ALGEBRA -1

(MATH 5-215)

Kaushik Dwivedi
 ALGEBRA
structures
Algebraic
the
Group
ping
Galois :
yes +1--0 → not solvable by
radicals .

Groups
Binary Operationsset :

A → non
empty
.
Then the binary
denoted
operationA ✗ A by * is the
mapping
* : → A
Remark :
set A-
*
a,
-

b C- A : we
operation* b CTA
binary have a
on a

Then A is said to be closed with

respect to * .
Definition ( Group)
:

A empty set G is called with

group
non a

respect to the operation :

* : G✗ G - G such that

* M
1. is a
binary operation on .

2. * is associative on G-
[
a*
( b*c) =
@ *b)* e)
Enis knee element
3 of identity
.
.

a* e - a - e*a ; a c- G

Enis true element

4 .

of inverse .

a* b = to * a - e to -_ at .

We write µ , )
* as a
group
under * .

Abelian group
- :

A
group
which follows a*b = b* a ta b ,
C- G.

Order of
group
a - :

is the number elements in that

It
of group
.

is denoted OCD
It by .

U can be
finite or
infinite depending on

0 (G) .
 Groups and Maltin multiplication :

all 2
1. The set of by 2 matrices

-_µE I] , a. b , sd ER
} -
MIR)

forms an abelian
group with respect to
addition of matrices .

2. The set
a
__{[[ he] : ad -
be -1-0
} = briar

2×2 matrices forms a group with

of all
to maltin
respect multiplication .

Lemma :
If Gi is a
group , then :

1.
Identity element of G is unique .

2. Inverse of element in bi is unique

every
.

proof e)
Let y and ez be two
identity elements in G.
Then,
a. a -_ G. a - a
forall
all a c- or → ①
Ezra c- G ②
a. a
for →
a
ez = =
Take a -_ ez in ①; we get :

a. ez = ls → ②
②, get
:
Take a -
a in we

a. er -_ a → ③
From ② and ③ we have a __ er

elements
ii)
suppose there enist two
element
identity
in G.
.

b and e
of the a

a. b - b -
a - e
A. C - C -
A = @
To show b - c :

b - b -
e - b. (a. c)
= (b -

a) -
c
b- e. c
b -e

Lemma :
bi is and a,b, c c- G then
If a
group
2) a -
b = a. c -7 b=c ( left cancellation)

2) b. a = c. a -7 b- c ( night cancellation
 Lemma :

If bi is then
group
a :
,

it f- a c- bi , (a- 1)
→
= a & ii) +(a- b) -1--6-1 a-1 .

Functions - :

Recall that S- T is called

mapping f
a :

one to one if :
not y -7
OR
fend f- feyj , n,
yes
ftyj -7
foes = n -
y
A -T is called onto if for each
mapping f :S enwsts s c- 5 such that
b-
c-T there
,

f - T

A- Two s T and s- T
mappings f g
: → :

are said to be
equal if :

f@ t n c- 5
gens - .

A- The
mapping
i : s- s
defined as

icy __ n t R C- 5
is called the
identity mapping .
The product oh composition of two mappings :

f: 5 →T and T- u defined as the

5G
:

u smh that :
mapping gof
? →

Lgoffn =
gym
Group of
mappings
- :

Let s be
empty set Then define :
a non
.

Iss
A -
{ t If :S
onto }
A-
If Sfinite
is a set
havingsaid elements
onto 5 is
n then
a one
map from 5 to be a

permutation of S .

It is denoted
by Sn .
1AM I =
Isnt = n !

Lemma :

Let f
: A → B and :B → c- Then,
g
it gof is 1-1 if both f and is 1- I
g
.

ii) is onto if both found is onto

gof g
-

A
gof : → c
Proof :
i) Suppose f and g is 1-1 and for any
9 , artA "
(gof) as got an -_

-7
gcf @D= glfcssj
f (9) =
f @2) and ai = as

C. g is
- l -
l
j ti f is 1- 1)
is
gof a one one
function
-

Ñ) Now suppose fond

clearly gof A C
:
g
- .

is onto we shall
.
show that gof is onto .

element
Let c c- C be an
arbitrary .

that
Since
g :B
- c is onto, we
get b c-B such

gas -c → ①
smh that
Now, for b C- B , F a c- A
f @ __b→②
because is onto
f
By ① and ② we
get :
glf 1 - c

got @ - c

is onto
gof
.
corollary C-2 :

then is also in
Tf f g , ACS] ,
fog
or
gof A@ .

Lemma :

B, B - C and h :
c- D
If A :
f g
: -

t@gff-holgof1i.e
then

Cro g) of Inf .
=
holy often tRtA
Proof :

Note that gof : A - C & hog :B -

c

µ g) of : A → D & no
f) : A -
D

element
Let RCA be
arbitrary
:

any
⑨g) of) n -
µ g) few
-
( hog)y where flns -
y
-

hlglyj) -
Ht)
where
gly) -
Z
(holy f)In •
-
Hg /fall
UH
Ugly) )
- -

@ g) of)n-_ ( holy of))r

•
Corollary 2:
h C- A then
If f, g ,
:

folgoh) -
Lfo g) oh
Lemma :

Let A one to one and onto

f : B be
-

Then there enists a

map g :B → A which is
one to one and onto .
Further gof A→ B ,
:

and
ffog
:B A are
identity mappings
-

Remark :

The :B A is called the inverse

mapping
-

g write
g- ft
B We
of f A : - . .

Corollary 3 :

For
such that
each f c- Als) then F
fl c- ACS)
foft -
fit of -
ids .

Result :

The set Acs ) with respect

forms group a

to the composition of mappings

.

proof :

property holds
by corollary 2 .

1 . Closure
2 .

Associativity holds by corollary 2 .

3. For all f- C- Ats) note that there enists

id : s - s : idk = n t n c- 5 .

such that foid - f = id of

5
Therefore id :S - t Als]

idk = n t res

is element of A
the
identity .

element holds
A. Enistnee of inverse from
corollary 3 .

Sn is known as the
group of permutations
on n
symbols or
( symmetric
degree
group of
n
)
Recall that :

relation on a
set A is
binary
~
The
relation
equivalent
on
said to be an

A if :

i. e. f- a c- A
^

1 .
~ is heflenive ana

then
2- ~ is
symmetric i.e. if anfb na .
3. ~ is transitive i. e.
if an b and

bore then an c.

Equivalence class :

relation non
equivalence
on
Tf
a
n is an

empty set A ,
then the set A hutA :n~a}
c- A
is called the equivalence class of a .

We shall denote it (a) or clay .

Theorem :

relation
Tf ~ is an
equivalent on a

non
empty set A , then A emphasised
can be

as a union of mutually disjoint equivalence

classes in A-

CRM f-
By definition , C- A REA

v cha C- A
NEA

|A--UUTf-
Definition -
:

Let a. b C- 2- (6--10) say

. We that to divides
be
a
if a =
for some integer c. we
denote c as b la .

Definition - :

b. with
let be
integers >0
n
a.
.

b modulo
congruent to
n
Then a is

a =-D ( moden) if n la b)
-

1h 2 mod ( 121
eg I
:

Theorem :

all
Let n be a positive integer , for
b c- =L, we have - :
a,

it a ⇐ a ( moden) [Refterrine]
ii) a= blmodn) b -=a( modn )[SYmEe]
iii ) a- b Lmodn) and be clmodn)
then a ⇐ ccmodn) [transitive]
Thus the relation
,
a= blmodnj is

relation
equivalence
.

an

Theorem - :

blmodn) and CE dlmodn), then

If a -__

it ate = bid Lmodnf

ii) al E bd ( modnf
Theorem A- :

If a ⇐ clmodn) ⇐> (a) =D

algorithms
:
Division
-

with to > 0
to be the integers
.

Let a and
Then there enist unique integers gander
In < b
such that a = bq + r
,
0

Result : and consider

Let n > I be an
integer "
modulo
congruent
" n
relation
.

the
and is the remainder
integer
s
1) If a is
anydivided then (a) =D
when a is
by n
2) There distinct
are
exactly n
equivalence
( on congruence) classes
namely @ ] [☐ @ ☐ , . . .
-

Result - :

with respect to
⑦
Zen forms a
group n.

of
The
group
zu is known as a
group
addition modulo n

integers
.

divisor :

greatestd
-

common
The
is said to be a
ged of
An integer >o

a h b
if :

and b
if d is a divisor of a

and b is a divisor
ii)
Any divisor of a

of d. and b.
Notation : la, b) →
ged of a

and b does not

Remark :
ged of a

and b.
signs of
a

depend on

b) La, b) C- a, b)
(a) b)
-
- =
i. c. = C- a
,
=
Lemme - :

If a and b are
integers ,
not both zoo,

then Las b) enists . Moreover , we can find

integers Mo and no such that
mob
la, b) = Moa +

Definition :

prime
The integers
a and b are
relatively
b)
coprime if (a) 2
=
or
.

relatively
we
b are prime
i. e .
If a and
and such that
can find integers n
y
an 1- by =L

Prime numbers
: -

number
An integer ps2 is
called a
prime
divisors of p
only
.

the
1 and p are
Lemme 1 - :

and @ b) =L then a / c ( a divides)

1 be , , .

If a

2- :
Lemma ab then either
number ) divides
If p ( prime
Pla or pl b .
Theorem :

Any positive integer

n> I can de
facto aired
as
in a
unique way
n- pi pi . . . . ptdt
where numbers
p , > pay . . .
> pt are
prime
and each di > 0 .

Remark :
than 1
If a is
any positive
integer greater such
number p
then there enisls prime a

that p divides a)
pla (
Result - :
and let
Let n> I be a fined integer and
On =
{n c- 2- I 2 En
en

Cmn) = & }
= set
of ale positive integers less

and coprime to n
than
.

( multiplication
Define binary operation ④ modular )
n
a

Un as a ④nb = c where c is the

on

least remainder obtained on

non -

negative
dividing ab
by n .

with respect to ④ n .

Then Un forms
a
group
Euler 's function calorie toticut function
of -
or

then Euler
Tf n is
any positive integer ,

function , denoted by 44) defined as

is
01 -

ofd) I =

01 C) = no .

of positive integers less than

to
relatively
n
prime
.

n and

For integer n > 1, we have

n =
pie pih
'
. . . . . .
pndk
and oh 71
where p, < Pz 2 2
pm
-

. . . .

old
nli-pt.li Ig) l
%)
'
= -
- - -

Remark
y = olds form -1 .
 MODULE -
2
-

Subgroup - :

said
subset H of bi
A non
empty
a
group is

to be a
subgroup of
Gif H itself forms
under the operation of h
group
.

Lemme 2.4.1 .
:

subset 11 of bi is a
a
group
A non empty
of
G iff - :

subgroup
Hii
at c-
that
it a c- H and b c- It implies
that at c- H
implies
.

a c- H

Theorem :
G is a
subset µ of a
group
A non empty b c- H
abt H ta,
G
iff
.

c-
subgroup of

Lemma - :
subset of a

It is a non finite empty b EH ,

If all a

G such that at
c- It for ,

group of G.
then It is a
subgroup
Definition :

Let bi be a
group
and h be a
subgroup of or .
.

For a
,
b, C- G ,
we
say
a is
congruent to b

write b( mod H)
mod H and as a =
⇐> alien .

Lemma :

The relation
aE b mod H is an
equivalence
relation
Lemma :
the add-on AE b( mod M)
consider
.

E h, we have
For each a
Ha
(a) = .

Lemma :

between
There is a one to one correspondence in
co sets H
left of
any
two
right or

G.

Remark :
corsets
right
are
two
Cardinality of any
same .
Remark :

There is a one to one correspondence between

two left corsets an and bn of it in G .

any

Lagrange 's Theorem :

The order of
a
subgroup of
a
finite group
divides the older of the group
.

OR
and H is
finite group
a
G
Tf is a

subgroup of or, then OH / color)

order µ divides the
( of
order of G)
Juden of a
subgroup :

inden H in bi is
HL G , then the of
Tf coset of M
the number of
distinct
right µ H]
by IgM or :
It is denoted
in h .

Theorem :

Otr)
Tf u is a
finite group
then
igH= 0TH
element
Definition ( Order of
:
an
order of
and a e- or, the
Tf h is a
ghoup such that
least positive integer
m

a w the
*a *a
Here, am_- a * a *a . . .

am C
m÷
-_ .
 enists , then
If no such m we
say
that
older
is
of infinite
.

Notation : 0 (a) denotes the order of a .

Theorem If : bi is a
finite group and a c- ↳ ,

then 0cal
\ OH .

Corollary :

and at G then
If bi is a
finite group ,

ao (G) __ e.

Euler is Theorem :

Tf n is a positive integer
and a is
relatively
to n then a 14--1 mod n

prime ,

Fermat's Theorem :

prime and p
integer
a ,

For any aP-_ almodp)

 Lytic Subgroups
Theorem :
be and a c- G. Then
Let h group
,
a ,

A and
H { am : n c- 2- } is a
subgroup of
=
contains
bi which
the smallest subgroup of
H is
It is abelian
.

a .
Moreover,

subgroups )
(
:

Definition cyclic and a c- G. Then the

let G be a
group bi is called the
} of
subgroup than
: n Ez and
generated by a

of bi
subgroup
cyclic denoted La >
by
.

it is
} < >
a

{ nez =
an
that is ,
:

1
Remark { a > : = ( a- >

En ampler : }
45 > = { 5h : n Ez

Tn ( 2- , t ) t 2-
,
= 45m : n

= 52-
Definition ( cyclic group ) :

A
group bi is said to be
eydie if there

a c- h , such
that bi <a >
element
-_

cnn.sk an
.

Smh am a c- bi is called a
generator
h
of .

Theorem :

that 0(
If bi is
any group
and a c- or smh
azn
of order
,
n .

then La > is a
subgroup
}
- '
' an
{e a a . .
.

ca >
.

=
Moreover , , ,

Theorem :
order is
cyclic if and only if
group of
n
A
element of order n

it has an

Remark :

The Lzn ⑧ ) is cycle .

group . n

.
'

0¢11) = n

Lemma :

of prime order cyclic

is
Every group
.
Lemmer :

A
subgroup of a
cyclic group is
cyclic .

Section 2. 5

1A counting principle)
Definition :

G
Let H and K be two
subgroups of a
group .

Then their product ,

denoted as HK is defined
as Hk = { hk : he H , K c- k }

Theorem :
G.
of
subgroups group
a
two
Let H and K be

Hk is subgroup of bi if and
only
Then a

Hk M
if
=

abelian
corollary
:
of an

H and K are subgroups G.

Tf Hk is a subgroup of
G, then
group
Theorem :
bi,
H and K are
finite subgroups of a
group
If
then OC HR) =

°o÷YL,
Corollary :

h and
If H and K are
subgroups of
0 (H) >
Todd ,
01M SF
then 0
( Hnk) 4- I i. c-, tink + {e }
Normal
subgroup :

A bi is said to be normal
subgroup of group
a
N
I each G
subgroup of
h
if gn g- c- N for g c-
and nE n .

of
Notation : N D or LN is a normal
subgroup )
Remark : is normal
abelian group
.

of
bury subgroup 27
an
i)
( , +) ( 2- t)
☐ ,
is normal
til sub cyclic group
Every group of
a

is abelian
every cyclic
.

because group
Theorem
subgroup
:

or is a normal
A subgroup N of a
group G.
each
iff g Ngt EN for gt
gngt-kgngt.int
N
}
corollary :

N Atr ⇐ > t c- ↳
gN= Ng g
and
i. e. N is a normal subgroup of bi if
if every left to set of N in bi is
only
coset of N in G.
a
night
Theorem :

bi is normal
of a group N a
A
subgroup bi if the product
sub if
group of toset
and
only is
again
a
N in ↳ of
of two night in G.
corset of N
night theorem :
above
In view of the }
N
the set
-_
Ah by { Na : a c- or

Define for to sets and the operation

,
as

of
all
night N b = Nab
Na
Result :

Let Dlr
N
} forms
a
group
.

c- a
GIN = { Na : a

The set
Nan b- was
operation
.

under the

quotient group
.

big
as
The is known
group
Lemmer :
and N DA then
Tf U is a
finite group ,

01%-1--0%7
Theorem .

abelian group and N b tr then G

bi is
If an ,
F
is also abelian .

not be true )
this theorem need
I of
.

converse

Theorem :
and N D tr , then
If bi is a
cyclic group
cyclic
by is also .

theorem is not true .

)
converse of this
( The
 MODULE -3

Homomorphism :

Let µ ,
* ) and ☒ ,
0 ) be two groups
.

be
10 : G - T is said to
A
mapping of @ ofLbj
a homomorphism if 01 La* b) =

all b th
for a,
.

Definition
:
to be a homomorphic
J is sand emits a
A group there
h if
a
group
of onto G-
image ↳ .

homomorphism from

The identity
at = Cfcs of
?nyTmP¥÷ →G :& @ -
nv-nt.cn .

lab )
Clearly 01 -_

is a homomorphic
Note that every group
it elf
of
image
.

t th
01 @ e n .

h
Define 10
=
: G - :

homomorphism
.

called threw at
10 is

Consider or -_ LR -1) - addition

,

G- ( R* , ) → multiplication
Rko }
= .

where R*__
 G-
•
Define of : h →
; 01 @ = 2nA n th

of tiny ) = 2Mt Y __ zn it = of Cns ly)

• Let bi - Lz ,
t) and bi -
Hu ,
⑨D
zn
Define of : 2- →

dens = [ n] it n t 2-

10 Cnt g) = [ n] ④ Ey]
@ + g) = n

= 01cm + low
Of is homomorphism ( onto)
let G- bill 2. R )
{
•

Cy bae ad be -1-0 =
) :

a,
-

b. ↳ d c-R
}
in =
{ Rko 's } ,
.

"
R*
Define of : G - G-
homomorphism)
Int ( Q is a
CHAI -

Theorem :
If § : h
- I is a homomorphism ,
then

element G-)
of
it e- ( the identity
of (e) =
"
c- or
ii) of Cny -_
folks ] t n

( Tfenislt )
then 0@
Iii) If 01 is one to one

divides 0110641 .
Moreover , 004--0 ( pay)
kernel of homomorphism :

then
Tf of bi - bi is
: homomorphism a

the kernel of 01 denoted by Kor 011k¢1k ,

and is defined as
Kcr of = { n c- H&m e- } =

↳ identity
Remark (e) - :
element of
or

of (e) = c- e c- Reed
ka et is nonempty
Lemma :
with
G- is homomorphism
If 01
a
: G -

normal subgroup of G.
kernel K ,
then K is a

Lemma :

homomorphism
is
then there
a
Ah
If N ,

U onto h
from OR
or is a

of group
Every quotient group
a

G.
homomorphic image of
 Isomorphism :

said to be
A homomorphism § : h - J is

if &
to one
isomorphism is one
.

an

Definition :

G and GT are said to be isomorphic

Two groups lr onto G-
isomorphism of
.

is
if there an

bra 5
Notation : .

Lemma :
G- is
A homomorphism & of
G into an

= he }
isomorphism iff Read
isomorphism
- :
theorem of
Fundamental G onto G-
homomorphism of
let $ be a

kernel K Then :
need a
with .
I
at I map Chom )

§
.

0141--5 onto I

g- EE g- 0kg)
=
°^
from ¥ it is
sulk that
for some
gtbr G
i - i .

homomorphic image of a group

Every
is isomorphic
to
quotient group a
.
Remark :

G , we have :
For a
group
Le }
%
⇐
it G- E bi and ii
he }
Correspondence Theorem -
:

of G onto G-
Let of be homomorphisma

with kernel k
Ñ < G-
.

10 In) th }
where
Let H = { n e- bit
Then :
H
G and K C-
.

if It is a
subgroup of
D Cr
is G- , then H
Tf Ñ
.

ii)
to one correspondence
Iii) There emists
a one

sets of all subgroups of G-

between the
of bi which
onto the set of all subgroups
contain k .

Theorem
-
-

with
.

homomorphism of G onto G-
let § be a
emits a
kernel K . Let Ñ A CT Then there .

% F-
that
N of u smh =
subgroup
.
Corollary - :

under the hypothesis of previous theorem ,

Y¥n
that
%
show I

by Ig
•
:
=

•
: N =
{a c- h / ¢4s c- Ñ }
NL bi and REN
onto homomorphism
Note that 10 : N - F is on

Ñ
by FTH ,
Nq x

:
big g- = =
%¥n
Automorphisms

Definition :
is
or onto itself
An isomorphism of group a

G.
called an automorphism of
Encamp les :
-

e) Identity map id
: G - G suck that
id (n) n te se C-
-
G
is an
automorphism
 ) f :(2- e) → 4- -1)
ii
, ,

all NEZ is
fly for = - n an

automorphism .

iii )
f :(RT ) . -
LRT .
)
find Rt
=
In for all n t
-1
all HER
for
fins =
¥
are automorphisms .

Notation : A utter) - the set of all

lr
automorphisms on .

Also, we know :

onto
the set of all one one
A (G)
-

h
maps on
.

and A 1h) group

Wrt composition
forms
a

of mapping
.

Aut 1h) C- A 1h)

Clearly :

Theorem :
A (G)
Aut (G) is a
subgroup of .

Art(G) -
the set of all automorphisms
A (b)
forms a
subgroup of .
Lemma :
If T E Aut (G) ,
then :

it T(e) - e ii) 0 IT @s ) = 0 (a) where

a c- G such that 0 ( as
cnislt .

Already discussed in case

of homomorphisms :
The theorem gives idea to
following
us an

think more cramp

les of automorphisms :

Theorem :
( fined ) define
:
For c- ↳
Let bi be a
group .

g
G- a
Tg :

nth
Tgcnt gngT for all .

G.
Then
Ty is an automorphism of
Inner automorphism - :

Fon
g c- bi, the automorphism Ty : G -G
' all bi
Tgln n e-
-

)
is defined as =
gng for
is called an inner automorphism of G.
Remark :

If his commutative then

Tgw-gng1-ggtn-a.se
Teh +n
→
Tgln ) = - I ( identity map)
# If G is non commutative 7 a, b E G such

that ab f- bass a bat f- b

Ta (b) -_ a bat = b

Ta f- I ( map )
identity
Thus for a non
abelian
group
there
always
emit a non trivial automorphism .

Notation : I (G) → the set of all inner

automorphisms of G.
i. e-,
Icn) =
{ Ta : a c- h }
where Ta : G → U ; Talus = an
oil An

Theorem For h I (G) ☐ Auth)

any group
: .
,

Theorem: For bi,

any group
I (G) a GIZ
where th }
2-
dgehlgn t n
ng
= __

is the center of G-
 MODULE -4

Cayley 's Theorem :

bi is isomorphic to
subgroup
Every group
a

G.
of A (G) for some

Proof :

Let bi be and Albi) is the set lgsoup)

a
group
all to one and onto mappings from
of one

G to G :

For each a C- U ,
we define
G ↳
fa : →

all n th
false) =
an
for
y
an
ay
-
in -_
•

fa is well
fain falyj
=

defined .

For my c- G ,
Let fate fat g)
=

an -
ay
n -
y
fa is one -
one

c- G c- Cr such that
for any g F at g
falatgl -
g
 fa is onto .

Thus ALG) for all at G.

,
fat
let G- =
{ fa : a c- bi
}
Now, we show that I 2 A (G) .

have
Let fa fb ,
C- G- . For
any n c- or, we

Hatala =
tattoos)
=
fallen)
= alone ) =/a b)(n) =
fool n)
-
: a, b th ab EG
and tab cry (ab) @ -_

face to too EÑ =

( G- is closed with respect to composition

of mapping )
Let f-a C- G- . Then F fat C- G- such that

f- fan ta at fe ( identity of)

a
° = =

ñ
similarly fat Ofa fe ( identity of )
Ñ =

i fe G - G
•
:

n te se
tu
teh en -
G-
-

fat fat
(ta) → + -
 Hence G- 2 A (G)

prove that E G-
Finally ,
we G
G-
Define 4 : G -

c- G
Y (a) = fat a .

Clearly , 4 is well defined .

Let a, b e- G.

4 lab) = f-ab -
ta f-b- Has 041 b)
o

①
it is homomorphism
-

•
: 4 (a) 4lb) =

f-
a
= to
talk = tocry to see bi

an = bn
law)
a __b ( by cancellation
→ ②
Thus , if is one - one .

C- Ñ C- h such that
For each f-
a F a

4calf- a =
it is onto
-
③
From ① ② and ③ : ,
we have

G E. G-
Theorem :

G S be the
Let It be a
subgroup of group and a

set of all left corsets of H in h Then .

,
there
is a homomorphism
② : Cr → A (s)
and the kernel of 0 ( kero ) is the largestin
contained
normal subgroup of ur which is

It .

theorem :

Similarly ,
we have the
following
and H # Cr is a
If bi is a finite groupthat otter) -4 ICHI !
Cr such
subgroup of the indene of H in G)
denotes
.

( where in) trivial normal

then tf contains a non

br
subgroup of .

Simple group :
it has
simple if
no
said to be
A
group bi is
non trivial subgroup .

Remark :

of prime order is simple .

Every group
Corollary :

If bi is a finite group and H F G is a subgroup

that 0¢) not
of h such
1- it ! then G is
a
simple group .

First Sylow is Theorem :

If p is a
prime
number and pm / o(G) then Cr
of order pm
has
subgroup
.

a
 MODULE -5
Permutation group :

that if 5 is set
we know a finite naming
n

elements , then the set

Sn =
{ to If :S es
onto }
forms a wit composition of mappings
group
.

The
group
Sn is then called
symmetric group of
group of permutations
.

degree n or

{f : s É
onto
s is called
on 5
permutation }
Remark : Isnt = n !

denoted as :

A permutation is
usually
n
I 2 3 . . . . . -

fit to ft3) fly

 and transposition)
Definition ( cycle
n ( or
cycle) demoted
A
cycle of length r -

as
far ,
as, . . . . .

auf is defined as a permutation

f- c- Sn such that f- (a) = are, f-(a) = as

- . . . .
f- (aan) = an and f- Carl = on

and f- (a) = a if a
4- far ,
as - - .
our }
two is called a
A cycle of length
transposition .

(! 2)
2 3
f-
cg f- ( 1T€ ) c- S } means
=
:
= I

(} &q)
2 3
d-
d-
(I 3
2) C- Sa means , ,

( 2 3) 53
( I } %)
• = C- means • =

te
transposition
5=11 25 A) E So _→s= ( L } 33 ? % %)
All the elements of 53 unite be

(I 2) , ( t 3)
Sg =
{
id 11,
2 31, C 1 3

(2 3)
21 , ,
}
 (
6 9
4- f =
I 2 3 A 5 7 8
6 2) C- Sq
37 4 I 9 8 5

ed
Note that permutation
the f- can be empress
as a
product of disjoint cycle
( 13 4) ( 275 9) ( 6 8)
f- =

Note that ( I 3 4) = ( I 4) ( I 3)
Thus,
f- ( I 4) ( I 3) ( 2 9) ( 2 5) 12 7) ( 8)
G

" "
=L :* :* :* : : :)
" "
=L : : : : : : : : : )
(I 4) ( I
3) = ( I 3 4)
6
Composition
Theorem :

Every f- c- Sn can be
empress ed as a
cycle
or product of disjoint cycles .

Moreover , f- C- Sn can be emphasised as a

product of transpositions .

Remark :
into transposition is NOT unique
The decomposition
.

Order of cycle
:
a

Order of a
cycle is same as its
length .

Order of a
permutation :

To find the order of permutation first a ,

empress the given permutation

as product
of disjoint cycles .

is the
The LCM of the length of disjoint cycles
order of given permutation
.

a
Theorem :

has r and
If a permutation o e Sn s number

of trans positrons in two

decomposition of -

and
as a
product of transpositions then ,
er s

both odd
both
.

even or
are either

Even and odd permutations - :

called even or odd

permutation is an
A

permutation if it can
be
expressed as a

transposits
or odd number of
product of even ones - .

Remark - :

two even or
i) The product ( or composition ) of
even permutation
.

is
again
an

odd permutations
ii) The and odd permutation
product of an even an

odd permutation
.

is an

)
iii let f- c- Sn such that

Lai bi) ( Arba) Lan by

f-
- - -
- -

then
f- = ( am bmj ? . . . - - .
Car bit
=
Lam b m) .
.
. .
( ar bn)
 odd ) permutation then
Ht If f- is an even for ,

fit is also an even ( or odd ) permutation .

it) For
^.^ Sn ,
any -0 C- o_0 0-1 __ id
Sn
identity map in is an even

permutation .

v1 A K
cycle ( I 2 . . . . K) is even or odd permutation
if K is odd or even respectively .

In Yn÷, ,
Result : In Sn there are distinct cycles
,

of length r La Eng .

Theorem :

of Sn is
The set An of all even permutations
a normal subgroup of Sn
and 0 LAY
-_n÷
( proof is important) 0G¥
=

6
Result : Aq has no
subgroup of order .
 MODULE -6
Conjugacy classes of Sn :

Let
f- c- Sn ,
then ef =
{ 0-1-0-1 : ② C-Sn }
Lemma -
-

such that i ↳ then

If f- c- Sn
j ,

0-1-0-1 : 0-4) -
0-41 to c- Sn .

Remark - :

symbol in f- by
To compute ② f- oil replace every
its 0
image
.

lg : 0-11 2 3) 0-1 =
(0-4) ①(2) 0133)

7
it
0--1 ; ; ; ; ;) c- ss

b- (3))
0-11 2 3) 0-1 = (0-11) 0-4
-
15 4 a)
 Sylow 's Theorem

Prime (p )
group definition
-
:

the order
A bi is said to be a
p group if
group
-

bi is some power of p.
of every element of
En amp les - :

it Ya ,
1-& ) ii ) ftp.tg-iii) Klein 4 group

in)
98

Theorem - :

bi is a
p group iff
0 (G) pm
=

A finite group
-

( p is prime

Sylow 's Theorems - :

first
Sylow Theorem
's - :

is prime
number and pm / o (G) then
Tf p
,
a

older
G has a subgroup of pm .
Definition ( Sylow p subgroup) - :

of order
Tf Gr is finite group
then
a subgroup a

pm such that pm 1 Ocr ) but pm if (G)

-

is called a
Sylow p
-

subgroup or
p
-

Sylow
subgroup of bi .

Remark :

order
of the same
subgroups
are ,

e) All
Sylow p
-1
namely p .

ii) or =
53 ; 0 (G) = 2-3

theorem, 53 has
Sylow 2-
a -

By first Sylow
order 2 and has
Sylow 3- subgroup
sweet of ,

group
of order 3 .

Note that the subgroups

{ id , d 2) } - Hi

{ id , (I 3) } - Hz

Sylow subgroups
{
2-
V3 - id , 12 3) } are

of order
2 .

subgroup of
{ lid ,
d 2 3) , ( I 3 2) } is a
Sylow 3
order 3 .
 ) If
Iii 0 µ) = 48 = 293
order
then Cr has a
Sylow 2- subgroup of
3- subgroup
24--16 ,
and by has a
Sylow
of order 3 .

iv) 0 (G) 108 = 22.3 ?

Tf =

then G has a
Sylow 2- subgroup of order
of
244--16 ,
and bi has a
Sylow 3 subgroup
order 33 = 27 .

second Theorem :

Sylow
-

's

subgroups of
a
finite group
Any
two Sylow p -

in G.
or are conjugate OR
subgroups of
a

Tf H and K are two

sylow p -

then H
-1
gkg for
some
gear
.

h -

finite group ,

theorem
Sylow
:
Third
subgroup of
a
finite
The number np of Sylow p -

group
is given by
It Rp ( R
- 0,12 . - -

) where np / OCD
np
.

END of MODULE 1-6

-

-
Module 7 and onwards :

structure
7- :
Introduction to
Ring
8 : structure between
preserving maps
and
9 : Construction of quotient rings
their properties .

10 :
Important rings in Algebra
in which factorization
is a

11 !
Rings
reliable process .

7- 9 : (3.1-3.5)
*
definition of rings
*
special of things
classes

• Homomorphisms
* Ideals and quotient Rings
* more ideals
and quotient hinge
 Ring definition :

The structure (R ,
-1, .

) consisting
of a non void

set R and into

binary compositions denoted by
+ and ✗ or • is said to be a
ring if these

anions are satisfied :

1. (Rst ) → abelian
group
2. (R ,
X or •
) → semi -

group
3 . if a, b, c ER

{ d.MIL?fIeII
btc ) axb + axe
a ✗
( =

and →
la - b) ✗ c- axe
✗<
buns

Rn : ( at b) +c = a -10+4

Rk : Additive Identity
M3 : Additive Inverse
Rin : Commutativity for -

✗
Ru :
Associativity for
R distributive
laws
&
.

RBI and Rgz : L

 Remarks
Important
:

In
ring ( R &, x ) :
any
,

1- Rit → additive & (R , X) → multiplicative

semi group
2. Zero element ( O) →
additive inverse

3. a → has inverse
Ia
does not need to have multiplicative
Ring
inverse
identity
.

or

Types of Rings - :

1.
Ring with unity :

µ t , , x ) → Ring with unity if

M .

identity
enists .

2 . Commutative ring :

(R , &, X ) → if ilt multiplicative composition

is also commutative
v- b GR
a ✗
b - f✗ a a,
Enamples of rings - :

1 .

Single element 0--7 040--0 & 0 ✗ 0--0

called Null oh Trivial

is Zero
ring
or
ring
ring .

2- The set
of integers Z
(2- , → x ) is a
ring
.

structures numbers consecutively

following
are
The of
rings :

LQ it , X), LR, & ,

X) , ¢ ,
-1, X)
,
LMZ -1×1 ,

but now

3 . nxn Motrin -
ring
with unity
commutative → &, ✗

structure ( Zn , -1 n ✗ a)
4 .

Algebraic te
,

commutative ring
with
unity
Elementary properties of a
ring
- :

Theorem :

For elements a b/c of a

ring
- :

any
,

( b-c) ab
a) 0a d) ae
-

a
a0 = - 0 =

( at) C- a) e) ( b- e) a
C- b) to
b) a = - -
- ba - ca

at
c) C- a) C- b) =
Some special type of wings - :

a) Zero divisors in a
ring
6=0 for zero b.
a →
0 divisor if a ✗
a non

a) b -1-0 ( possible for a ring

Enanpk :

in the
ring [ { 0,1 , 2,3, 95 },
to , XG ]
2, 3, & are 0 divisors,

3×62=0 ; 4×63--0
2 ✗ 63--0 ;

b) Ring w/ out 0 divisor -

:

↳ when zero divisors enists .

)
no
b = 0
then or or

Ctf
o
at -_

c) with divisor
Ring
:
zero -

ab O
a, b -1-0 yet
-

when
En ample :

Makin
M → 2
by 2
A-
[: :] i B-
[ : :] e- m

sun that AB -

[ ! !] - o
d) Boolean ring - :

@it X),
→ boolean
ring if
all its elements

are idempotent
i. e. at - a

boolean ring for ordinary

crumple :
{0 ,
I } →

1- and ✗ .

Cancellation Laius in a
song
- :

↳ Always
holds in an addition composition
always
abelian group
.

is an
as it

not hold
in case of a

But it may
or
may
multiplication composition
.

Theorem 1- :
cancellation
divisors iff the
A
rung
is w/ out zero

it
law holds in .

Conversely law holds in R .

the cancellation
suppose
a c- R and a & 0, then :
If
at = 0 at = a 0

=) 6--0
w lout zero divisors .

i. R is a
ring
Corollary - :

A commutative money
R with
unity is an
integral
domain .

b
a -1-0 ,
at = ae = c
;

a, b, c C- R

Integral domain :

it is
A D- integral domain iff :

king
it commutative ii ) has unity iiif without zero
divisors

Remarks :
must
because there
At least two elements are required ,

element
be atleast non zero
.

one

Euample :

is
domain because it
The
ring G- it ×),
-
integral
commutative with unity
ring
.

a
domains as

i. @ ,
R and c) ↳ x) are
integral
well .

Enampte :

prove that the

ring ttg =L 0,1 ,
2 } ,
t} X}
,
)
domain
is an
integral
.
Composition table of z
,
is as follows -1

Tz O I. 2
Xz 0 I 2

0 0 I 2 O o o o

I I 2 0 I 0 I 2

2 2 0 I ¥1
te de
Z
} ,
+ → abelian Zz Xz,
→ commutated
semi in which
groupelementI
i. 2-3 43 Xz is an
identity
,
,
ewstt no divisors
integral
,

domain - in 2- 3 .

Theorem :

Ring tp =
do , 1,2 . - . . . -
( p 1), &p
-

, xp ) is an
integral
domain riff p is prime
.

Conversely :

2-p is a
commutative ring
the
Obviously ,
ring
with
unity .
 Field :

A is called a
field when :

honey
D) It is commutative ii) It contains unity
element is invertible i. e.
)
lii It's
every non zero ,

inverse
has multiplicative
.

(R ,
T, X ) →
field when :

abelian
( Rt) & (R X) both are .

Remark :

In a field (F. & x ) ,

each
equation of the form
at n = b
, n +a -_ b
,
an =
b @ -1-0) ol na - b has

solution in F for all as b in F-

a
unique

Enanpte :

⑨it ✗ )
,
,
(R ,
&, X ), ¢ , → x) are
fields because
and
each is a commutative ring with unity
zero
multiplicative inverse 11 a of every non

enislt
element of ring
.

a
Enample :

Module
ring ( Zz ={ 1,2 } & Xz ) field
0
,
, ,
is a .

# Remark :

elements need to have inverse

Only
an
non zero

Unit Element in with

unity
ring
a :

R →
and 1 be identity of the
thing ; the
is
then
composition ( X )
a ER
second any ,

enislt b C- R
called unit element if there

such that at = I = ba .

Enample 1 :
unit
ring (Z 1 and -1
are
In the ,
t, x ) ,

elements .

* element is a unit element

In a
field every ,
*
element
encept the zero
.

Enampte 2:

hong [{ Oil } 7g Xs]

2, 3,4 Zero
In the ,
,
, ,
every
non

element is unit because

I ✗s 1 = 1 ; 2×53--1 ,
4×54--1
Theorem -
:

The set of all units in a

ring with
unity forms
a
multiplicative group .

Proof :

Let R be and 1 be its multiplicative

a
ring with unity
identity .

R, then
:
5 is the set of all units of
Tf
1×1 z e- 5

Therefore the multiplicative identity ewosts in 5 .

Let a. b c- s

ca and
a, b → units , F e, d C- 5 : ac =L -

bd =L - db

then, ( ab) ( de ) = a ( bd) c =

I =
ai
Similarly b is also unit -

i. a c- 5, b c- 5--7 ab c- s

tons eguetiudy ,
S is a multiplicative group .
Division skew
ring or
field :

A R is called division field

ring a
rung or a skew

if :

b) It is a
ring
with ii) Each of its non zero

unity .
element have a multiplicative
inverse .

to be
But,
necessarily
have
a spew field doesn't
commutative .

Example :

over R is skew field Witt & ✗,

nxn matrices a

it is not commutative .

but it is not a
field as

Relations between
Integral Domain & field :

Theorem 1 :

domain but
Every field is
necessarily integral an

not true
is
the converse .

Proof :

F commutative ring with unity

-
field : . F →

zero
multiplicative
non
in which inverse of every
element enistt -
F -
w / out 0 divisors :

b
A, C- f- : a
=/ o dy ab = 0

{ inverleith
:
then a
-1-0 a c- f- at e- g- cuehy nonzero
,
element is
Now at EF in F
, ab = 0
, atLab )=
do __ 0
=> 6--0 (at a) D= 0

F without zero divisors

'

.
. is .

domain
Consequently integral
-

, F →

Conversely :

because
The not true
every
converse is
necessarily ,

not
integral domain is a
field .

Theorem :

A commutative without divisors

finite ring zero

is a field

corollary 1 :

domain is
field
.

Every finite integral

a

Corollary 2 :

ftp.tp Xp ) ,
is a
field iff p
is
prime .
Characteristic of ring
a - :

Tf F
{ Rp
n :
na __
of EP
sing }
a
✗ →
,

then R is said to be with

a
ring finite
characteristic and
,
n -
characteristic of a
ring .

If no such n cruets , then R → characteristic 0 .

⑦it X) ,
, CQ ,
+, ×)
,
LM t, x ) & 4,4×3 ace of
characteristic zero .

Characteristic of an
Integral domain and field -
:

which
It is the least integer n
for
me = 0
element
↳ identity is
Tf enistt then D
no such
positive integer ,

said to be characteristic 0 .

CD e) and oles
n = ,

Enample :
domain (2-7,47×7)
The characteristic of the integral
is 7 because 0171--7 in
(2-7,17)
Theorem :

The characteristic of an
integral
domain ( field )
number .

is either zero or a prime

Proof :

domain ( field) has char p

Tx) integral
.

isnt prime :
Tf p
p pi Pz-
; 1 Lp Lp &
, 1 cpezp

The char .

of D is p pie = 0

(Pip a) e = 0

( p e) ( pre)
,
- 0

S pie 0 or 0
=
pze -

: D has two chars .

p, or
pz
definition
.

which lonsltadi It the

-
^

p cannot be composite

Hence p
is
prime
.

,
 subring :

void subsets
ring ( R ) is called
T
A non of a
, ,
X

S the induced
a
subring iff itself is a
ring for
compositions .

R has atleast subways :

-

two
Any ring
E) Rlitself) ) to }
ii

Proper subring ^

R, then ⑤ t) is
If (Sit ,
X ) is a subring of
a
subgroup of @it) .

Enampk :

I. (2- ,
d, X ) is a
subring of @ it X) ,

is
rational nots a

matrices over
all nxn
2. Set of over R
all nxn matrices
.

of
subring of the ring
Theorem :

conditions S to be a
subring of R
The
necessary for
are :

BE 5--7 Ca - b) , ab c- s
at 5 ,
Proof - :

conditions
Necessary :
-

let b c- S
of R and
a
let s be
subring
,
.

Then :

at 5, b c- 5 a c- S - b C- 5
,
b E s
a - C-b) = a -

closed for
and , a c- 5, b c- s ab e- s [ :S is

multiplication
conditions
sufficient
- :

c- S then a C- 5--9 a a o es
-1-01
-
S let
-

: a
,
.
,

element
: .
5 has an additive identity ,
i. e.
,
a 0

inverse in 5
5 has additive
.

^^ element of
-

Every
b c- 5
Then , b C- 5 : and -

s
at b c-
a - C- b) c- 5 or

i. S is closed for addition

commutative group
.

Sime S CR, (SA) is an

of multiplication
Also , associativity & distributivity they
in hold s since
over addition must
hold in R .
Corollary :

condition for
a non
The and sufficient
necessary R to be a
sibling of R
void subsets of a
king
are :

i) sets e s )
it s.SE S

Theorem :

The intersection of two

siblings is a
subring .

Proof :
R
two subring of
-

let 5, Sz be
,

C- 52 , 0 C- Sin Sz
O C- 51 0
,
sin sz -1-01
Let a
,
b c- 5in 52;
b ES , and a b c- 52
a) b c- Sins 2--7 a
,
,

b e- Si 52 & a
,
b 1-51,52
a -
,

b Sins z & at c- Sins z

i. a - C-

Thus we have :

a. b C- Sin 52--7 a- to c- Sin sz &

ab c- Sins z

of R
Sins z subring
'

.
.
is a
.

Corollary :

intersection of subring is
again a

Arbitrary
subring .
Subfield :

' '
F sub field of F F is closed for the
→
if
compositions in F and F
'
itself is a
field

for the induced compositions .

Enample :

d. + É CR → X) #
,
x ) ,
¢ ,
& X]
,

Theorem 1 :

The conditions void

necessary & sufficient for a non

subset 5 field F to be a subfield of Fate :

of a

b c- S
i) at S, b c- s a -

ii ) a c- S , b (-1-0) C- 5--7 abt c- S

Proof :

conditions
Necessary
-
:

let b c- S
subfield of F
a,
.

5- ;
F.
subfield 5 - subbing of
S →

b c- S
a c- S , b c- s a -

{o } is multiplicative
a
5 is subfield s -

Again
a
, abelian group .

c- S , 01--6 c- 5=7 abt c-s

i. a
 Sufficient conditions :

it Is ,
t) - abelian
group
)
( S { } ×)
ii
- o → abelian group
,

addition
lastly distributivity
,
of multiplication over

it holds in 5 also
holds
.

in F, therefore

Hence C. + )
, ,
x is a
field .

Phone field :

subfield .

↳ which has no proper

A field
Euampk :

is
ftp.tp number a
1-
, Xp ) ,
where p is a
prime
prime field
.

2.
(Q , T, X) →
prime field
.
 Ideal :

↳ A special type of Sebring .

Left 1 Right ideal :

R is called a

A non void subset I of a

ring
right / left ideal of R if :

b c- I
c- 1--7
a
b
-

e) a c- I

/ c- I
,

ER -7 ra an
) c- I or
✓
ii a
,
↳ right ideal
left ideal
Definition :

R is called
void subset I of
A non a
ring R it :
an ideal or two sided ideal of
b c- I ( a- b) c-I
e) a c- I ,
and an EI
ER ra c- I
ii) a c- I
,
n

Remarks :

commutative all three eoneeplt

1) for a
ring two sided
,

ideal
and
i. e. left ideal ,
night
ideal coincide .

necessarily
a
R is
2) Every ideal I of a

ring
converse is not
of R, but the
subring
true
necessarily
.
Improper ( trivial ) ideals - :

ideals which
^
we
has atleast two
Every ring
- .

it R itself ) to }
ii zero ( mute ideal )
knit ideal)

Proper ( nontrivial) ideals - :

↳ All ideals other than improper

ideals

simple ring :

is called simple
ideal a

A which has no proper

ring
ring .

Enampte :

is positive integer
{ / not } where
a
m
The set mm

is an ideal of the my Lz ,
&, × ) of integers .

Enampte :

(Q t, x) but not
The
money G-it ×) ,
is a
subring of ,

an ideal .

Euanple :
ideal but
not a
right
a 0
a
,
b C- Z is a left
,
b o
Theorem :

The intersection of any two ideals of a

ring is
again an

ideal of the ring .

Proof :

ideals R
It ,
Iz
- two of .

R
subbing of
.

and Iz are
Them Ty
R
Ten In subring of
-

i. -

re R and S C- Is A Iz
S E In 12 9 C- Ty & s c- Iz

c- 2, and 5h C- Is
r E R S C- In me
,
Sr Eh
similarly , as c- Iz and
In Iz
: . as & see c-
R
is ideal of .

! -

Ign Iz an

Corollary :

ideals of
is an

intersection of
a
ring
An arbitrary
ideal of a
ring .

Theorem ?

R
let Ty and Iz be two ideals of ring
-

Then I 412 { Antar far C- Is ,

12 }
as C-

both -4 and 12
is an ideal
of ring R
containing .
Proof :

art as C- Ii 412 & bit bz C- 7712

Then , ar , b , C- Ty and az , bz C- Iz

ideals we have
i -

Ty and Iz are of R so
,

9, bi C- 4 (q - bi) c- Ig

b 2) c- Iz
and az, bz C- 12--7 Laz -

consequently ,

far - bi ) & Car -

bz) = Car → as) - (bit by c- Is - Iz

:
then
If he C- R,
Ii Azn c- I
Ty and has C-
-7 ran C- Ii , arm c- ,

ray + rare C- Iet 12 and air + azr c- IT Iz

n last asf c- I +Iz & Car task C-It Is

-
'

I + Iz is an ideal of R .

Theorem :

Tf U is an ideal of a
ring R with unity 1 C- U ,

element of R )
then U R
(z unity
- → .
Proof :

let a EP .
Then , n ER, I C- U R -
I - n tu

: .
R EU
Moreover, UER .

: .
U - R

Corollary :

R with invertible
Tf U be an ideal of a
ring
then U =R
element of the
ring ,

Proof :
at c- R
a c- U,
:
invertible element of R :
.
.

a →

consequently ,

1
a- ER ,
a c- u & at a =L C- U

U = R

Theorem
every field
:
is a

proper ideals
i. e.
A
field has no , ,

simple ring
proof :

I → non zero ideal of a

Field F ; a c- I. .

Then 0 4- a c- I at c- F
at - I C- I
a
Alls o
, a c- I , at c- F

→ In = or c- I , n EF : . FCI

and ICF ; : . I. = F . Hence proved .

Theorem :

it
A commutative ring with unity is a field if
i. e., it is simple
has ideals
.

no
proper
.

Proof :

without proper
R → commutative ring
with unity
ideals .

to
In order to
prove
that R is a
field , we have

element of R has a
zero
show that every non

inverse in R
multiplicative
.

ideal of
rather } is an

Let a -1-0 c- R
,
Ra -
{ R .

ideal , so

But R has no
proper
let my c- Ra . Then FM.rs ER :

N - Ma & yz - Rza
R2 ) ER
Now
, Mr ER ,
ha c- R -7 (M -

Ra
→ µ -
rya c-

( ma - ma ) c- Ra

(R -

y) c- Ra

and Ra Then F od ER :

Again let ME R u c- .

u = oia .

rlr ' a) -1hr) a c- Ra

'

At R, c- Ra -→ ru=
Now , u
 But Ra C R and R is commutative .

So, h ER u c- Ra ru c- Ra and ur ERA

,

Hence , Ra is an ideal of R .

ideals in R
proper
,
Ro - R - no

: . Ra - {o} or R .

c- Ra
and a -1-0
Also, I C- R -7 1. a =a

Ra -1-10 }
→ Ra - R
R be
denied of can

This shows that every some r c- R

for
.

the form of
ra

empress ed
in

b c- R : ba =L
There enists
-7 bar = at = I

b -_ a-
'
c- R
its
Thus zero element of R has

every
non

inverse
multiplicative
.

Hence ,
R is a
field .
 Homomorphisms - :

for
groups ,
it is a
mapping oflab) =
Is ¢1b )

Definition :

A R to R
'
said to be
mapping from
a
is

homomorphism of :

1. 01 (at b) =
late (b)

Of cab)
2.
=
Of $1b)
LHS → 4, •
ER
'
Ms → I, •
c- R

lemma :

homomorphism of
'
R then
Tf of is a
- R ,
:

1.
01101--0 2. Of ⇐a) =
-
(a) ta ER

Definition :

If 01 into R' then the

is a
homomorphism of R ,

elements
kernel of 01, I (4) is the ,
set of all

a c- R such that 0(a) = 0 , the zero element

of R!
Lemma :

If 01 is a
homomorphism of R into R' with kernel
,

I ) ,
then :

1 R under addition
I )
-

is a
subgroup of
.

2
then both and
If at
Icf) and r e- R an
.

ra are in
It .

Isomorphisms - :

Definition - :

into '
R is said to be an
R
A
homomorphism of
isomorphism if it is a one - one
mapping .

there
Two said to be
isomorphic if
rings are

onto the other

isomorphism of
is one
an

lemma -
:

'
The
homomorphism of of R into R is an
isomorphism
iff I 1--0 .
Ideals and Quotient rings - :

Definition :

A subset U said to be
non
empty of R is a

sided ideal R
two
of if :
addition .

1- U is R under
a
subgroup of
and ER , both uh and her
2- For c- U n
every u ,

are in v.

Lemma :

is ideal of the
ring R, then R u is / a
ring
If u an

homomorphic image of R
.

and is a

Theorem :

R -pi,
let R, pl be two
rings , 01 → homomorphism :

R/ to U
kernel U Then , pi isomorphic
-

with .
is

there is a one to one correspondence

Moreover ,
set of ideals
ideals R and the
'

between the set of

ink!
contain U hi be such an ideal
Let
R which
.

of
RIGID C- }
'

W- { x c- w .

/
'
to R w!
: .
Rlw is isomorphic
More ideals and quotient rings - :

Lemma :

Let R be commutative with unit element

ring
a

whose and R itself Then

only ideals are 0 .

R
field
is a

Definition :

said to be
ideal
a
An f- R in R is
M a
ring ideal
Mani and ideal R whenever U is
if
an
of
that m then either R - u
of R such e v ar ,

oh M - V .

Theorem :

commutative with unit element and

If R is a ring
ideal of R , then M is a mani mat
M is an

ideal
of R iff RIM is a
field
 Domain
The Field of Quotients of Integral
an :

Definition :

'
imbedded in R if there
A R be a
ring
ring
can

R into R!
is an isomorphism of
on extension of
'
R will be called an over ring
R be imbedded in R1 .

if R can

Theorem :

domain be imbedded in a field .

Every integral
can

Euclidean Ring - :

Euclidean Domain
to
integral domain
D-
integral domain → comin
ring
.

ml out zero
divisors

5 :D →
2- :

)
i
to 4- a ED : S (a) 710

ii) ta, b -1-0 ,

a ,b c- D :
slab) % 51a) and 5lb)
 )
iii it a c- D
,
0 -1-0 ED F q, r e- D:
a -_
bq In -
:

r - o or 54) L S (b)
Then D is an Euclidean Domain .

S → Euclidean valuation

Definition -
:

domain D with atleast two elements

An
integral domain
is called an Euclidean if 9- a
mapping
s :D → 2- :

il t 0--1 a e- D S (a) 40
,

)
v-b-toc-Djs@bJ7pSla1iii1ta.b
ii + a
-1-0 ED ;

-1-0 ED F qir ED :
0 or
either
bqtr
or -

a- where

SH L S (b) .

Then D is called Euclidean Domain

Lemma :

Euclidean Domain
Every field
!
is an

Proof - !

Let F →
field .

domain I EF
i. F- integral
.
 0,1 E F : .
F has at least two elements

Define S: F → 2-
by
S (a) 1 it F
= a
-1-0 C-

e) 5 (a) =L go
it a
-1-0 EF
ii)
let a b -1-0 EF ab -1-0
, ;
i.
slab) ⇐ 1--5 (a)
i.
Slab) q Sta
iii ) let '
a c- F
,
b -1-0 c- F → b- c- F

i. a = a. I = a ( b. ft) = ab bl
lab 1) to
-

(ab 1)
-
b. b. (att)
-

=
a -

i. a b.
=
qtr
where
q = aft and tr - o

F Euclidean Domain
^

- -
is an

Unique Factories alien Domain -

:

domain with
R -
integral unity
R - commutative without zero

9- I C- R : a. I = i. a = a N- a ER
 domain when
Then call R factories alton
:
we a
unique
it a -1-0 Invertible → unit
,

ii)

(
a -1-0 , a =p , pz . . . .
.pe where pe.is an

irreducible element
and if pi -
qini
either is unit / both can't be
then q; or ri
unit)

iii let a -1-0

,
a non unit :

a
=p pz , . . . -

Pr = 9192 . . . -

9s
where each pi , irreducible elements
qj are

if a SG each is associated to
qj
pi
=

pin gig if 9- hi ER : pi -
niqj unit
where ri is

Definition :

An ID with called VFD if

unity is

unit
it Either zero element is

every
non

ineducable
product of an
ele
Every
. is
non zero
element .

) If unit : a
Iii a -1-0, a non =pipz - - - -

Pr =
9192 . . . .

qs
 2- is an Euclidean Domain -
:

de
set of integers .

i ) 2- is an ED
ID and it has elements
ii) 2- is an
•

proof :

S :
z -2-
by
{In
a >0
SH -
Irl : Sw -

N L 0

it
for -1-0 C- 2-

S@J7r0iilforn.y
R
,

-10 , ay 1--0
slay ) -
try 1 la 1171 To la I
- =
4ns
:
Stay a sold
.

iii)
for a c- 2-
Go -1-6 c-2-
b where
a
q -r
-

0 2- M L b £1b I → (b)
: .
SH e- s ⑨

: .
Z is an Euclidean Domain
Lemma :

Every Euclidean Domain is a

Principle Ideal Domain

Proof -
:

let R be an ED _→ R is 8D

Let it be Ideal of R
any
.

If A =
Lots ,
then A is the ideal generated by 0 .

If A 4- do } F a -1-0 c- A C- R :

5 is Euclidean valuation of R
S (a)
an
% 0 where

S : R- 2-

Ie
2-

w -
{ Ht) : t -1-0 EA }

Now, w -1-01 '

: S (a) C- w .
w is a non
negative
subset of 2- .

: . W has a least element 543 c -1-0 c- A

,
.

Now, c EA
will A CR
we prove
= .

Now, C C- A

a c- R ( : A is ideal)
b-
'
an
- - Cr c- A

CR C- A → ①
Let a c- A : R C- CR
either
Now , a C- A dg C -1-0 c- A R =
Cgtn where

or = 0 or scy < Sly

If r = 0,
then n -
cq c-CR

A C- cr → ②
i.
from ① and ② :
A = CR

Now,
if a -1-0 then SM) L S (c) :
n-I-cq-gr.sn =
cq
- r
,

NEA c c- A , R, c- A MEA
, q c-
cg
:
.
51ns e- w also, SYD ↳ SKJ
But 514 is the best element of W .

: . h I 0

or n -
cg → A -_ or

ideal of R
principle
'

A is
.
- . a

Now let R -_ def :

d 4- OER d. c- R - DR d- de
, .

e ER
neck dn den
If ,
-_
du = dice dcn -

)
ne = o
:
-

n -
ne = 0 C: '

R is an ID)
i. n = me = en

e is the
unity of R .

: . R is a PID
Theorem -
:

Let R be an Euclidean Domain , then two elements

any
and b in R
a. home
gcd d ,
d = da -1 fib ,
1
, µ c-R .

Theorem - :

2- I ] is an Euclidean Domain - :

2- =
{ atib / a, b EZ}
Proof - :

2- [i ] is a
subring of C ,
and c- field
Domain
: -
2- I] is an
Integral
I Lei o c- 2- : 2- (e) has
unity
= -
.

Define slate b) = at -162

i) a → it -1-0
: -

Slate b) = at 62%0
ii) at ib -1-0 & ctid -1-0
tf
scaotib ) , scetid) 70
S
/( ati
b) Lctid ) =
sfcae - bd) & i lad -164]
* &
s [ ✗ 93 2 SEXT
)
iii let ✗ c- ZIT, Y -1-0 C- 274

¥ =

×y- ÷✗ = XI
141
= fact bd) til be - ad )

Utd "

÷÷ l÷;→
-
- i
.
c- a