
lated so that only their ends were in contact with the concrete.
This insured that a concrete resistivity value representative of
material at a reinforcement cover depth of approximately 20
mm was recorded. Resistivity data presented are mean values
from four replicate slabs for each binder type and water-binder
ratio combination. Variations in results within each slab set
were small. Commonly used guide-lines for the interpretation of
resistivity data have been published elsewhere.19
Measurements of corrosion rates and activity
levels
Corrosion rates of steel in the concrete slabs were measured
using a potentiodynamic anodic polarization technique and pro-
cedures specifically developed for this project.16 A saturated
calomel reference electrode was located on the concrete surface
at Point 3A (Fig. 2). The cell consisted of a working electrode
(the reinforcing mesh) cast into the slab that was partially im-
mersed into the 3 percent NaCl solution during scanning and
two graphite counter electrodes that were also partially im-
mersed in the solution. A sponge was used to cover the slab sur-
face to keep the specimen moist during scanning. A pump
circulated solution onto the surface of the sponge, keeping the
slab surface continuously moist, particularly in the region of the
reference electrode to minimize resistivity influences. Scans
were conducted from 50 mV versus SCE (saturated calomel
electrode) cathodic of the rest potential Ecorr to 800 mV versus
SCE, insuring passage through the rest potential of the rein-
forcement. Calculated scan rates typically ranged between 0.4
and 0.7 mV/sec. A potentiostat was used for conducting scans.
Total estimated corrosion currents Ic were measured for rein-
forcement within each slab at regular intervals using procedures
described in detail in previous publications.10,12,16 Total cur-
rents were recorded instead of current densities because instan-
taneous estimates of corroding areas were not available during
scanning. Data obtained from the potentiodynamic anodic po-
larization scans were imported into a spreadsheet. A series of
macroprograms were written to calculate E corr and the estimated
corrosion current I c from the recorded information. The Ic value
for each scan was calculated by selecting its maximum slope
and extrapolating its tangent to the E corr value.10,12,16 Steel rein-
forcement used within each slab was sandblasted with glass
4
Fig. 3—SCE corrosion potential data for a typical slab.
beads prior to inclusion into concrete to provide a uniform sur-
face for the metal and to remove all traces of rust and other im-
purities from the steel surface. This facilitated accurate
gravimetric measurements of steel weight loss through corro-
sion when measured after long-term exposure to the high-chlo-
ride solution.20,21
RESULTS
Use of corrosion potential data to determine
probable maintenance-free service life of concrete
Saturated calomel (SCE) corrosion potentials taken from a
typical slab over a period of 700 days of partial immersion in 3
percent NaCl solution are shown in Fig. 3. The time to the po-
tential jump value for each slab was determined and recorded by
calculating the time taken to first reach a value of -270 mV ver-
sus SCE. 9 This potential was selected to conform to the value
nominated in ASTM C 876 (referenced to CSE) as representing
a 90 percent probability of active corrosion occurrence on the
reinforcement. Corrosion potential values recorded over time
for slab reinforcement typically followed the profile shown in
Fig. 3. The change between a passive to an active state was gen-
erally found to occur over a small time period, represented by a
jump in the potential-time profile. The times taken for reinforce-
ment within concrete slabs to reach this jump and the times tak-
en for reinforcement to reach a corrosion potential of -270 mV
were found to correlate closely.13 In other words, the value of -
270 mV was never achieved before the definite jump in corro-
sion potential occurred.
Using measurements of time to the potential jump resulting
from chloride ion penetration into concrete, it was possible to
develop nomographs relating cover to steel, concrete strength,
and estimated design life to corrosion onset. This analysis has
been previously published. 9 Fig. 4 presents a set of nomographs,
one relating to used portland cement concretes and the other to
used blended cement concretes studied. In these nomographs,
the estimated design life of a concrete has been related to its
mean 28-day compressive strength based on the long-term cor-
rosion potential data.9 The estimated design life is assumed to
be the time taken to reach the potential jump for reinforcement
within concrete.
Extrapolation of the results to address a whole range of cov-
ers to reinforcement was based on a simple diffusion model
assuming a constant diffusion coefficient and a constant sur-
face chloride ion concentration. It is recognized that such as-
5 ACI Materials Journal/July-August 1999
Fig. 4—Estimated design life (years) versus cover to reinforce-
ment —portland (C1 and C2) and blended cement (C3, C4, and
C4e) concretes (28-day compressive strength ranage 10 MPa to
sumptions may lead to very conservative estimates of service
life for covers in excess of 20 mm (the cover used in the ex-
perimental slabs). It must also be noted that what is being dealt
with is uncracked concrete sections. This analysis focused on
the presentation and segregation of information based on a
binder type classification. It is clear that the blended cement
concretes in this analysis showed superior performance to
portland cement concrete having the same compressive
strengths.
Two factors are clear from the data presented in Fig. 4. First,
the lack of marine durability of concretes having a mean
strength below 30 MPa is clearly observable. Second, the trend
for the performance of blended cement concretes (C3, C4, and
C4e) was demonstrably superior to that shown by the portland
cement concretes (C1 and C2) for mean strengths of 40 MPa and
higher on the basis of steel corrosion onset. It is noted that spec-
ifying concrete for marine environments, using the results in
Fig. 4, still requires the documentation of prescriptive require-
ments based around binder characteristics.
Concrete resistivity data
Resistivity versus time data for concrete slabs made at water-
binder ratios of 0.45, 0.55, and 0.65 are presented in Fig. 5.12
For C1 concrete slabs having a water-binder ratio of 0.45, resis-
tivity values were found to increase to a peak with time of par-
tial immersion in the 3 percent NaCl solution, then decrease
slightly. Following this decrease, further increases in resistivity
were observed with time. A peak value of resistivity was
achieved at approximately 600 days. For slabs cast at the higher
water-binder ratios, peak resistivities were recorded within ap-
proximately 200 days of partial immersion in the 3 percent NaCl
solution.
The shapes of the resistivity versus time curves for the C2
concretes were similar to those described for the C1 concretes.
However, concrete resistivities were lower than those observed
for the C1 concrete slabs. Resistivity versus time data for the C3
concretes were significantly higher than those observed for the
C1 and C2 concretes at water-binder ratios of 0.45 and 0.55. The
shapes of the resistivity versus time profiles for the C3 concretes
were similar to those described for the C1 and C2 concretes, ex-
cept that no decrease in resistivity was observed with time for
concretes with water-binder ratios of 0.45 and 0.55. For a given
 Fig. 5—Mean resistivity mersus time data for concretes investigated.

water-binder ratio, the highest resistivities were obtained for the

C4 concretes (Fig. 5). The shapes of the resistivity versus time
profiles of the C4 concretes were similar to those of the C3 con-
cretes, except that higher resistivities were obtained even at a
water-binder ratio of 0.65. It can be observed that the C4 con-
cretes had the highest peak resistivities. In addition, it can be
seen that for a given binder, the lowest water-binder ratio con-
cretes had the highest peak resistivities and, generally, the long-
est periods to reach the peak resistivities. Additional analyses on
these data can be found in the literature.12

Resistivity and Corrosion Rate Data

Data showing estimated corrosion current Ic , as described
previously, versus concrete resistivity are presented in Fig. 6 for
a typical slab partially immersed in 3 percent NaCl solution.22
A slab having concrete with a water-binder ratio of 0.65 has
been selected to show high levels of corrosion activity over the
exposure period. Resistivity and Ic data shown were recorded at
the same times over approximately 4 years of exposure to the
high-chloride solution. As opposed to the generally held initia-
tion-propagation model for corrosion of steel in concrete,23
three distinct segments can be seen when the points on Fig. 6 are
linked:
1. 0 < I c < 0.01 mA (quiescent stage)
During this stage of immersion, it was found that the resistiv-
ity increased with time. Resistivity values varied between 800
ohm-cm and 1800 ohm-cm.
2. 0.01 < Ic < 0.75 mA (active stage)
During this stage of immersion, it was found that resistivity
values decreased with time. Resistivity values varied between
1800 ohm-cm and 900 ohm-cm.
3. 0.75 < Ic < 3.2 mA (breakaway stage)
During this stage of immersion, it was found that resistivity
values decreased with time, but at a lower rate than previously.
Fig. 6—Ic versus concrete resistivity for a typical slab having a
water:binder ratio of 0.65.
Resistivity values varied between 800 ohm-cm and 650 ohm-
cm.
The findings of each of the previously mentioned stages can
be explained as follows:
Quiescent stage—During this stage, resistivity increased as a
consequence of continued hydration of the binder in contact
with the 3 percent NaCl solution. Chloride ions have not
reached the level of the reinforcement, and the Ic values record-
ed are low.
Active stage—During this stage, chloride ions progress in-
wards and reach the level of the reinforcement, resulting in an
overall decrease in resistivity with time of immersion (chlorides
facilitating increased ionic movement within the concrete ma-
trix). Chloride ion ingress progresses to a stage where the con-
centration is such that Ic increases with time.
Breakaway stage —During this stage, active general corro-
sion takes place. Increased amounts of chloride ions reach the
reinforcement level resulting in a further decrease in concrete

ACI Materials Journal/July-August 1999 6

 Fig. 7—Estimated design life (years) versus cover-to-reinforcement for low- and high-resistiv-
ity concretes as defined in Fig. 5 and 6.
resistivity and a significant increase in I c with time of immer-
sion.
Importantly, the time to reach the maximum resistivity value
shown in Fig. 6 could be used as a criterion for corrosion onset.
This point appears to mark the commencement of corrosion as
measured by Ic . This finding is used in later sections as a method
to rapidly assess the potential durability of concrete subject to
marine conditions. Also important , a detailed analysis of the
link between Ic and the weight loss of steel through corrosion
has been established.20,21
Characterizing concretes for marine environments
based on their resistivity characteristics
All concretes described earlier were further characterized
based on their resistivity characteristics. The aim was to reas-
sess information shown in Fig. 4 based on a measurable perfor-
mance criterion rather than on a prescriptive binder type
criterion. Concretes were separated into two sets, those having
low-resistivity characteristics and those having high-resistivity
characteristics, with the separating limit being approximately
8000 ohm-cm (data shown in Fig. 5). The estimated design lives
of concretes were again calculated from the available data based
on the time to potential jump criterion, following procedures de-
scribed in detail elsewhere in the literature.9,10 These corrosion
onset periods were then related back to the compressive strength
of the individual concrete slabs using information presented in
Fig. 1.
It was thus possible to develop two modified equations to
those used for the calculation of the nomographs shown in Fig.
4.9 These equations related cover-to-reinforcement with com-
pressive strength and time to corrosion initiation (taken as the
design life of the concrete). Two equations, one for low-resistiv-
ity concretes and the other for high-resistivity concretes, are de-
scribed as follows. Equations were derived from regression
analyses with correlation coefficients that were all significant at
the 95 percent confidence level, following procedures published
elsewhere in the literature. 9,10 It must be re-emphasized that ex-
trapolation of results to apply to a whole range of reinforcement
7 ACI Materials Journal/July-August 1999
covers, as expressed in Eq. (1) and (2) and the nomographs giv-
en in Fig. 7, was based on a simplified chloride diffusion model
where constant chloride diffusion coefficients and constant sur-
face chloride ion concentrations were assumed. Some workers
have reported that diffusion coefficients determined after differ-
ent exposure periods reduced with time.24,25 This is possibly due
to further hydration of the concrete that results in improved
chloride penetration resistance. A constant diffusion coefficient,
assumed under the root-time equation, leads to a conservative
estimate of service life for concrete covers greater than 20 mm
(the cover used in the experimental slabs).
2822
C = --------------- ⋅ t (1)
2.61
(S )
(Description of trend for low-resistivity concretes)
226537
C = ------------------
2.61
⋅ t (2)
(S )
(Description of trend for high-resistivity concretes)
where
C = cover-to-reinforcement, mm;
S = mean 28-day concrete compressive strength, Mpa; and
t = time taken to reach a probable active corrosion state, years.
In the previous equations, given a design life and a 28-day
compressive strength for concrete, it is possible to determine the
cover-to-reinforcement required to achieve a time to corrosion
initiation under crack-free situations for concretes having both
high- and low-resistivity characteristics.
Fig. 7 presents a set of nomographs, one for low-resistivity
concretes and the other for high-resistivity concretes. In these
nomographs, the estimated design life of a concrete has been re-
lated to its mean 28-day compressive strength, based on the
long-term corrosion potential data. The estimated design life is
assumed to be the time taken to reach the potential jump for re-
inforcement within concrete (described in Fig. 3).
Fig. 8—Peak (or maximum) concrete resistivity as influenced
by 28-day comcrete resistivity chart shows differentiation of
low- and high-resistivity concretes and proposed 28-day limit.
Importantly, in Fig. 7, nomographs are presented having a
minimum cover-to-reinforcement of 40 mm. In addition, a min-
imum concrete compressive strength of 40 MPa is nominated.
These factors have been incorporated into the proposed design
process such that only high-quality concretes having a mini-
mum practical cover for cast in situ applications are used. Al-
though it would be possible to generate options outside the
strength and cover limits nominated, these would generally not
be regarded as increasing the certainty of providing long-term
durability of concrete cast in situ. It is understood that from a
quality-control perspective, higher target strengths with associ-
ated higher binder levels and lower water-binder ratios would be
needed. This would further insure that only high-quality con-
cretes were used in these critical applications.
Predicting Concrete Performance Based on Early
Age Resistivity Results
Data in Fig. 7 are useful in selecting appropriate concrete for
application under aggressive marine conditions. However, to
complement these nomographs, guides are needed to determine,
in a timely way, the resistivity characteristics of proposed con-
cretes to enable the corresponding nomograph to be applied in
the design process. To this end, Fig. 8 shows data relating the
28-day concrete resistivities to peak (or maximum) concrete re-
sistivity data for all concretes.
It can be observed in Fig. 8 that there is a distinct trend be-
tween the peak concrete resistivity achieved and the resistivity
achieved at 28 days. The resistivity value at 28 days was select-
ed to provide specifiers with a tool that could be used to assess
the potential performance of concrete within project contract
time constraints. The importance of the peak (or maximum) re-
sistivity is an important criterion for fingerprinting the perfor-
mance of concrete with respect to embedded steel corrosion
onset. Data in Fig. 6 show the importance of the maximum re-
sistivity value for the concretes in regard to being coincident
with the commencement of active corrosion as measured by Ic .
Generally, the time to reach this maximum or peak resistivity
value is greater for higher-resistivity concretes. Therefore, the
time for steel in concrete to reach an active corrosion state is
also increased—a factor of specific interest in the design of ma-
rine structures.
ACI Materials Journal/July-August 1999
Fig. 9—Peak concrete resitivity as influenced by 56-day con-
crete resistivity chart shows differentiation of low- and high-
concretes and proposed 56-day limit.
A proposed limit of 4000 ohm-cm at 28 days has been nomi-
nated in Fig. 8 as a point whereby high-resistivity and low-resis-
tivity concretes can be classified, based on the peak resistivity
data. In most cases considered, this limit will differentiate con-
cretes having desirable high-resistivity characteristics and those
having undesirable, low-resistivity characteristics. There are,
however, some concretes nominated as special-case concretes
that could provide durable long-term characteristics that do not
show the desired resistivity at 28 days.
Fig. 9 shows similar data to Fig. 8 for the same set of con-
cretes, except relating 56-day resistivity to the peak concrete re-
sistivities achieved. Again, a very good relationship between the
56-day resistivity data and the peak, or maximum resistivity
data (as defined in Fig. 6) can be observed. A limit of 5000 ohm-
cm at 56 days, shown in the <****Query author as to what fig-
ures****> clearly differentiates all concretes considered into
those having the desirable high-resistivity characteristics and
those having undesirable, low-resistivity characteristics. Data
shown in Fig. 8 and 9 can serve to provide a platform for the
specification of concrete for marine applications.
SPECIFYING CONCRETES FOR MARINE
ENVIRONMENTS BASED ON DATA GENERATED
In Fig. 10, a flowchart on how all the presented information
could be applied to specifying concretes for critical marine
structures is presented. The guide proposed, as follows, would
reflect critical marine applications with environments similar to
those described in the research experimental setup (Section 0).
This specification would also be focused on reinforced con-
cretes. The process recommended for specifying and assessing
concretes for marine applications could be summarized as
follows:
1.To determine the required design life of a structure (or crit-
ical structural element).
2. To determine if cover-to-reinforcement was a critical pa-
rameter (in that were there any restrictions to the specification
of minimum cover requirements).
3. If there are no restrictions on minimum cover, a concrete
strength grade could be selected using the nomograph for low-
resistivity concrete (Fig. 7) along with the necessary minimum
cover-to-reinforcement. If there were restrictions on cover, fur-
ther processes, as outlined, would need to be followed.
8
 Fig. 10—Methodology proposed for specifying concrete for marine environments based on
long-term data on corrosion of steel in concrete.
4. Having a design life, a minimum cover would need to be
nominated. With this information, a corresponding concrete
strength could be calculated based on the high-resistivity con-
crete nomograph. Once this were determined, a proposed con-
crete mix would need to be designed. Tests would need to be
conducted to determine the resistivity characteristics of the pro-
posed concrete mix. Results on both compressive strength and
resistivity would be available in 28 days (recommended proce-
dures for measuring resistivity are outlined in References 26 and
27).
5. Assuming the concrete strength results were adequate, if
the resistivity values achieved were above 4000 ohm-cm at 28
days, the mix could be accepted and a quality control program
based on the strength data could be adopted for site quality con-
trol. If the resistivity values were below 4000 ohm-cm at 28
days, the mix could be redesigned, or samples could be main-
tained until 56 days when a further evaluation took place.
6. At 56 days, if the resistivity values were in excess of 5000
ohm-cm, the mix could be accepted and again, site quality con-
trol could be based on compressive strength. Where concrete re-
sistivities were below 5000 ohm-cm at 56 days, reproportioning
of the mix would be necessitated.
For ease of measurement of concrete resistivity, prismatic
specimens measuring 75 × 75 × 286 mm are proposed, cast hav-
ing four metal probes spaced 20 mm apart (Fig. 11). Stainless
9 ACI Materials Journal/July-August 1999
steel screws can be used as metal probes for resistivity measure-
ment. Contact between the stainless steel screws and the con-
crete is recommended to be approximately 27 mm below the
specimen surface. Plastic sleeves to insulate the metal from the
concrete to a level approximately 27 mm below the concrete
surface are recommended (Fig. 11); the same concept as used in
the experimental slabs. Resistivity of the concrete can be mea-
sured using the established Wenner bridge technique, following
procedures outlined in the literature. 17-19 Characteristics of
long-term resistivity data using the described specimens can be
found in the literature. 26,27 Resistivity data from the prismatic
specimens are believed to be similar to those described in earlier
sections of this paper, based on the information obtained.26,27
The proposed methodology for specifying concrete for ma-
rine applications has a number of strong benefits over alterna-
tive specification methods. First, the methodology addresses the
separate issues involved with the specification of concrete for
marine applications in the design of a structure, prequalification
requirements for such structures, and site quality control re-
quirements. The nomographs shown in Fig. 7 could be used as
a design tool. The tests for 28-day and 56-day resistivity of con-
crete, if needed, would be recommended to be applied as
prequalification requirements only and not for site quality con-
trol. The time period nominated and the ease of the test would
well facilitate its application as a tool for prequalifying con-

Fig. 11—Schematic diagram of specimen for concrete resistiv-
ity measurement.
cretes. Concrete compressive strength would be recommended
as the quality control tool, thereby insuring the possibility of
wide acceptance of the specification methodology in project
contracts.
CONCLUSIONS
The suggestions in this paper for specification of marine en-
vironment concretes are recommended to be used as guides
only. What is hoped is that, within our current frame of refer-
ence and with the backing of significant amounts of research da-
ta, we may be closer to selecting the right concretes for such
aggressive conditions. The prevailing view of the authors is that
there are many factors other than the quality of concrete that will
influence the performance of critical concrete structural ele-
ments in the long term. Despite the fact that we may be able to
select higher quality and better performing concretes for marine
environments, there is still a need to put in place planned main-
tenance schedules, particularly in the case of such critical struc-
tures. With improved specification and proper maintenance, the
likelihood of achieving lower net present value costs for facility
construction and maintenance will be significantly enhanced.
Equations relating cover-to-reinforcement with the 28-day
compressive strength of concrete and estimated design life
based on the time to reach a probable active reinforcement cor-
rosion state were developed and published earlier for portland
and blended cement concretes. Specifications of concrete ex-
posed to marine environments based on compressive strength
criteria alone were found to suffer significant shortcomings in
light of the long-term corrosion potential and resistivity data
presented in this and other papers by the authors. Results have
shown that for strength levels above 40 MPa, concretes made
with blended cements appear to offer significant advantages in
terms of longer corrosion onset periods than those provided by
portland cement concretes. From a specification standpoint,
such findings, important as they are, still involve the setting of
prescriptive binder requirements.
Work in this paper showed that by using a combination of fac-
tors relating to marine concrete durability, it was possible to
more critically evaluate current specifications for splash zone
ACI Materials Journal/July-August 1999
environments. Factors used for the range of concretes investi-
gated covered chloride diffusion principles, acquired long-term
corrosion potential versus time data, and associated concrete re-
sistivity versus time data. Detailed procedures were described
for specifying concretes for marine environments based on con-
crete-resistivity characteristics. The procedures involved the
use of specially developed equations and nomographs relating
cover, design life, and concrete compressive strength for both
low and, more desirable, high-resistivity concretes. Simple re-
sistivity tests could quickly establish the resistivity characteris-
tics of proposed concretes, within 28 days or a maximum of 56
days. The methodology recommends the use of such resistivity
tests as prequalification requirements for concretes only and not
as tools for quality control on site. The methodology recom-
mends the concrete strength parameter as the preferred tool for
site quality control purposes.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Work described in this paper was carried out at the CSIRO
Division of Building, Construction and Engineering in North
Ryde, Australia. Much of the analysis work was carried out at
the University of Sydney and presented in a Ph.D. thesis written
by the first author. Thanks are expressed to the Cement and
Concrete Association of Australia for supporting this work. In
particular, thanks are expressed to individual members of the re-
search advisory committee for their help and interest.
REFERENCES
1. Fourth CANMET/ACI International Conference: Durability of Con-
crete, SP-170, V. M. Malhotra, ed., American Concrete Institute, Farming-
ton Hills, Mich., 1997, 1630 pp.
2. Langley, W. S.; Gilmour, R.; and Tromposch, E.; “The Northumber-
land Strait Bridge Project,” Advances in Concrete Technology: Second
CANMET/ACI International Symposium , SP-154, V. M. Malhotra, ed.,
American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, Mich., 1995, pp. 543-564.
3. Gjorv, O.E., “Concrete Performance Criteria Based on Migration
Testing,” CANMET/ACI International Congress on High Performance
Concrete and Performance and Quality of Concrete Structures , Florianopo-
lis, Brazil, June 1996, pp 425-432.
4. Gjorv, O. E, “Important Test Methods for Evaluation of Reinforced
Concrete Durability,” Concrete Technology: Past, Present and Future, Pro-
ceedings of the V. M. Malhotra Symposium, SP-144, P. K. Mehta, ed.,
American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, Mich., 1994, pp. 545-574.
5. Standards Australia, AS 3600-1994, “Concrete Structures”, Standards
House, 1994.
6. Ho, D. W. S.; Chirgwin, G. J.; and Mak, S. L.; “Water Sorptivity of
Heat-Cured Concrete for Bridge Structures,” Third CANMET/ACI Interna-
tional Symposium: Advances in Concrete Technology , SP-171, V. M. Mal-
hotra, ed., Farmington Hills, Mich., 1997, pp. 97-108.
7. Andrews-Phaedonos, F., “Establishing the Durability Performance of
Structural Concrete,” VicRoads (Roads and Traffic Authority of Victoria),
Melbourne, Australia, Jan. 1996.
8. American Society for Testing and Materials, “Standard Test Method
for Electrical Indication of Concrete’s Ability to Resist Chloride Ions”,
ASTM C 1202-91, 1991.
9. Baweja, D.; Roper, H.; and Sirivivatnanon, V.; “Durability of Plain
and Blended Cement Concretes as Predicted by Corrosion Potentials,” Aus-
tralian Civil Engineering Transactions, V. CE37, No. 3, Aug. 1995, pp.
247-254.
10. Baweja, D., “Steel Corrosion in Australian Portland and Blended
Cement Concretes,” Ph.D. thesis, University of Sydney, Australia, Mar.
1994, 381 pp.
11. Baweja, D.; Roper, H.; Guirguis, S.; and Sirivivatnanon, V.; “Mea-
surement of Corrosion of Steel Reinforcement under High Chloride Condi-
tions,” Fly Ash, Silica Fume, Slag, and Natural Pozzolans in Concrete:
Proceedings, Fourth International Conference, ACI-134, V. M. Malhotra,
American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, Mich. 1992, pp. 1543-
1563.
12. Roper, H.; Sirivivatnanon, V.; and Baweja, D.; “Long-Term Perfor-
mance of Portland and Blended Cement Concretes under Marine Condi-
tions,” Durability of Concrete: Third International Conference , SP-145, V.
10
 M. Malhotra, ed., American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, Mich.,
1994, pp. 331-351.
13. Baweja, D.; Roper, H.; and Sirivivatnanon, V.; “Concretes for
Aggressive Marine Environments: Performance and Specification,” Second
International Symposium on Blended Cements—Increasing its Usage in
Concrete , Cement and Concrete Association of Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur,
Malaysia, Nov. 1994, pp. 13-18.
14. Baweja, D.; Roper, H.; and Sirivivatnanon, V.; “Concretes and
Cementitious Materials for Marine Structures,” Concrete 95—Towards
Better Concrete Structures, V. 1, CIA/FIP Biennial Conference, Brisbane,
Australia, Sept. 1995, pp. 85-91.
15. Cao, H. T.; Baweja, D.; and Roper, H.; “Corrosion Characteristics of
Steel in Solutions Derived from Cements and Blended Cements,” Cement
and Concrete Research, V. 20, No. 4, May 1990.
16. Baweja, D.; Roper, H.; and Sirivivatnanon, V.; “Relationships
between Anodic Polarization and Corrosion of Steel Reinforcement in
Concrete,” Cement and Concrete Research , V. 23, No. 6, 1993, pp. 1418-
1430.
17. Heiman, J. L., “The Durability of Cast In Situ Reinforced Concrete,”
Technical Record No. 511, National Building Technology Center, CSIRO
Division of Building, June 1986, 65 p.
18. American Society for Testing and Materials, “Standard Test Method
for Field Measurement of Soil Resistivity Using the Wenner Four-Elec-
trode Method,” ASTM G 57-78, 1984.
19. Browne, R. D., “Mechanisms of Corrosion of Steel in Concrete in
Relation to Design, Inspection, and Repair of Offshore and Coastal Struc-
tures,” Performance of Concrete in Marine Environment, SP-65, V. M.
Malhotra, ed., American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, Mich., 1980,
pp. 169-204.
20. Baweja, D.; Roper, H.; and Sirivivatnanon, V.; “Chloride-Induced
Steel Corrosion in Concrete: Part 1—Corrosion Rates, Corrosion Activity,
and Attack Areas,” ACI Materials Journal, V. 95, No. 3, May-June 1998,
pp. 207-217.
21. Baweja, D.; Roper, H.; and Sirivivatnanon, V.; “Chloride-Induced
Steel Corrosion in Concrete: Part 2—Gravimetric and Electrochemical
Comparisons,” ACI Materials Journal, V. 96, No. 3, May-June 1999, pp.
306-313.
11
View publication stats
22. Baweja, D.; Roper, H.; and Sirivivatnanon, V.; “Quantitative
Descriptions of Steel Corrosion in Concrete Using Resistivity and Anodic
Polarization Data,” Fourth CANMET/ACI International Conference on
Durability of Concrete , SP-170, V. M. Malhotra, ed., American Concrete
Institute, Farmington Hills, Mich., 1997, pp. 41-63.
23. “Corrosion of Steel in Concrete,” Report of the Technical Committee
60-CSC , RILEM, P. Schiessl, ed., Chapman and Hall Publishers, 1988, 102
pp.
24. Sirivivatnanon, V.; Marsh, P.; and Nelson, P.; “Comparative Field
Performance of Portland Cement and Fly-Ash Concrete,” Proceedings of
Concrete Institute of Australia—Concrete 97 Conference, Adelaide, Aus-
tralia, May 1997, pp. 131-139.
25. Dhir, R. K.; Jones, M.R.; and Ahmed, E.H.; “Concrete Durability:
Estimation of Chloride Concentration during Design Life,” Magazine of
Concrete Research, V. 43, No. 154, Mar. 1991, pp. 37-44.
26. Khatri, R.; Gross, W.; Baweja, D.; and Sirivivatnanon, V.;“High-Per-
formance Concretes for Coastal and Offshore Structures,” Concrete 95—
Towards Better Concrete Structures, V. 2, CIA/FIP Biennial Conference,
Brisbane, Australia, Sept. 1995, pp. 659-666.
27. Baweja, D.; Sirivivatnanon, V.; Gross, W.; and Laurie, G.; “High-
Performance Australian Concretes for Marine Applications,” International
Conference on High Performance Concrete, SP-149, V. M. Malhotra, ed.,
American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, Mich., 1994, pp. 363-377.
ACI Materials Journal/July-August 1999