DEPARTEMEN TEKNIK GEOLOGI

FAKULTAS TEKNIK UNIVERSITAS GADJAH MADA

Geopedologi
(TKG 212112)

Semester 1 Th 2021/2022

Tanah Sebagai Bahan Tambang

(Ore Deposits by Weathering Processes)

Dr. Lucas Donny Setijadji

Oktober 2021
 Proses Pelapukan Batuan
Perubahan Komposisi Mineral
dan Unsur
 Pelapukan (Weathering) & Erosi

• Weathering is the physical breakdown and/or chemical

alteration of rocks at or near the Earth's surface.
Weathering is the response of rocks to a changing
environment. For example, plutonic rocks form under
conditions at high pressures and temperatures. At the
Earth's surface they are not as stable as the conditions
under which they formed. In response to the
environmental change, they gradually weather
(transform to more stable minerals).
• Erosion is the physical removal of material by mobile
agents such as water, wind or ice
 Weathering Types

1. Physical (Mechanical) Weathering involves

physical forces that break rock into smaller
and smaller pieces without changing the
rock's mineral composition (same minerals).

2. Chemical Weathering involves a chemical

transformation of rock into one or more new
compounds.
 Physical Weathering
Four physical processes lead to physical weathering:

1. Frost Wedging: is caused by repeated cycles of freezing and thawing

2. Unloading (release of pressure) a geologic process where overlying rocks at
the surface are removed.
3. Thermal Expansion: as a weathering process occurs where daily thermal
expansion and contraction of individual minerals can exert destructive forces on
the cohesion of a rock.
4. Biologic Activity can cause rocks to be broken into smaller pieces.

Erosional agents (water, wind & ice) may also result in physical weathering by
"breaking rocks” during the transport of sediment.

5
 Frost Wedging

Biologic
activity
http://hays.outcrop.org/images/weathering/press4e/figure-07-12.jpg

Unloading

The sheets of rocks,

such as these on
Half Dome
(Yosemite NP), that
result from
unloading are
sometime referred
to as “exfoliation
Service Photo
National Park

sheets.”

Scott T. Marshall, Appalachian State University

 Chemical Weathering

• Chemical weathering is a chemical process that breaks down minerals

• Chemical weathering involves the transformation of the original minerals into
new minerals that are stable at surface conditions.
• Chemical weathering also involves putting mineral components into solution
- dissolution in water.
• Water is the most important agent in the three different processes of
chemical weathering:
1. Dissolution: is a process where a solid dissolves into a solvent such as
water forming a solution
2. Oxidation: Iron combines with oxygen in the presence of water
3. Hydrolysis : is a chemical reaction reaction involving the breaking of a
bond in a molecule using water. As an example, feldspars chemically alter
(hydrolysis) to form clay minerals such as kaolinite.
Oxidation
Soil Profile

Top soil

Sub soil

Dissolution
Deeply weathered terrain
Valeton (1994)

Relationship earth’s
temperature and
formation of bauxite
deposits
 Regolith
• Regolith (Greek: "blanket rock") is a layer of loose, heterogeneous
material covering solid rock. The origins of regolith are weathering and
biological processes; if it contains a significant proportion of biological
compounds it is more conventionally referred to as soil.

• Regolith is the residual weathered profile together with transported

overburden that overlies bedrock

• In some countries like Australia, regolith is the dominant sample

media because the landmass is old

• The regolith-landform relationship must be understood to design a

successful exploration program
 SOIL Vs REGOLITH HORIZONS

• O: Organic matter
• A: Horizon near the surface
characterized by eluviation of
materials in solution or accumulation
of organic matter
• B: horizon characterized by illuviation
(enrichment) of clay, organic matter,
and iron and aluminum oxides or by in
situ weathering.
• C: Slightly weathering parent material
• D or R: Unweathered parent rocks

http://www.landfood.ubc.ca/soil200/classification/soil_horizon.htm
 Laterites
• Laterites are soil types rich in iron and aluminium, formed
in hot and wet tropical areas
• Laterites are rusty-red because of iron oxides. They
develop by intensive and long-lasting weathering of the
underlying parent rock.
 Komposisi Batuan Dasar
Contoh: batuan beku granitik

• Medium-to-coarsed grained rocks

• dominated by plagioclase, quartz
and K-feldspar
• Hornblende and biotite are the
main mafic minerals
• Muscovite may be present as
melt phase or are a secondary
mineral.
• Clinopyroxene may be found in
the more mafic granitoids
Image source: Darrell Henry

Common minor minerals: apatite, zircon, magnetite, ilmenite, monazite,

titanite, tourmaline, allanite, fluorite and pyrite
Rock Forming Minerals : mostly Silicates (SiO4)-4
 Other Non-silicate Minerals

Gypsum CaSO4·2H2O
(Sulfate)

Halite NaCl Spinel MgAl2O4

(Halide) (Oxide)

Hematite Fe2O3
Calcite CaCO3 (Oxide)
Galena PbS Pyrite FeS2 (Carbonate)
(Sulfide) (Sulfide)
 Weathering Processes – Mineral Changes

Pathways of formation of secondary minerals in weathering profiles (after Anand and Paine, 2002)

From: Anand, R.R., 2005. Weathering History, Landscape Evolution and Implications for Exploration. In: Regolith Landscape Evolution Across
Australia; (Eds) R.R. Anand and P. de Broekert. CRC LEME
 The Elements in Nature

Primary Dispersion Secondary Dispersion

Rock Forming Hydrothermal Hydromorphic Mechanical

Processes Processes Dispersion Dispersion

Soils Sediments Lag HMC’s

 Elements Concentrations of Rocks

1. Major elements: usually

greater than 1%
SiO2 Al2O3 FeO* MgO CaO
Na2O K2O H2O
2. Minor elements: usually 0.1 -
1%
TiO2 MnO P2O5 CO2
3. Trace elements: usually < 0.1%
everything else

Units:
1 % = 10,000 ppm
1 ppm = 1,000 ppb
 Table 8-3. Chemical analyses of some
representative igneous rocks (units in %)
Peridotite Basalt Andesite Rhyolite Phonolite
SiO2 42.26 49.20 57.94 72.82 56.19
TiO2 0.63 1.84 0.87 0.28 0.62
Al2O3 4.23 15.74 17.02 13.27 19.04
Fe2O3 3.61 3.79 3.27 1.48 2.79
FeO 6.58 7.13 4.04 1.11 2.03
MnO 0.41 0.20 0.14 0.06 0.17
MgO 31.24 6.73 3.33 0.39 1.07
CaO 5.05 9.47 6.79 1.14 2.72
Na2O 0.49 2.91 3.48 3.55 7.79
K2O 0.34 1.10 1.62 4.30 5.24
H2O+ 3.91 0.95 0.83 1.10 1.57

Total 98.75 99.06 99.3 99.50 99.23

(Winter, 2001)
Recommended Geochemical Analysis Methods for
Different Elements

22
 Processes of element concentration
during weathering
• During the initial phase of lateritic soil-formation, processes of
continuous dissolution and recrystallisation of the lateritic minerals
under preservation of relic textures of parent rocks prevail.
• The high mobility of elements during this initial phase produces a
continuous sequence of mineral neoformation.
• The very high porosity (20 to > 60% pore space) resulting from the
dissolution of weatherable minerals can be decreased by
synchroneous or later cementation.
• The subsequent phase of soil degradation leads to a destruction of
Al-oxihydrates, Fe- and Mn-minerals and to a vertical collapsing of
the weathering profiles initiating a mechanical displacement.
 Soil Profile

Top soil

Sub soil

Saprolith
 Weathering Processes – Secondary Dispersion
Multi element signatures

Understanding element mobility in the weathered environment requires an understanding of

mineral hosts
From: Anand, R.R., 2005. Weathering History, Landscape Evolution and Implications for Exploration. In: Regolith Landscape Evolution Across
Australia; (Eds) R.R. Anand and P. de Broekert. CRC LEME (after Butt et al, 2000)
 Ore Deposits by Weathering
• The most important residual and supergene
ores are those of AI, Fe, Cu, Ni, Co, REE
• Many well preserved deposits were formed
during End-Mesozoic-Cenozoic time. The
preservation of older deposits is highly relictic
and thereby only of sporadic preservation
• New opportunity in Circular Economy concept,
such as Sc extraction from waste of bauxite
and nickel laterite
 Tugas Minggu Ini

• Mempelajari paper Valeton (1994) dan

sumber lain terkait sumberdaya mineral oleh
proses pelapukan batuan di daerah tropis

• Persiapkan diri untuk Quiz tentang topik ini

The End