ELECTRICAL MACHINE 1 Lesson 2: Problems with Commutation in Real Machines

2
Lesson 2

PROBLEMS WITH COMMUTATION IN REAL MACHINES

What is this Lesson about?

In this lesson we will discuss the differences between the operation of real DC machine and
theoretical DC machine, what causes these differences and how to address them.

What Will You Learn? What Do You Already Know?

At the end of the lesson, you should be (PRE-TEST)
able to do the following:
✓ discuss what is armature reaction, and
its effects;
✓ discuss what is inductive kick, and its
effects; and
✓ differentiate different solution to these
effects.

To achieve the said outcomes, this

lesson is divided into the following sub-topics:
● Introduction
● Armature Reaction
● L di/dt voltages
● Solution to problems in Real DC
machines
o Brush shifting
o Commutating poles or interpoles
o Compensating windings

What You Should Already Know?

Before taking this lesson, you are expected
to be knowledgeable in the following topics:
✓ Faraday’s Law
✓ Fundamentals of Electromagnetism
✓ Magnetic Fields and circuits
✓ Commutation and Armature Construction

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ELECTRICAL MACHINE 1
Let us READ!
INTRODUCTION
The commutation process as described
in theory (watch the discussion here) is not as
simple in real life. The difference primarily exists
because of the magnetism and electromagnetic
induction.
The effects can be categorized into two:
1. Armature reaction
2. L dildt voltages
We will consider each effect, their
characteristics and effects in the operation DC
machines.
ARMATURE REACTION
If the field poles of a dc machine are
energized, that is magnetic field windings are
connected to a power supply (in case of
electromagnets) and the rotor of the machine is
driven by an external source of mechanical
torque, then a (AC) voltage will be induced in
the conductors of the rotor. This voltage will be
rectified into a DC output by the machine's
commutator.
Note that there is no current is flowing
in the armature since at no-load; the machine is
considered open-circuited. Once the load is
connected to the terminals of the machine, a
current will flow in its armature windings. This
current flow will produce a magnetic field
(because of electromagnetic induction) of its
own, which will affect the original magnetic
field. This distortion of the flux in a machine as
the load is increased is called armature reaction.
It causes two serious problems in real dc
machines.
Lesson 2: Problems with Commutation in Real Machines
To better understand this concept,
consider the terms (Magnetic Neutral Axis)
MNA and (Geometrical Neutral Axis) GNA. We
know that in a ‘running” DC machine, there are
two fluxes (magnetic field) that is present: the
'armature flux' and 'main field flux'. The main
field flux is produced by the main poles, and the
armature flux is the flux that causes armature
reaction as described in preceding paragraph.
In a DC Generator, voltage (emf) is
induced by the conductors cutting the magnetic
flux. There is an axis (or a plane) along which
armature conductors move parallel to the flux
lines and, hence, they do not cut the flux lines
while on that plane
MNA may be defined as the axis along
which no emf is generated in the armature
conductors as they move parallel to the flux
lines. Brushes are always placed along the MNA
because reversal of current in the armature
conductors takes place along this axis.
GNA (Geometrical Neutral Axis) may be
defined as the axis which is perpendicular to the
stator field axis.
Figure 2-1: MNA & GNA
GNA & MNA [Diagram]. (n.d.). Retrieved from
https://www.electricaledition.com/2016/01/armature-reaction-in-
dc-machines.html
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ELECTRICAL MACHINE 1 Lesson 2: Problems with Commutation in Real Machines

Neutral-Plane Shift
One of the effects of the armature
reaction is called the “neutral-plane shift”, or
simply the misalignment of MNA from GNA.
Ideally, the brush should be in MNA, which is
physically also the GNA. But when neutral-plane
shift occurs, the brushes are no longer in MNA,
this causes serious problem, such as sparking
that can damage both the brush and the Figure 2-2: Armature Flux
Armature Flux [Diagram]. (n.d.). Retrieved from
commutator segment. In extreme cases, https://www.electricaledition.com/2016/01/armature-reaction-in-
dc-machines.html
flashover may also occur that can melt the
commutator itself. Flashover occurs when the
voltage of adjacent commutator segments gets
large enough to sustain an arc in the ionized air
above them.

Flux Weakening
The second major effect of armature
reaction is the flux weakening, this is because
the armature flux is opposite in direction to the
main flux. This weakening of flux is dangerous
both for generators and motors. In generators,
the output voltage of the generator decreases.
For motors, this factor causes serious problems. Figure 2-3: Neutral Plane Shift
With the decrement of a flux, rotation speed of Neutral Plane Shift [Diagram]. (n.d.). Retrieved from
https://www.electricaledition.com/2016/01/armature-reaction-in-
motor also decreases. Speed increment also dc-machines.html

enhances the load connected with the motor

that causes a lessening of flux. It is likely in some
shunt dc motors to approach a running state
because of flux weakening, where the speed of
the motor increasing till the machine is
detached with input supply or until it damages
itself.

Let us WATCH!

Click the video icon to watch the video: Figure 2-4: Flux Weakening Diagram
Armature reaction | Animation |DC Machines Flux Weakening Diagram [Diagram]. (n.d.). Retrieved from
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RmVd5xbspE4 https://hackaday.io/project/164932-axiom-100kw-motor-
controller/log/162931-field-weakening-support

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ELECTRICAL MACHINE 1 Lesson 2: Problems with Commutation in Real Machines

L di/dt VOLTAGES
The second major problem is the L di/dt
voltage that occurs in commutator segments
being shorted out by the brushes, also called
inductive kick. This figure represents a series of
commutator segments and the conductors
connected between them. Assuming that the
current in the brush is 400 A, the current in each
path is 200 A. Notice that when a commutator
segment is shorted out, the current flow
through that commutator segment must
reverse. How fast must this reversal occur?
Assuming that the machine is turning at 800
r/min and that there are 50 commutator
segments (a reasonable number for a typical
motor), each commutator segment moves
under a brush and clears it again in t = 0.00 15
s. Therefore, the rate of change in current with
respect to time in the shorted loop must
average:

di/dt = (400 A / 0.0015 s)

= 266,667 A/s.

With even a tiny inductance in the loop,

a very significant inductive voltage kick v = L
di/dt will be induced in the shorted commutator
segment. This high voltage naturally causes
sparking at the brushes of the machine,
resulting in the same arcing problems that the
neutral-plane shift causes. Figure 2-5: (a) the reversal of current flow in a coil undergoing
commutation. Note that the current in the coil between segments a
and b must reverse direction while the brush shorts together the two
Let us WATCH! commutator segments. (b) The current reversal in the coil undergoing
commutation as a function of time for both ideal commutation and real
commutation with the coil inductance considered.
Click the video icon to watch the video: Source: Chapman, S. J. (2012). Electric machinery fundamentals. McGraw-Hill
Commutation and the Ldi/dt problem Medical Publishing
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=p1ZRqJS9y-c

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ELECTRICAL MACHINE 1 Lesson 2: Problems with Commutation in Real Machines

Solutions to the Problems with Commutation its normal load and the mode of operation. Due
Three approaches have been to these limitations, this method is generally not
developed to (partially or completely) correct preferred.
the problems of armature reaction and L di/dt
voltages; the following are:
1. Brush shifting
2. Commutating poles or interpoles
3. Compensating windings
Each of these techniques is explained
below, together with its advantages and
disadvantages.

BRUSH SHIFTING
A natural solution to the problem
appears to shift the brushes along the direction Figure 2-6: Sample DC Generator Construction
DC Generator [Diagram]. (September 13, 2017). Retrieved from
of rotation in generator action and against the https://2.bp.blogspot.com/wJSRlrhlhZo/WblbI7htQeI/AAAAAAAAA
rI/n8XYHuYf19cUGMSjG5UOFVmuHP9FMxtQCEwYBhgL/s640/CON
direction of rotation in motor action; this would STRUCTION%2BOF%2BGENERATOR.png
result into a reduction in air gap flux. This will
reduce the induced voltage in generator and
would increase the speed in motor. The
demagnetizing mmf (magneto motive force)
thus produced is given by:

𝑍𝐼𝛽
𝐴𝑇𝑑 =
180𝑃

where: Z = total number of conductors

I = armature current
P = number of poles
Β = angular shift of carbon brushes (in
electrical degrees)
Brush shift has serious limitations, so the
brushes must be shifted to a new position every
time the load changes or the direction of
rotation changes or the mode of operation
changes. In view of this, brush shift is limited
only to very small machines. Here also, the
brushes are fixed at a position corresponding to
Figure 2-7: The concept of brush shifting
Brush Shifting [Diagram]. (n.d.). Retrieved from
https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sem
anticscholar.org%2Fpaper%2FVariable-characteristics-DC-motor-
by-changing-brush-Takura-Akatsu
Let us WATCH!
Click the video icon to watch the video:
Brush Shifting
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=W5peV5LaK7w

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ELECTRICAL MACHINE 1 Lesson 2: Problems with Commutation in Real Machines

COMMUTATING POLES OR INTERPOLES The use of commutating poles or

interpoles is very common, because they
The basic idea behind this new
correct the sparking problems of dc machines
approach is that if the voltage in the wires
at a low cost. They are almost always found in
undergoing commutation can be made zero,
any dc machine of 1 hp or larger.
then there will be no sparking at the brushes. To
accomplish this, small poles, called
commutating poles or interpoles, are placed
midway between the main poles.
Inter poles are long but narrow poles
placed in the inter polar axis. They have the
polarity of succeeding pole (coming next in
sequence of rotation) in generator action and
proceeding (which has passed behind in
rotation sequence) pole in motor action. The
inter pole is designed to neutralize the armature
reaction mmf in the inter polar axis. Since inter
poles are connected in series with armature, the Figure 2-8: Sample Diagrams of Interpoles
Interpoles [Diagram]. (n.d.). Retrieved from
change in direction of current in armature https://joliettech.com/information/easa-electrical-engineering-
changes direction of inter pole. handbook/field-polarities-of-dc-machines-easa-electrical-
engineering-handbook/
This is because the direction of
armature reaction mmf is in the inter polar axis.
It also provides commutation voltage for the
coil undergoing commutation such that the
commutation voltage completely neutralizes
the reactance voltage (L × di/dt). Thus, no
sparking takes place.
Inter polar windings are always kept in
series with armature, so inter polar winding
carries the armature current; therefore, works
satisfactorily irrespective of load, the direction Figure 2-9: Sample Diagrams of Interpoles
of rotation or the mode of operation. Inter poles Interpoles [Diagram]. (n.d.). Retrieved from
https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.vias.o
are made narrower to ensure that they rg%2Fkimberlyee%2Fee_12_22.html&psig=AOvVaw0OVY6gaIvfO8r
652hFRSDh&ust=1593185472865000&source=images&cd=vfe&ve
influence only the coil undergoing d=0CAIQjRxqFwoTCLC7wc2kneoCFQAAAAAdAAAAABAb

commutation and its effect does not spread to

the other coils. The base of the inter poles is
made wider to avoid saturation and to improve
response.
Let us WATCH!
Click the video icon to watch the video:
Interpoles for DC machines
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AGoJGWhFzY4

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ELECTRICAL MACHINE 1 Lesson 2: Problems with Commutation in Real Machines

It is important to realize, though, that windings do not cancel L di/dt effects. The
they do nothing for the flux distribution under interpoles do not have to be as strong, though,
the pole faces, so the flux-weakening problem since they are canceling only L di/dt voltages in
is still present. Most medium-size, general- the windings, and not the voltages due to
purpose motors correct for sparking problems neutral-plane shifting. Because of the expense
with interpoles and just live with the flux of having both compensating windings and
weakening effects. interpoles on such a machine, these windings
are used only where the extremely severe
COMPENSATING WINDING nature of a motor's duty demands them.
For very heavy, severe duty cycle
motors, the flux-weakening problem can be
very serious. To completely cancel armature
reaction and thus eliminate both neutral-plane
shift and flux weakening, a different technique
was developed. This third technique involves
placing compensating windings in slots carved
in the faces of the poles parallel to the rotor
conductors, to cancel the distorting effect of
armature reaction. These windings are
connected in series with the rotor windings, so Figure 2-10: Compensating Winding
Interpoles [Diagram]. (n.d.). Retrieved from
that whenever the load changes in the rotor, the https://web.uettaxila.edu.pk/CMS/SP2013/ectEMbs/notes%5Carmat
ure%20reaction%20&%20commutation.pdf
current in the compensating windings changes,
too.
With complete compensation the main Let us WATCH!
field is restored. This also reduces armature
circuit’s inductor and improves system Click the video icon to watch the video:
Compensating Winding in DC machines
response. Compensating winding functions https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=w-G3WONoEVw
satisfactorily irrespective of the load, direction
of rotation and mode of operation. Obviously,
it is help in commutation as the interpolar
Additional Resource:
winding gets relieved from its duty to
compensate for the armature mmf under the
Click the video icon to watch the video:
pole arc.
DC MOTORS AND GENERATORS
The major disadvantage of https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OpL0joqJmqY
compensating windings is that they are
expensive since they must be machined into the
faces of the poles. Any motor that uses them
must also have interpoles, since compensating

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ELECTRICAL MACHINE 1
ASSESSMENT
POST-TEST
Take time to take the Post-Test for this
lesson to check your learning. Please refer to the
lesson if you score less than 80%. The Post-Test can
be accessed in the course site.
ACTIVITY 2-1
Instruction: In a letter-sized paper, answer the
following questions. Upload your answer in .pdf
format to this link.
1. What are the challenges/problems of
commutation? Support your answer with
diagrams, and at least 3-cases of commutation
problems that occurred in real life.
2. Explain the concept of Brush shifting and why it
is still used in small machines.
Lesson 2: Problems with Commutation in Real Machines
ASSESSMENT TASK
Choose a mode of presentation (video,
power point, etc.); identify three major solutions
to different commutation problems; prepare a
report/discussion about each solution; and
submit it in the given link.
REFERENCES
Chapman, S. J. (2012). Electric machinery
fundamentals. McGraw-Hill Medical Publishing.
Gross, C. A. (2006). Electric machines. CRC Press.
Fitzgerald, A., Fitzgerald, A. E., Kingsley, C., &
Umans, S. (2003). Electric machinery. McGraw-Hill
Professional.
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