Error Analysis: Reading & Writing: Unit 6

Unit 6
Second Language Acquisition and Learning
Error Analysis: Reading &

Writing
Index
Scheme 3
Key Ideas 4
6.1. Objectives 4
6.2. Introduction 4
6.3. Causes of Error Analysis in Reading 12
6.4. Types of Error Analysis in Reading 13
6.5. Treatment of Error Analysis in Reading 15
© Universidad Internacional de La Rioja (UNIR)
6.6. Causes of Error Analysis in Writing 17

6.7. Types of Error Analysis in Writing 19
6.8. Treatment of Error Analysis in Writing 23
6.9. References 25
In Depth 28
Test 29
Scheme

3
Unit 6. Scheme
Key Ideas
6.1. Objectives
In order to understand the unit, it is important that students read the mandatory
contents, listed in the key ideas. Students should also read the recommended
readings or watch the videos to enhance their breadth and depth on the topic
although it is not required to complete the unit test.
To study this unit, please read carefully the following sections, which is an overview
of how to identify, classify and treat errors in reading and writing. This unit is
designed to provide a general idea of what teachers should look out for to help their
students improve their L2 abilities and avoid the same errors continually. Throughout
this unit students will:
 Students will differentiate between error and mistake.

 Students will understand the importance error analysis.
 Students will compare and contrast different types of corrective feedback.
 Students will analyze causes for errors in reading and writing.
 Students will know how the types of errors in reading and writing.
 Students will evaluate how to treat errors in reading and writing.
6.2. Introduction
As adults, it’s been ingrained in us to know that mistakes are a reflection that we are
learning. Learning a language means individuals have to make mistakes to learn how
to properly use it. There is not perfect method to learn nor to teach, as a results errors
occur meaning as teachers understand these errors is important. Each error signifies

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Unit 6. Key Ideas
something different about the learning process. Through error analysis teachers can
put into practice different techniques to treat the errors. The majority of the errors
made are shared with the group of people who share the same mother tongue
(Sobahle, 1986). Although it does not mean that people with different mother
tongues cannot make the same errors, these are generalizations based on errors
Spanish native speakers make when learning English as a second language.
The significance of error analysis in second language acquisition will facilitate

information not only to the teacher, but also the students and those within the
research field. Corder’s (1981, as cited in Wu & Garza, 2014) highlights:
“Teachers can understand students’ current level in learning. For researchers,

they can understand how language is learned and structured. For students,
they can utilize these errors as a learning device to improve their language
proficiency.”
Error versus Mistake
To be thorough in the study of error analysis it is important to distinguish the

difference between an error and a mistake.
When a learner unconsciously breaks the rules of the L2 because of learning, this is
considered an error. Generally this is when a learner makes constant and systematic
errors (Sobahle, 1986). For example, using “he” when the learner knows that women
are referred to as “she.”
Whereas when a learner breaks the rules of the L2 which is a result of a non-linguistic
factor, this is considered a mistake. Non-linguistic factors include facial expressions,

intonations, gestures, written symbols, or pronunciation, these are all the aspects
of communication that have nothing to do with language. “Ill-formed utterances
produced by native speakers are not the result of an imperfect knowledge of the

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Unit 6. Key Ideas
language. A native speaker is in a position to correct the mistake made, whereas a
non-native speaker may not be in the same position” (Sobahle, 1986).
Significance of errors
Errors provide information about a learner’s progress. Teachers should be able to

gauge how far the learner has progressed through the course of a year and what the
learner still has left to learn. Also it can provide evidence for the teacher to share with
the student common errors which occur in their work. This allows for the teacher and
the student to see the learner’s progress together and discuss ways to improve.
Teachers should have a clear understanding of their students’ needs in order to

personalize and adapt their learning. Through a diagnoses of the learner’s problems
the teacher can then implement different strategies to treat them. These strategies
may require that a teacher adapts content, methods, materials or other aspects of
the curriculum for the student to reach the end goal.
The most significant part of error analysis is the correction of them. For students to
be fruitful in correcting their errors teachers must provide corrective feedback.
Corrective feedback, “has been shown to result in better retention of the correct
answers than does simply studying the correct answers from the outset” (Huelser &
Metcalf, 2012). More often than not students are unaware of their errors, which
means without corrective feedback there is no possible way to resolve an error.
Types of errors
The following are general types of error analysis. Error analysis can be divided into
two different types of errors, those that are competence errors, which reflect
inadequate learning and those that are performance errors, those which are made
hurriedly or tired (Touchie, 1986). Within this unit and the following students will

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Unit 6. Key Ideas
look specifically at each skill and its errors, causes and possible treatment for the
errors.
To classify errors in general it is important to consider the three step process. Firstly,
Corder (1981 as cited in Wu & Garza, 2014) teachers must differentiate the types of
errors of the different structures of language:
 Graphical or Phonological: Sound errors made when speaking and can transfer into
the other skills as a result.
 Lexical: Inappropriate use of vocabulary words and understanding of their
meanings and/or direct translations from the L1 to L2 which are incorrect.
 Syntactical: Errors in word order or sentence structure.
Following the classification of the error it is important to identify the error according
to the following levels (Pit Carder as cited in Wu & Garza, 2014).
Again according to Pit Carder, the second step is to classify errors at the following
levels:
 Arrangement: Refers to the word order.

 Selection: Refers to the word choice.
 Omission: Refers to any words left out of the sentence construction.
 Over-inclusion: Refers to the excess of words in the sentence construction.
The last step is to consider what makes the student commit this type of error
continually. Selinker (1972), outlines in his publication entitled Interlanguage, there
are five different processes which contribute to errors in L2 learning. These processes
have been reviewed in the unit prior. Just in case the following table is provided to
follow with the example later provided in the table in how to classify error analysis,
going through the 1st to the 3rd level.

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Unit 6. Key Ideas
 Language transfer: The influence from similarities and differences between the
target language and the speaker’s L1.
 Transfer of training: Transfer training is the abilities students acquire while

learning a language from instruction then the application of these learned
structures into the real world.
 Strategies of Second-Language learning: Strategies include all mental processes

such as (Oxford, 1990 as cited in Oxford, 2003); cognitive, metacognitive, memory,
compensation, social and affective strategies.
 Strategies of second-language communication: The strategies resorted to, to

communicate meaning, which may include using synonyms, paraphrasing, literal
translating, generalizing, approximating, roundabout speaking (circumlocution),
to pointing, and miming.
 Overgeneralizations of target language linguistic material: When learners apply

grammatical or morphological rules of the L2 in cases where it is not needed.
Error Analysis Classification Chart
Example: I have come to enter this assignment.
Phonological/
Level 1 Lexical Syntactical
Graphical
No, it has no Possibly, it may Possibly, it may
sound/phonetic have have words in
errors. words/meaning the wrong
s that are order.
improperly
used.
Level 2 Arrangement Selection Omission Over-Inclusion
There is nothing The word choice There are no There is no

wrong with the is improperly words left out. unnecessary
word inclusion.

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Unit 6. Key Ideas
arrangement of used in the
the sentence. sentence.
Level 3
Language Transfer of Strategies of L2 Strategies of L2 Overgeneralizat

Transfer Training Learning Communication ion
The
sentence
The meaning is
has misuse The
literally
of The word choice grammatical
communicated
vocabular, The word choice is not a and
it is not a
which is is not a learned reflection of morphological
generalization,
because of phrase. strategy rules are
approximation
transferrin learned. correctly
circumlocution
g an L1 applied.
or paraphrase.
vocabulary
.
Table 1. Error Analysis Classification Chart. (Sobahle, 1986).
In order for students to understand their errors teachers must provide corrective
feedback for students to improve their errors. It is not only feedback which can help
students improve but it includes preparation of materials for the students such as
textbooks and differentiation worksheets. Teachers also can make suggestions about
the strategies of second language learning which both L1 and L2 use, to help the
students rectify their errors (Khansir, Error Analysis and Second Langauge Acquisition,
2012).
Corrective Feedback
Corrective feedback (CF), which is when someone describes a specific behavior and
offers or elicits an alternative action is different from positive feedback (Act for
Youth). Positive feedback describes a specific behavior which emphasizes a strength
or demonstrated competency (Act for Youth). CF allows students to understand their
errors in L2 learning (Ellis, Loewen, & Erlam, 2006; Zuo, 2017). The types of corrective

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Unit 6. Key Ideas
feedback provide various ways for teachers to make clear the error that is occurring.
There are two types of corrective feedback, prompts and reformulations (Zuo, 2017).
CF may be implicit or explicit depending on the way it is done. The following table
provides an outline of CF (Zuo, 2017):
 Explicit: To state something clearly.

 Implicit: Suggested but not directly stated.
 Prompts: Encouraging someone to say something.
 Reformulation: To change or say something in a different way.
Figure 1. Types of Corrective Feedback. (Zuo, 2017).

Corrective Feedback Definitions and Examples

Example
Type of CF Definition
(S: Student / T: Teacher)
Clarification The teacher uses phrases S: But Mary didn’t go and the Mary
Requests like “excuse me” or “I don’t came.

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Unit 6. Key Ideas
understand” to show that T: Mary came not, the Mary.
the message has not been
understood
(Abdollahzadeh, 2016).
The teacher starts a
statement or a sentence so T: School starts at…
Elicitation
the student answers in the S: 9 AM.
correct form or vocabulary.
The teacher asks a S: “Remember the Titans” is a movie
question or extends the about racism.
Metalinguistic
information shared by the T: Yes, it’s called the Civil Rights
Clues
learner (Abdollahzadeh, Movement. This happened in the United
2016). States.
Metalinguistic Clue & Elicitation
S: “Remember the Titans” is a movie
about racism.
The teacher asks a T: Yes, it’s called the Civil Rights
question or extends the Movement. This happened in the United
information shared by the States. So “Remember the Titans” is
Metalinguistic learner (Abdollahzadeh, during the…
Clue & Repetition 2016). Then the teacher S: Civil Rights Movement
/ Elicitation starts a statement or Metalinguistic Clue & Repetition
question for the student to S: “Remember the Titans” is a movie
continue or the teacher about racism.
restates the information. T: Yes, it’s called the Civil Rights
Movement. This happened in the United
States. “Remember the Titans” is a
movie about the Civil Rights Movement.
The teacher reformulates
all or part of what the S: In Espain, people have longer lunches.
student has said but the (Phonological error)
Recasts
meaning of the sentence is T: Ok, Spain.
still intact (Karimi &

Esfandiari, 2016).
S: But Mary didn’t go and the Mary
The teacher states the
Explicit came.
correct form and tells the
Correction T: Mary came not, the Mary
student what they have

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Unit 6. Key Ideas
said/done wrong (Karimi &
Esfandiari, 2016).
Table 2. Corrective Feedback Definitions & Examples.
Providing correction to students is important, whether it is immediate or delayed.

Although learners always prefer immediate feedback which “may have a positive
effect on learners’ motivation and might be more desirable” (Nakata, 2015). It
depends on the moment and the activity/task being worked on in class. It is important
for teachers to consider these points when providing corrective feedback (Akay &
Akbarov, 2011):
 Be aware of the goals of the lesson, and the students’ levels.

 Encourage self-correction.
 Be aware of timing, and how to correct students.
 Do not waste time correcting every mistake.
6.3. Causes of Error Analysis in Reading
Reading comprehension may be a skill some teachers are unsure of how to assess.
Firstly, it is important to acknowledge the competence is:
“The ability to carry out (within the limits of literacy training) the task of
integrating derived text information and preexisting reader knowledge such
that the reader is ultimately able to extract from the text the thought which
the writer is trying to express” (Obiegbu, 2018).
As a result of reading being contingent of learners understanding text and being able
to extract information, thus these features are important to consider as causes for
error analysis in reading (Obiegbu, 2018).

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Unit 6. Key Ideas
 Exposure to inadequate or inappropriate data of the target language.
 Tendency to depend on written texts for appropriate and adequate data of the
target language.
 Inability, on the part of many, to become fully functional readers in target
language texts.
Error analysis in reading is a lack of exposure to the L2 through text. Leaners who do
struggle with reading can attribute this to a lack of literacy integration in their
learning. For students to improve on their reading it is important that they read and
are read to. Also, teachers should consider the problems students have with reading,
such the different types of errors which can be attributed to their reading weakness.
6.4. Types of Error Analysis in Reading
Within reading there are various skills which leaners can have errors in. Although
there is no consensus, the key is to identify which the students are being tested in.
Nine components to reading outlined by Lumley (1993 as cited in Kim, 2009):
 Vocabulary.
 Identifying explicit information.
 Identify implicit information.
 Explaining a fact.
 Selecting the main idea.
 Examining a casual or sequential relationship.
 Drawing a conclusion.
 Transcoding information to a diagram.

 Understanding grammatical and semantic reference.
Kim (2009) contends that although these skills are important for reading errors it also
important to highlight whether the errors that occur require students to distinguish

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Unit 6. Key Ideas
between literal and implied meaning within a text. Literal meaning refers to
understanding an explicitly stated concept from within the text while implied
meaning refers to understanding an implicitly stated concept from the text. The
following table provides an overview of errors in reading which relate to literal and
implied meaning.
Components of L2 Reading
Implied Meaning
Literal Meaning Implied Meaning
(From within the text and outside)
Inferring vocabulary Deriving contextual meaning is the
Reference something figuring out what a word setting, place, time and theme of
directly in the text. means within the context the event
E.g. What does “x” refer to? E.g. What does “x” mean in E.g. Where is this event taking
this text? place?
Deriving sociolinguistic meaning
Detail asking for Inferring detail, making
from the context, inferring social
information stated in the educated guesses based on
identity of characters within the
text the texts
text
E.g. what is true according E.g. What does this
E.g. What is the relationship
to the passage? sentence imply?
between the two people?
Inserting a sentence into
Deriving sociocultural meaning
Sentence simplification the passage being able to
from the context is the inference
asking for concepts use the information before
one makes as a result of their
E.g. What is the essential and after to include the
knowledge of cultural norms
information of the following missing sentence.
E.g. What can be inferred about
sentence? E.g. Where would the
American culture?
following sentence best fit?
Main idea asking what the The teacher states the Deriving psychological meaning
general idea of the text is correct form and tells the from the context means
about student what they have understanding the emotions or
E.g. What is the main idea of said/done wrong (Karimi & attitudes expressed
the second paragraph? Esfandiari, 2016). E.g. What is the author’s attitude?
Deriving rhetorical meaning from
the organizational structure of the
text.

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Unit 6. Key Ideas
E.g. Why does the author mention
“x”?
Table 3. Components of L2 Reading. (Kim, 2009).
6.5. Treatment of Error Analysis in Reading
In terms of reading errors what is most important is that the students are exposed to
more reading but there are times when students need help accessing the information
in the text. Through reading and scaffolding students will be able to overcome errors
in reading analysis, it takes practice to achieve reading comprehension in a second
language. Student exposure to the L2 will enable them to learn new words,
grammatical structures as well as the plot/main idea of a text. Reading can be done
in different contexts. Students can read:
 Individually and silently.

 Individually and out loud.
 In pairs, taking turns reading out loud.
 In pairs, reading to a partner.
 In small groups, each reading part of the text.
 In a large group reading out loud to one another.
 In a large group with one person reading to the group.
The first step is the idea is that students read – become more familiar with the L2.
Setting time to read is important, also it will enhance student’s vocabulary and
grammatical structure.
Teachers should also consider scaffolding texts for their students. Scaffolding means
to break up the task/reading into chunks. There are two types of scaffolding a teacher
can implement in reading. One is front-end scaffolding which is the actions a teacher
takes to prepare the students to read the text. The other is back-end scaffolding this

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Unit 6. Key Ideas
is what the teacher plans to do after the students have read the text. The following
table provides different techniques for the teacher to scaffold texts for students to
provide support to improve errors (Expeditionary Learning, 2012).
Examples of Front-End Scaffolding
 Using learning targets to help students understand the purpose for the reading
 Providing visual cues to help students understand targets.
 Identifying, bolding, and writing in the margins to define words that cannot be
understood through the context of the text.

 Chunking long readings into short passages, (literally distributing sections on index cards,
for example), so that students see only the section they need to tackle.
 Reading the passage aloud before students read independently.
 Providing an audio or video recording of a teacher read-aloud that students can access
when needed (such as SchoolTube, podcasts, ezPDF, or GoodReader).

 Supplying a reading calendar at the beginning of longer-term reading assignments, so
that teachers in support roles (special needs, ELL, AIS) and families can plan for pacing
 Pre-highlighting text for some learners so that when they reread independently, they can
focus on the essential information.

 Eliminating the need for students to copy information—and if something is needed (such
as a definition of vocabulary), providing it on the handout or other student materials.
Table 4. Examples of Front-End Scaffolding. (Expeditionary Learning, 2012).
Examples of Back-End Scaffolding
 Providing “hint cards” that help students get “unstuck” so they can get the gist—these
might be placed on the chalkboard tray, for example, and students would take them only
if they are super-stuck.
 Encouraging/enabling students to annotate the text, or—if they can’t write directly on
the text—providing sticky notes or placing texts inside plastic sleeves (GoodReader is an
app that allows students to markup text on an Ipad. Adobe Reader works on a wide
variety of electronic platforms).
 Supplying sentence starters so all students can participate in focused discussion.
 Placing students in heterogeneous groups to discuss the text and answer text-dependent
questions.
 Providing task cards and anchor charts so that expectations are consistently available
 Highlighting key words in task directions.

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Unit 6. Key Ideas
 Simplifying task directions and/or create checklists from them so that students can self-
monitor their progress.

 Placing students in homogeneous groups and providing more specific, direct support to
the students who need it most.

 If special education teachers, teachers of ELLs, teaching assistants, etc. are pushed in to
the ELA block, teaching in “stations” so that students work in smaller groups.
 Designing question sets that build in complexity and offer students multiple opportunities
to explore the answers:

 Students discuss the answer with peers, then write answers independently and defend
answers to the whole class.

 Provide time for students to draft write responses before asking for oral response.
 Identifying and defining vocabulary that students struggled with
 Using CoBuild (plain language) dictionaries.
 Providing partially completed or more structured graphic organizers to the students who
need them.
 Providing sentence or paragraph frames so students can write about what they read
 AFTER students have given it a shot:
• Examine a model and have students compare their work to the model and then
revise.
• Provide a teacher think-aloud about how he/she came to conclusions and have
students revise based on this additional analysis.
• Review text together as a class (smartboard or document camera) and highlight the
evidence.
Table 5. Examples of Back-End Scaffolding. (Expeditionary Learning, 2012).
6.6. Causes of Error Analysis in Writing
This section will focus on written performance, it must be understood that written
and oral performance share the same two causes of errors. Throughout this
explanation consider the causes of errors in written language production. The two
errors are intralingual/developmental error and interlingual/transfer errors (Wu &
Garza, 2014).

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Unit 6. Key Ideas
Intralingual/developmental error are production which do not reflect structures
similar to the students L1 but are overgeneralizations the learner applies due to
studying L2 (Richards, 1974 as cited in Wu & Garza, 2014). For example, applying –ed
to all verbs, when talking in the past, and not considering whether it is irregular or
regular verb.
Interlingual/transfer errors are the negative intervention from the learner’s first
language habits or structures (Selinker, 1972). This occurs when language learners
think in their L1 and use direct translation to write or speak in the L2. The process of
strategies of second language learning may also be a hindrance, due to the fact that
learners may know what words mean but are unfamiliar of how to use the words in
context. Examples of different interlingual/transfer errors which may occur in English
L2 learners include (Wu & Garza, 2014):
 The learner might know that there are words like "hand in", "submit" and "bring
in" but might not be sure of their usage. Thus avoids the use of the unfamiliar
words.
• Words like "make" and "do" also fall into this category.
 Errors like the following are common: These are syntactic errors and are on the
level of selection.
• *The teachers writes ... The learner transferred rules from the L1 to the L2 and
did not account for teachers being plural.
• *She go to town. In English the subject agrees with the predicate in terms of
number and person: Hey buys food. They buy food.
• *We sings. The learner transferred rules from the L1 to the L2 and did not
account for teachers being plural.

 An "obsession" with male characters, it becomes easy for learners to write "he"
where they should have written "she".

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Unit 6. Key Ideas
6.7. Types of Error Analysis in Writing
Within the context of writing providing constructive feedback means not only
highlighting what is wrong but also identifying it in a way that a learner can see the
errors that occur. Willelmira Castillejos López (2009) outlines the types of errors that
Spanish speakers typically make in English. These errors highlight the errors that
individuals of the same L1 make when learning English as an L2. The results of these
errors is based on over 62,000 individuals who were surveyed in English with Spanish
being their mother tongue.
The table below makes reference to not only the types of errors but also the
frequency at which it occurs. Also the errors are categorized as a result of
interlingual/transfer errors or intralingual/developmental errors.
Types of Written Errors and Classifications
Interlingual Intralingual
Type Explanation of error
/Transfer /Developmental
How the words are spelled,
sometimes Spanish
Spelling 35% 22%
speakers spell English words
phonetically.
Confusing what articles to
place before a noun or
Articles 65% 11%
when not to place an article
in front of a noun.
Knowing what types of
Wrong verb verbs can go after another,
50% 16%
Complementation some go with infinitive
other with –ing.

The wrong choice in
Lexical vocabulary or to 50% 23%
demonstrate meaning.

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Unit 6. Key Ideas
When a word is missing
from a sentence. Generally
Word missing 26% 1.5%
these are articles, pronouns
or/and connectors.
It is the manner of speaking
or writing specific to a
certain domain of
communication. How much
Register a writer chooses to distance 0% 69%
themselves? Writing can be
formal, informal, familiar or
ceremonial (Buscail & Saint-
Disier, 2009).
When the writing or
phrases used does not
Style 63% 7%
reflect the intention of the
document.
Table 6. Types of Written Errors and Classification. (Castillejos López, 2009).
Overall, the errors made by Spanish speaker highlight the errors that are made as a
result of interlingual/transfer and intralingual/developmental. The table
demonstrates that spelling errors are often made as a mixture of both types of errors.
Whereas errors due to articles, verb complementation, lexical use, missing words and
style are from language transfer from L1 to L2. Spanish speakers tend to apply
rules/vocabulary which in Spanish are different than those in English. The register
errors tend to be as a result of developmental/intralingual errors, meaning students
have not learner the appropriate register in which to respond to questions.
Lexical errors can be categorized into various different aspects. The following table
provides a complete picture of lexical errors which tend to be the errors focused on
in primary school (Ander & Yildirim, 2010). It is important to differentiate between

young learners and older learners, teachers need to focus on different aspects of
error analysis in the different age ranges.

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Unit 6. Key Ideas
Classification of Lexical Errors
Type Explanation of error Example
The wrong lexical item is used

instead of the correct one. As a Some students are embarrassed.
Word Choice result of using the wrong word, the They cannot talk to other students
whole sentence does not make easily. (Shy)
sense.
Items that are directly translated
Literal The students in this class have 10
into the L2 by using the literal L1
translation years old. (Are)
meaning.
When something is missing from
Omission or the structure. Generally this occurs Do you like pizza? Yes, I like. (Should
incompletion when it’s an irrelevant feature in include it)
the students’ L1.
This is when words are written I go to the beach whit my family.
Misspelling
incorrectly. (with)
The lexical item used is
Listening is more difficult for Spanish
Redundancy unnecessary, repeated or
students. (Unnecessary)
paraphrased.
The placement of words with The black tall bear. (Adjective order,
another. tall black bear)
Collocation
I do not like when people smoking.
(Smoke)
Word Using the wrong form of a word in Students have different thinks, ideas
formation writing. and ideals. (Thoughts)
Table 7. Classification of Lexical Errors. (Ander & Yildirim, 2010).
Other errors in writing occur which should also be considered are (Khansir & Ilkhani,
A Study of Written Grammatical Errors of Itranian EFL Learners at Undergraduate
Level, 2016). There was an inclusion of articles as well here but to avoid redundancy
it was not included in the table.

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Unit 6. Key Ideas
More Types of Written Errors
Type Explanation of error Example
Frequent run on sentences, The cat went to the store and then went to
Sentence with multiple ideas in a the bank later was home sleeping before her
structure sentence, or it has an master arrived home. Run on sentence with
unclear meaning. multiple ideas.
Not capitalizing proper On tuesday, there was a big group of People
names or places. in front of the Supermarket. Tuesday should
Capitalization
Capitalizing words which do be capitalized whereas supermarket should
not require capitalization. not.
Not including commas, He didnt go to the cinema last night instead
periods, apostrophes, or he went to the library. Didn´t requires an
Punctuation
including an excess. apostrophe and there should be a comma
after last night.
Table 8. More types of written errors. (Khansir & Ilkhani, A Study of Written Grammatical
Errors of Itranian EFL Learners at Undergraduate Level, 2016).
These errors may be a result of either interlingual/transfer or

intralingual/developmental. Due to the fact that capitalization and punctuation rules
vary in different languages generally it is something which must be learned. Although
students may transfer rules from their L1 to the L2, as a result break the rules or apply
them inappropriately in the L2. Sentence structure, in regards to including multiple
and confusing meanings is a result of an intralingual/developmental error. Students
have not learned yet how to construct sentences appropriately in the L1 or L2. This
error may also occur in the L1. There errors are an “integral part of learning
second/foreign language” in order for the learner to develop their communicative
competence, and as long as it does not greatly affect communication. (Khansir, Error
Analysis and Second Language Writing, 2013).

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Unit 6. Key Ideas
6.8. Treatment of Error Analysis in Writing
In order for students to learn from their errors it is important that teachers provide
corrective feedback. This may be time-consuming particularly in writing due to the
fact that writings are longer and require teachers to wait until students have handed
in work to provide feedback (Zhang, 2017). Once teachers have seen the errors which
students tend to fall prey to it is important to provide feedback but also enable
students with the ability to rectify the error through practice. One manner of doing
so is through error-correction drills (Sobahle, 1986):
 First, the teacher should present the learners with various sentences some of
which should be correct and other in correct. The sentences should target the
errors the learners commonly make, it should be specific so the learner begins to
treat the error. The more generic the task the harder it is for the leaner to identify
and rectify the errors being committed. (The following is an example of practice
prepositions in, at, or on)
Directions: Find and correct the mistakes by writing the correct sentence.
• I would like to travel on July because it is the perfect time to go to the camp.
• In the weekends, he only stays at home on Sunday on the afternoon, because
in the mornings he goes to see football games.
• At weekends, everything opens in 11.00 am.
• I would advise you to come in the summer because the weather is great and
there are many islands with great beaches.
• She graduated from Cambridge University at 2008.
• So I prefer shopping on weekdays unless I am busy or have an appointment.

• The traffic makes us nervous, particularly in certain times of the day when the
roads are busy.
• We used to go to the beach at the morning in a normal day, and clubbing every
night.

23
Unit 6. Key Ideas
 Then, learners should be provided time to look over the sentences to identify
which ones are correct and which ones are incorrect.
 The next step is called Exemplification. The sentences that are incorrect should be
corrected by the learner. Then as a whole class or in small groups.
 When the incorrect sentences are corrected it is important that the teacher
provides other examples or elicits examples from the class.
 The following step is Drill. Students should be asked to work with the language in
more ways to practice the error treatment. It is important that the drills are not
meaningless because then the error treatment will not stick with the learner.
 Finally, the last step is called Mechanical Practice. Students are given practice
which involves some decision-making and not just the mechanical repetition of
correct models. Guidance should be provided by the teacher to enable most of the
students to get most of the answers right.
Give the students a text to complete in groups. Ask them to write a response back.
Dear Jorge,
I’m glad you’re visiting me ______ the summer but it is better if you come
______August rather than September because I start college again
______ 12th September. I’m so looking forward to the holidays, I have to
get up early ______weekdays in term time because the bus to college
leaves ______7.30. But I get up late ______Saturdays and ______the
afternoon I meet my friends. I always play football ______Sunday
mornings so I get up quite early then too. ______the holidays I spend a
lot of time on the beach. Sometimes we don’t come home till quite late
______night as it’s really hot here and it’s better to be outside. Can’t wait
to see you again.

X, Pablo
In regards to working with lower levels or younger leaners where acquiring L2

vocabulary is instrumental. Leaners who practice writing words along with some sort

24
Unit 6. Key Ideas
of image more often were able to recall the vocabulary words than not. Again the
same method from above can be utilized in class although adjusted for the leaners
age and needs. Though it is instrumental that students receive corrective feedback at
this age, it has been demonstrated when receiving feedback students are better at
learning L2 vocabulary words (Nowbakht, 2015).
6.9. References
Abdollahzadeh, S. (2016). The Effect of Metalinguistic Corrective Feedback on EFL

Learners' Grammatical Accuracy. Journal of Language Teaching and Reseach, 185-
191.
Act for Youth. (n.d.). Positive and Corrective Feedback. Retrieved from Positive Youth
Development 101: http://www.actforyouth.net/resources/pyd/pyd_4-2_positive-
and-corrective.pdf
Akay, C., & Akbarov, A. (2011). Corrective feedback on the oral production and its
influence in the intercultural classes. 1st International Conference on Foreign
Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics, (pp. 270-274). Sarajevo.
Amiri, F., & Puteh, M. (2017). Error Analysis in Academic Writing: A Case of
International Postgraduate Students in Malaysia. Advances in Language and Literary
Studies, 141-145.
Ander, S., & Yildirim, Ö. (2010). Lexical errors in elementary level EFL leaners'
composition. Procedia Social and Behavioral Sciences, 5299-5303.
Buscail, L., & Saint-Disier, P. (2009). Textual and stylistic error detection and
correction: Categorization, Annotation and Correction Strategies. International
Symposium on Natural Language Processing , (pp. 205-210).

25
Unit 6. Key Ideas
Castillejos, W. (2009). Error analysis in a learner corpus. What are the learner
strategies? Retrieved from Universidad de Murcia:
https://www.um.es/lacell/aelinco/contenido/pdf/45.pdf
Ellis, R., Loewen, S., & Erlam, R. (2006). Implicit and Explicit Corrective Feedback and
the Acquisition of L2 Grammar. SSLA, 339-368.
Expeditionary Learning. (2012). Meeting Students' Needs through Scaffolding.

Retrieved from New York State Education Department:
https://www.engageny.org/sites/default/files/resource/attachments/scaffolding_st
udent_needs.pdf
Feng, H.-H., Saricaoglu, A., & Chukharev-Hudilainen, E. (2016). Automated Error

Detection for Developing Grammar Proficiency of ESL Learners. Calico Journal, 49-70.
Huelser, B. J., & Metcalf, J. (2012). Making related errors facilitates learning, but
learners do not know it. Mem Cogn, 514-527.
Karimi, L., & Esfandiari, N. (2016). The Effect of Recast vs. Explicit Corrective Feedback
on Iranian EFL Learners' Stress Patterns Learning. Theory and Practice in Language
Studies, 1166-1174.
Khansir, A. A. (2012, May). Error Analysis and Second Langauge Acquisition. Theory
and Practice in Language Studies, 2(5), 1027-1032.
Khansir, A. A. (2013). Error Analysis and Second Language Writing. Theory and
Practice in Language Studies, 363-370.
Khansir, A. A., & Ilkhani, M. (2016). A Study of Written Grammatical Errors of Itranian
EFL Learners at Undergraduate Level. Theory and Practice in Language Studies, 268-
273.

26
Unit 6. Key Ideas
Kim, A.-Y. (2009). Investigating Second Language Reading Components: Reading for
Different Types of Meaning. Teachers College, Columbia University Working Papers
in TESOL & Applied Linguistics, 1-28.
Nakata, T. (2015). Effects of feedback timing on second langauge vocabulary learning:

Does delyaing feedback increase learning? Language Teaching Research, 416-434.
Nowbakht, M. (2015). The Comparative Effects of Comprehensible Input, Output and

Corrective Feedback on the Receptive Acquistion of L2 Vocabulary Items. Adcances
in Langauge and Literary Studies, 103-114.
Obiegbu, I. R. (2018). Reading Errors in Second Language Learners. SAGE Open

Research Paper, 1-10.
Selinker, L. (1972). Interlangauge. IRAL: INternationa Review of Applied Linguistics in

Language Teaching, 209-231.
Sobahle, P. (1986). Error analysis and its significance for second langauge teaching
and learning. Per Linguam, 25-30.
Touchie, H. Y. (1986). Second language learning errors their types, causes and
treatment. JALT Journal, 75-80.
Wu, H.-p., & Garza, E. V. (2014, November). Types and Attributes of English Writing
Errors in the EFL Context - A Study of Error Analysis. Journal of Language Teaching
and Research, 5(6), 1256-1262. doi:10.4304/jltr.5.6.1256-1262
Zhang, X. (2017). Reading-writing integrated tasks, comprehensive corrective

feedback, and EFL writing development. Language Teaching Research, 217-240.
Zuo, W. (2017, August). Teachers' Role in Dealing with Errors in Students' Second
Language Learning. Theory and Practice in Language Studies, 7(8), 644-650.

27
Unit 6. Key Ideas
In Depth
Feedback is explicit, positive and corrective
Masterminds. (2001). Feedback is explicit, positive and corrective. Retrieved from

Calhoun Country School District: http://www.calhoun.k12.al.us/makes%20se
nse/Adobe%20Reader/DO%20NOT%20OPEN%20program%20files/Skill%20instructi
on/HOW%20to%20teach%20skills/During%20Tactics/SKILL%20Feedback.pdf
This document provides various ways and techniques for how to use explicit, positive
and corrective feedback with students.
12 ways to scaffold texts for students
Wrobleski, S. (2019). 12 ways to scaffold texts for students. Retrieved from Teaching
Hub https://www.teachhub.com/reading-lessons-scaffold-texts
This teach blog goes through 12 ways to scaffold texts and how to motivate students
to read.

28
Unit 6. In Depth
Test
1. Error analysis is significant for… (Select all that apply)
A. State testing.
B. Students.
C. Teachers.
D. Researchers.
2. Errors and mistakes are just synonyms for the other.

A. True.
B. False.
3. Performance errors are made when the learner is hurried or tired.

A. True.
B. False.
4. Corrective feedback is different from negative and positive feedback because it…
A. Corrects the error.
B. It is self-correcting.
C. Emphasizes a strength or demonstrated competency.
D. Describes a behavior and offers/elicits an alternative action.
5. Reading errors are a result of lack of schooling or instruction.

A. True.
B. False.
6. Types of errors in reading may include... (select all that apply)

A. Vocabulary.
B. Selecting the main idea.
C. Understanding grammatical structures.
D. Identifying explicit information.

29
Unit 6. Test
7. Types of errors in reading include literal and implied meaning.
A. True.
B. False.
8. There are two types of errors in writing, one is interlingual/transfer errors which
refers to the interference from the learner’s first language habits. The other is
intralingual/developmental errors which are errors produced which do NOT
reflect structures in the learner’s L1 rather are overgeneralizations which are
applied to the language that have been learned.
A. True.
B. False.
9. Errors in writing that do not include grammatical rules or vocabulary such as run
on sentences or capitalization or punctuation are not part of error analysis in
writing.
A. True.
B. False.
10. Young learners do not have a problem with errors in writing.

A. True.
B. False.

30
Unit 6. Test

Error Analysis: Reading & Writing: Unit 6

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Unit 6

Second Language Acquisition and Learning