School of Engineering

Chemical Principles
CHEM 001

Chemistry 001

Course code CHEM 001

“Chemistry for Engineering Students”

LAB MANUAL
Instructors:

Dr. Ayat Ghallab

Dr. Fatma Ibrahim
Dr. Alyaa Salim

Prepared by:
Dr. Mai Zohdy
T.A Asmaa Adel
T.A Saher Abdelmiged Ali

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 Chemistry lab grading
GRADING SYSTEM CONTENT % FOR EACH
• Maximum 10 min. are
allowed for late
Attendance • 5% Overall attendance 5%
attendance, half the mark
on negative behavior.
• Paper based / Hands-on
• Technique evaluation 4%
Evaluation technique evaluation
• Midterm Exam 4% 15%
and Exams • Mid ( cations, Anions)
• Final Exam 7%
• Final

CHEMISTRY SAFETY RULES

Learning Chemistry is a hands-on activity. You will be doing many laboratory activities, which
involve the use of chemicals and other materials that may be considered hazardous if not handled
carefully. Safety in the chemistry lab is the #1 priority for students, teachers and parents. To
ensure a safe Chemistry lab, a list of rules has been developed that must be followed at all times.
Below is a SAFETY CONTRACT verifying your understanding of the importance of these rules.
It must be signed by you before you can participate in any laboratory activity. This copy of the
rules is to be kept in your Chemistry manual as a constant reminder of the need for laboratory
safety.

GENERAL:
1. When first entering a science area, do not touch any equipment, chemicals, or other materials in
the laboratory area until you are instructed to do so.
2. Do not eat food, drink beverages, or chew gum in the laboratory. Do not use laboratory
glassware as containers for food or beverages.
3. Conduct yourself responsibly at all times in the laboratory area.
4. Be prepared for your work in the laboratory area. Read all procedures thoroughly before
entering the laboratory area. Never fool around in the laboratory area. Horseplay, practical
jokes, and pranks are dangerous and prohibited.
5. Follow all written and verbal instructions carefully. If you do not understand a direction or part
of a procedure, ask the instructor before proceeding.

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6. No student may work in the laboratory area without an instructor present.
7. Perform only those experiments authorized by the instructor. Never do anything in the
laboratory area that is not called for in the laboratory procedures or by your instructor.
Unauthorized experiments are prohibited.
8. Observe good housekeeping practices. Work areas should be kept clean and tidy at all times.
Bring only your laboratory instructions, worksheets, and/or reports to the work area.
9. Keep aisles clear. Push your chair under the desk when not in use.
10. Know the locations and operating procedures of all safety equipment including the first aid kit
eyewash station, safety shower, fire extinguisher, and fire blanket. Know where the fire alarm
and the exits are located.
11. Be alert and proceed with caution at all times in the laboratory area. Notify the instructor
immediately of any unsafe conditions you observe.
12. Dispose of all chemical waste properly as instructed by your teacher.
13. Labels and equipment instructions must be read carefully before use. Set up and use the
prescribed apparatus as directed in the laboratory instructions or by your instructor.
14. Keep hands away from face, eyes, mouth and body while using chemicals or preserved
specimens.
15. Wash your hands with soap and water after performing all experiments.
16. Return all equipment clean and in working order to the proper storage area.
17. Students are not permitted in the science storage rooms or preparation areas.
18. Know what to do if there is a fire drill during a laboratory period; containers must be closed, gas
valves turned off, and any electrical equipment turned off.

CLOTHING:
19. Any time chemicals, heat, or glassware is used; students shall wear approved laboratory
goggles, unless otherwise directed by your instructor.
20. Contact lenses should not be worn in the laboratory unless you have permission from your
instructor.
21. Dress safely during a laboratory activity. Long hair must be tied back. Dangling jewelry and
loose or baggy clothing must be secure.

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 ACCIDENTS AND INJURIES:
22. Report any accident (spill, breakage, etc.) or injury (cut, burn, etc.) to the instructor
immediately, no matter how trivial it may appear.
23. If a chemical should splash in your eye(s) or on your skin, immediately flush with running
water from the eye-wash station or safety shower for at least 20 minutes. Notify the instructor
immediately.

HANDLING CHEMICALS:
24. All chemicals in the laboratory area are to be considered dangerous. Do not touch, taste, or
smell any chemicals unless specifically instructed to do so. The proper technique for smelling
chemical fumes will be demonstrated to you.
25. Check the label on chemical bottles twice before removing any of the contents. Take only as
much chemical as you need.
26. Never return unused chemicals to their original containers.
27. When transferring chemicals from one container to another, hold the containers away from
your body.
28. Acids must be handled with extreme care.
29. Handle flammable hazardous liquids over a pan to contain spills. Never pour flammable liquids
anywhere near an open flame or source of heat.
30. Never remove chemicals or other materials from the laboratory area.
31. Take great care when transferring chemicals from one part of the laboratory area to another.
Hold the container securely and walk carefully.

HANDLING GLASSWARE AND EQUIPMENT:

32. Never handle broken glass with your bare hands. Place broken or waste glassware in the
designated glass disposal container.
33. Fill wash bottles only with distilled water and use only as intended, e.g., rinsing glassware and
equipment, or adding water to a container.
34. Examine glassware before each use. Never use chipped or cracked glassware. Never use dirty
glassware.

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STUDENT SAFETY CONTRACT:

I, __________________________________, (student’s name) have read and agree to follow all

of the safety rules set forth in this contract. I realize that I must obey these rules to insure my
own safety, and that of my fellow students and instructors. I will cooperate to the fullest extent
with my instructor and fellow students to maintain a safe lab environment. I will also closely
follow the oral and written instructions provided by the instructor. I am aware that any violation
of this safety contract that results in unsafe conduct in the laboratory or misbehavior on my part
may result in being removed from the laboratory, detention, receiving a failing grade, and/or
dismissal from the course.

Answer the following questions.

Do you wear contact lenses? __________
Do you have allergies? ______________
If so, list specific allergies __________________
Respiratory problems? __________________

Student Signature __________________________________

TA signature: ________________________

Date _________

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 Qualitative analysis

Chemical Analysis can be either qualitative or quantitative in nature. In qualitative

analysis, we want to know which elements or characteristic chemical species are present. In
quantitative analysis we are interested in the relative amounts of the components present.
The classical qualitative analysis scheme has been around for well over 100 years, but it
continues to be an important part of any chemist's training. It offers an effective means for
presenting descriptive inorganic chemistry in the laboratory and it illustrates not only
descriptive chemistry, but also important chemical principles, especially those involving
ionic equilibria. We hope in the next few weeks, you will gain new insight into these
chemical principles.

Classification of the Cations and Anions:

Having become familiar with the characteristic reactions of cations and anions, one may be
able to identify an unknown material using simple chemical tests and separations.
In this process called inorganic qualitative analysis, one deals with the detection and
identification of the elements that are present in a sample of material. Frequently, this is
accomplished by making an aqueous solution of the sample and then determining which
cations and anions are present on the basis of chemical and physical properties

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 Classifications of anions
1. Carbonate containing anions
2. Sulfur containing anions
3. Halides
4. Nitrogen containing anions
5. Cyanide containing anions
6. Phosphorus containing anions
Classifications of cations
Group I cations (silver group)
Group II (copper-arsenic group)
Group III cations (iron group)
Group IV cations (zinc group)
Group V (alkaline earth group)
Group VI (soluble group)

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Test for anions: The following scheme of classification of anions has been found to work
well in practice; anions are divided into groups on the basis of their reactions and
differences in solubilities.

Classifications of anions
I. Carbonate containing anions
Carbonate Bicarbonate
a) Dry test (Solid + dil. HCl)
Effervescence Effervescence due
due to the to the evolution of
evolution of CO2 CO2 gas
gas

b) Wet test (Salt + Water)

Test Carbonate Bicarbonate
• BaCl2 Snowflakes like white White ppt. formed that
ppt. that dissolves upon doesn’t dissolve with dil.
addition of excess dil. HCl.
HCl

• HgCl2 Red brown

No effect

• FeCl3 Brown

No effect

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 II. Sulfur containing anions
Test Sulphite SO32- Thiosulphate Sulphate SO42-
S2O32-
Dry test: Solid + Suffocating 𝑺𝑶𝟐
dil. HCl Suffocating 𝑺𝑶𝟐 gas evolved and
gas formed. Wet colloidal yellow
paper of ppt of sulfur is
potassium formed upon -ve
dichromate turns rubbing.
from orange to
green.

Wet test: White ppt sol in White ppt insol. in

-ve
Salt sol.+ BaCl2 excess (dil HCl) excess (dil HCl)
Salt sol. + FeCl3 Persistent brown
color
-ve -ve

Salt sol. + White ppt sol in dil

(CH3COO)2Pb White ppt sol in HNO3 , turn to White ppt insol in
dil HNO3 black ppt by dil HNO3
heating∆
III. Halides containing anions
Test Chloride Iodide
Dry test: Solid + H2SO4 HCl gas that gives Violet fumes of HI2
(conc.) white fumes with a Rotten egg odor of H2S
paper wetted with
ammonia (NH4Cl is
formed
Wet test: Salt sol.+ Lead White ppt. of PbCl2 Bright yellow ppt. of Pbl2
acetate, Pb(CH3COO)2 (sol. in hot water) (sol. in hot water)

Salt sol. + FeCl3 -ve Brown color of iodine

Salt sol. + Chlorine Water -ve Violet color appears and
Test disappears upon excess

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 IV. Nitrogen containing anions
Test Nitrate Nitrite
Dry test: Solid + dil HCl -ve Weak effervescence
Brown gas
Pale blue solution
Wet test: Salt sol.+ dil. No reaction Blue color
H2SO4+ KI + starch
Salt sol.+ dil. H2SO4 + fresh No rx Diffused ring
FeSO4 Add conc. H2SO4
Brown Ring

V. Borate containing anions

Test Borate
Wet test: Salt sol. + BaCl2 White ppt. of Ba(BO2)2 (sol. in dil HCl)

VI. Cyanide containing anions

VII. Phosphorus containing anions

The Chemical Equations showing the reactions for Carbonate and Sulfur
containing compounds are as follows:

Part 1: Testing the dry salt with HCl

Na2 CO3 (s) + 2HCl (dil) → 2NaCl (aq) + H2 O + CO2 (g)

NaHCO3 (s) + HCl (dil) → NaCl (aq) + H2 O + CO2 (g)

Na2 SO3 (s) + 2HCl (dil) → 2NaCl (aq) + H2 O + SO2 (g)

Na2S2O3 (aq) + 2HCl (aq) → 2NaCl (aq) + H2O (l) + SO2 (g) + S(s)

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Part 2: Testing the salt solution with BaCl2 and FeCl3

Na2 CO3 (aq) + BaCl2 (aq) → 2NaCl (aq) + BaHCO3 (aq)

Na2 HCO3 (aq) + BaCl2 (aq) → 2NaCl (aq) + BaHCO3 (aq)

Na2 SO3 (aq) + BaCl2 (aq) → 2NaCl (aq) + BaSO3 (s)

BaSO3 (aq) + 2HCl (aq) → BaCl2 + H2 O + SO2 (g)

Na2SO4 (aq) + BaCl2 (aq) → NaCl + BaSO4

2 FeCl3 + 3 Na2SO3 → Fe2(SO3)3 + 6 NaCl

Part 3: Testing the salt solution with Pb(CH3COO)2

Na2SO3+ Pb(CH3COO)2 ⟶ PbSO3⬇+ 2 CH3COO Na

Na2S2O3+ Pb(CH3COO)2 ⟶ PbS2O3⬇ + 2 CH3COO Na

Na2SO4 (aq) +Pb(NO3)2 (aq) → PbSO4 (s) + 2NaNO3 (aq)

The Chemical Equations showing the reactions of Halides as follows:

Part 1: Testing the dry salt with conc. H2SO4:

2NaCl (s) + H2SO4 (conc) → Na2SO4 (sol) + 2HCl (g)

KI(s) + H2SO4 (conc) → KHSO4 + HI (v)

6HI + H2SO4 (conc) → 3I2 (v) + S(s) + 4H20

8HI + H2SO4 (conc) → 4I2 (v) + H2S (g) + 4H2O

Part 2: Testing the salt solution with Pb(CH3COO)2:

2NaCl(sol) + Pb(CH3COO)2 → 2CH3COONa(sol) + PbCl2(s)

2KI(sol) + Pb(CH3COO)2 → 2CH3COOK(sol) + PbI2(s)

Part 3: Testing the salt solution with FeCl3:

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2KI+ 2FeCl3 → 2FeCl2 + I2 + 2KCl

The Chemical Equations showing the reactions of Nitrogen containing

compounds are as follows:

Part 1: Testing the dry salt of Nitrite with HCl

3NaNO2 + 2HCl → 2NaCl + NaNO3 + 2NO + H2O

Part 2: Testing the salt solution of Nitrite with dil. H2SO4+ KI + starch

2NaNO2 + 2KI + 2H2SO4 → I2 + 2NO + K2SO4 + Na2SO4 + 2H2O

Part 3: Testing the salt solution of Nitrite with dil. H2SO4 + fresh FeSO4:

2NaNO2 + 2FeSO4 + 2H2SO4 → Fe2 (SO4)3 + 2NO + Na2SO4 + 2H2O

The Chemical Equations showing the reactions of Borate containing

compounds are as follows:

Testing the Borate salt solution with BaCl2:

Na2B4O7 (sol) + BaCl2 (sol) + 3H2O →Ba(BO2)2 (s) + 2H3BO3 + 2NaCl

Test for cations:

Cations are divided into six groups according to the reagent that forms a precipitate with the
cations of this group, depending upon the difference in solubility of metal salts in water.

Group I
Test Lead (Pb)+2
Wet test: Salt sol. White precipitate of PbCl2 (s)
(Solid+H2O)+ dil
HCl

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Wet test: Salt sol.+ Yellow Ppt.
KCrO4 Potassium
chromate

Group II (copper-arsenic group)

Test Copper (Cu)+2 Cadmium(Cd)+2
Salt solution (Solid+H2O) + NaOH Baby blue NaOH produces
ppt. of basic a gelatinous
Cu(OH)2 & precipitate of
a sol. of Cd(OH)2, but the
neutral salt sodium precipitate does not dissolve
sulphate will be formed. in excess hydroxide
Salt solution (Solid+H2O)+NH4OH Dark blue ppt. White ppt that dissolves with
the addition of excess
ammonia.

Group III
Test Iron (Fe)+3 Chromium(Cr)+3
Wet test: Salt solution Reddish brown Greyish green ppt that
(Solid+H2O) + NaOH ppt. dissolves with excess
NAOH

Wet test: Salt sol. Reddish brown ppt. Greyish green ppt.
+NH4OH

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The Chemical Equations showing the reactions are as follows:

Group I: Testing the salt solution of Lead with diluted HCl:

Pb(CH3COO)2+ 2HCl (sol) → 2CH3COOH(sol) + PbCl2(s)

Group I: Testing the salt solution of Lead with KCrO4:

Pb(CH3COO)2+ 2 KCrO4 (sol) → 2CH3COO CrO4 (sol) + PbK2(s)

Group II: Testing the salt solution with diluted NaOH:

CuSO4 (sol) + 2NaOH (sol) → Na2SO4 (s) + Cu (OH) 2 (s)

CdSO4 (sol) + 2NaOH (sol→Na2SO4 (s) + Cd (OH) 2 (s)

Group II: Testing the salt solution with diluted NH4OH:

CuSO4 (sol) + 2 NH4OH (sol) → (NH4)2SO4 (s) + Cu (OH) 2 (s)

CdSO4 (sol) + 2 NH4OH (sol→ (NH4)2SO4 (s) + Cd (OH) 2 (s)

Group III: Testing the salt solution with diluted NaOH:

FeCl3 (sol) + 3NaOH ➔ 3NaCl + Fe(OH)3 (s)

CrCl3 (sol) + 3NaOH ➔ 3NaCl + Cr(OH)3 (s)

Group III: Testing the salt solution with diluted NH4OH:

FeCl3 (sol) + 3 NH4OH ➔ 3NH4Cl + Fe (OH) 3

CrCl3 (sol) + 3 NH4OH ➔3NH4Cl + Cr (OH) 3 (s)

Cr(OH) 3 + NaOH ➔NaCrO2 + 2H2O

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 Measurements of concentration of solutions

Molarity: Number of moles of a solute in exactly one liter of a solution.

Two pieces of information to calculate the molarity of a solute in a solution:

❖ Moles of solute present in the solution.

❖ Volume of solution (in liters) containing the solute.

To calculate molarity we use the equation:

Molality: The number of moles of solute dissolved in exactly one kilogram of solvent.
Two pieces of information to calculate the molality of a solute in a solution:

❖ Moles of solute present in the solution.

❖ Mass of solvent (in kilograms) in the solution.

To calculate molality we use the equation:

Volume Concentration (no unit): volume of solute / volume of mixture (same units of volume
for each)

Volume Percent (v/v %): volume solute / volume solution x 100% (solute and solution
volumes are in the same units)

Normality (N): The number of mole equivalents per liter of solution.

Normality = Equivalent Mass / 1 L of solution

Equivalent Mass = Molecular weight / n

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 Where, n=
Number of H+ in dissociation/mole (for acids)
Number of OH- in dissociation/mole (for bases)
Number of total valence of anions or cations/mole (for salts)

Percent Composition (by mass):

Two pieces of information to calculate the percent by mass of a solute in a solution:

❖ The mass of the solute in the solution.

❖ The mass of the solution.

Use the following equation to calculate percent by mass:

Mole Ratio (mol/mol): moles of solute / total moles of all other species in the mixture

Mole Fraction (mol/mol): moles of solute / total moles of species in the mixture

Parts per million (ppm): This is a way of expressing very dilute concentrations of substances.

One ppm is equivalent to 1 milligram of something per liter of water (mg/l)

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 pH measuring and pH meter

Potential hydrogen (pH): Quantitative measure of the acidity or basicity of aqueous or other
liquid solutions. The term, widely used in chemistry, biology, and agronomy, translates the
values of the concentration of the hydrogen ion, which ordinarily ranges between about 1 and 10
−14 gram-equivalents per litre.

pH Scale: A measure of acidity and alkalinity of a substance; the pH scale has a range from 0-

14, with 7 being neutral. A pH of less than 7 denotes acidity, and above 7 alkalinity.

Acidic solution: A solution that has a pH below 7.0 (an

increased hydrogen ion concentration)
Alkaline solution: A solution that has a pH above 7.0 (a
decreased hydrogen ion concentration)

Ways to measure pH levels:

Beginner: Use a paper strip coated in a pH indicating dye.
Intermediate: Use a pH testing kit for liquids.
Advanced: A digital pH meter can be used to obtain the
most accurate reading of the pH level.
pH meter: The most precise tool to measure a solution's
pH

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How do they work? By measuring the electrical potential difference between the pH electrode
and a reference electrode, the meter then coverts this potential to a pH reading. They offer
readings to 0.01 pH unit.
Function: They are useful for advanced science, college, or research work that requires this level
of precision. Handheld, portable pH meters are great for field work or quick pH checks in a lab.
Bench pH meters are typically more precise and offer more testing options. Many meters also
measure dissolved solids, electrical conductivity, and temperature.
Handling: pH meters require calibration and more upkeep than other pH testing equipment. It is
imperative that the meter electrodes are kept clean and maintained or replaced according to the
manufacturer's instructions.

NOW! Perform measures on different solutions using the provided pH meter and record the
results, and then determine if it is an acid or a base using the provided scale here and above.

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 Quantitative analysis

Acid-base titration

Titration: A quantitative analysis technique where a solution of known concentration is used

to determine the concentration of an unknown solution by terms of Molar Ratios.

Titration is the slow addition of one solution of a known concentration (called a titrant or
titrator) to a known volume of another solution of unknown concentration (called a titrand or
analyte)

Also known as Titrimetry or Volumetric Titration

Standard solution: The solution of known concentration. (Titrator or Titrant).

Analyte: The solution of unknown concentration.

Indicator: A chemical substance that

changes its color with respect to pH, which
shows when enough standard solution has
been added to fully react with the unknown
concentration.

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 End point: Indicated by some form of indicator which varies depending on what type of titration
being done i.e.: point at which indicator changes its color.

Procedure:

1. Fill the burette with 0.1 N NaOH

2. Take 10.0 mL prepared HCl in a conical flask A

3. Add 3 drops phenolphthalein

4. Titrate to the end point (first persistent pink)

5. Measure and record your final volume of the burette. Calculate the volume of standard solution
used by subtracting the initial volume measurement

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 NAcid VAcid = NBase VBase
Normality (N) = Mass equivalent / Volume in liters

Mass Equivalent = Molecular Weight/n

Where, n=

Number of H+ in dissociation/mole (for acids)

Number of OH- in dissociation/mole (for bases)
Number of total valence of anions or cations/mole (for salts)

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 Electrochemistry

Electrochemistry is the study of chemical processes that cause electrons to move. This movement of
electrons is called electricity, which can be generated by movements of electrons from one element to
another in a reaction known as an oxidation-reduction ("redox") reaction.

Chemistry and electricity, the connection between chemistry and electricity is a very old one, going
back to Allesandro Volta’s discovery, in 1793, that electricity could be produced by placing two dissimilar
metals on opposite sides of a moistened paper.

In 1800, Nicholson and Carlisle, using Volta’s primitive battery as

a source, showed that an electric current could decompose
water into oxygen and hydrogen. This was surely one of the most
significant experiments in the history of chemistry, for it implied
that the atoms of hydrogen and oxygen were associated with
positive and negative electric charges, which must be the source
of the bonding forces between them.

By 1812, the Swedish chemist Berzelius could propose that all atoms are electrified, hydrogen and the
metals being positive, the nonmetals negative. In electrolysis, the applied voltage was thought to
overpower the attraction between these opposite charges, pulling the electrified atoms apart in the
form of ions (named by Berzelius from the Greek for “travellers”). It would be almost exactly a hundred
years later before the shared electron pair theory of G.N. Lewis could offer a significant improvement
over this view of chemical bonding.

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Engage and Explore!

Materials needed:

• 1 Lemon
• Small light bulb
• 1 Copper plate
• 1 Zinc plate
• Connecting wire and duct tape
• Alligator clips (If found)
• Voltmeter
Procedure:

1. Roll the lemon on the table so the juice can flow easily inside.
2. Make two incisions on the lemon about 2 cm each.
3. Insert the copper plate and the zinc plate in separate incision each.
4. Connect one end of the black wire to the zinc plate and the red wire to the copper plate.
5. Connect the opposite ends to the light bulb or the voltmeter.
6. Note your observation down.

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Engage and Explore!

Materials needed:

• 1 Potato
• Small watch
• 1 Copper plate
• 1 Zinc plate
• Connecting wire and duct tape
• Alligator clips (If found)
Procedure:

1. Repeat the previous procedure but with potatoes instead.

2. Note your observation down

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Explain and Elaborate!

Chemistry behind:

The zinc plate is the negative electrode; the copper plate is the positive electrode. When the metals are
immersed into the electrolyte, a chemical reaction takes place. The acid in the electrolyte breaks down the
atomic structure of the copper and zinc, causing individual electrons to be released. Zinc is a more
reactive metal than copper in this chemical process. It generates electrons faster than copper in this
chemical process. The excess electrons flow from the zinc plate to the copper plate. This flow of the
electrons from a reactive metal to a less reactive metal forms a small current which is strong enough to
power a small light bulb, a small watch or a sound chip.

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 LAB GRADES

Name: Attendance

Lab 1

Lab 2

Lab 3

Lab 4

Lab 5

Lab 6

Lab 7

Lab 8

Lab 9

Lab 10

Lab 11

Lab 12

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