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Abstract
This section is an introductory reference to process control. It discusses control
theory, control modes and problems and includes guidelines for typical process
control situations. This section also discusses controller tuning and control mode
selection.
Contents Page
310 Introduction
Process control is fundamental to most industrial processes. Although control tech-
nology has evolved greatly in arriving at today’s microprocessor and digital imple-
mentations, all control methods rely on the same basic structure, called a “control
loop.” Control loops have six basic constituents, as follows:
• Controlled variable. The condition that is being controlled
• Setpoint. The value at which a controlled variable must be maintained
• Manipulated variable. A condition (variable) that can be changed to cause the
controlled variable to change
• Controller. A device that keeps the controlled variable at the setpoint
• Final control element. The device adjusted by the controller(s) to change the
manipulated variable
• Disturbances. Process conditions that tend to change the value of the
controlled variable
changes the fuel flow (manipulated variable) by changing the position of the fuel
valve (final control element). Automatic control may be open loop (feed forward)
or closed loop (feedback).
A more common example of open loop control would be an automatic lawn sprin-
kler system. Here a clock timer opens a water valve for several minutes each day. It
would not check to see if the lawn needed water and would even turn on the sprin-
klers in the rain. Open loop control like these examples is not widely used. Open
loop control operating in a feed forward mode is frequently used along with closed
loop control. Feed forward control is discussed in Section 342.
On/Off Control
On/off control is the simplest mode of automatic control. It has only two outputs—
on (100%) or off (0%)—and only responds to the sign of the error—positive or
negative; i.e., whether it is above or below the setpoint.
Because of an effect known as constant cycling, on/off control is not generally suit-
able for continuous automatic feedback control. If the control valve in Figure 300-4
were to remain completely open when the level is above setpoint, and completely
closed when the level drops below setpoint, a constant cycling of valve position and
level would result (see Figure 300-5). As with open loop control, the varying level
resulting from constant cycling may be acceptable in some noncritical level applica-
tions.
extends the period and limits the amplitude of the controlled variable oscillations
(see Figure 300-6). On many controllers the size and position of the differential gap
is adjustable, permitting fine-tuning.
Differential gap control is suitable for some continuous automatic feedback control
loops. It slows the rapid cycling of on/off control, reducing wear on the final
control element while maintaining much of the simplicity of on/off control. A
typical application of differential gap control is the operation of a dump valve or
pump to keep a vessel level within an acceptable range.
Note that the proportional and integral actions depend on the error (defined as
setpoint measurement), but the derivative action only depends on the measurement.
Controllers are constructed this way so there will be no large change in controller
output when the operator enters a new setpoint for the controller.
Control Algorithm
The linear relationship between the setpoint deviation (error) and the valve position
(controller output) for proportional action can be expressed as follows:
O = Kc E
(Eq. 300-1)
where:
O = Controller output
Kc = Controller Gain = ∆Output / ∆Error
E = Error = (Setpoint - Measurement)
This equation is called the control algorithm. The gain, Kc, is also called the
controller sensitivity. It represents the proportionality constant between the control
valve position and controller error.
Proportional Band
Another way of characterizing a proportional controller is to describe its propor-
tional band. The proportional band is the percent change in value of the controlled
variable necessary to cause full travel of the final control element. The proportional
band, PB, is related to its gain as follows:
Kc= 100/PB
(Eq. 300-2)
Both proportional band and gain are expressions of proportionality. Manufacturers
may call their adjustments gain, sensitivity, or proportional band. Figure 300-8
shows the relationship between valve opening and proportional bands of different
percentages. High percentage proportional bands (wide bands) have a less sensitive
response than low percentage proportional bands (narrow bands).
Bias
Bias is the amount of output from a proportional controller when the error is zero.
Equation 300-1 implies that when the error is zero, controller output is zero. The
valve is either fully open or fully closed and provides no throttling action. Adding a
bias provides this throttling action. Equation 300-1 then becomes:
O = Kc E + B
(Eq. 300-3)
where:
B = Bias (percent of full output)
Typically, manufacturers set the bias at 50%. To prevent a process bump, the oper-
ator is sometimes allowed to adjust the bias before putting the controller in auto-
matic. Figure 300-9 shows controller output versus error at different proportional
bands with a 50% bias. At zero error, the controller output is 50% of full range for
any proportional band.
Offset
A controller’s error is the difference between its setpoint and measurement. In a
proportional-only controller, a change in setpoint or load introduces a permanent
error called offset (see Figure 300-10). It is impossible for a proportional-only
controller to return the measurement exactly to its setpoint, because proportional
output only changes in response to a change in the error, not to the error’s duration.
Fig. 300-9 Effects of Proportional Band with 50% Bias Fig. 300-10 Proportional Control Response to a
Load Change
∆E = PB (∆O) / 100
(Eq. 300-4)
where:
∆E = Change in error
PB = Proportional band
∆O = Change in valve position
The proportional-only controller is the easiest continuous controller to tune. It
provides rapid response and is relatively stable. If offset can be tolerated (loose
control), proportional-only control can be used.
n
m = K c E + -------∑ E∆T
1
TR
o
(Eq. 300-5)
where:
O = controller output
Kc = controller gain
E = error
TR = reset time, minutes per repeat
Σ = summation from time 0 to time n
∆T = interval between summations
Figure 300-12 shows the open loop response of proportional-plus-integral control.
Proportional control immediately acts to reverse the error. Integral action then
continues to change controller output until the error equals zero.
Wind-up
A basic problem with integral controllers is that integral action continues as long as
an error exists. Assume a proportional-plus-integral controller is used to maintain
the level in the gas-liquid separator vessel in Figure 300-4. If a valve is closed
upstream of the vessel, the level drops below the setpoint. The controller then
closes the control valve in the outlet line to maintain the level setpoint. With no
inlet flow, the control valve closes completely and the vessel level is still less than
the setpoint.
A pneumatic control valve will typically be fully closed at a controller output of 15
psig. Since the measured vessel level is less than the setpoint, the integral action of
the controller continues to increase the controller output to the air supply pressure
(typically 20-30 psig). The action of the integral controller trying to exceed the
normal range of the controller output is called wind-up.
If the upstream valve is opened and flow is restored, the vessel level will rise above
the setpoint. The response of the controller to this high level will be delayed by the
wind-up. When the controller does respond, the output goes to the opposite limit. In
this case, the control valve will fully open and the vessel level will drop sharply.
The controller may oscillate through several cycles, stroking the control valve from
stop to stop on each cycle, before the oscillations cease and control is restored.
Such oscillations overwork the control valve and, depending on the fluid and pres-
sures involved, can cause mechanical damage and seriously disrupt the process
downstream on the valve. An anti-wind-up feature may be included on controllers
that are frequently subject to this type of disturbance. This limits the controller
output range and thus prevents wind-up. When the process returns to normal, the
controller lag is eliminated and the oscillations are no worse than those in a propor-
tional controller.
Integral Time
Integral time should be proportional to the time it takes for the process to respond
to control action. When the process responds quickly, the integral time can be
shorter. If the integral time is too short, the control valve reaches its limit before the
measurement has time to respond. When the measurement does respond, it will
overshoot the setpoint, causing the integral to drive the valve to its opposite limit.
The time lag built into the gradual response of integral action lengthens the period
of oscillation of a loop. For a loop with proportional-plus-integral control, the
period of oscillation after a load change is longer than for proportional alone.
For loops where the exact value of the controlled variable is not critical, the shorter
period of the proportional-only controller can be an advantage. For example, a
vessel may operate within a wide range of liquid level without adversely affecting
pressure or gas quality. Therefore, the system level does not have to be accurately
controlled, and proportional control is often sufficient.
M n – Mn – 1
O = K c E n + T D -----------------------------
S
(Eq. 300-6)
where:
O = controller output
Kc = controller gain
En = error at time n
TD = derivative time, minutes
Mn = measurement at time n
Mn-1 = measurement at previous sampling time
S = Time between measurements (sampling time)
The derivative action is greatest when integral and proportional action are just
beginning to respond. Derivative action also responds to the change in sign of the
measured variable. This opposes the tendency of integral and proportional action to
overshoot the setpoint and enables the controlled variable to settle out faster than
with either proportional or proportional-plus-integral action.
In Figure 300-14, area A represents the proportional component of controller
output. Note that the proportional response is a function of the difference between
the setpoint and the measured variable. Areas B and C represent the component
added or subtracted by derivative action. As the measured variable stops decreasing
and starts increasing, the sign of the derivative function changes. The integral
action (area D) eliminates offset by not returning to zero when the proportional and
derivative actions return to zero output. Areas E and F represent the corrections that
result from all three actions taken together.
Derivative action, being sensitive to the rate of change of the measured variable,
cannot be used in processes that require fast response, or that have rapid fluctua-
tions or high noise levels. These conditions cause instability through large increases
in the derivative gain, and rapidly change direction (sign). Although derivative
action is difficult to tune because of its extreme sensitivity to measurement noise
and other high frequency disturbances, it does have some applications. Most impor-
tantly, it is used with proportional and integral action in temperature processes that
have large time lags.
Derivative action can be very helpful in controlling processes that have significant
deadtime, but using it can be difficult. Sometimes adding derivative action can
make the control loop appear slow and inactive with some types of process distur-
bances. This sluggishness might lead one to increase the amount of derivative and
perhaps also increase the controller gain. However, these new tunings might make
the controller unstable when a different disturbance occurs in the plant.
Because heat transfer is a slow process, the outlet temperature controller cannot be
tuned well enough to eliminate the effect of changing fuel flow (see Figure 300-15).
(For details on controller tuning, see Section 350.)
On the other hand, if the fuel flow remains steady while the pressure is changing,
the furnace temperature will be more constant. Fuel flow changes almost immedi-
ately when the control valve is moved. Therefore, the flow controller can be tuned
to eliminate most of the disturbances in fuel flow.
Such circumstances lend themselves to the use of cascade control: a fast process
(fuel flow), a slow process (furnace heat transfer), and a disturbance (fuel pressure)
that affects the fast loop. Figure 300-16 shows the cascade control system for the
furnace.
Compare Figure 300-17 to 300-15. With cascade control the outlet temperature is
much more steady. The fuel gas controller (secondary controller) has eliminated
almost all fuel pressure disturbance from the furnace.
Figure 300-19 shows what might happen in a real furnace as the feed rate is
changed. In the top graph, the feed rate to the furnace is raised at time 1. By time 2,
the furnace outlet temperature begins to drop below setpoint. The fuel valve then
begins to open and raises the outlet temperature back to the setpoint by time 3. In
the bottom graph, the fuel valve has begun to open by time B, and by time C the
furnace temperature is back to the original setpoint. With feed-forward and feed-
back control, the process has recovered from the feed rate disturbance much faster
than with feedback control alone. Note that the temperature’s period of oscillation
is the same in both cases. This period is a dynamic characteristic of the furnace and
cannot be changed by the control system. However, the feed-forward controller has
been able to reduce the size of the temperature disturbance and has speeded up the
recovery.
Feed-forward control should not be used by itself, but always with feedback
control, because the rate and magnitude of the reaction of a process to a disturbance
is rarely consistent.
TR = P/1.5 minutes
(Eq. 300-7)
TD = P/6 minutes
(Eq. 300-8)
6. With TR and TD set at above values, reestablish controller gain for quarter
decay.
Figures 300-21, 300-22, and 300-23 show how the three tuning parameters affect
the response of a controller. With proportional-only control, settling time is fairly
long and there is a permanent offset from the setpoint. Adding integral control
reduces settling time and eliminates offset. Adding derivative control to propor-
tional control reduces settling time but not offset. Only integral control eliminates
the offset.
To perform this test, change the controller valve position by a small amount and
record the controlled variable. The deadtime, TD, and time constant, TC, are
measured and their values used to calculate the controller tuning constants.
Figure 300-26 shows how the measurements are made and used.
Note that the process reaction curve method cannot be used to integrate processes
such as level control; when a valve controlling a level is changed the level
continues to change until the vessel overflows or empties. Level controllers can be
tuned using the ultimate sensitivity method or more advanced methods discussed in
Reference 5.
Figure 300-27 gives typical ranges of controller tuning constants for various
processes. Use these values with caution; your process might not be “typical.” The
exact values must be determined by one of the above methods. For future reference,
always record the control loop ID number (e.g., FRC-123), the date, and the tuning
constant when you have finished tuning a control loop.
360 References
1. Fundamentals of Process Control Theory. Instrument Society of America,
1981.
2. Process Control Systems. McGraw-Hill, 1979.
3. Process Instruments and Controls Handbook. McGraw-Hill, 1974.
4. Controllers & Control Theory. Production Facility Bookware Series, Interna-
tional Human Resources Development Corp., 1987.
5. Tuning and Control Loop Performance. Instrument Society of America, 1983.