Lecture 7

Meaning of the word

Morphological and semantic structure of word; what is a word? Denotative and connotative
meaning of word

As stated above, the object of lexicology as a branch of linguistics is the word and the entire
vocabulary of a language. The vocabulary is regarded not as a chaos that cannot be systematized
but as ‘a system, constituted by interdependent elements related in certain specific ways’.

The word’s place in the stratificational model of the plane of expression of language has been
mentioned: it is the maximum unit of the morphematic level and minimum unit of syntactic
level. But how do linguists determine what the word is, what definition do they give it?

Some linguists considered the word as a minimum sentence (H. Sweet, L. Bloomfield), e.g.
‘Come!’, ‘Fire!’, ‘Help!’ Thus, according to this definition, a word is a minimum free form that
occurs as a sentence.

The word is regarded as the basic unit of language for the following reasons:

1.-The word is a polyfunctional unit, it can fulfill any linguistic function: designation,
signification, nomination, communication due to its mobility, in the sense that it is easily
transposed from one level of language structure to another.

The root morpheme is the element that generates an entire word family: e.g. my own self, selfish,
unselfishly, self-respect; or ‘child’ –root, designating unit, ‘child’ – monomorphic, root word;
childhood, childish. Childlike – affixal derivatives; childbirth – compound word.

As the maximum unit of the morphematic level, the word (e.g. child, childhood) designates
(აღნიშვნა) and nominates a certain segment (object, phenomenon) of reality; the word also
expresses such elements of man’s inner world as emotions, feelings, attitudes to others, evaluation
(შეფასება) of people, things, events, phenomena. Consequently, the word also fulfills expressive
and stylistic functions.

Lexical meaning is complex, consisting of several components: denotational meaning

(დენოტაცია, აღნიშვნა) the obligatory სავალდებულო, nominating part) and connotational
meaning, which may or may not be present in the structure of a word’s meaning. Connotational
meaning contains the emotional, evaluator, expressive and stylistic components of which one or
two may be present, or which may all come together in the meaning of a word. (Similarity of
denotational meaning is that which unites words into synonymic groups; the difference between
synonyms is, in most cases, accounted for by difference in connotation, more rarely – by a
difference in some elements of denotational meaning.

Denotational meaning reflects the structure of the nominated notion (აღსანიშნი ცნება); e.g.
such components of denotational meaning as: living being, human, female, young – make up the
notion of ‘girl’. Whatever synonym of this word is used, it contains these elements of
denotational meaning; the connotation will be different.

Thought or Reference (concept)

Symbol Referent
( word dove )

Denotative components
 lonely, adj. alone, without company
notorious,
widely known
adj. celebrated,
widely known
to glare,
v. to to look to look to tremble to tremble
glance, v. to
shiver, v. to
shudder, v

Denotative + Connotative components

components
alone,
melancholy,
lonely, adj. without + Emotive
sad
company connotation

notorious, + widely Evaluative for criminal adj.

acts or bad connotation, known traits of negative character

for special
celebrated + Evaluative adj.
connotation, widely achievements in
known science and art
positive
 1. Connotation
steadily,
to glare, v. of duration
to look
lastingly
+

2. Emotive сonnotation
in anger, rage

to glance to look briefly, Connotation of

+ passingly v. duration
duration of

1.Connotation
lastingly of duration to shiver, v. to tremble +

2. Connotation of cause
with the cold

briefly 1.Connotation of
duration

to shudder to tremble +
v. with horror, 2. Connotation

of cause
disgust
3. Emotive

connotation
 I. Match words and their definitions.
Lonely widely known for criminal
acts
To shudder to tremble with cold
To glare without company
To glance to tremble with disgust
To shiver widely known for
achievements in art
Notorious
Celebrated to look
lastingly
to look briefly
II. Try your hand at the following research work.
a. Illustrate the semantic structure of one of the following
words with a diagram; use the dictionary if necessary.
Foot, n.; hand, n.; ring, n.; stream, n.; warm, adj.; green, adj.;
sail, n.; key, n.; glass, n.; eye, n.
b. Identify the denotative and connotative elements
of the meanings in the following pairs of words.
To conceal — to disguise, to choose — to select, to draw —
to paint, money — cash, photograph — picture, odd — queer.

IV. Define the meanings of the words in the following

sentences. Say how the meanings of the same word are
associated one with another
1. I walked into Hyde Park, fell flat upon the grass and almost
immediately fell asleep. 2. a) 'Hello', I said, and thrust my hand
through the bars, whereon the dog became silent and licked me
prodigiously, b) At the end of the long bar, leaning against the
counter was a slim pale individual wearing a red bow-tie. 3. a)
I began to search the flat, looking in drawers and boxes to see
if I could find a key. b) I tumbled with a sort of splash upon
the keys of a ghostly piano, c) Now the orchestra is playing
yellow cocktail music and the opera of voices pitches a key
higher, d) Someone with a positive manner, perhaps a
detective, used the expression 'madman' as he bent over
Welson's body that afternoon, and the authority of his voice set
the key for the newspaper report next morning. 4. a) Her
mouth opened crookedly half an inch, and she shot a few
words at one like pebbles, b) Would you like me to come to
the mouth of the river with you? 5. a) I sat down for a few
minutes with my head in my hands, until I heard the phone
taken up inside and the butler's voice calling a taxi, b) The
minute hand of the electric clock jumped on to figure twelve,
and, simultaneously, the steeple of St. Mary's whose vicar
always kept his clock by the wireless began its feeble imitation
of Big Ben. 6. a) My head felt as if it were on a string and
someone were trying to pull it off. b) G. Quartermain, board
chairman and chief executive of Supernational Corporation
was a bull of a man who possessed more power than many
heads of the state and exercised it like a king.

V. Copy out the following pairs of words grouping

together the ones which represent the same meaning of
each word. Explain the different meanings and the
different usages, giving reasons for your answer. Use
dictionaries if necessary. smart, adj.
smart clothes, a smart answer, a smart house, a smart garden, a
smart repartee, a smart officer, a smart blow, a smart
punishment stubborn, adj. a stubborn child, a stubborn look, a
stubborn horse, stubborn resistance, a stubborn fighting, a
stubborn cough, stubborn depression sound, adj.
sound lungs, a sound scholar, a sound tennis-player, sound
views, sound advice, sound criticism, a sound ship, a sound
whipping root, n.
edible roots, the root of the tooth, the root of the matter, the
root of all evil, square root, cube root perform, v. to perform
one's duty, to perform an operation, to perform a dance, to
perform a play kick, v. to kick the ball, to kick the dog, to kick
off one's slippers, to kick smb. downstairs

VI. The verb "to take" is highly polysemantic in

Modern English. On which meanings of the verb are
the following jokes based? Give your own examples to
illustrate the other meanings of the word.
1."Where have you been for the last four years?"
"At college taking medicine."
"And did you finally get well?"
2. "Doctor, what should a woman take when she is run down?"
"The license number, madame, the license number."
3.Proctor (exceedingly angry): So you confess that this
unfortunate Freshman was carried to this frog pond and
drenched.
Now what part did you take in this disgraceful affair?
Sophomore (meekly): The right leg, sir.

VII. Explain the basis for the following jokes.

Use the dictionary when in doubt.
1. Ca1le r: I wonder if I can see your mother; little boy.
Is she engaged! Willie: Engagedl She's married.
2.Booking Clerk (at a small village station): You'll have to
change twice before you get to York.
Villager (unused to travelling): Goodness me! And I've only
brought the clothes I'm wearing.
3. The weather forecaster hadn't been right in three
months, and his resignation caused little surprise. His
alibi, however, pleased the city council.
"I can't stand this town any longer," read his note. "The climate
doesn't agree with me."
4. Professor: You missed my class yesterday, didn't
you?
Unsubdued student: Not in the least, sir, not in the least.
5. "Papa, what kind of a robber is a page?"
"A what?"
"It says here that two pages held up the bride's train."

VIII. Dwell on the pragmatic component of the meaning of

the words bellow. With what stylistic characteristics does the
pragmatic component go hand in hand?
Thickhead, hay-head, atom-buster, rubblehead,
hash-head, balloon-buster, puddinghead, airhead, belly,
buster, knucklehead, grasshead, brush buster, crackhead, pot-
head, button-buste,r chickenhead, tea head, cop-buster,
bonehead, weedhead, crime buster, dust-head, gangbuster,
 ghost buster, kidney-buster, knuckle-buster, molly-buster,
need-buster, racket buster, sin-buster, spy-buster, tank-buster,
trustbuster, union-buster.

Lecture 8

Development of New Meanings

Causes of Development of New Meanings

The first group of causes is traditionally termed historical or extra-linguistic (არაენობრივი).

Different kinds of changes in a nation’s social life, in its culture, knowledge, technology, arts,
lead to gaps (სიცარიელე) appearing in the vocabulary which beg to be filled. Newly created
objects, new concepts and phenomena must be named. We know two well-known ways for
providing new names for created concepts: making new words (wordbuilding) and
borrowing foreign words (we shall deal with this problem later). One more way is by
applying some old word to a new object or notion.
When the first textile factories (ქარხანა) appeared in England, the old word mill (ქარხანა)
was applied to these early industrial enterprises. In this way, mill (A Latin borrowing of the
first century B.C.) added a new meaning to its former meaning “a building in which corn is
ground into flour-წისქვილი”. The new meaning was “textile factory”. The more modern
word is “plant”.
A similar case is the word carriage (ვაგონი) which had (and still has) the meaning “a vehicle
drawn by horses-ეტლი”, but, with the first appearance of railways in England, it received a
new meaning, that of “a railway car”.
The history of English nouns describing different parts of a theatre may also serve as a good
illustration of how well-established words can be used to denote newly-created objects and
phenomena. The words stalls, box, pit, circle had existed for a long time before the first
theatres appeared in England. With their appearance, the gaps in the vocabulary were easily
filled by these widely used words which, as a result, developed new meanings.
New meanings can also be developed due to linguistic factors.
The development of new meanings, and also a complete change of meaning, may be caused
through the influence of other words, mostly of synonyms.
Let us consider some examples.
The Old English verb steorfan meant “to perish”. When the verb “to die” was borrowed from
Scandinavian, these two synonyms, which were very close in their meaning, collided, and. as
a result, to starve gradually changed into its present meaning: “to die (or suffer) from
hunger”.
The history of the noun deer (ირემი)is essentially the same. In O.E. (deor) it had a general
meaning denoting any beast (მხეცი, ცხოველი). In that meaning it collided with the
borrowed word animal and changed its meaning to the modern one – “a certain kind of
animal”.
The noun knave (O.E. knafa) suffered an even more striking change of meaning as a result of
collision with its synonym boy. Now it has a pronounced negative evaluative connotation
and means “swindler, scoundrel”.
The Process of Development and Change of Meaning
The second question we must answer now is how the new meanings develop. To find the
answer to this question we must investigate the inner mechanism of this process, or at least
its essential features.
Why was it that the word mill – and not some other word – was selected to denote the first
textile factories? There must have been some connection between the former sense of mill
and the new phenomenon to which it was applied. And there was apparently such a
connection. Mills, which produced flour, were mainly driven by water.
The textile factories also firstly used water power. So, in general terms, the meanings of mill,
both the old and new one, could be defined as “an establishment using water power to
produce certain goods”. Thus, the first textile factories were easily associated with mills
producing flour, and the new meaning of mill appeared due to this association.
In actual fact, all cases of development or change of meaning are based on some association.
In the history of word carriage, the new travelling conveyance was also naturally associated
in people’s minds with the old one: horse-drawn vehicle- part of railway train. Both these
objects were related to the idea of travelling. The job of both, horse-drawn carriage and the
railway carriage, is the same: to carry passangers on a journey. So the association was
logically well-founded.
Stalls and box formed their meanings in which they denoted parts of the theatre on the basis
of a different type of association. The meaning of the word box “a small separate enclosure
forming a part of a theatre” developed on the basis of its former meaning “a rectengular
container used for packing or storing things”. The two objects became associated in the
speakers’ minds because boxes in the earliest English theatres really resembled packing cases.
They were enclosed on all sides and heavily curtained even on the side facing the audience
so as to conceal the privileged spectators occupying them from curious or insolent stares.
The association on which the theatrical meaning of stalls was based is even more curious.
The original meaning was “compartments in stables or sheds for accommodation of animals
(cows, horses, etc.). There does not seem to be much in common between the privileged and
expensive part of a theatre and stables intended for cows and horses, unless we take into
consideration the fact that theatres in olden time greatly differed from what they are now.
What is now known as the stalls was, at that time, standing space divided by barriers into
sections so as to prevent the enthusiastic crowd from knocking one another down and
hurting themselves. So, there must have been a certain outward resemblance between
theatre stalls and cattle stalls.
It is also possible that the word was first used humorously or satirically in this new sense.
The process of development of a new meaning (or a change of meaning) is traditionally
termed transference.
Some scholars mistakenly use the term “transference of meaning” which is a serious mistake.
It is very important to note that in any case of semantic change it is not the meaning but the
word that is being transferred from one referent onto another (e.g. from a horse-drawn
vehicle onto a railway car).
Two types of transference are distinguishable depending on the two types of logical
associations underlying the semantic process.
Transference Based on Resemblance (Similarity მსგავსება)
This type of transference is also referred to as linguistic metaphor. A new meaning appears as
a result of associating two objects (phenomena, qualities, etc.) due to their outward
similarity. Box and stall, as should be clear from the explanations above, are examples of this
type of transference.
Other examples can be given in which transference is also based on the association of two
physical objects. The noun eye, for instance, has for one of its meanings “hole in the end of a
needle”, which also developed through transference based on resemblance. A similar case is
represented by the neck of the bottle.
The noun drop (mostly in the plural form) has, in addition to its main meaning “a small
particle of water or other liquid წვეთი”, the meanings: “ear-rings shaped as drops of water”
(e.g. diamond drops) and “candy of the same shape” (e.g. mint drops). It is quite obvious that
both these meanings are based on resemblance. in the compound word snowdrop the
meaning of the second constituent underwent the same shift of meaning.
In general, metaphorical change of meaning is often observed in idiomatic compounds.
The main meaning of the noun branch is “limb or subdivision of a tree or bush ტოტი”. On
the basis of this meaning it developed several more. One of them is “a special field of science
or art დარგი” (branch of linguistics). This meaning brings us into the sphere of the abstract,
and shows that in transference based on resemblance an association may be built not only
between two physical objects, but also between a concrete object and an abstract concept
(კონკრეტული საგანი და აბსტრაქტული ცნება).
The noun bar from the original meaning barrier developed a figurative meaning realized in
such contexts as social bars, colour bars, racial bar. Here, again, as in the abstract meaning of
branch, a concrete object is associated with the abstract concept.
The noun star on the basis of the meaning “heavenly body” developed the meaning “famous
actor or actress”. Nowadays the meaning has considerably widened its range, and the word is
applied not only to screen idols, but, also, to popular sportsmen, popsingers, etc. The first use
of the word star to denote popular actor or actress must have been humorous or ironical: the
mental picture created by the use of the word in this new meaning was a kind of semi-god
surrounded by the bright rays of his glory. Yet, soon the ironical colouring was lost.
The meanings formed through this type of transference are frequently found in the informal
strata of the vocabulary, especially in slang. A red-headed boy is almost certain to be
nicknamed carrot or ginger by his schoolmates, and the one who is given to spying and
sneaking gets the derogatory nickname of rat. Both these meanings are metaphorical, though,
of course, the children using them are quite unconscious of this fact.
The slang meanings of words such as nut, onion ( = head), (eyes), hoofs ( = feet) and very
many others were all formed by transference based on resemblance.
Transference Based on Contiguity
Another term for this type of transference is linguistic metonymy. The association is based
upon subtle psychological links between different objects and phenomena, sometimes traced
and identified with much difficulty. The two objects may be associated together because they
often appear in common situations, and so the image of one is easily accompanied by the
image of the other; or they may be associated on the principle of cause and effect, of common
function, of some material and an object which is made of it.
Cases of the transference based on contiguity are of different kind.
The Old English adjective glad meant “bright, shining” (it was applied to the sun, to gold and
precious stones, to shining armour, etc.). The later (and more modern) meaning “joyful”
developed on the basis of the usual association of light with joy.
The meaning of the adjective sad in O.E. was “satisfied with food”. Later this meaning
developed connotation of a greater intensity of quality and came to mean “oversatisfied with
food; having eaten too much”. Thus, the meaning of the adjective sad developed a negative
evaluative connotation and now described not a happy state of satisfaction but, on the
contrary, the physical unease and discomfort of a person who has had too much to eat. The
next shift of meaning was to transform the description of physical discomfort into one of
spiritual discontent because these two states often go together. Now the adjective describes
purely emotional state: “sorrowful, melancholy”. The two previous meanings were ousted
(გაძევება) from the semantic structure of the word long ago.
The foot of bed is the place where the feet rest when one lies in the bed, but the foot of a
mountain got its name by another association: the foot of a mountain is its lowest part, so
that the association here is founded on common position.
By the arms of an arm-chair we mean the place where the arms lie when one is sitting in the
chair, so that the type of association here is the same as in the foot of a bed. The leg of a bed
(table, chair, etc.), though, is the part which serves as a support, the original meaning being
“the leg of a man or animal”. The association that lies behind this development meaning is
the common function: a piece of furniture is supported by its legs just as living beings are
supported by theirs.
The meaning of the noun hand realized in the context hand of a clock (watch) originates
from the main meaning of this noun “part of human body”. It also developed due to the
association of the common function: the hand of a clock points to the figures on the face of
the clock, and one of the functions of human hand is also that of pointing to things.
Another meaning of hand realized in such contexts as factory hands, farm hands is based on
another kind of association: strong, skillful hands are the most important feature that is
required of a person engaged in physical labour.
The adjective dull developed its meaning “not clear or bright” (as in a dull green colour; dull
light; dull shapes) on the basis of the former meaning “deficient in eyesight”, and its meaning
“not loud or distinct” (as in dull sounds) on the basis of the older meaning “deficient in
hearing”. The association here was obviously that of cause and effect: to a person with weak
eyesight all colours appear pale, and all shapes blurred; to a person with deficient hearing all
sounds are indistinct.
The main (and oldest registered) meaning of the noun board was “a flat and thin piece of
wood; a wooden plank”. On the basis of this meaning developed the meaning “table” which
is now archaic. The association which underlay this semantic shift was that of the material
and the object made from it: a wooden plank (or several planks) is an essential part of any
table. This type of association is often found with nouns denoting clothes: a mink (“mink
coat”) a jersy (“knitted shirt or sweater”).
Meanings produced through transference based on contiguity sometimes originate from
geographical or proper names. China in the sense of “dishes made of porcelain” originated
from the name of the country which was believed to be the birthplace of porcelain. The
name of a painter is frequently transferred onto one of his pictures: A Matisse = a painting by
Matisse.
Broadening (or Generalization) of Meaning. მნიშვნელობის გაფართოება
Narrowing (or Specialization) of Meaning მნიშვნელობის შევიწროება
Sometimes, the process of transference may result in a considerable change in range of
meaning. For instance, the verb to arrive (French borrowing) began its life in English in the
narrow meaning “to come to shore, to land”. In Modern English it has greatly widened its
combinability and developed the general meaning “to come” (e.g. to arrive in Londen, at a
hotel, etc.). The meaning developed through transference based on contiguity (the concept of
coming somewhere is the same for both meanings), but the range of the second meaning is
much broader.
Another example of the broadening of meaning is pipe. Its earliest recorded meaning was “a
musical wind instrument”. Nowadays it can denote any hollow oblong cylindrical body
(water pipes). This meaning developed through transference based on similarity of shape
(pipe as a musical instrument is also a hollow. oblong cylindrical object) which finally led to
a considerable broadening of the range of meaning.
The word bird changed its meaning from “the young of a bird” to its modern meaning
through transference based on contiguity. The second meaning is broader and more
general.
It is interesting to trace the history of the word girl as an example of the changes in the range
of meaning in the course of the semantic development of a word.
In Middle English, it had the meaning of “a small child of either sex”. Then the word
underwent the process of transference based on contiguity and developed the meaning of “a
small child of the female sex”, so that the range of meaning was somewhat narrowed. In its
further semantic development the word gradually broadened its range of meaning. At first it
came to denote not only a female child but, also, a young unmarried woman, later, any
young woman, and in modern colloquial English it is practically synonymous to the noun
woman (e.g. the old girl must be at least seventy), so that its range of meaning is quite broad.
The history of the noun lady somewhat resembles that of girl. In O.E. the word denoted the
mistress of the house, i.e. any married woman. Later, a new meaning developed which was
much narrower in range: “the wife or daughter of a baronet”. In Modern English the word
lady can be applied to any woman, so that its range of meaning is even broader. In Modern
English the difference between girl and lady in the meaning woman is that the first is used in
colloquial stylewhereas the second is more formal and polite. Here are some more examples
of narrowing of meaning:
Deer: any beast > a certain kind of animal
Meat: any food > a certain food product
It should be pointed out that in all these words the second meaning developed through
transference based on contiguity, and that when we speak of them as examples of narrowing
of meaning we simply imply that the range of the second meaning is more narrow than that
of the original meaning.
The So-Called “Degeneration” (“Degradation”) and “Elevation” of Meaning
These terms are open to question because they seem to imply that meanings can become
“better” or “worse” which is neither logical nor plausible. But, as a matter-of fact, scholars
using these terms do not actually mean the degeneration or elevation of meaning itself, but
of the referent onto which a word is transferred, so that the term is inaccurate.
Now let us see what stands behind the examples of change of meaning which are
traditionally given to illustrate the degeneration or elevation of meaning.
I.’’ Degeneration” of meaning
knave: boy > swindler, scoundrel
Villain: farm-servant > base, vile person
Gossip: god parent > the one who talks scandals, etc.
Semantically speaking the second meaning developed a negative evaluative
connotation which was absent in the first meaning.
Such cases can be observed in other parts of speech:
E.g. Silly: happy > foolish
II.”Elevation” of meaning.
Fond: foolish > loving, affectionate
Nice: foolish > fine, good.
In these two cases the situation is reversed: the first meaning has a negative evaluative
connotation, and the second meaning has not. It is difficult to see what is actually “elevated”
here. Certainly, not the meaning of the word. Here are two more examples:
Tory: brigand, highwayman > member of the Tories
Knight: manservant > noble, courageous man
In the case of Tories, the first meaning has a negative connotation which is absent in the
second one. But why ‘elevation”? Semantically speaking the first meaning is just as good as
the second, and the difference lies only in the connotative structure.
The case of knight, if treated linguistically, is quite opposite to Tory: the second meaning
acquired a positive evaluative connotation that was absent in the first meaning.
So, here, once more, we are faced with a mere readjustment of the connotative components
of the word.
There are also some traditional examples of “elevation”:
Marshal: man servant attending horses > the highest rank in the army
Lord: master of the house, head of the family > baronet
Lady: mistress of the house, married woman > wife or daughter of baronet.
In these three words the second meaning developed due to the process of transference based
on contiguity. Lord and lady are also examples of narrowing of meaning if we compare the
range of the original and of the resultant meanings. No connotations of evaluation can be
observed in either of the meanings. The fact that in all these three cases the original meaning
denoted a humble ordinary person and the second denotes a person of high rank is absolutely
extralinguistic.
All that has been said and the examples that have been given show that the terms
“degradation” and “elevation” of meaning are imprecise and do not seem to be an objective
reflection of the semantic phenomena they describe.

I. Choose metaphors and identify the type of association

on which the similarity is based: a) association of two
physical objects; b) association between a concrete object
an abstract concept; c) association between a person and
an object
II.
An eye of a needle, a star on the sky, a branch of a tree, an eye
of a person, a neck of a bottle, diamond drops, a green man, a
fruitless tree, the root of a tree, mint drops, branch of
linguistics, branch of a tree, to go a green tree, a faded flower,
to the bar, seeds of a plant, a football star, social bar, seeds of
evil, a faded beauty, a fruitless effort.

III. Metaphors are based upon various types of

similarity. Identify the feature or features of similarity in
each case:
a) shape; b)function; c)age; d) colour; e)position.
the drop of milk
- diamond drops
the heart of a
man - the heart
of a city black
shoes - black
despair the neck
of a man - the
neck of a bottle
green grass - a
green man the
teeth of a boy -
the teeth of a
comb the key to
a door - the key
to a mystery the
tail of an animal
- the tail of a
coat

III. Find the suitable description for each metaphor:

Set I
A PROBLEM IS A TARGET
A PROBLEM IS A BODY OF WATER
A PROBLEM IS A LOCKED CONTAINER FOR ITS
SOLUTION
A PROBLEM IS A REGION IN A LANDSCAPE

He dived right into the problem.

He took aim at the problem.
Let's map out the problem before we do anything else.
He finally found the key to the problem.
The mayor targeted the problem of homelessness.
Set II
BELIEFS ARE BEINGS WITH A LIFE CYCLE
BELIEFS ARE GUIDES
BELIEFS ARE LOVE OBJECTS
BELIEFS ARE POSSESSIONS

He is wedded to a belief in his own infallibility.

That belief died out years ago.
We share many beliefs.
You are governed by your beliefs.
He acquired most of his beliefs during childhood.
He embraced that belief wholeheartedly.
His belief was born of the early philosophers.
Beliefs dictate actions.
IV. Discuss the cases of metonymy.
1. He is the hope of the family. 2. She was the pride of her
school. 3. I have never read Balzac in the original. 4. My sister
is fond of old china. 5. The coffee-pot is boiling. 6. The pit
loudly applauded. 7. He succeeded to the crown. 8. The
authorities were greeted.

V. Comment on the etymology and meaning of the

cases of metonymy.
Colt, Ford, sandwich, mackintosh, boycott, hooligan, gladstone
bag, dunce, quisling, silhouette, Apollo, ohm, magnetism,
boston, cheviot, madeira, champagne, bordeaux.

VI. The metonymical change may be conditioned by

various connections, such as spatial, temporal, causal,
symbolic, instrumental, functional, etc. Establish the
model of transfer in each case:
a) Material – article made from it;
b) part —> whole;
c) instrument —> product;
d) symbol —► thing symbolized;
e) receptacle —► content;
f) place —> people occupying it.
1. an excellent horse – a detachment of horse
2. a new kettle - The kettle is boiling
3. nickel (a metal) – nickel (a coin)
4. a beautiful crown – She refused the crown
5. to lead him by the hand – He has a legible hand
6. a large industrial town – The whole town is furious
about the council's education policy

VII. Read and translate the examples of metonymical

transfer of geographical names.
1. Downing Street (No 10 – Downing Street is the Prime
Minister's residence). Downing Street (the British Prime
Minister and Cabinet)
2.Lombard Street (the financial world of Great Britain).
Lombard Street (a street -in the City of London known for
financial and banking activity)
3. White House (the official Washington, D.C. home).
White House (the President and his adviser of the President
of the United States).
4. The Pentagon (the five-sided building near
Washington that is the headquarters of the US Department
of Defense and the US armed forces). The Pentagon (the
leaders of the US armed forces).
5. A country club at Tuxedo Park, New York. Tuxedo (a
dinner-jacket).
6. Balaclava (a village in the Crimea where a battle of
the Crimean War was fought in 1854). Balaclava (a closely
fitting woolen hat that covers the head and neck, with an
opening for the face).
7. Nimes (a city in and the capital of Gard, in France).
Denim (a kind of cloth; short for serge de Nimes).
8. The Cheviot Hills (on the border between England
and Scotland). Cheviot (a kind of wool cloth).
9. Madeira (the largest of a group of islands – the
Madeira Islands in the Atlantic Ocean which belong to
Portugal). Madeira (a white dessert wine from the island of
Madeira).
10. Bourbon County (Kentucky). Bourbon (a type of
whisky).
11. Champagne (a region in France). Champagne (any of
various types of sparkling white wine).
12. Sardinia (a large Italian island off the country's west
coast). Sardine (a young pilchard or a similar fish, usually
tinned in oil or tomato juice). 13. Labrador (a peninsula in
Canada). Labrador (a breed of dog with a smooth black or
golden coat).
14. Charleston (a seaport in South Carolina). Charleston
(a fast dance, popular in the 1920s, in which the knees are
turned inwards and the legs kicked sideways).
15. Limousin (a former province in central France).
Limousine (a large luxurious car).
16. Buncombe (a place in South Carolina, USA).
Buncombe, bunkum ( insincere talk; nonsense).
17. Blarney stone (a stone in Blarney Castle near Cork,
Ireland, held to make those who kiss it skilled in flattery).
Blarney (skillful flatter).

VIII. Analyse the dictionary definitions of these

polysemantic words from the thematic group "Animals"
and say in each case whether the secondary meaning is a)
metaphorical or b) metonymical.
Set 1.
1. turkey (a large bird, rather like a large chicken, kept on
farms for its meat which is eaten, especially at Christmas and
(in the US) at Thanksgiving) - turkey (the flesh of this bird as
food)
2. chicken (a common farmyard bird) - chicken (a person who
lacks courage, a coward)
3. ermine (a small animal of the weasel family whose fur is
brown in summer and white in winter) - ermine (the white
winter fur of this animal, especially as used to trim the robes of
judges)
4. mouse (a small rodent with a long thin tail) - mouse (a small
hand-held device that is moved across a desktop, etc. to
produce a corresponding movement of the cursor, with a
button for entering commands)
5. butterfly (an insect with a long thin body and four (usually
brightly coloured) wings) - butterfly (a way of swimming on
one's front, moving the arms together over one's head while
kicking the feet up and down together)
6. shark (any of various types of sea-fish with a triangular fin
on its back, some of which are large and dangerous to bathers)
- shark (a person who has unusual ability in a particular field)
7. horse (a large strong four-legged animal with hard feet,
which people ride on and use for pulling heavy things) - horse
(soldiers riding on horses, cavalry) Set 2
8. turkey (a large bird, rather like a large chicken, kept on
farms for its meat which is eaten, especially at Christmas and
(in the US) at Thanksgiving) - turkey (a useless and silly
person)
9. chicken (a common farmyard bird) - chicken (the meat of
this bird eaten as food) 10. ermine (a small animal of the
weasel family whose fur is brown in summer and white in
winter) - ermine (the rank, position, or status of a king, peer, or
judge, especially one in certain European countries who wears,
or formerly wore, a robe trimmed with ermine, as on official or
state occasions)
11. mouse (a small rodent with a long thin tail) -
mouse (a shy, timid person)
12. butterfly (an insect with a long thin body and
four (usually brightly coloured) wings) - butterfly (a
person who never settles down to one job or activity for
long) 13. shark (any of various types of sea-fish with a
triangular fin on its back, some of which are large and
dangerous to bathers) - shark (a person who extorts
money from others or lends money at very high interest
rates, a swindler)
14. horse (a large strong four-legged animal with hard feet,
which people ride on and use for pulling heavy things) - horse
(an exercise apparatus for jumping over)

IX. The same word can develop both metaphorical and

metonymical meanings.
Analyse these phrases with the words from the thematic
group "Parts of the Body" and in each case determine the
type of meaning which the word realizes in the second
phrase: a) metaphorical, b) metonymical.
head
1. the head of a girl - the head of a
cabbage
2. the head of a girl - to count heads
3. the head of a girl - the head of a
household eye
4. the eye of a man - the eye of a potato
5. the eye of a man - to have an eye for
fashion mouth
 6. the mouth of a boy - the mouth of a
cave 7. the mouth of a boy - another mouth
to feed tongue
8. the child's tongue - his native tongue (Spanish)
9. the child's tongue - the tongue of a bell
10.the child's tongue - No tongue must
ever tell the secret heart
11.the heart of a person -
the heart of the matter
12.the heart of a person -
brave hearts hand
13.hands of a man - factory hands
14.the hand of a man -
the hand of a clock foot
15.the foot of a soldier - the foot of a mountain
16.the foot of a soldier - foot ("infantry")