Compressor Manual

COMPRESSOR MANUAL
Volume 1: Engineering Guidelines
CHEVRON RESEARCH AND TECHNOLOGY COMPANY

RICHMOND, CA
February 1998
Manual sponsor: For information or help regarding this manual,

contact R. G. (Robert) Abrams, 242-7211
Printing History
Compressor Manual
First Edition December 1988
First Revision March 1991
Second Revision December 1992
Second Edition December 1996
Restricted Material
Technical Memorandum
This material is transmitted subject to the Export Control Laws of the

United States Department of Commerce for technical data. Furthermore,
you hereby assure us that the material transmitted herewith shall not be
exported or re-exported by you in violation of these export controls.
The information in this Manual has been jointly developed by Chevron Corporation and its Operating
Companies. The Manual has been written to assist Chevron personnel in their work; as such, it may be
interpreted and used as seen fit by operating management.
Copyright  1988, 1991, 1992, 1996 CHEVRON CORPORATION. All rights reserved. This document
contains proprietary information for use by Chevron Corporation, its subsidiaries, and affiliates. All other
uses require written permission.
February 1998 Chevron Corporation

List of Current Pages
Compressor Manual
The following list shows publication or revision dates for the contents of this manual. To verify that your
manual contains current material, check the sections in question with the list below. If your copy is not
current, contact the Technical Standards Team, Chevron Research and Technology Company, Richmond,
CA (510) 242-7241.
Section Date
Volumes I and II:

Title Page December 1996
Front Matter December 1996
Table of Contents December 1996
Index December 1996
Volume I:
Section 50 December 1996
References December 1988
Appendix A March 1991
Appendix B December 1988
Appendix C December 1996
Appendix D March 1991
Appendix E December 1988
Appendix F December 1988
Appendix G December 1988
Appendix H December 1988
Appendix I December 1988
Appendix J December 1988
Appendix K December 1988
Appendix L December 1988
Chevron Corporation February 1998

Section Date
Volume I: (continued)
Appendix M December 1988
Appendix N December 1988
Appendix O March 1991
Appendix P February 1998
Volume II:
CMP-MS-1876-L October 1996

API-617 February 1995
CMP-MS-1626-J December 1992
API-618 June 1995
CMP-MS-4735-B December 1996
CMP-DS-4735 December 1988
CMP-MS-4736-B December 1996
API-11P November 1989
CMP-MS-4734 December 1988
CMP-DS-4734 December 1988
CMP-DG-4734 December 1988
CMP-MS-4762-A October 1996
API-614 August 1992
API-672 September 1996
API-673 January 1982 (Out of Print)
API-681 February 1996
List of Standard Drawings and Forms See the list in the Standard Drawings
and Forms sectionof this manual.
Current revision dates are shown for
Forms. Current Revision numbers are
shown for Standard Drawings.
Safety Instruction Sheets December 1988
Information about Specification Disks December 1996
February 1998 Chevron Corporation

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Compressor Manual
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Compressor Manual
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Compressor
Manual Sponsor: R.G. Abrams / Phone: CTN 242-7211 / E-mail: rgab@chevron.com
This document contains extensive hyperlinks (to figures and cross-referenced sections).
The pointer will change to a pointing finger when positioned over text which contains a link.
Volume 1 — Engineering Guidelines
List of Current Pages
50 Using This Manual 50-1
100 General Information 100-1
200 Centrifugal Compressors 200-1
300 Reciprocating Compressors 300-1
400 Rotary Compressors (Section not developed)
500 Process Fans and Blowers (Section not developed)
600 Inspection and Testing 600-1
700 Compressor Installation and Precommissioning 700-1
800 Maintenance and Troubleshooting 800-1
References
Appendices
Appendix A Reciprocating Compressor Performance Program
Appendix B Sample Problem
Appendix C Equation List and Nomenclature
Appendix D Conversion Factors
Appendix E Physical Factors
Appendix F Generalized Compressibility Charts
Appendix G Compressibility Charts
Appendix H Thermodynamic Property Charts
Appendix I Miscellaneous Charts
Appendix J Reciprocating Compressor Lubrication
Appendix K Distance Piece/Packer Venting For H2S
Appendix L Reliability and Availability Analysis
Appendix M Equipment Vendors
Appendix N Maintenance Checklists
Appendix O Centrifugal Compressor Performance Program
Appendix P Separator Vessel and Filter Design Guide
Chevron Corporation June 1993

50 Using This Manual
Abstract
The purpose of this section is to define how this manual is organized in order to
help the reader quickly find appropriate information. A Quick-Reference Guide
(Figure 50-1) is provided to highlight areas of the manual pertaining to most jobs.
Chevron Corporation 50-1 December 1996

50 Using This Manual Compressor Manual
Scope and Application

The Compressor Manual has been written for convenient reference by Company
personnel engaged in technical work on compressors. It is directed both to entry-
level personnel and non-specialists regardless of experience.
It covers the most commonly used compressors, focusing on four areas: fundamen-
tals; specifying and purchasing compressors; troubleshooting; and modifying
compressors. This manual should in no case be used as a substitute for sound
engineering judgment.
This manual contains guidelines and specifications to be used by Company
personnel. It can be used as is, or modified for local organizational or geographic
preferences, priorities, or experiences. This especially pertains to specifications.
The intent is to provide practical, useful information based on Company experi-
ence. Therefore, forms have been included in the front of the manual for your
convenience in suggesting changes. Your input and experience are important for
improving subsequent printings and keeping this manual up-to-date.
Organization
The Compressor Manual is part of a four-volume set on machinery:
• Pumps
• Compressors
• Drivers
• General Machinery and Support Systems
These manuals are interrelated; therefore, a list of cross references has been devel-
oped to assist you in finding related subject matter. (Please refer to the Cross-Refer-
ence Chart, Figure 50-2.)
Each machinery manual is organized using different-colored tabs to accommodate
each user in finding the appropriate level of information quickly. In summary:
• White tabs identify general-purpose topics.
• Blue tabs are Engineering Guidelines.
• Gray tabs are used for Specifications, Data Sheets, Data Sheets Guides, and
related industry standards (API).
• A Red tab is included for local documents.
Part I—Engineering Guidelines

This part of the manual contains: 1) information on principles of operation; 2)
examples of typical equipment; 3) criteria for equipment selection; 4) thermo-
dynamics; and 5) installation, precommissioning, and troubleshooting checklists.
December 1996 50-2 Chevron Corporation

Compressor Manual 50 Using This Manual
Part II—Specifications
This part of the manual contains: 1) general instructions for specifying and
purchasing compressors; 2) model specifications, data sheets, and data-sheet
instructions that can be copied or modified to local preferences; 3) industry stan-
dards (API) for commonly-employed compressors; 4) computer sizing disk.
Other Company Manuals

The text sometimes refers to documents in other Company manuals. These docu-
ments carry the prefix of that manual. The prefixes are defined here:
Prefix Company Manual
CIV Civil and Structural
CMP Compressor
COM Coatings
CPM Corrosion Prevention
DRI Driver
ELC Electrical
EXH Heat Exchanger and Cooling Tower
FFM Fluid Flow
HTR Fired Heater and Waste Heat Recovery
ICM Instrumentation and Control
IRM Insulation and Refractory
MAC Machinery Support Systems
NCM Noise Control
PIM Piping
PMP Pump
PPL Pipeline
PVM Pressure Vessel
TAM Tank
UTL Utilities
WEM Welding

Fig. 50-1 Compressor Manual Quick-Reference Guide

Task Compressor Manual Sections
Specifying and Purchasing a new compressor 2100
Learning background information about:
• Thermodynamics (compression fundamentals) 130
• Compressors 100, 200, 300
• Lube-, Seal-, and Control-Oil Systems 200, API 614
• Instrumentation and Controls 200, 300
Troubleshooting 800
Developing Purchase Specifications Model Specifications (Specifications Volume)
Specification disk (Back of Specifications Volume)
Filling out a Data Sheet Data Sheet Guide (where available)
Selecting the best category for a compressor 150
Selecting appropriate inspection and testing for new 600, Data Sheet Guides
compressors
Preparing an Installation Checklist
Preparing a Precommissioning Checklist 700
Locating information related to compressors (founda- See Cross-Reference Chart (Figure 50-2)
tions, alignment, balancing, lubrication, couplings,
bearings)
Retrofitting 200, 300
Predictive Maintenance 800
Reciprocating Compressor Calculation Computer Program: PC Disks
Program (Retrofits, Confirming designs) Instructions: Appendix A

Compressor Manual 50 Using This Manual
Fig. 50-2 Machinery Manuals Cross-Reference Chart (1 of 2)

General
Pumps Compressors Drivers Machinery
Alignment X
Application and Selection X X X X
Balancing X
Bearings X
Compression Fundamentals X
Compressors, Centrifugal X
Compressors, Integral X
Compressors, Reciprocating X
Couplings X
Critical Speed X
Lateral X
Torsional X
Design Audits X
Emission Control X
Engines X
Equipment Mounting X
Equipment Preservation X
Forced-Lube Systems X
Foundations X X X
Gas Turbines X
Gears, Gearboxes X
Generators X
Grouting X
Hydraulic Calculations X
Inspection and Testing X X X X
Installation X X X X
Instrumentation & Control X X X X
Lube-Seal Oil System Cleanup X
Lubrication X
Machinery Protection Systems X
Materials X X X X
Mechanical Seals X

Fig. 50-2 Machinery Manuals Cross-Reference Chart (2 of 2)

General
Pumps Compressors Drivers Machinery
Mothballing X
Motors, Induction X
Motors, Synchronous X
Oil Mist X
Oil-Field V-Belts X
Performance Monitoring X X X
Process Piping Arrangement X X
Pulsation Control X X
Pumps, Centrifugal X
Pumps, Metering X
Pumps, Reciprocating X
Pumps, Rotary X
Residual Imbalance Procedure X
Rotordynamics X
Seal-Oil Systems X
Specification & Purchasing X X X X
Startup X X X X
Steam Turbines, General X
Steam Turbines, Special X
Troubleshooting X X X X
Vibration Monitors X

100 General Information
Abstract
This section is an overview of dynamic (centrifugal and axial) and positive displace-
ment compressors and an overview which directs readers to more detailed informa-
tion on specific categories found in subsequent sections of the manual.
This section also provides background information on the principles of compres-
sion, including a discussion of thermodynamics. It is not essential that you read this
entire section, but you may wish to use it as reference material when selecting a
compressor.
To confirm your initial selection of a new compressor, you may find that unique site
requirements or economic factors pose serious problems for the original choice of
machine. Accordingly, it may be necessary to evaluate two or more categories (or a
combination of categories) of machines for a given application.
Contents Page
110 Introduction 100-3

111 Background
120 Compressor Categories 100-4
121 Dynamic Compressors
122 Positive Displacement Compressors
130 Thermodynamics of Compression 100-5
131 Introduction
132 Perfect Gas Equation and Compressibility
133 Gas Mixtures, Specific Gravity, and Humidity
134 Flow Measurements
135 Comparison of the Isothermal, Isentropic and Polytropic Processes
136 Isothermal Compression
137 Isentropic (Adiabatic) Compression
138 Polytropic Compression
139 Miscellaneous Notes

100 General Information Compressor Manual
140 Design Considerations 100-22

141 Compressor Duty
142 System Resistance and Characteristic Curves
143 Gas Analysis
144 Site Conditions
145 Service Requirements
150 Application and Selection Criteria 100-26
151 Selection Basis
152 Approximate Application Ranges
153 Compressor Selection Process
154 Selection Analysis
160 Packaging 100-41
170 Driver Selection 100-44
171 Function of Drivers
172 Driver Consideration
173 Driver Characteristics
174 Driver Selection
175 Special Driver Considerations
180 Suction System Design 100-56
181 Separator Vessels
182 High Efficiency Filters
183 Piping And Equipment Considerations

Compressor Manual 100 General Information
110 Introduction
111 Background
Most work involving compressors falls into one of three categories:
1. Purchasing and installing new compressors.
2. Troubleshooting problems during startup or while in service.
3. Modifying compressors to resolve problems or to accommodate operational or
service changes (different flow, gas pressures, etc.).
The overall goal in all three cases is the same: To maximize profits while providing
safe, reliable equipment which satisfies operating requirements and local environ-
mental constraints. Profitability is a long-term goal involving the following factors:
1. Meeting safety and environmental needs (including noise restrictions)
2. Initial cost
3. Installation and commissioning expense
4. Energy consumption (this is a major expense on compressors)
5. Reliability
6. Maintaining production (this is often the overwhelming economic factor)
7. Operability (troublesome equipment wastes resources that can be spent on prof-
itable work)
8. Starting up on time, the first time, in critical services
9. Maintenance expense
10. Operating flexibility
Although each of these factors must be considered when making decisions, there is
some degree of conflict between them. For example, buying an inexpensive unit
may keep initial costs down but it may also be less reliable and require frequent
maintenance. On the other hand, buying the ultimately reliable compressor may be
prohibitively expensive in up-front costs and unnecessary to ensure acceptable
performance.
Use judgment when deciding which factors are the most important. It is especially
important to communicate with the people responsible for operating and main-
taining the unit. Their input on the relative priority of the above factors is invalu-
able. In the end, however, engineering judgment will always be necessary.
Sub-section 154 contains additional information which illustrates how these factors
impact the overall cost.

120 Compressor Categories

Compressors may be classified into two main categories - Dynamic and Positive
Displacement. These are illustrated in Figure 100-1.
Fig. 100-1 Compressor Types
The range of application of compressors varies widely, with inlet pressures from
vacuum to several thousand pounds per square inch (psi) and discharge pressures
from less than atmospheric to well beyond 15,000 psi. The gases handled vary from
hydrogen, with a molecular weight of 2, to refrigerants and unusual gases having
molecular weights in the low hundreds. The sizes, types, and construction of
compressors vary greatly to accommodate this diversity of service.
121 Dynamic Compressors

Dynamic compressors develop a rise in pressure by increasing the kinetic energy of
the gas flow on a continuous basis. The types within this category include:
• Centrifugal (radial)
• Axial
Another means of compressing gases on a continuous-flow basis is the ejector. This
device has no moving parts, but requires a motive fluid which mixes with the gas
being compressed. Because of its rather low efficiency and limited scope of applica-
tion, the ejector is not covered in this manual. Typical applications include: vacuum
service on refinery vacuum distillation columns, and air ejection from the steam
condensers.
A centrifugal (dynamic) compressor is illustrated in Figure 100-2.
122 Positive Displacement Compressors

Positive displacement compressors perform work on the gas in a repetitive non-
continuous process. The types within this category include:
• Reciprocating

• Rotary
– Screw
– Sliding Vane
– Liquid Ring
– Roots (Straight Lobe) Blower
A reciprocating positive displacement machine is shown in Figure 100-3. Two
rotary positive displacement machines are shown in Figures 100-4 and 100-5.
Fig. 100-2 Cut-away of a Six-stage Vertically-split Fig. 100-3 Balanced-Opposed Horizontal Motor-
Centrifugal Compressor Driven, Four-Cylinder Reciprocating
Compressor, Plan View (Courtesy of
Dresser Rand)
Refer to Sections 200 and 300 for more detailed discussions on centrifugal and
reciprocating compressors.
130 Thermodynamics of Compression
131 Introduction
The principles of compression are based on thermodynamics. Compressing gases
involves complications that pumping liquids does not. The compressible nature of
gases requires us to account for their more complex behavior through the applica-
tion of thermodynamic principles.

Fig. 100-4 Cut-Away of a Two-Lobe Rotary Positive Fig. 100-5 Helical Lobe Rotary Positive Displacement
Displacement Compressor (Courtesy of Compressor (Courtesy of Howell Training
Roots Div., Dresser Industries) Group)
The following information provides a detailed tutorial on compression fundamen-

tals, to help understand how compressors work. However, it is not essential for
many applications; therefore, you may wish to bypass this material, and go directly
to Sub-section 140.
Understanding thermodynamics of compression, as described in this section, is
helpful for the following reasons:
1. It helps in selecting the best category and mechanical design for the required
flow rate and differential pressure. These selections can significantly impact
the total project cost (including installation and energy costs).
2. Properly defining the mass- and volumetric-flow rates is essential in design
and specification (including rerates), and may also be helpful in trouble-
shooting.
For example, there are several commonly used conventions for defining flow
rate:
– pounds/hour (lb/hr),
– million standard cubic feet per day (MMSCFD),
– standard cubic feet per minute (SCFM),
– actual cubic feet per minute (ACFM),
– inlet cubic feet per minute (ICFM), and
– moles per hour (mol/hr).
It is essential to work with consistent engineering units. (Errors are not uncommon.)
3. The thermodynamic properties of the gas (or mixture of gases) affect the
energy required to do the compression. The energy requirements affect both

the size of the driver and the mechanical design of the compressor. Both are
critical design factors in new applications and rerates.
4. The thermodynamic properties of a mixture of gases can be estimated, based
on the properties of the individual components. Most compression applications
involve mixtures.
5. In gases with water vapor, the water content also needs to be accounted for.
The following sub-sections review fundamental concepts which apply to all
compressors.
132 Perfect Gas Equation and Compressibility

Equation 100-1 defines the behavior of a “perfect” gas in terms of variables listed:
pressure, temperature, volume, etc. This is a helpful starting point, although few
gases actually are “perfect”:
pV = WRT
(Eq. 100-1)
where:
p = absolute pressure in pounds per square foot
V = volume in cubic feet
W = weight in pounds
R = Ro/M = constant for specific gas
Ro = universal gas constant = 1545.3 (ft.-lb./lb mol °R)
T = absolute temperature in degrees Rankine (°R)
M = molecular weight
For a continuous flow process, Equation 100-1 is modified as follows
PQ = 10.73wT
----------------------
M
(Eq. 100-2)
where:
Q = actual volumetric flow rate in cubic feet per minute (ACFM)
w = weight flow, pounds per minute and,
P is now in psia
To correct for deviations from a “perfect” gas, a compressibility factor, Z, is added
to Equation 100-2. Z is an empirical factor to correct the equation for actual, real
gases which deviate from “perfect.”

10.73wTZ
PQ = --------------------------
M
(Eq. 100-3)
For example:
At standard conditions (14.7 psia, 60°F) the factor (Z) of most gases is generally
assumed to be 1.0. However, some gases deviate appreciably even at standard condi-
tions. For example, normal butane has a Zo value of 0.975 (Zo denotes the factor at
standard conditions).
Values for Z are available in charts for the gas being compressed. If a chart is not
available, or if the gas is a mixture, generalized compressibility charts may be
used. To use these charts, it is necessary to compute the so-called reduced pressure
and temperature as follows[v]
P
P r = -----
Pc
(Eq. 100-4)
where:
T
T r = ------
Tc
(Eq. 100-5)
Pr = Reduced pressure
P = Actual absolute pressure, psia
Pc = Critical pressure of the gas, psia
Tr = Reduced temperature
T = Actual absolute temperature, °R
Tc = Critical temperature of the gas, °R
Appendices F and G contain a collection of compressibility curves for specific
gases and generalized charts. The critical temperature and pressure of a gas mixture
are explained in the next sub-section.
The compressibility of some pure gases, notably steam and ammonia, cannot
be accurately predicted using the generalized charts. However, steam tables and
an individual chart for pure ammonia are available. When the water vapor or
ammonia content of a mixture is small (5% or less), the generalized charts may be
used for the mixture with relatively good accuracy.
For gas mixtures containing hydrogen or helium, effective values of critical pres-
sure and temperature for helium and hydrogen must be used to derive acceptable
accuracy from the generalized charts. These effective values are included in
Appendix F.

Note also that Z values can be calculated using PPROP.
133 Gas Mixtures, Specific Gravity, and Humidity

Gas Mixtures
Knowing the mole fractions in a mixture leads to calculation of several important
properties of the mixture:
• the molecular weight, Mm
• molal specific heat, MCp(m)
• the critical pressure, Pc(m), and
• critical temperature Tc(m).
A sample problem is included in Appendix B. Also see Figure 100-6 for a sample
calculation.
The mole fraction X is
N1 N2 N3
X 1 = -------- , X 2 = -------- , X 3 = -------- , etc.
Nm Nm Nm
(Eq. 100-6)
where:
Nm = Total moles in a mixture
N1, etc. = Number of moles of each individual component
A “mole” is actually a number of molecules (about 6 x 1023 ). A “mole fraction” is
the ratio of molecules of one component in a mixture. For example, if the mole frac-
tion of methane in natural gas is 0.90, this means that 90% of the molecules are
methane. Since volume fractions are equivalent to mole fractions, the mixture
is also 90% (by volume) methane.
The mixture fractions could also be calculated on a mass or weight basis. The mole
(volume) basis is used in compressor calculations because it is a simpler, less
confusing method.
The molal specific heat is used to determine the k value (ratio of specific heats) as
follows. The k value is often called the adiabatic exponent, and is a value used in
the calculation of horsepower, adiabatic head, and adiabatic discharge temperature.
(Refer to Isentropic [Adiabatic] Compression.) The k value is:
Cp MC p ( m ) MC p ( m )
k = ------ = ----------------------------------- = ---------------------------------------
Cv Ro MC p ( m ) – 1.986
MC p ( m ) – -------- -
778
(Eq. 100-7)

Fig. 100-6 Sample Calculation of Gas Mixture Properties
where:
MCp(m) = Molal specific heat (heat capacity) of mixture at constant pressure
778 = Conversion factor, ft-lb/BTU
Cp = Specific heat at constant pressure
Cv = Specific heat at constant volume
Ro = See Equation 100-1 for R o definition
MCp(m) should be taken at the desired temperature (usually the average of suction
and discharge temperature). This aspect will be covered in Isentropic (Adiabatic)
Compression. Note that the k value of the mixture must be determined by first
determining the molal heat capacity of the mixture (see Figure 100-6). It is a

common mistake to multiply the k values of the individual gas components by their
respective mole fractions to determine the k value of the mixture.
Specific Gravity
The specific gravity of the gas mixture is determined by dividing the molecular
weight of the mixture by that of air.
Mm
S.G. = -------------
28.96
(Eq. 100-8)
Humidity
For air compressors it is usually necessary to account for water vapor content. It is
important to know the moisture content accurately when a process requires a defi-
nite quantity of dry air. Furthermore, the moisture in the inlet air affects the power
requirement, and water drop-out in intercoolers and aftercoolers.
Note that water-vapor content must also be accounted for as a component in
process streams, if present. In those cases, the content is usually available from
process engineering, gas and chemical engineering, etc.
The following information discusses how to account for water content in air.
Relative humidity, in percent, may be determined from the following relationship:
Pv
% R.H. = --------- ( 100 )
P sat
(Eq. 100-9)
where:
Pv = Partial pressure of actual water vapor content
Psat = Partial pressure of water vapor when air is fully saturated at the
temperature of interest (can be found in steam tables)
Specific Humidity is the ratio of the weight of the water vapor content to the
weight of dry air at the existing conditions of pressure and temperature, and is deter-
mined as follows:
Wv 18  P v 
S.H. = ---------- = -------------  --------------- 
W da 28.96  P – P v 
 Pv 
= 0.622  --------------- 
 P – Pv 
(Eq. 100-10)

where:
Wv = Weight of water vapor
Wda = Weight of dry air
P = Total pressure of the gas mixture (usually atmospheric), in abso-
lute
Relative and specific humidity may be obtained from a psychrometric chart when
the wet bulb and dry bulb temperatures are known. However, most psychrometric
charts are based on the International Standard sea-level pressure of 14.7 psia, and
are, therefore, accurate only for that barometric pressure.
For example, if a standard (14.7 psia) psychrometric chart were used for conditions
of 5000 feet elevation (12.23 psia), 80°F dry bulb, and 60°F wet bulb, the indicated
specific humidity would be low by about 25%, and the relative humidity low by
10%.
If the altitude is more than 200 or 300 feet above sea level, the following equation
should be used instead of a psychrometric chart:
P – P v ( wb )
- ( t – t wb )
P v = P v ( wb ) – ------------------------------------
2830 – 1.44t wb
(Eq. 100-11)
where:
Pv(wb) = Vapor pressure in psia corresponding to wet bulb temperature
(from steam tables)
t = Dry bulb temperature, °F
twb = Wet bulb temperature, °F
Knowing Pv, the relative and specific humidities can be calculated with
Equations 100-9 and 100-10. The volumetric or mole percent of the water vapor
can be calculated from Equation 100-6 as follows:
Pv
mol % H 2 O = ------ ( 100 )
P
(Eq. 100-12)
The mole percent of dry air is then 100 minus the mole percent of the water vapor.
The other properties of the mixture of air and water vapor (molecular weight, MCp,
etc.) may then be calculated.
134 Flow Measurements

Flow through a compressor may be stated in a number of different ways:
• MMSCFD

• Moles/Hour (MPH)
• SCFM
• ACFM
• Weight Flow
MMSCFD
MMSCFD denotes millions of standard cubic feet per day, where “standard”
means 14.7 psia and 60°F. This notation is often used in gas plant, gas transmission,
and refinery applications.
Moles/Hour (MPH)
Process engineers often use MPH in material balance computations. (A “mole” is a
fixed quantity of molecules. This concept greatly simplifies process calculations.) A
mole of any gas occupies approximately 379.4 cubic feet at standard conditions
(14.7 psia, 60°F), and it has a weight in pounds equal to the molecular weight of the
gas. For example, a mole of methane (CH4) would have a volume of 379.4 cubic
feet at standard conditions, and that volume would weigh 16.04 pounds. Knowing
the moles per hour, the MMSCFD may be determined from:
MPH ( 379.4 ) ( 24 )-
MMSCFD = ------------------------------------------
10 6
(Eq. 100-13)
SCFM
SCFM denotes standard cubic feet per minute, and is frequently used in compres-
sion work.
ACFM
Actual cubic feet per minute (ACFM) at the inlet, often called Q, is related to the
physical size of the compressor. Several design parameters are based on Q. ACFM
at inlet is also abbreviated ICFM. ACFM at the compressor discharge is sometimes
of interest, and in this manual it will be abbreviated DCFM (discharge cubic feet
per minute).
However, note that ICFM is the more appropriate term to use when referring to
inlet conditions. In many cases, ACFM is often used interchangeably with ICFM. If
there is any doubt, be sure to get clarification.
SCFM may be converted to ACFM, or Q, by:
Q 1 = ACFM
14.7   T 1   Z 1 
= ( SCFM )  ---------
 P -   --------
520   Z 0 
- ------
1
(Eq. 100-14)

where:
P1, T1, Z1 = Absolute pressure (psia), absolute temperature (°R), and
compressibility at the condition of interest.
Zo = Compressibility at standard conditions.
Refer to the nomograph in Appendix D for quick conversions between ICFM and
SCFM.
Weight Flow
Weight flow, w, may be calculated from any conditions of interest using the
following equation (derived from Equation 100-3):
P1 Q 1 M
w = --------------------------
10.73T 1 Z 1
(Eq. 100-15)
Refer to the nomograph in Appendix D for quick conversions between weight flow
and inlet cubic feet per minute.
Weight flow can also be determined from SCFM:
14.7 ( SCFM )M ( SCFM )M

w = -------------------------------------- = ---------------------------
10.73 ( 520 )Z 0 379.4 Z 0
(Eq. 100-16)
Zo is often taken as 1.0 regardless of its actual value. It is important to use the same
value for Zo in all calculations. Although the discrepancy would generally be no
more than one or two percent in a single calculation, it could be compounded after
conversions are made back and forth by several parties involved with the
compressor project. Be consistent.
When specifying compressors, it is best to use weight flow and MMSCFD or
SCFM, and to clarify the standard conditions to every one involved.
Other Conventions for Standard Conditions

Standard conditions of 14.7 psia and 60°F have been referred to in foregoing para-
graphs. This standard is prevalent in the USA in the petroleum and natural gas
industries. API Standards use these standard conditions. However, in working with
air compression systems, “Standard Air” as adopted by ASME is defined as air at
a pressure of 14.7 psia, a temperature of 68°F, and a relative humidity of 36%.
These conditions correspond to an air density of 0.0750 pounds per cubic foot.
(Refer to the “References” section of this manual for more information.)
In the metric system, the normal cubic meter per hour is a widely used flow term.
Normal refers to conditions of 760 mmHg Absolute (14.7 psia) and 0°C (32°F).
Weight flow is generally stated in kilograms per hour. The SI system uses kilopas-
cals for pressure (1 kPa = 0.145 psi). Other metric units such as kilograms per

square centimeter or Newtons per square meter are used. (Conversion tables are
included in Appendix D.)
The matter of standard conditions is further confused by the ISO conditions for
base-rating a combustion gas turbine. These conditions are 760 mm Hg Absolute,
15°C, and 60% relative humidity. The rated flow through the compressor on the
front end of a gas turbine is universally based on ISO conditions.
135 Comparison of the Isothermal, Isentropic and Polytropic Processes

The two actual methods used to calculate thermodynamic relationships are isen-
tropic (adiabatic) and polytropic. These calculations are the basis for determining
capacity, driver size, and mechanical design. The following explains the differences
and when they are used.
Figure 100-7 shows the compression paths of three theoretical processes:
isothermal, isentropic, and polytropic. The theoretical work needed for isothermal
compression is described by the area ABEF. It can be seen that the isothermal work
is appreciably less than that of the isentropic area ABDF. Similarly, the isentropic
area is smaller than the polytropic area ABCF.
Fig. 100-7 Theoretical Compression Paths on P-V Diagram for Different Processes
These differences can be attributed to differences in heat transfer (cooling). The

isothermal process would require continuous cooling during compression to negate
all of the temperature rise. In an actual compressor the theoretical isentropic
discharge temperature can sometimes be achieved by a moderate amount of cooling
during compression. Even so, the resultant process will not be purely isentropic
due to other losses in an actual machine. The polytropic path BC best represents an
actual process where there is no cooling during compression.

In practice, the isentropic and polytropic methods of analysis are both usable for
designing and predicting the performance of compressors.
It turns out that the isentropic (adiabatic) method is commonly applied to posi-
tive displacement compressors, because these machines are often equipped
with a cooling system that cools the casing or cylinder during compression,
making the actual temperature rise approach that of the theoretical adiabatic
process.
The polytropic process is typically applied to dynamic compressors in which
there is no cooling during the compression that takes place in any individual
stage. (There may be cooling between each stage or series of stages, but not within
a given stage.)
The positive displacement and centrifugal categories of compressors are covered in
further detail in Sections 200 and 300 of this manual.
136 Isothermal Compression

In an isothermal process, the temperature is unchanged during compression.
Although it is impossible to build a machine that will compress isothermally,
isothermal performance is approached as the number of intercoolers or other
cooling devices is increased.
Furthermore, although isothermal compression cannot actually be attained in prac-
tice, it is often used as the basis for comparison with other compression processes.
The effect of the number of coolers on compression power will be covered under
Polytropic Compression.
The following equation applies to an isothermal compression process:
P1 V1 = P2 V2 = Constant
(Eq. 100-17)
“Head” is a term often used for the work input to the compression process. The
units of head are foot-pounds (force) divided by pounds (mass). In general practice,
the unit of head is usually taken as “feet.” The theoretical head for an isothermal
process is:
Hisot = RT1 ln r
(Eq. 100-18)
where:
P
r = -----2- = pressure ratio
P1
Equation 100-18 may be used to evaluate other compression processes with various
amounts of cooling.

137 Isentropic (Adiabatic) Compression

Adiabatic Relationships
Isentropic means constant entropy (a definition of entropy is beyond the scope of
this manual). Adiabatic describes a process wherein no heat is added or subtracted.
For the sake of this discussion, it can be assumed that isentropic and adiabatic are
the same (although different thermodynamically).
Adiabatic compression is commonly assumed for reciprocating, but not centrif-
ugal compressors.
In isentropic processes, the following relationships apply:
P1V1k = P2V2k = C
(Eq. 100-19)
where:
C = constant
k
= ratio of specific heats (see Sub-section 133)
Z1 + Z2
 k-----------
–1
-   ------------------
-
r k – 1  2 
H ad = RT 1 --------------------------
k–1
------------
k
(Eq. 100-20)
where:
Had = adiabatic head, ft.
k–1
------------
x = r k –1
(Eq. 100-21)
where:
x = a factor created for convenience
T2(theo) = T1 (x + 1)
(Eq. 100-22)
where:
T2(theo) = adiabatic discharge temperature (theoretical absolute discharge
temperature assuming 100% adiabatic efficiency)
T 2 = T 1 1 + -------- 
x
 η ad 
(Eq. 100-23)

where:
ηad = adiabatic efficiency
T2 = Actual discharge temperature, °R
wH ad
Ghp = --------------------------
33 ,000η ad
(Eq. 100-24)
where:
Ghp = gas horsepower
Notice that Equation 100-20 has been corrected by an average compressibility,
(Z1 + Z2) / 2. Averaging is a fairly accurate approximation of the correction
required.
Because of the non-ideal (non-perfect) behavior of many gases, the k exponent does
not remain constant during compression. For air, diatomic gases, and inert gases,
the change in k is small when the pressures are moderate. However, for most hydro-
carbon gases, the variance of k during compression is substantial. The usual correc-
tion is to calculate k using MCp (see Equation 100-7) at the average of the
compressor (or stage) suction and discharge temperature. MCp values at 14.7 psia
are given in the Appendix of this manual.
Using the MCp at atmospheric pressure and average compression temperature for
compressor head and power calculations is sufficiently accurate for most applica-
tions. However, for very high pressures or other unusual conditions, further correc-
tions are necessary. Such corrections will be covered under Polytropic
Compression.
Adiabatic Efficiency
Since the change in entropy is not zero in an actual adiabatic compression process,
an adiabatic efficiency (ηad) is used in Equation 100-23 and 100-24. In order to
calculate MCp at average compression temperature, it is necessary to estimate the
adiabatic efficiency to arrive at a discharge temperature per Equation 100-23. If the
estimate is inaccurate, a second iteration may be required.
Thermodynamic Diagrams
Thermodynamic-property diagrams account directly for deviations of a real gas
from ideal relationships. These diagrams are a plot of gas properties, commonly
including: enthalpy, entropy, pressure, and temperature. Occasionally, a special
diagram is developed for a widely used gas mixture such as a refrigerant. However,
note that few charts are available for mixtures, and this method is therefore not
commonly used for hydrocarbon mixtures.
When a diagram is used to predict changes of state during compression, compress-
ibility and variance of k are not needed because these variables are already factored
into the diagrams. In general, then, this method is more accurate than
Equation 100-20, and when charts are available, it is certainly more convenient.

Diagrams are often used in compressor calculations for heavier hydrocarbon gases
such as propane and propylene that tend to deviate considerably. Diagrams for
many pure gases are well established. The Appendix includes an assortment of
these diagrams.
The following equations pertain to the use of diagrams for compressor calculations.
Note that for an isentropic process, there is no change in entropy, S.
S2(theo) - S1 = 0
(Eq. 100-25)
where:
S2(theo) = S1 = entropy at suction conditions
∆h(theo)= h2(theo) - h1
(Eq. 100-26)
where:
h1 = enthalpy at suction conditions, Btu/lb
h2(theo) = theoretical enthalpy at discharge pressure and S1, Btu/1b
∆h ( theo )
h 2 = -------------------- + h 1
η ad
(Eq. 100-27)
where:
h2 = actual enthalpy at discharge pressure and temperature, Btu/lb
ηad = adiabatic efficiency
Note that the actual discharge temperature T2 may now be found on the thermody-
namic diagram at the point corresponding to h2 and P2.
Had = (778) ∆h(theo)

(Eq. 100-28)
The gas horsepower may now be calculated by using Equation 100-24.
138 Polytropic Compression

Polytropic compression is commonly assumed for dynamic (centrifugal and
axial) compressors.
The previous discussion of the adiabatic process showed that its relationships need
mathematical corrections to make credible predictions. The corrections are compro-
mises between theory and actual gas deviations, and they do not always yield suffi-
ciently accurate predictions for some types of applications. Unfortunately, even
this process requires adjustments to account for the non-ideal behavior of
many gases.

Polytropic Relationships
The polytropic compression process is described mathematically as follows.
n n
P1 V1 = P2 V 2 = C
(Eq. 100-29)
where:
n = polytropic exponent
k–1
η p = ------------
k
------------
n–1
------------
n
(Eq. 100-30)
where:
ηp = polytropic efficiency
n–1
H poly = RT 1 r n – 1 Z + Z
------------
  1 2
--------------------------  ------------------- 
n–1 2
------------
n
(Eq. 100-31)
where:
Hpoly = polytropic head, ft.
n–1
------------
T 2 = T1 r n
(Eq. 100-32)
wH poly
Ghp = ----------------------
-
33 ,000η p
(Eq. 100-33)
In Equation 100-30, k is ordinarily taken at the average compression temperature
by most compressor manufacturers. Therefore, when estimating overall flange-to-
flange performance, use k at average flange-to-flange temperature to yield results
very close to those of stage-by-stage calculations. In the case of single-stage
machines, the difference between k at inlet temperature and average temperature is
generally very small. Accordingly, in this manual, k at average compression temper-
ature will be used.

A thermodynamic diagram can be used for a polytropic calculation by first deter-

mining the adiabatic head Had using Equations 100-26 and 100-28. Polytropic head
Hpoly can then be determined by:
 ηp 
H poly = H ad  -------- 
 η ad 
(Eq. 100-34)
The relationship between polytropic and adiabatic efficiencies is:
k–1
------------
r k –1
η ad = ----------------------
 k-----------
– 1
-
 kη p 
r –1
(Eq. 100-35)
This relationship is graphically represented by Figure 100-8.
Fig. 100-8 Adiabatic and Polytropic Efficiency Relationships

From the foregoing discussion, it should be obvious that k is not equal to η. In

some of the early compressor publications, the k and η exponents were erroneously
treated as the same value. This error may have been one of nomenclature. At any
rate, it is important to recognize that k is associated with the adiabatic process, and
η with the polytropic process.
139 Miscellaneous Notes

Some gases have extraordinarily large deviations from ideal behavior near their crit-
ical conditions or at high pressures. For example, carbon dioxide at 1500 psia and
100°F has a compressibility factor, Z, of about 0.27. Furthermore, if the tempera-
ture is increased by only 20°F, there is a 40% increase in the compressibility factor.
If a small amount of methane is mixed with carbon dioxide, the compressibilities
change significantly, and predictions of these compressibilities by generalized
charts is not reliable.
There are a few compressor applications that must deal with widely deviating
gases. The values for Z and k vary so much that conventional methods of calcula-
tions for the compressor gas properties do not have sufficient accuracy. For these
somewhat rare occasions, various equations of state are used. There are a number
of these empirical relationships in existence, and each set of relationships tends to
have some advantages over the other sets for certain gas compositions.
Several equations of state that have been developed to predict thermodynamic prop-
erties include the Benedict-Webb-Rubin, Peng-Robinson, Redlich-Kwong, and
Martin-Hou equations. Typical gas compositions to which these correlations are
applied include ultra-high pressure hydrocarbons, high-pressure carbon dioxide,
some refrigerants, and some chemical plant gases. These relationships are generally
processed with a mainframe computer. A description of these complex correlations
is beyond the scope of this manual. To meet our needs, when dealing with
compressor applications where the gas deviations are very large, advice should be
sought from a process engineer with experience in the use of these equations of
state.
140 Design Considerations

Compressor sizing can involve several levels of detail, arbitrarily defined below:
1. Specifying the flow rate, pressure rise, and gas composition, leaving the
machine design and selection to the manufacturer. This is the quickest,
simplest approach, but it may not involve the Company in important design
details. This method is not commonly used.
2. Close estimations (±10% typically) based on empirical correlations of
energy consumption, temperature rise, and installation cost. Several
sources exist and they are commonly used by producing locations to size recip-
rocating compressors. One set of correlations is presented in Section 300.
3. A detailed analysis based on the equations developed in Sub-section 130. This
may be helpful in selecting the most effective category of compressor (recipro-

cating, centrifugal, etc.), in cases where the category has not been determined.
These equations can be used to estimate energy requirements and compression
temperatures.
4. Rigorous, detailed analyses and calculations to determine compression
energy, power required, gas temperatures, pressure rise, and mechanical
stresses. These analyses are done by equipment vendors and are beyond the
scope of this manual.
141 Compressor Duty

The first step in specifying compressors is to define the required compression duty.
This includes defining:
• flow rate
• gas composition
• suction pressure
• suction temperature
• discharge pressure
The Compressor Pressure Profile Worksheet, CMP-EF-876, in the “Standard Draw-
ings” section of this manual may be used for determining and recording inlet and
discharge conditions.
These conditions should be confirmed and the variability of the conditions deter-
mined.
In most applications, future, or alternate operating conditions can significantly
affect the sizing and characteristics of the compressor system. Following is a list of
typical changes affecting compressor duty:
1. Build-up in discharge pressure of gas injection compressors as the resistance of
the oil field formation increases with time, or as more compressors are added
to the system.
2. Increase in flow rate and change in molecular weight of gas gathering system
as an oil-field's gas-to-oil ratio increases with time.
3. Large change in molecular weight, flow, and pressures during periodic catalyst
regeneration in a process plant.
4. Increase in system pressure drop due to fouling of equipment during a run.
5. Change in feedstock to a process unit.
6. Seasonal changes of ambient temperature and cooling water temperature.
7. Start-of-run (SOR) versus end-of-run (EOR) conditions in a refining unit.
8. Routine turndown of compressor capacity.
Initially, you must accurately determine the pressure/flow envelope where the
compressor operates. If available, review the process flow diagram and a pressure

profile in detail with the operating, or project representative to assure that all factors
have been considered. If a process flow diagram is unavailable, make a sketch of
the flow circuit. If you question the pressure drop allowances, review the calcula-
tions with the operating, or project representative. Refer to the Fluid Flow Manual
for information on pressure drop calculations.
It is extremely important that you accurately determine the suction pressure. For
example, if a four-stage reciprocating compressor is sized for compression from 20
to 4400 psia, and the actual suction pressure turns out to be 25 psia, the actual
weight flow will be 25% higher, and the horsepower required 19% higher than
predicted.
142 System Resistance and Characteristic Curves

A system resistance curve can be drawn after the pressure profile is accurately deter-
mined. This curve plots the system discharge pressure or head versus inlet volu-
metric flow, and reflects the complete piping system friction losses. Each point on
the curve shows the head or pressure required to deliver an amount of flow through
the piping system.
The system resistance curve can be superimposed on the compressor's actual charac-
teristic curve to show the point at which the compressor will operate. Sections 200
and 300 provide more detailed discussions. The following provides an introduction
to system resistance and compressor characteristic curves.
System Resistance Curve

The system resistance met by a compressor can vary from a constant discharge pres-
sure to a variable relationship as shown in the generalized system resistance curves
of Figure 100-9.
Examples of the three types of curves are:
Type 1 - Constant Pressure

• Gas Lift
• Gas Injection
• Refrigeration
• Plant/Air Instrument Air
Type 2 - Combined Constant Pressure and Friction

Process with piping and equipment plus constant pressure drop through catalyst bed.
Type 3 - Predominately Friction

Systems with only piping, fittings, and equipment such as heat exchangers.
Compressor Characteristic Curve

General characteristic curves for the four types of compressors at constant speed
are shown in Figure 100-10.

Fig. 100-9 System Resistances
Fig. 100-10 Constant Speed Characteristics of Various Types of Compressors

143 Gas Analysis

A gas analysis should be provided for all present and future operating conditions,
and it should be checked for the presence of sulfides, chlorides, or other corrosive
agents. These contaminants can have a major effect on the selection of the materials
of construction. Hydrogen embrittlement is a potential problem in compressing
gases having a significant hydrogen partial pressure. If the gas is “wet” with water
or hydrocarbon liquids, it may be necessary to provide special separation and
heating equipment for the compressor suction system.
144 Site Conditions

The climatic conditions play an important role in the compressor applications.
Compressors are normally in a heated enclosure in frigid climates, and are some-
times enclosed in temperate climates. If the ambient temperature is -20°F or less,
special material requirements are needed for an air compressor with an atmospheric
suction, regardless of a heated enclosure. The climate also dictates the requirements
for winterization and tropicalization.
Environmental restrictions on noise and emissions, area classification for elec-
trical devices, and any special safety hazards should be reviewed.
Data sheets that accompany compressor specifications have provisions for indi-
cating the site conditions and requirements. (See the Specifications section of this
manual.)
145 Service Requirements

The criticality of the service should be thoroughly reviewed. A service may be
termed “critical” if one or more of the following conditions exist:
1. Compressor does not have a spare: and therefore, failure would cause an inter-
ruption in production resulting in substantial economic losses. (See
Appendix L for a discussion of availability and reliability factors related to
new purchases.)
2. Service is such that a compressor failure could cause damage in the plant.
3. Service is such that a compressor failure could create a safety hazard.
150 Application and Selection Criteria

This section discusses the range of application, limitations, and the advantages and
disadvantages of each type of compressor (see Sub-section 120 for categories).
Refer to the specific sections of this manual to confirm the initial selection.

151 Selection Basis

Selection of compressors involves concurrently satisfying the following require-
ments:
1. Suitability for service - the machinery should be sized for rated conditions
and be sufficiently flexible to accommodate off-design conditions.
2. Dependability - the design should have proven reliability and be easy to main-
tain.
3. Economic performance - the efficiency should be high without undue sacri-
fice in flexibility and reliability.
4. Safety and environmental compatibility - the installation should permit safe
operation while complying with noise and environmental regulations.
5. Low cost - the installed cost (factored with financial, operating, and mainte-
nance costs) should result in the lowest evaluated cost for the payback period.
152 Approximate Application Ranges

Approximate application ranges in terms of ICFM and discharge pressure for four
categories of compressors can be quickly approximated using Figure 100-11.
Figures 100-12 through 100-16 provide further information to clarify the decision.
These figures will help resolve conflicts in selection when the application falls into
an area of overlap in Figure 100-11.
See Sub-section 153 for a more detailed explanation for selecting compressor cate-
gories.
Note that the data used in these figures are generalized and there may be cases
where a certain manufacturer has a design that will surpass the practical limits
shown.
153 Compressor Selection Process

After the compression duty has been sufficiently defined, the following steps may
be taken for initial selection of the best category of compressor. See
Sub-section 141, “Compressor Duty.” This assumes you have not determined the
category already.
Step 1.
Convert flow rate to ICFM using Equation 100-3 (also see Equations 100-32,
100-33 and 100-34).
Step 2.
Calculate overall pressure ratio, roa = final discharge pressure/suction pressure
(absolute pressures must be used).

Fig. 100-11 Approximate Application Ranges
Step 3.
Calculate discharge temperature, T2, using Equation 100-32 and an adiabatic effi-
ciency, ηad,of 0.75 for all types of machines except reciprocating. Use ηad = 1.0 for
reciprocating compressors. (Note that absolute temperatures in Rankine must be
used.)
The 0.75 efficiency is an arbitrary value that is convenient for making an initial
rough estimate. An ηad of 1.0 for reciprocating is suitable for most applications as
this machine tends to achieve nearly perfect adiabatic temperature rise when a
coolant is circulated through the cylinder jacket. (However, do not use ηad = 1.0 for
power calculations. See Step 10.)
Step 4.
If the discharge temperature is less than 300°F the application can most likely be
achieved in one step of compression, without intercooling, with a centrifugal or
rotary compressor. For reciprocating machines, the discharge temperature for a
single cylinder should be less than 300°F.

Fig. 100-12 Selection Guide
Fig. 100-13 Axial Compressor – Application Ranges and Selection Notes

Ranges:
ICFM: Typical: 75,000 - 250,000
Low: 30,000
High: 1,000,000
Discharge Pressure: Typical: 15 - 150 psig

High: 550 psig (special design for LNG plant)
Discharge Temperature: Typical: 400 - 650°F

High: 720°F
No. of Stages per casing: Typical: 6 - 15

High: 20 (special to 22)
Adiabatic Head per Stage, ft: Typical: 4000 - 5000

High: 6000
Speed, RPM: 2800 - 12,000
Bhp per casing: Typical: 6000 - 50,000

High: over 100,000
Selection Notes:
• Generally used for air service - high volume and relatively low pressure. Typical pressure ratios for air service
are 2.5 to 7. High pressure ratio is about 14.
• Is more efficient than centrifugal.
• Is usually physically smaller and lighter in weight than centrifugal for same duty.
• Speed is somewhat higher than that of centrifugal for same duty.
• Two casings can be put in tandem arrangement, but it is seldom done.
• Some designs have provisions for intermediate nozzles for intercooling or sidestreams, but this feature is not
often employed.
• Very narrow stable operating range at constant speed - about 12%.
• Some designs utilize one or more centrifugal impellers on the high-pressure end of the rotor. This feature
greatly improves stable operating range.
• Can be fitted with variable stator vanes on first through fifth (and higher) stages to widen performance map.
Machines so fitted are often operated at constant speed.
• Relatively quiet operation.
• Typical applications: Large air compressors, such as FCC or coker air blowers. Front-end air compressor for
combustion gas turbines (not specified separately)

Fig. 100-14 Centrifugal Compressor–Application Ranges and Selection Notes

Ranges:
ICFM: Typical: 1500 - 100,000
Low: 500
High: 180,000 (360,000 for double suction)
Discharge CFM (DCFM): Low: 250 ( can be lower with special designs)
Discharge Pressure, psig: Typical: 15 - 4000
High: 10,000 (one design has been tested at 13,000)
Discharge Temperature, °F Typical: 250-300
High: 350 (with oil seals)
500 with (labyrinth seals)
No. of impellers per casing: Available: 1 - 10
High: 8 - 10 (to 20,000 ICFM)
6 - 7 (20,000 - 40,000 ICFM)
4 - 5 (>40,000 ICFM)
Adiabatic Head per Stage, ft: Typical: 8000 - 10,000
High: 13,000 (special to 30,000)
Speed, RPM: Typical: 3000 - 14,000
High: 30,000 (special to over 50,000)
Bhp per casing: Typical: 1000 - 20,000
High: over 50,000
Selection Notes
• Most versatile type of compressor with wide application range.
• Each lower pressure casing may have up to three pairs of intermediate nozzles (8 nozzles total) for
connecting intercoolers. This means that one casing can have as many as four sections of compression, but
typically only three sections per casing are used. Note that only one intermediate nozzle is required to intro-
duce or extract each sidestream. Some refrigeration compressors have as many as three sidestreams.
• As many as four casings have been driven in tandem without interposed gear. Two casings in tandem are
commonplace, as are two casings separated by a gear.
• Polytropic efficiency varies widely from about 60% at low ICFM to over 80% at very high ICFM.
Efficiency also varies inversely with number of impellers in series.
• 1000 ICFM or 1000 Bhp are about the minimum economic sizes in API class machines. Refrigeration class
machines down to 500 Bhp are available.
• Noisy without acoustic treatment
• Stable operating range for one multi-stage casing is usually about 30% at constant speed. Further capacity
reduction at constant speed can be done by (1) variable inlet guide vanes on first stage (fairly efficient), (2)
suction or discharge throttling (less efficient), or (3) bypass (inefficient). When two or more casings are driven
in tandem, the overall stable operating range is reduced. Stable operating range varies inversely with number
of impellers in series.
• 10 impellers per casing is generally not recommended. Use a maximum of 8 impellers per casing for initial
estimating.
• Typical applications: Process-gas recycle, high-capacity plant/process air systems, pipeline compression,
high-capacity refrigeration.

Fig. 100-15 Reciprocating Compressor – Application Ranges and Selection Notes

Ranges:
ICFM: Typical: 100 - 3000
High: up to 7500 per cylinder for vacuum or low pres-
sure service to 20 psig discharge, or 6000 to 50
psig.
Discharge Pressure, psig: Typical: 40 - 6000
High: up to 15,000 (special to over 35,000)
Discharge Temperature, °F: Typical: 250
High: 300 (400 in special cases)
No. of crank throws per Typical: 2-6
frame: Maximum: 8 (10 available)
Speed, RPM: Typical: 1000 (5-inch stroke)
720 (7-inch stroke)
514 (10-inch stroke)
Bhp: Typical: 150 - 6000
High: 12,000
Selection Notes
• Very high efficiency. At pressure ratios of 2.5 - 5 per stage, adiabatic efficiency is 85 - 89%, and mechanical
efficiency is 95% for slow-speed (600 RPM or less) machines rated at 200 HP and higher. At pressure ratios
lower than 1.5, valve losses become significant.
• Available in non-lubricated version with minor sacrifice in efficiency and reliability.
• Horizontally opposed configuration requires large plot area which is especially significant on skidded (pack-
aged) units. Vertical, “Y”, and “L” configurations reduce plot area, but limit number of cylinders per frame.
• Can usually achieve capacity control down to 25% with five-step unloading (down to 12-1/2% on multi-unit
installation, or unit with two first-stage cylinders). Small loss in efficiency at reduced capacity.
• Also can bypass discharge back to suction for more capacity control.
• Typical Applications: Downstream—Hydrogen makeup/booster compression, overhead/flare gas compres-
sion, small instrument air compression, refrigeration. Upstream—Gas injection, gas processing, gas-product
compression.

Fig. 100-16 Rotary Compressor—Application Ranges and Selection

Ranges:
ICFM: Typical: 300–2000
High: 30,000 (For low-pressure and vacuum service)
Discharge Pressure, psig: Typical: 40–150
High: 550 (usually attained in typical: second of two
casings in tandem.
Discharge Temperature, °F Typical: 200–300
Maximum: 450 (for some designs)
Pressure Ratio, Typical: 2–3
P2 /P1: High: 4 (20 is attainable with oil-flooded and liquid ring
machines.)
Differential Pressure, Typical: 10–75
(P2/P1), psi: High: 170
Speed, RPM: Typical: 300–3600
High: 20,000
Bhp: Typical: 50–2000
High: 6000
Selection Notes
• Available in oil-flooded, drop-lubricated, “dry” (oil-free), and liquid-ring design. When the oil-flooded or liquid-
ring version is applied, the discharge temperature is substantially less than that indicated by adiabatic calcu-
lations. For example, the actual discharge temperature might be 200°F or less versus a calculated value of
350°F.
• Good efficiency at low-pressure ratios (somewhat lower than that of reciprocating).
• Require inlet and discharge silencers at higher power levels to achieve tolerable noise level.
• Very good for skidding and semi-portable installations due to small size and freedom from vibration.
• Are often two-staged by connecting two casings in tandem. Tandem arrangement allows sidestream (in or
out) between casings.
• Can have stepless capacity control down to 10 - 15% of rated with hydraulically operated slide valve. Effi-
ciency loss at turndown greater than that of reciprocating.
• Capacity control can also be achieved by speed adjustment down to 50% of rated speed.
• Dry (oil-free) units are very noisy.
• Typical Application: Freon, NH3 refrigeration, plant air.
Step 5.
If Step 4 indicates that intercooling is not necessary, refer to Figure 100-11 and
select the type of compressor. Then proceed to Step 10.

Step 6.
If the temperatures cited in Step 4 are exceeded, more than one step of compression
will probably be required (note that the word “step” is used to denote a section of
the compression duty to avoid confusion with compression “stages.”) Each row of
blades in an axial machine or each impeller in a centrifugal compressor is called a
“stage.” Whereas each cylinder of a reciprocating machine is usually called a
stage; and each casing of two rotary compressors in tandem is called a stage. The
number of steps or sections can be estimated by assuming an equal pressure ratio
for each step. Use 2% allowance for pressure drop between the steps. By trial-and-
error method, use the following equation and Equation 100-12 to determine the
number of steps keeping the discharge temperature at 300°F or less:
1
---
r oa n
r = ------------------------
-
( 0.98 ) n – 1
(Eq. 100-36)
where:
r = pressure ratio of each step
roa = overall pressure ratio
n = number of steps ; 2,3,4..
n - 1 = number of intercoolers
Step 7.
Calculate suction and discharge pressure for each step of compression using the r
determined in Step 6 and taking a 2% pressure drop between each step.
Step 8.
Calculate ICFM for each compression step. The suction temperature for the first
step should be known. If suction temperature for succeeding steps is unknown, use
15°F plus the temperature of available cooling water; or if cooling with air coolers
is desired, use 25°F plus the design maximum ambient temperature. If these values
are not yet known, use 100°F as suction temperature of succeeding steps.
Step 9.
Refer to Figure 100-11 and select the compressor category that will satisfy the
ICFM and discharge pressure for all compression stages. Generally, it is desirable
that one type of compressor will handle all steps. Refer the initial selection back to
the process designer (if available) to insure the selection is compatible with the
process requirements. Occasionally, it may be necessary to use a combination of
types such as axial for the low-pressure (LP) step and a centrifugal for the high-
pressure (HP) step. Another example would be a centrifugal and a reciprocating for
LP and HP steps, respectively.

Step 10.
Calculate weight flow using Equation 100-15 and assume that this value is constant
for all compression steps. Calculate adiabatic head and Ghp for each step using
Equation 100-20 and 100-24. For the first estimate, it is convenient to use adiabatic
relationships for all types of compressors to minimize computations. Also,
compressibilities can be neglected in most cases unless the gas deviates widely.
Add the Ghp's to find the total Ghp for the compression duty.
Step 11.
Review Figure 100-12 through 100-16 which may help resolve the choice of the
compressor when the application falls into an overlapped area.
Step 12.
At this point, some thought should be given to reliability and availability of the
compression system. (See Appendix L for more information.) If the service is
deemed to be critical, the following number of machines are typically used:
Axial and Centrifugal: One 100% unit
Reciprocating: Three 50% or two 100% units
Rotary: Same as reciprocating (Rotary are seldom
used in critical service.)
For a general purpose service, one 100% unit is the usual choice. In some instances,
the capacity may vary widely on a seasonal basis, or it may build up over a period
of years. In such cases, it may be economical to use more smaller sized units.
Step 13.
Proceed to the section of the manual corresponding to the selection made in the
above steps (Sections 200 or 300). Review this information to verify and refine the
selection.
Step 14.
If the type of driver is known, make sure that it is compatible with the size and
rating of the type of compressor selected. If the type of driver is unknown, use
Sub-section 170 preliminarily and then refer to the Driver Manual. Due to limita-
tions of the driver or size of the compressor train, it may be necessary to use two or
more equally sized trains for the required compression capacity. This step should be
considered along with Step 12.
Step 15.
When the application involves the introduction of sidestreams (e.g., refrigeration
compressor), it is necessary to calculate the properties of the mixture of the two gas
streams at the entrance of the next section or stage of compression.

Step 16.
Contact at least two vendors for each type of compressor selected. Have each
vendor prepare preliminary selections, and submit order-of-magnitude prices and
estimated performance information. If it becomes evident that a small process
design change might save a considerable amount of money, the change should be
referred to the process designer. In some cases the process design can be conserva-
tive and a slight modification may allow a substantial savings.
154 Selection Analysis

After the initial selection has been made and estimating information has been
received from vendors, it is advisable to make a preliminary analysis of the
following factors to confirm the economic feasibility of the compressor:
• Purchase price of compressor and driver;
• Cost of auxiliaries;
• Space requirements;
• Foundation requirements;
• Installed cost;
• Cost of utilities (cooling water, electricity, steam, etc.);
• Annual compressor-load profile (amount of operating time at full and part
loads);
• Annual power, steam, or fuel costs corresponding to load profile;
• Compressor availability versus production goals;
• Economic factors of interest on capital, depreciation, income tax, and escala-
tion;
• Local experience (are operating and maintenance personnel familiar with the
type of machine selected?); and
• Standardization of machines and spare parts.
This analysis is particularity important when two or more categories or types of
compressors are initially selected. A quick look at first costs or installed costs
will rarely provide a reliable indication of the overall life cycle costs of owning
and operating a compressor for a period of years. Required payback periods for
projects are typically in the range of 2 to 5 years. In some cases, it may be desirable
to examine the life cycle costs for periods of 15 years or more.
Examples
The usual approach is to calculate the present value and accumulate them on an
annual basis for the desired number of years. Figure 100-17 shows the results of an
economic study for two different categories of air compressors for 500 ACFM.

In Figure 100-17 observe that the installed cost of this reciprocating compressor is
50% higher than that of the screw machine, but the accumulated costs are equal
when considering a period longer than 2-1/2 years. (Note also that using unit costs
such as $/HP or $/ICFM in terms of installed costs would be very misleading.) Effi-
ciency directly affects power costs which is the dominant component of the
overall accumulated expenses.
Figure 100-18 shows the total expenses for two life-cycle periods for three catego-
ries of compressors in a large air compression duty. In this comparison, the recipro-
cating and centrifugal machines are even in costs for a five-year cycle, despite the
fact that the installed cost of the reciprocating machine is twice that of the others.
But when considering the 15-year case, efficiency takes over, making the recipro-
cating compressor the least costly.
Figure 100-17 and 100-18 do not show any particular unit costs or trends for
air compressors or compressors for other gases. Their only purpose is to demon-
strate the need for an economic analysis. For critical services, the requirements for
reliability or safety may overrule the choice determined by the other economic
factors, such as purchase price, energy, etc.
Quite often, economic factors, or the methods for determining them, will have
already been established by the sponsors of a given project. If so, the economic
study will be simplified. In some cases, the project may rule that a study is not
required. At any rate, the economics of the proposed installation should be
reviewed with the operating, or project representative.
Typical Dimension Charts

FIgures 100-19 through Figure 100-22 provide further information on the physical
sizes of the various types of compressors. Figures 100-17 and 100-18 do not show
any particular unit costs or trends for air compressors or compressors for
other gases. Their only purpose is to demonstrate the need for an economic anal-
ysis. For critical services, the requirements for reliability or safety may overrule the
choice determined by the other economic factors, such as purchase price, energy,
etc.
Quite often, economic factors, or the methods for determining them, will have
already been established by the sponsors of a given project. If so, the economic
study will be simplified. In some cases, the project may rule that a study is not
required. At any rate, the economics of the proposed installation should be
reviewed with the operating, or project representative.
Typical Dimension Charts

Figures 100-19 through Figure 100-22 provide further information on the physical
sizes of the various types of compressors.

Fig. 100-17 Life Cycle Costs for Light-duty Reciprocating and Rotary Screw Compressors for a 500 ICFM (Nominal)
125 psig Air Compressor. Example Only.
This graph displays the total compressor costs (purchase, installation, energy consumption, and mainte-
nance), when totaled for different assumed project lives. The total costs are displayed in terms of
“present value.” This is the amount that would be needed up front to pay all the costs over the project life,
assuming, the money compounded at the cost of capital (10%), and were spent to pay the respective
costs.
This chart shows that the reciprocating compressor costs more initially, but when you consider the future
power consumption, the screw compressor will actually cost more. This is because the reciprocator is
more efficient, and will consume less power over the years.

Fig. 100-18 Life Cycle for Heavy-duty Reciprocating, Rotary Screw, and Centrifugal Compressors for a 1500 ICFM
(Nominal) 125 psig Air Compressor. Example Only.
Note: This graph depicts two cases of “present value” for assumed project lives of 5 and 15 years.
(Present value is explained in Figure 100-17.)
This chart shows that: 1) installed costs are a minor part of the total compressor expense, even at a very
short project life of 5 years, and 2) the reciprocating compressor becomes more attractive as longer
project lives are assumed. Like Figure 100-17, this is because the higher efficiency of the reciprocator
pays off in power consumption over the operating life of the compressor (despite typically higher mainte-
nance expense).

Fig. 100-19 Comparison of Axial and Centrifugal Compressor Size
Fig. 100-20 Typical Plot Dimensions and Weights of Centrifugal Compressor Casings
Dimensions for Horizontally- and Vertically-Split Centrifugal Compressors
Horizontally Split (1)
ICFM Width, ft Length, Ft Weight, lbs
3-stg 8-stg 3-stg 8-stg
20 - 40K 8 7 11 24K 40K
9 - 20K 6 6 9 13K 20K
4 - 9K 4 5 6 7K 10K
0.5 - 4K 4 4 6 6K 9K
(1) and (2)
Vertically Split
Weights @
Casing Rating, Width, ft Length, ft 750 psi 3000 psi 6000 psi
9 - 20K 6 7 29 35 50
4 - 9K 5 6 22 33 41
0.5 - 4K 4 5 18 22 25
(1) Width dimensions shown are across support feet.
(2) Based on 5-stage casing.

Fig. 100-21 Typical Dimensions for Centrifugal Compressors—Horizontally- and Vertically-Split Units
Estimated maximum Add Skid

SkidWeights for 3 Weight per
3 Wheels Add per Wheel Wheels with Motor Each Add'l
Maximum ICFM L x W x H, Ft. Lbs. Inches Driver, Kips Wheel, Kips
Horizontally-Split Units
2,600 4.2 x 3.5 x 2.0 300 4 10.8 0.2
5,850 5.5 x 4.5 x 3.5 1300 6 13.1 0.2
13,000 6.3 x 5.3 x 4.0 2,000 7 15.0 0.3
23,000 5.5 x 7.0 x 5.8 1,850 7 16.5 0.3
35,000 7.4 x 6.5 x 6.0 4,000 9 18.6 0.4
Vertically-Split Units
5,000 5.0 x 4.3 x 4.6 1,000 4 16.8 0.2
5.0 x 5.0 x 5.0 1,400 4 16.8 0.2
6.0 x 5.2 x 5.8 2,200 5 19.5 0.3
6.4 x 6.0 x 7.0 4,500 6 21.7 0.4
10,000 5.5 x 5.6 x 6.0 2,000 5 18.0 0.3
6.2 x 6.2 x 6.3 3,400 6 20.1 0.4
6.9 x 7.3 x 7.2 6,400 6 21.7 0.4
23,000 6.7 x 6.7 x 6.3 2,500 8 18.6 0.4
8.0 x 7.5 x 7.2 4,200 8 22.4 0.5
Fig. 100-22 Approximate Plot Areas and Weights of Typical Reciprocating Compressors
Frame Horsepower No. of Cylinders RPM Average Footprint (1) Average Weight (1) and (2)
500 2 900 14′W x 5′L 13500 lbs
1000 2 514 14′W x 9′L 26000 lbs
5000 4 327 22′W x 14-1/2′L 120000 lbs
10,000 6 257 26′W x 20′L 210000 lbs
(1) Does not include driver
(2) Frame plus average size cylinders
160 Packaging
Packaging is a technique used to minimize construction time and labor costs at the
installation site. It consists of placing the compressor, driver, auxiliaries, and
control system on one or more skids (baseplates). Piping, tubing, and wiring are
routed between the various equipment items on each skid, and are then brought to a
minimum number of terminal points on the perimeter of the skid. These terminal
points facilitate connecting the package to the system at the jobsite.

The size and complexity of packaged equipment range from a simple air
compressor package rated at a few hundred horsepower to a large and complicated
package containing a gas compressor driven by a large mechanical drive gas turbine.
When packaging is applied on a large scale to a major project, the concept is known
as modularization or modular construction. This approach has particular applica-
tion to projects in remote areas where the availability of skilled labor is either low
or costly and difficult to implement. Modular construction takes advantage of the
availability of skilled labor at major industrial centers throughout the world. In addi-
tion to potential labor cost reductions, this approach provides the opportunity to
improve the overall project schedule.
Modular construction is used extensively for offshore platforms and onshore facili-
ties such as those on Alaska's North Slope and in jungle and desert locations.
Typical compressor module weights are 25 to 300 tons. One large module for the
North Slope contained a compressor for low-pressure separator gas, a 33,000 HP
gas turbine, gas coolers and scrubbers, and all auxiliaries, piping, and controls. This
module weighed 2600 tons and was 60 ft. x 110 ft. x 100 ft. high.
Module or package size and weight are limited by factory handling capability, trans-
portation constraints, and the capacity of jobsite lifting or moving apparatus.
Console-mounted lube- and seal-oil systems for compressors are good examples of
smaller packages. Figure 100-23 provides some general weights and dimensions
which may be used for early estimates.
Fig. 100-23 Typical Packaged Seal/Lube Oil System Weight and Dimensions
Nominal Oil Flow,
gpm L x W x H, ft Dry Wt, Kips Operating Wt,Kips
25 14 x 8 x 7 8.5 10.0
50 18 x 9 x 8 12.0 15.9
75 19 x 9 x 8 14.0 18.5
100 20 x 10 x 8 16.0 22.0
150 22 x 11 x 8 18.0 27.0
20 24 x 12 x 8 20.0 32.0
300 32 x 12 x 8 35.0 60.0
400 40 x 12 x 8 52.0 92.0
Figures 100-24 and 100-25 list some estimating weights and dimensions for recipro-
cating compressors (with and without coolers) with various drivers. Figure 100-26
shows typical dimensions and weights for integral gas engine driven reciprocating
compressors. Figure 100-27 and 100-28 provide similar information for centrifugal
compressors including turbine drives and enclosures.

Fig. 100-24 Typical Reciprocating Packages with Coolers Weight and Dimensions (900 RPM Separable
Compressors)
Driver HP L x W x H ft Weight Kips MMSCFD
Engine 1200 34 x 13 x 16 100 19.1
Engine 565 35 x 12 x 14 60 2.3
Engine 500 30 x 12 x 14 47 4.7
Engine 450 30 x 18 x 18 55 1.8
Engine 415 30 x 12 x 13 48 5.2
Motor 350 20 x 12 x 14 51 2.0
Fig. 100-25 Typical Reciprocating Packages without Coolers Weights and Dimensions (900 RPM Separable
Compressors)
Driver HP L x W x H ft Weight Kips MMSCFD
Engine 2,600 38 x 12 x 10 106.0 13.2
Engine 1,000 35 x 13 x 12 71.0 9.5
Turbine 2,000 35 x 12 x 12 100.0 17.0
Turbine 1,000 50 x 12 x 12 80.0 11.6
Motor 2,000 22 x 12 x 10 89.5 12.5
Motor 900 26 x 12 x 8 49.0 12.5
Fig. 100-26 Typical Integral Compressor Packages Weights and Dimensions

HP L x W x H ft Weight Kips
1,000 23 x 14 x 12 100
1,500 27 x 14 x 12 140
2,000 33 x 16 x 15 190
2,400 33 x 16 x 15 210

Fig. 100-27 Typical Dimensions for Centrifugal Compressors Horizontally-Split Units and Vertically-Split Units
Estimated Maximum Skid Add Skids
Maximum 3 Wheels Add per Wheel Weights for 3 Wheels Weight per Each
ICFM L x W x H, ft. lbs. Inches with Motor Driver Kips Add'l Wheel, Kips
Horizontally-Split Units
2,600 4.2 x 3.5 x 2.0 300 4 10.8 0.2
5,850 5.5 x 4.5 x 3.5 1300 6 13.1 0.2
13,000 6.3 x 5.3 x 4.0 2,000 7 15.0 0.3
23,000 5.5 x 7.0 x 5.8 1,850 7 16.5 0.3
35,000 7.4 x 6.5 x 6.0 4,000 9 18.6 0.4
Vertically-Split Units
5,000 5.0 x 4.3 x 4.6 1,000 4 16.8 0.2
5.0 x 5.0 x 5.0 1,400 4 16.8 0.2
6.0 x 5.2 x 5.8 2,200 5 19.5 0.3
6.4 x 6.0 x 7.0 4,500 6 21.7 0.4
10,000 5.5 x 5.6 x 6.0 2,000 5 18.0 0.3
6.2 x 6.2 x 6.3 3,400 6 20.1 0.4
6.9 x 7.3 x 7.2 6,400 6 21.7 0.4
23,000 6.7 x 6.7 x 6.3 2,500 8 18.6 0.4
8.0 x 7.5 x 7.2 4,200 8 22.4 0.5

The driver represents a major factor in the cost of a compression system. It should
be selected with care to ensure optimal performance of the compressor train. This
manual presents only general information on drivers. For additional coverage of
driver selection, see the Driver Manual.
171 Function of Drivers

The driver of any compressor train must provide the torque necessary to maintain
the required speed at the compressor's rated, or other specified conditions. The
driver must also have an adequate speed-torque characteristic to start the
compressor train and bring it to operating speed in a timely manner. (Compressors
are normally started in a no-load or partial-load condition.)
172 Driver Consideration

Proper matching of driver to the compressor is not a routine task. Some consider-
ations that must be taken into account include:
• Starting or breakaway torque.

Fig. 100-28 Typical Gas Turbine-Driven Centrifugal Compressor Dimensions and Weights
Turbine-Compressor Skid Ancillary Equipment Dimen-
ISO HP Model Speed, rpm Dimensions L x W x H, ft sions L x W x H, ft
4,250 34.5 x 8.0 x 20.0
16,000 59. x 10.0 x 24.0
26,500 61.0 x 10.0 x 24.0
4,900 Single 30.0 x 8.0 x 8.0 21.4 x 7.8 x 10.7
4,900 Tandem 34.0 x 8.0 x 8.0 21.4 x 7.8 x 10.7
10,600 8,140 48.5 x 8.0 x 11.8 38.0 x 18.0 x 15.1
3,830 15,700 27.2 x 7.8 x 8.3 21.4 x 7.8 x 10.0
1,165 22,300 23.1 x 5.8 x 7.3 12.0 x 6.0 x 4.8
4,900 Single 26.0 x 8.0 x 8.0
4,900 Tandem 29.0 x 8.0 x 8.0
2,500 Single 28.0 x 8.0 x 8.5
2,500 Tandem 33.0 x 8.0 x 8.5
1,875 25.0 x 8.0 x 8.6
Approximate Skid Weight (kips) per With Enclosure Type Add

ISO HP Weights, kips Additional foot Kips Engine Control Cab Add-Kips
4,250 33 0.8
16,000 96 1.6
26,500 105 1.8
4,900 74
4,900 81
10,600 107.5 1.2
3,830 52.1 0.6
1,165 18.5 0.4
4,900 55.0 Open side - 4.1

Total encl. 5.3 0.5
4,900 66.0 Open side - 4.1

Total encl. 5.3 0.5
2,500 33.0 Open side - 3.4

Total encl. 5.0 0.5
2,500 48.0 Open side - 3.4

Total encl. 5.0 0.5
1,875 32.0 Open side - 4.1

Total encl. 5.3 0.5
• Comparison of available speed-torque characteristic with that required for

desired acceleration.
• Allowable speed variation (type of governor).
• Load Variation.

• Need gearbox to match speeds?

• Torsional critical speeds and vibration.
• Lateral critical speed and vibration.
• Current pulsations in electrical system if driver is a motor and load has oscilla-
tory torque.
• Lube-oil requirements of driver and compressor - can lube systems be
combined?
• Type of coupling.
• Weight.
• Space (footprint).
• Energy/fuel costs.
173 Driver Characteristics

Figure 100-29 provides general characteristics for several types of drivers. The
values shown are approximate and should not be taken as limits for a partic-
ular type of driver. Hot gas and cryogenic expansion turbines, hydraulic turbines,
and steam engines are not shown in Figure 100-29. The expansion turbine has char-
acteristics similar to those of a steam turbine. The hydraulic turbine is often a
centrifugal pump operating in reverse. Steam engines are virtually extinct as
compressor drivers.
There are a few occasions when a compressor will have two drivers. Some exam-
ples are:
• Cryogenic expansion turbine and motor driver for compressor in natural gas
processing plant.
• Air compressor driven by hot gas expander and motor or steam turbine in fluid
catalytic cracking unit or nitric acid plant.
• Compressor driven by gas turbine with steam turbine helper.
In such cases, special consideration must be given to the division of the compressor
load between the two drivers for all operating conditions.

Fig. 100-29 General Characteristics of Compressor Drivers

Figure 100-30 shows the approximate ranges of speed for the four types of compres-
sors. This chart provides only a rough estimate of the speed, but will be helpful in
beginning the driver selection process.
Figure 100-31 presents a list of commonly used drivers for various types of
compressors.
Note that API specifications typically require drivers to be rated at 110% of the
maximum power required by the compressor. An exception to this general rule is
where a reciprocating compressor is driven by a steam turbine. In this case, the

Fig. 100-30 Approximate Speed Regimes for Various Types of Compressors
Fig. 100-31 Common Compressor Drivers and Drive Fig. 100-32 General Area of Application of Induction
Arrangement Options and Synchronous Motors (Courtesy of
Dresser-Rand)

turbine is usually rated at 120% of the compressor's maximum power. Internal

combustion engine drivers are rated on a case-by-case basis.
The following comments provide further guidance in making the initial driver selec-
tion:
Electrical motors
1. Figure 100-32 shows the general areas of application for induction and
synchronous motors in terms of horsepower and speed.
2. Induction motors have a lagging power factor and a high starting current which
may present difficulties for some electrical systems.
3. Synchronous motors have leading power factor which is often an advantage for
the electrical system. Brushless excitation is usually employed.
4. Motor drivers should not be used for applications requiring frequent starts.
Typical allowable starts vary from four per hour for a 100 HP motor to two per
day for a 1000 HP motor.
5. Designs are available for higher than normal starting torques, but these are
accompanied by higher inrush or starting currents.
6. Refer to the Driver Manual regarding starting, breakdown, pull-in, and pull-out
torques which must be considered in compressor applications.
7. Type of enclosures, atmospheric conditions, insulation, service factors, and
hazardous area classification are all important application factors. Refer to the
Driver Manual for detailed information. It is usually unnecessary to consider
these factors in depth in the initial driver selection.
8. Two-pole motors in the 500 to 10,000 HP range have had some serious
vibration problems, and are not recommended. Consult a Company
specialist if a two-pole motor in this range is being considered.
Steam Turbines
1. Steam turbines are excellent drivers for centrifugal compressors because the
turbine design can usually be tailored to match the compressor's speed. Steam
turbines are also well suited to the higher speed rotary compressor. Steam
turbines have occasionally been used to drive reciprocating compressors with
ratings to 9000 HP. A double reduction gearbox is required for such applica-
tions.
2. There are two main classes - condensing and non-condensing. Non-condensing
turbines are also known as backpressure or topping turbines. Non-condensing
turbines generally need a steam pressure ratio (absolute inlet pressure divided
by exhaust pressure) of at least two. Some condensing machines have steam
extraction or admission sidestreams. Again, the pressure ratio should be at least
two for inlet and sidestream pressures.
3. There are two types of blading - impulse and reaction. Impulse-type is some-
what less efficient, but is generally favored for mechanical drivers in the

United States. However, reaction machines should be evaluated when effi-

ciency is of paramount importance.
4. Ratings vary from a few horsepower for a single-stage general-purpose turbine
to 50,000 HP or more for special-purpose, multi-valve, multistage turbines.
5. Single-stage non-condensing turbines in the 100-500 HP range have an isen-
tropic efficiency of about 35-45 % @ 3600 RPM. The practical minimum rated
speed for this type of turbine is 1800 RPM, but that speed is generally not
economical because the efficiency falls to 20-30% for the same HP range. A
geared turbine would have an efficiency 45-55% with gear losses included.
6. Figure 100-33 shows efficiencies that can be used for rough estimates of
condensing and non-condensing multistage turbines.
A more precise estimate of efficiency would include corrections for superheat,
speed, power, pressure ratio, etc.
Fig. 100-33 Isentropic Efficiency Chart

HP ISENTROPIC EFFICIENCY, ηi,%
500 60
2000 70
10,000 75
7. The steam rate, SR, in pounds per horsepower-hour (lb/HP-hr) may be esti-
mated by:
2545
SR = --------------------------------
( h1 – h2 ) ( ηi )
(Eq. 100-37)
where:
h1 = turbine inlet enthalpy of steam, Btu/lb
h2 = theoretical enthalpy at turbine exhaust at same entropy as at inlet
steam condition.
ηi = turbine isentropic efficiency
8. Two turbine casings are sometimes driven in tandem to achieve the number of
stages, power, and speed required by the driven equipment.
Combustion Gas Turbines

1. Only the two-shaft gas turbine should be considered for a compressor drive
that requires any speed variation. The load carrying capability and efficiency of
a single-shaft gas turbine falls off very rapidly as speed is reduced. Also, the
single-shaft machine requires a much larger starting device. Figure 100-34 is a
diagram of a simple-cycle, two-shaft gas turbine. In the two-shaft design, the

power turbine is “free”, i.e., there is no mechanical connection between the gas
generator and the power turbine. It should be noted that the gas generator
section can be a modified aircraft jet engine. Such machines are known as aero-
derivative gas turbines. Some aircraft engines have twin spools, so that a gas
turbine using such an engine would technically have three shafts. However,
such machines are usually referred to generically as “two-shaft.”
Fig. 100-34 Simple-cycle Two-shaft Combustion Gas Turbine
Because of the light weight nature of the gas generator in the aero-derivative
turbine, the machine speed can be increased very rapidly from self-sustaining
speed (typically 25-30% of rated speed). The acceleration rates from this level
to operating speed of the power turbine can be in the range of 10-30 seconds if
desired. On the other hand, a heavy-duty turbine may require 10-20 minutes of
warm-up time for the same speed change.
2. The power turbine is often directly coupled to a centrifugal or axial
compressor. The compressor design can usually be tuned to match the gas
turbine's speed. Also, the speed of the two-shaft turbine can be adjusted
slightly for the purpose of matching with very little penalty in power capability
and efficiency. In cases where the speed difference is too large, a gearbox is
used.
3. Occasionally, combustion gas turbines have been used to drive reciprocating
compressors. This arrangement requires a double reduction gearbox to accom-
modate the speed differences.
4. Refer to the Driver Manual for power output ratings, fuel consumption rates,
and environmental considerations for gas turbines. Gas turbines can be used in
combined cycle schemes to improve overall thermal efficiency of the system.
Also refer to the Driver Manual for information on combined cycles utilizing
gas turbine drives.

Separate Internal Combustion Engines

1. Engines are often used to drive reciprocating compressors in direct-coupled
arrangements. Also suitable for direct-drive of rotary machines of the lower
speed variety.
2. Geared low-speed engines were used extensively for driving pipeline centrif-
ugal compressors in the past owing to high thermal efficiency. Gas turbines are
generally favored now since their efficiencies have become competitive with
those of engines.
3. Engines are available in two-stroke or four-stroke cycle (commonly called two-
cycle or four-cycle). Most separate drive engines are four-stroke, particularly in
the upper end of the power range.
4. Straight natural gas engines are spark-ignited. Some engines are available as
dual fuel units capable of operation wholly on diesel, or on 95% gas with 5%
(by weight) diesel pilot oil providing compression ignition.
5. Refer to the Driver Manual for power output ratings, fuel consumption rates,
and environmental considerations for separate internal combustion engines.
Integral Gas Engines

1. This design comprises power cylinders and reciprocating compressor cylinders
combined in one machine or frame.
2. They are available in two-stroke or four-stroke cycles. Essentially all integral
engines today burn natural gas and are spark-ignited. Diesel versions were
available in the past but are no longer competitive.
3. Refer to the Driver Manual for power output ratings, fuel consumption rates
and environmental considerations for integral gas engines.
175 Special Driver Considerations

The following provides a general awareness of factors that can have a major influ-
ence on the final design of the compressor train. Further information is contained in
the Driver Manual and the General Machinery Manual.
Oscillatory Torque
The torque of a reciprocating compressor oscillates significantly during one revolu-
tion of the crankshaft. This condition is usually represented by a torque effort
diagram (see Figure 100-35). The shape of the torque oscillation curve is a func-
tion of the number of degrees between each crankshaft throw, the number of
throws, and the loading of the compressor cylinders. The amplitude of the torque
wave tends to increase as capacity is reduced by cylinder unloading. If the driver is
an induction or synchronous motor, the torque oscillations could cause harmful
current pulsations in the electrical system. Figure 100-36 shows the variation in
current for a typical motor-driven reciprocating compressor. The remedy for exces-
sive oscillations is to provide sufficient rotating inertia by adding a flywheel or

increasing the moment of inertia of the motor rotor. Limits for current pulsation are
covered in API 618 .
Fig. 100-35 A Typical Torque Effect Diagram
Fig. 100-36 Oscillogram Showing Variation of Current to a Synchronous Motor Driving a

Typical Reciprocating Compressor. Line A is the Envelope of the Current Wave.
Difference B–C Divided by Rated Full-load Current Multiplied by 100 is Percent
Current Pulsation (From Compressed Air & Gas Data ed. by A.W. Loomis 1982
by Ingersoll-Rand. Courtesy of Dresser-Rand)
Rotary compressors also cause a pulsating torque although the frequency is higher
and the amplitude is lower than the corresponding values for reciprocating
machinery.

Lateral Critical Speeds

The shafts of turbomachinery (dynamic compressors and turbines) have critical
speeds. A so-called critical speed occurs when the frequency of an exciting force is
at or near one of the natural frequencies of the rotor system. This resonant condi-
tion can result in dynamic instability with magnification of lateral vibration ampli-
tudes to excessive levels. The exciting force can be rotor unbalance at rotational
frequency, or other phenomena such as an unstable oil film in bearings, rotor rubs,
periodic aerodynamic forces, friction forces from loose fits, etc.
A rotor system can have several critical speeds, but the first two are usually the
ones of concern. Occasionally the third critical speed will have some influence in
the design, and very rarely the fourth critical will come into play. A shaft that oper-
ates below the first critical is called a “stiff” shaft. Those that operate above the first
critical are known as “flexible” shafts. Figure 100-37 shows a typical rotor response
plot for a flexible rotor operating above the first and below the second critical
speed. Critical speeds can be excited during normal operation or during startup and
shutdown.
Fig. 100-37 Rotor Response Plot (Courtesy of the American Petroleum Institute)
The joining of the compressor and driver shafts can have a significant effect on the
overall critical response of the coupled-up system. A critical speed analysis is
conducted by the manufacturer(s), and is sometimes performed in parallel by an
outside consultant. Although this analysis can be highly complex, it is manageable
with current technology, and the results are reasonably reliable.

Torsional Critical Speeds

Shaft systems also have torsional natural frequencies. Whereas lateral vibrations are
similar to a guitar string vibrating, torsional vibration is an oscillation in angular
direction, i.e., oscillating “twisting” of the shaft. When an exciting force of suffi-
cient magnitude and coinciding frequency is applied, the system will vibrate with
angular amplitudes reaching destructive levels. The stimulus may originate in the
driver or in the driven equipment. The oscillatory torque of a reciprocating
compressor, as mentioned above, is an example of an excitation. The excitation can
be steady-state or transient. The startup of synchronous motors and centrifugal
compressor surge are examples of transient excitation.
Torsional vibration is an insidious phenomenon as it can occur with little or no
visible evidence. Lateral vibration can be felt, sometimes heard, and observed with
instruments. It takes very special instrumentation to detect torsional vibration. The
effects of transient torsional vibration can sometimes be heard if conditions are
severe enough to cause rattling of the teeth in a gear mesh.
A shaft system can have several torsional critical frequencies of interest. A typical
specification calls for the criticals to be at least 10% away from any exciting
frequency in the operating speed range. The fact that there is a critical in the oper-
ating speed range does not necessarily mean that it is harmful. If there is adequate
damping, the amplitudes and resultant stresses may be low and of little concern.
Nevertheless, criticals in the operating speed range are generally not allowed in the
design phase.
Torsional vibration studies are usually not as complicated as lateral critical anal-
yses, and their results are generally quite reliable. Harmful torsional vibration can
ordinarily be avoided by tuning the stiffness of the couplings in the compressor
train, or by changing the mass moment of inertia of components of the system. A
resilient damping-type coupling can also be used to cure a problem in the field and
is occasionally implemented in the original design.
Gearboxes
When a gearbox is employed in a compressor train, it can stimulate torsional vibra-
tion due to manufacturing imperfections. It can also be the victim of torsional vibra-
tion if the torque variation is sufficient to cause tooth separation in the gear mesh.
Gearboxes also cause a power loss of about 1-1/2 - 2% for single reduction units,
and about 3% for double reduction machines. Trains with gearboxes take more
space and have been troublesome in the past in a number of applications.
In view of these disadvantages, the application engineer may be dissuaded from
selecting a train of equipment that requires a gearbox. It is indeed a worthwhile
effort to search for equipment that does not require gearing. On the other hand,
there have been cases where this effort was carried too far such that unqualified
equipment was force-fitted into a gearless train resulting in a new set of problems.
While it is true that gearboxes have been responsible for excessive machinery down-
time in some installations, manufacturing techniques and analytical methods have
improved to the extent that gearbox reliability is now generally compatible with
that of compressors and drivers. Moreover, use of a gearbox will usually allow the

compressor and driver to operate at ideal speeds. The overall efficiency is thus
improved and the gear's power loss is often more than redeemed.
180 Suction System Design

Efficient removal of solids and liquid aerosols from gas streams entering compres-
sors is highly desirable for several reasons. These include incident prevention,
increased machinery service life, reduced downtime, increased volumetric effi-
ciency, and increased process throughput.
Compressor component service life, particularly in reciprocating and rotary
compressors, is greatly affected by gas entrained liquids and solids. Valves, rider
bands, cylinder liners and other sliding contact components last significantly longer
when abrasive contaminants and liquid aerosols are not allowed to enter the
compressors. Liquids and solids can be extremely damaging to dry screw compres-
sors and lobe-type blowers which have tight internal clearances that seal the gas
flow-path. Oil-injected screw compressors can generally handle liquid aerosols
provided they do not degrade the viscosity of the lubricating oil. Solids, however,
can cause damage very readily. In centrifugal compressors, a reduction in fouling
and lower erosion and/or corrosion rates can be achieved.
181 Separator Vessels

A separator vessel or knockout pot is usually the first line of defense against solids
or liquids entering a compressor. Selection of the type of vessel for each application
(vertical, horizontal, gravity, or impingement), depends on the amount of space
available and on the gas/liquid characteristics. Prior to designing a vessel, or modi-
fying an existing vessel, the designer should:
• Estimate the potential amount of solid and liquid loading
• Establish a target for gas cleanliness
• Determine the gas and liquid densities
• Determine the fouling, erosion, and corrosion rates of solids and/or liquids
entrained in the gas
With this data, one can calculate the optimum gas velocity and select appropriate
vessel internals.
Most operating facilities prefer vertical separator vessels because they require the
least amount of plot or deck space. More important is the vessel's ability to effi-
ciently capture, retain, and drain liquids and solids consistent with process require-
ments.
Vertical Vessels
The vertical liquid/gas separator in Figure 100-38 is the most basic configuration
for knockout vessels found in compressor suction systems. This design utilizes
gravity separation as the primary method of separation and a mist elimination pad

Fig. 100-38 Vertical Knockout Vessel

to coalesce aerosols as the secondary separation method. The figure illustrates the
orientation of vessel internals and the standard dimensions recommended for proper
liquid/gas separation and control.
The advantages of the vertical separator include:
• Less plot space
• Greater surge volume length for effective level control and to protect against
liquid “slugs”
• Increased vertical disengagement space between the liquid level and the mist
elimination pad
• Centrifugal separation is easily incorporated
Appendix P contains a concise design guide for designing separator vessels. This
design guide is not intended to replace a process design manual for separators.
When possible, it is recommended that engineers take advantage of computer
programs such as “SEPDES” for design optimization.
Horizontal Vessels
Horizontal separator vessels as shown in Figure 100-39, are seldom used as basic
knockout vessels. Space and foundation requirements make them costly and
impractical for basic service. They are commonly applied when the process
requires a large volume of liquid to be removed from the gas.
The advantages of horizontal separator vessels include:
• Greater liquid holding volume
• Increased coalescer surface area
• Flow is perpendicular to gravitational forces
One difficulty with horizontal vessels is that they are not easily modified to isolate
accumulated liquids from the disengagement space. For this reason, centrifugal
separation is not a practical design option in horizontal vessels. To assist in
isolating accumulated liquid from the gas flow path, a dipleg or “udder” is some-
times incorporated. Appendix P contains a design guide for designing separator
vessels.
182 High Efficiency Filters

The most efficient devices for scrubbing liquid and solid aerosols from gas are high
efficiency filters. These devices are effective in removing up to 99.9% of all liquid
and solid aerosols with a particle size cut-off of 0.3 microns. This can control gas
contamination concentrations to 0.01 ppm.
The two prominently available designs, high efficiency liquid/gas coalescers and
high efficiency mist eliminators (with Brownian motion media), are very different
in design, but achieve similar results. Appendix P contains information on high effi-
ciency filters.

Fig. 100-39 Horizontal Knockout Vessel
Retrofit Considerations
High efficiency filters are recommended as an addition to the knockout pot to
further enhance the quality of the gas to be compressed. Although high efficiency
filters have demonstrated resiliency to liquid flooding, systems that have the poten-
tial to “slug” large amounts of liquid should have an appropriately sized knockout
vessel equipped with a mist elimination device upstream to protect against liquid
overload. Many knockout vessels found in the field are inadequately sized or
improperly designed because the worst-case plant conditions were not considered.

183 Piping And Equipment Considerations

Separator vessels are only one part of a properly designed compressor suction
system. Piping design and layout, equipment location, and some aspects of
machinery skid design are equally important considerations in the design of these
systems.
Pipe Sizing And Gas Velocity

Piping is one of the largest single cost items in nearly all process plant projects. As
such, the overriding sizing criteria is economics. The economic line size is the
smallest nominal pipe size that passes the required flow, without exceeding prac-
tical velocity limits. In compressor suction and interstage lines, the gas velocity
should generally be in the range of 20-50 ft/s.
In compression systems, the economic gas velocity is 40 times the cube root of
specific volume (ft3/lbm) for on-plot installations and 25 times the cube root of
specific volume for off-plot installations. In addition, there are practical limits to
the pressure drop in these lines. In gas lines the pressure drop should not exceed
10-15 psi per 1000 feet of pipe.
Equipment Layout, Elevations, And Drainage

It is important to provide an equipment layout that minimizes condensation down-
stream of knockout equipment, and controls and collects any liquids that do
condense downstream. The vessel or coalescer immediately upstream of the
compressor should be located as close as possible to the compressor suction. As a
maximum, it should be no more than 50 feet upstream.
Piping between the knock-out equipment and the compressor suction should be
sloped to drain back to the knock-out equipment, and should not include pockets or
low spots where liquids can collect. Lines should have a minimum slope of 1/2
inches per foot. If low spots are completely unavoidable, the line should include
low point drains that can be conveniently operated at grade or from an elevated plat-
form.
Compressor suction and interstage piping should be kept short and have few elbows
to reduce the potential for liquid collection. This needs to be balanced with the need
for adequate piping flexibility. Suction lines for centrifugal compressors should
have a minimum straight length of five pipe diameters immediately upstream of the
compressor. No flow restrictions such as reducers or suction strainers should be
located within this straight length of pipe.
Block valves should be line size in horizontal piping runs or located in vertical runs
to avoid liquid accumulation behind the valve. If a reducer is needed in the line
between the compressor and knock-out equipment, it is preferably located in a
vertical piping run. If it must be located in a horizontal run, it should be an eccen-
tric reducer oriented to prevent the accumulation of liquids.

Line Cleaning And Suction Strainers

Temporary suction strainers are recommended in the inlet piping for each stage of
compression to prevent solids from entering the equipment. In addition to suction
strainers, inlet piping should be mechanically cleaned and/or chemically cleaned to
remove grit, welding products, mill scale, and foreign objects. Typically, an acid
pickling procedure is used as described in the Chevron Piping Manual. Temporary
suction strainers in the suction lines of unspared centrifugal compressors which
must run without interruption for extended periods (where it is not possible to
remove the strainer after startup) should have very coarse mesh capable of catching
only large foreign objects such as nuts and bolts. In these systems, extra care must
be taken to ensure the suction lines are clean prior to startup.
Gas Temperature
The knock-out vessel and line between the vessel and compressor should be insu-
lated to prevent condensation from external cooling. If beneficial, the line and the
vessel can be heat traced as well. Reciprocating compressor jacket water should be
maintained at an elevated temperature to prevent condensation on the cylinder
walls. API 618 requires jacket water to be at least 10 F above the inlet gas tempera-
ture to prevent condensation. In many applications, this temperature is greater than
the cooling water available at the site. If this is the case, a cooling water console
with closed loop circulation is one solution.

200 Centrifugal Compressors
Abstract
This section discusses engineering principles, types of machines and configura-
tions, and performance characteristics. It contains sufficient information, when used
in conjunction with Company specifications, to understand how to specify and
apply centrifugal compressors including auxiliaries and support systems.
The discussion is primarily aimed at heavy-duty multistage units, but the informa-
tion can be applied to smaller and less severe-duty compressors as well.
Contents Page
210 Engineering Principles 200-3

211 Gas Flow Path
212 Conversion of Velocity Energy to Pressure
213 Thermodynamic Relationships
214 Performance Related to Component Geometry
215 Compressor Types
220 Performance Characteristics 200-15
221 General
222 Impeller Performance Curves
223 Use of Fan Laws
224 Surge
225 Stonewall
230 Selection Criteria 200-27
231 Application Range
232 Horsepower and Efficiency Estimates
233 Head/Stage
234 Stages/Casing
235 Discharge Temperature
236 Selection Review

200 Centrifugal Compressors Compressor Manual
240 Machine Components and Configurations 200-34

241 Machine Components
242 Configurations
250 Application and System Considerations 200-54
251 Effect of System Changes on Performance
252 Stable Operating Speed Ranges
253 Power Margins
254 Series Operation
255 Weather Protection
256 Process Piping Arrangements
257 Lube- And Seal-Oil Systems
260 Instrumentation and Control 200-62
261 Typical Instrumentation
262 Compressor Control
263 Control System Selection
264 Surge Control
265 Machinery Monitoring
270 Rerates and Retrofits 200-66
271 Capacity
272 Pressure
273 Power
274 Speed
280 Foundations 200-69
281 Foundation Mounting
282 Design Basis for Rotating Compressors
290 Materials 200-73
291 Sulfide Stress Cracking
292 Stress Corrosion Cracking
293 Hydrogen Embrittlement
294 Low Temperature
295 Impellers
296 Non-Metallic Seals
297 Coatings

Compressor Manual 200 Centrifugal Compressors
210 Engineering Principles

This section covers the fundamentals of centrifugal compressors, describing the gas
flow path, conversion of velocity to pressure, thermodynamic relationships, and the
effect of component geometry on compressor performance.
These fundamentals provide a foundation for troubleshooting performance prob-
lems, making rerating or initial selection estimates, evaluating vendor proposals,
engineering compressor applications, and assisting with overall process design.
211 Gas Flow Path

A discussion of the flow path through the centrifugal compressor will provide a
better understanding of the compression process.
There is often confusion about the term “stage” when applied to centrifugal
compressors. The process designer thinks of a stage as a compression step made up
of an uncooled section, usually consisting of several impeller/diffuser units. The
mechanical engineer or machine designer defines a stage as one impeller/diffuser
set, and a section as a single compressor casing containing several stages. In this
section of the manual:
• Stage is defined as one impeller/diffuser set
• Process stage is defined as an uncooled section (or casing) containing several
impellers/diffusers
Based on this, a centrifugal compressor is made up of one or more stages; each
stage consisting of a rotating component or impeller, and the stationary components
which guide the flow into and out-of the impeller. Figure 200-1 shows the flow
path through a section of a typical multistage unit.
212 Conversion of Velocity Energy to Pressure

Pressure is increased by transferring energy to the gas, accelerating it through the
impeller. Note that all work on the gas is done by the impeller; the stationary
components only convert the energy added by the impeller. Part of this energy is
converted to pressure in the impeller and the remainder is converted to pressure as it
decelerates in the diffuser. A typical pressure-velocity profile across a stage is
shown in Figure 200-2.
Since the kinetic energy is a function of the square of the velocity, the head (not
pressure) produced is proportional to the square of the impeller tip speed:
U2
H = K -------
g
(Eq. 200-1)

Fig. 200-1 Compressor Section (Courtesy of the Elliot Company)
where:
ft.-lb.f
H = head, ---------------
lb.m
U = impeller tip speed in ft/sec
K = a constant
g = 32.174 (ft-lb: mass) / (lb: force) (sec2)
Note “Head” is a term often used for the work input to a compression process.
The units of head are foot-pounds (force) divided by pounds (mass). In general
practice, “head” is usually taken as “feet.”
Manufacturers generally define performance of individual impellers in terms of:
• Head coefficient µ - a function of actual work input and stage efficiency
• Flow coefficient φ - a non-dimensional function of volume flow and rotational
speed

Fig. 200-2 Pressure and Velocity Profile
Figure 200-3 represents a typical individual impeller curve. The head coefficient
typically varies from about 0.4 to 0.6. The surge line in the figure is discussed in
Sub-section 224. Using the head coefficient, the head can now be shown as:
µU 2
H = ----------
g
(Eq. 200-2)

Fig. 200-3 Performance of a Centrifugal Compressor
213 Thermodynamic Relationships

Referring to the thermodynamic discussion in Section 100, the geometric and ther-
modynamic head relationships may now be equated.
n–1
------------
r n –1
µU 2
H poly = ---------- = Z avg RT 1 --------------------------
g n–1
------------
n
(Eq. 200-3)
where:
Z1 + Z2
Z avg = -------------------
2
= average compressibility
As mentioned in Section 100, the polytropic process is typically used for centrif-
ugal compressors (rather than the adiabatic process).

Using the relationship for k, n, and ηp, polytropic efficiency is:
k–1
------------
k
η p = ------------
n–1
------------
n
(Eq. 200-4)
214 Performance Related to Component Geometry

Effects resulting from the geometric shape of the principle components of the
compressor are shown in Figure 200-4. Variables such as the impeller configuration
and blade angle, inlet guide vane angle, diffuser size and shape, etc., can be
adjusted by the machine designer for optimum performance under a specified set of
operating conditions. Figure 200-5 shows impeller vector diagrams for various
blade angles.
Fig. 200-4 Impeller Inlet and Outlet Flow Vector Triangles (From Compressors: Selection & Sizing, by Royce Brown
 1986 by Gulf Publishing Company, Houston, TX. Used with permission. All rights reserved.)

Fig. 200-5 Forward, Radial, and Backward Curved Blades (From Compressors: Selection & Sizing, by Royce Brown
 1986 by Gulf Publishing Company, Houston, TX. Used with permission. All rights reserved.)

Impellers with backward leaning blades, are more commonly used for most centrif-
ugal compressors because of their increased stable operating range ( Figure 200-6).
Forward and radial blades are seldom used in petrochemical applications.
Machine output is always affected by combined losses, such as:
• Mechanical loss
• Aerodynamic loss
• Friction and shock loss
Mechanical losses, such as those from a journal or thrust bearing, affect the power
input required, but do not influence the head-capacity curve. Aerodynamic losses
that do influence the shape of the curve consist mainly of wall friction, fluid shear,
seal losses, recirculation in flow passages, and shock losses. Shock losses are the
result of expansion, contraction, and change of direction associated with flow sepa-
ration, eddies, and turbulence. Friction and shock losses are the predominant
sources of the total aerodynamic losses.
Figure 200-7 illustrates the affect of these combined losses in reducing the theoret-
ical head.
Friction losses can be reduced by improving surface finishes. Shock losses may
sometimes be mitigated by further streamlining of flow passages. These techniques
will improve efficiency and tend to reduce the surge point, but they are costly, and
there is a point of diminishing returns. The Company specification does not allow
the manufacturer's quoted performance to include efficiency improvements due to
impeller polishing.
215 Compressor Types

There are two types of compressors, defined by either an axial or radial casing
construction. Figure 200-8 illustrates this construction, referred in the API 617 Stan-
dards as:
• axial, or horizontally split
• radial, or vertically split
API 617 (Centrifugal Compressors) requires the use of the vertically-split casings
when the partial pressure of hydrogen exceeds 200 psi.
Other factors which influence the horizontal/vertical split decision include the abso-
lute operating pressure of the service and ease of maintenance for a particular plant
layout.
The top half of the horizontally-split casing (Figure 200-9) is removed to access the
internals. The stationary diaphragms are installed individually in the top and bottom
half of the casing. Main process connections may be located either in the top or
bottom half.

Fig. 200-6 Effect of Blade Angle on Stability

Fig. 200-7 Typical Compressor Head
The horizontally-split down-connected casing has the advantage of allowing

removal of the top half for access to the rotor without requiring removal of major
process piping.
Vertically-split or barrel compressors have a complete cylindrical outer casing. The
stationary diaphragms are assembled around the rotor to make up an inner casing,
and installed inside the outer casing as a unit, contained by heads or end closures at
each end. Some later designs hold the heads in place by use of shear rings
(Figure 200-10).
On the vertically-split casing, maintenance of the rotor and other internal parts
(other than bearings and shaft-end seals) involves removal of at least one head, with-
drawal of the inner casing from the outer pressure containing casing, and then
dismantling of the inner casing to expose the rotor ( Figure 200-11). The inner

Fig. 200-8 Joint Construction (Courtesy of the Howell Training Group)
Fig. 200-9 Horizontally-split Casing (Courtesy of the Howell Training Group)

Fig. 200-10 Shear Ring Head Retainer (Courtesy of Dresser-Rand)
Fig. 200-11 Vertically-split Casing (Courtesy of the Howell Training Group)
casing and rotor can be removed from either the up- or down-connected vertically-
split outer casing without disturbing process piping.
Both the horizontally and vertically-split casing designs allow removal of bearings
and shaft-end seals for maintenance without disassembly of major casing compo-
nents.
Figure 200-12 gives a comparison of pressure vs. capacity for multistage horizon-
tally- and vertically-split casing construction. The size/rating comparisons are

general. Specific pressure/capacity ranges and casing configurations vary between

manufacturers.
Fig. 200-12 Pressure/Capacity Chart (Courtesy of Dresser-Rand)
Overhung-Impeller Types
Single-stage, overhung-impeller (impeller located outboard of the radial bearings,
opposite the driver end) designs are available in pressure ratings to approximately
2000 psi and capacities to 50,000 cfm.
Another type of centrifugal compressor is the integrally-geared configuration. This
is an overhung-impeller type built around a gear box, with the impellers attached to
gear pinion shafts and the impeller housings mounted on the gear box. Possible
configurations include two, three, four, and even five stage designs with capacities
to 30,000 cfm and pressures to 250 psig. These have typically been used as pack-
aged-air or nitrogen compressors. The overall arrangement of this type varies signif-
icantly between manufacturers.
Major features of the integrally geared design include:
• Open impellers—maximum head developed
• volute diffusers for optimum efficiency
• different pinion speeds to optimize impeller efficiency

220 Performance Characteristics
221 General
Figure 200-13 presents a centrifugal compressor performance map, using API 617
nomenclature. The family of curves depicts the performance at various speeds
where N represents RPM, and:
• Vertical axis—Head: polytropic head, pressure ratio, discharge pressure, or
differential pressure; and
• Horizontal axis—Inlet Capacity: called “Q” or “Q1” shown as actual inlet
volume per unit of time ACFM or ICFM where “A” is actual, or “I” is inlet.
Note that inlet flow volume, or capacity, is based on a gas with a particular molec-
ular weight, specific heat ratio, and compressibility factor at suction pressure and
temperature.
The curve on the left represents the surge limit. Operation to the left of this line
is unstable and usually harmful to the machine.
A capacity limit or overload curve is shown on the other side of the map. The area
to the right of this line is commonly known as “stonewall” or “choke”. Operation
in this area is, in most instances, harmless mechanically, but the head-producing
capability of the machine falls off rapidly, and performance is unpredictable.
Surge and stonewall should not be confused. Although machine performance is seri-
ously impaired in either case, they are entirely different phenomena. These are
covered in more detail later in this section.
Terms frequently used to define performance are “stability range” and “percent
stability”. Referring again to Figure 200-13, the rated stability range is taken as
QD - QS where QD is the rated point and QS is the surge point along the 100%
speed line. The percent stability expressed as a percentage is:
Q D – QS
- × 100
% stability = --------------------
QD
(Eq. 200-5)
222 Impeller Performance Curves

For convenience, manufacturers usually base the performance of individual impel-
lers on an air test. Figure 200-14 represents a typical curve which characterizes a
certain impeller design. The vertical axis is usually called the head coefficient µ;
and the horizontal axis is called the flow coefficient, φ . (See Sub-section 212 for
definitions of µ and φ). In this way, impeller performance data are concisely cata-
loged and stored for use by designers. When a compressor is originally sized, the
designer translates the wheel curve data into ACFM, discharge pressure, and RPM

Fig. 200-13 Typical Centifugal Compressor Performance Map (Courtesy of the American Petroleum Institute)

in wheel-by-wheel calculations to select a set of wheels that satisfy the purchaser's

requirements.
Fig. 200-14 Individual Impeller Performance Curve
Theoretically, an impeller should produce the same head, or feet of the fluid, regard-
less of the gas weight. However, in practice, a wheel will produce somewhat more
head (than theoretical) with heavy gases, and less with lighter gases. Gas compress-
ibility, specific heat ratio, aerodynamic losses, and several other factors are respon-
sible for this deviation. Manufacturers should apply proprietary correction factors
when the effect is significant. This effect contributes to variance from the well-
known fan laws or affinity laws. (See the next sub-section.)
Notice in Figure 200-14 that the heavier gas causes surge at a higher Q/N, that is, it
reduces stability. The opposite is true of a lighter gas. Similar non-conformance can
sometimes be observed when the wheel is run at tip speeds considerably higher or
lower than an average design speed. The higher tip speed would surge at higher
Q/N, and the lower tip speed would surge at a lower Q/N.
Figure 200-15 illustrates the effects of using movable inlet guide vanes. Notice that
as the head or discharge pressure is reduced, the surge volume (defined by the
dashed line) is also reduced. The effect is similar to that of speed reduction on a
variable speed machine. Inlet throttling, although less efficient, will produce similar
curves.
Centrifugal compressors recognize actual inlet cubic feet per minute (ACFM at
inlet conditions, or ICFM). Performance curves are most commonly plotted using

Fig. 200-15 Constant Speed Machine with Variable Inlet Guide Vanes
ACFM. This means that a curve is drawn for a specific set of suction conditions,
and any change in these conditions will affect the validity of the curve.
Performance curves often plot discharge pressure on the vertical axis, and flow
(ACFM) on the horizontal axis. To estimate performance for varying suction pres-
sures, the curve should be converted to pressure ratio on the vertical axis. This can
be done by dividing the discharge pressures on the vertical axis by the suction pres-
sure on which the original curve was based. The effect of a small variation in
suction temperature can be estimated by using a ratio of absolute temperatures with
the original temperature in the denominator. This ratio is used to correct the inlet
capacity on the X-axis by multiplying inlet capacities by the temperature ratio.
For a rough estimate for molecular weight changes of less than 10%, the pressure
ratio on the curve can simply be multiplied by the ratio of the new molecular
weight over the original. Unless there are gross changes in the gas composition
causing large changes in specific heat ratio, this estimating method will only have
an error of 1 - 2% for pressure ratios between 1.5 and 3. For more accurate esti-
mates, a curve with polytropic head on the vertical axis must be obtained.
Remember that any change that increases the density of the gas at the inlet will
increase the discharge pressure and the horsepower. Also, the unit will tend to surge
at a slightly higher inlet volume.

223 Use of Fan Laws

Fan laws can be used in many cases to estimate performance for small changes in
speed and flow, but care and judgment must be used. Using these laws is risky,
and should be done cautiously.
The fan laws state that inlet volume is proportional to speed, and that head is
proportional to the speed squared. These laws are based on the assumption that the
fluid is non-compressible. Fan laws may be inaccurate when testing the perfor-
mance level of multistage compressors at off-design speeds. ( Figure 200-16 illus-
trates this error.) Similar errors could be incurred in estimating surge volumes using
the fan laws.
To illustrate, assume a 10% mass flow reduction to the first stage. If all other inlet
conditions remain the same, volume flow will also be reduced by 10%. Since mass
flow was reduced by 10%, the second stage will also see a 10% flow reduction.
(Figure 200-13 shows that flow reduction results in an increased discharge pressure
from the first stage.) Since volume is inversely proportional to pressure, the volume
to the second stage will be reduced further in proportion to the increased discharge
pressure from the first stage. The second stage will have a similar effect on the third
stage and so on. Deviation from the ideal gas laws will increase significantly as the
number of compressor stages increases.
224 Surge
Surge is a situation that can destroy a compressor. It is a critical factor in design of
the compressor and its control system. It is also a critical operating limit.
Surge is a condition of unstable flow within the compressor, resulting in flow
reversal and pressure fluctuations in the system. This occurs when the head (pres-
sure) developed by the compressor is less than that required to overcome down-
stream system pressure. At surge, continuous “forward” flow is interrupted.
While surge is caused by aerodynamic instability in the compressor, interaction
with the system sometimes produces violent swings in flow, accompanied by pres-
sure fluctuations and relatively rapid temperature increase at the compressor inlet.
Surge affects the overall system and is not confined to only the compressor. There-
fore, an understanding of both the external causes and the machine design is neces-
sary to apply an adequate anti-surge system.
The compressor surge region was previously identified in Figure 200-13. In
Figure 200-17 lines depicting three typical system operating curves have been
added. The shapes of these curves are governed by the system friction, and pressure
control in the particular system external to the compressor.

Fig. 200-16 Error in Fan Laws – Multistage Compressor
Fig. 200-17 Typical Centrifugal Compressor Performance Map Showing Surge Cycle
A compressor will operate at the intersection of its curve and the system curve.
To change the point at which the compressor operates:
1. Change the speed or variable geometry of the compressor, thus relocating the
compressor curve; or
2. Change the system curve by repositioning a control valve or otherwise altering
the external system curve.

Typical Surge Cycle

A typical surge cycle is represented by the circuit between points B, C, D, and back
to B (Figure 200-17). If events take place which alter the system curve to establish
operation at point B, the pressure in the system will equal the output pressure of the
compressor. Any transient can then cause reverse flow if the compressor discharge
pressure falls below the downstream system pressure.
For reverse flow to occur, compressor throughput must be reduced to zero at point
C which corresponds to a pressure called the “shut-off head”. When the system
pressure has decreased to the compressor's shut-off head at C, the machine will re-
establish forward flow since the flow requirement of the compressor is satisfied by
the backflow gas (compressor capability now greater than system requirements).
Now that the compressor has sufficient gas to compress, operation will immediately
shift to the right in approximately a horizontal path to point D. With the compressor
now delivering flow in the forward direction, pressure will build in the system, and
operation will follow the characteristic speed curve back to points B and C. The
cycle will rapidly repeat itself unless the cause of the surge is corrected, or other
favorable action taken, such as increasing the speed.
Several internal factors combine to develop the surge condition. From the surge
description, you can see that the domed shape of the head-capacity characteristic
curve is fundamentally responsible for the location of the surge point at a given
speed. On the right side of the performance map (Figure 200-17) the slope of the
curve is negative. As inlet flow is reduced, the slope becomes less negative until it
reaches zero at the surge point. As flow is reduced further to the left of the surge
point, the slope becomes increasingly positive.
Section 210, “Engineering Principles” covers internal factors and their effect on
location of the surge region.
Frequency of Surge
Frequency of the surge cycle varies inversely with the volume of the system. For
example, if the piping contains a check valve located near the compressor discharge
nozzle, the frequency will be correspondingly much higher than that of the system
without a check valve. The frequency can be as low as a few cycles per minute up
to 15 or more cycles per second. Generally, the higher the frequency, the lower the
intensity. The intensity or violence of surge tends to increase with increased gas
density which is directly related to higher molecular weights and pressures, and
lower temperatures. Higher differential pressure generally increases the intensity.
Design Factors Affecting Surge

A greater number of impellers in a given casing will tend to reduce the stable range.
Similarly, so does the number of sections of compression, or the number of casings
in series.
The large majority of centrifugals use vaneless diffusers, which are simple flow
channels with parallel walls, without elements inside to guide the flow. The trajec-
tory of a particle through a vaneless diffuser is a spiral of about one-half the circum-

ferential distance around the diffuser (Figure 200-18). If this distance becomes
longer for any reason, the flow is exposed to more wall friction which dissipates the
kinetic energy. As flow is reduced, the angle is reduced which extends the length of
the trajectory through the diffuser (Figure 200-19). When the flow path is too long,
insufficient pressure rise (head) is developed and surge occurs.
Fig. 200-18 Design Condition Velocity Triangles (Reproduced with permission of the Turbomachinery Laboratory.
From Proceedings of the Twelfth Turbomachinery Symposium, Texas A&M University, College Station,
TX,  1983)
Occasionally, vaned diffusers are used to force the flow to take a shorter, more effi-
cient path. Figure 200-20 shows the flow pattern in a vaned diffuser. The vaned
diffuser can increase the aerodynamic efficiency of a stage by approximately 3%,
but this efficiency gain results in a narrower operating span on the head-capacity
curve with respect to both surge and stonewall. The figure also shows how the path
of a particle of gas is affected by off-design flows. At flows higher than design,
impingement occurs on the trailing side of the diffuser vane creating shock losses
which tend to bring on stonewall. Conversely, flow less than design encourages
surge, due to the shock losses from impingement on the leading edge of the vane.
Despite adverse effects on surge, the vaned diffuser should be applied where effi-
ciency is of utmost importance, particularly with small high-speed wheels.
Stationary guide vanes may be used to direct the flow to the eye of the impeller.
Depending upon the head requirements of an individual stage, these vanes may
direct the flow in the same direction as the rotation or tip speed of the wheel, an
action known as pre-rotation or pre-swirl. The opposite action is known as

Fig. 200-19 Flow Trajectory in a Vaneless Diffuser (Reproduced with permission of the Turbomachinery Laboratory.
From Proceedings of the Twelfth Turbomachinery Symposium, Texas A&M University, College Station,
TX,  1983)
Fig. 200-20 Vaned Diffuser

counter-rotation or counter swirl. Guide vanes set at zero degrees of swirl are
called radial guide vanes.
The effect guide vanes have on a compressor's curve is illustrated in Figure 200-21.
Note that pre-rotation reduces the head or unloads the impeller. Pre-rotation tends
to reduce the surge flow. Counter-rotation increases the head and tends to increase
the surge flow.
Fig. 200-21 Effect of Guide Vane Setting (Stationary or Variable)
Movable inlet guide vanes are occasionally employed on single-stage machines, or

on the first stage of multistage compressors driven by electric motors at constant
speed. The guide vane angle can be manually or automatically adjusted while the
unit is on stream to accommodate operating requirements. Because of the
complexity of the adjusting mechanism, the variable feature can only be applied to
the first wheel in almost all designs.
External Causes and Effects of Surge

Briefly, some of the usual causes of surge (other than from machine design) are:
1. Restricted suction or discharge such as a plugged strainer.
2. Process changes in pressures or gas composition.
3. Mis-positioned rotor or internal plugging of flow passages.
4. Inadvertent speed change such as from a governor failure.

The effects of surge can range from a simple lack of performance to serious
damage to the machine and/or the system. Internal damage to labyrinths,
diaphragms, thrust bearing and the rotor can be experienced. Surge often excites
lateral shaft vibration. It can also produce torsional damages to such items as
couplings and gears. Externally, devastating piping vibration can occur causing
structural damage, mis-alignment, and failure of fittings and instruments.
Surge can often be recognized by check valve hammering, piping vibration, noise,
wriggling of pressure gages or ammeter on the driver. Mild cases of surge are some-
times difficult to discern.
225 Stonewall
Another major factor affecting the theoretical head-capacity curve is choke or
stonewall. The terms surge and stonewall are sometimes incorrectly used inter-
changeably, probably due to the fact that serious performance deterioration is
observed in either case.
A compressor stage is considered to be in stonewall, in theory, when the Mach
Number equals one. At this point the impeller passage is choked and no more flow
can be passed. Industry practice normally limits the inlet Mach Number to less than
0.90 for any specified operating point.
We are concerned with two important items in defining stonewall: the inlet-gas
velocity incidence angle, and the inlet-gas Mach Number.
The vector diagram (Figure 200-22) shows an inlet-gas velocity vector which lines
up well with the impeller blade at design flow.
Fig. 200-22 Inlet Gas Velocity Vector – Design Flow (Courtesy of the Elliott Company)

The ratio of the inlet gas velocity (relative to the impeller blade) to the speed of
sound at inlet is referred to as the relative inlet Mach Number.
V rel
Mach No. = ----------
a1
(Eq. 200-6)
where:
a1 = g k ZRT 1
= speed of sound at inlet
As flow continues to increase, the incidence angle of the relative gas velocity, with
respect to the impeller blade, becomes negative as shown in Figure 200-23. The
negative incidence angle results in an effective reduction of the flow area and
impingement of the gas on the trailing edge of the blade, contributing to flow sepa-
ration and the onset of choke.
Fig. 200-23 Inlet Gas Velocity Vector – Negative Incidence Angle (Onset of Choke) (Cour-
tesy of the Elliot Company)
It is important to note the choke effect is much greater for high molecular weight
gas, especially at low temperatures and lower k values. For this reason, maximum
allowable compressor speed may be limited on high molecular weight applications,
with a corresponding reduction in head per stage.
230 Selection Criteria

This section concentrates on equipment selection. (Forms are also available in the
Appendix to assist in the estimating process.)

231 Application Range

Refer to Figure 200-12 for a chart of capacity vs. pressure for horizontally- and
vertically-split centrifugal compressors.
Normally, manufacturers do not design a compressor to match an application, they
fit the application to one of a series of existing compressor casings or frame sizes.
Therefore, check the manufacturer's bulletins for data required to make selection
estimates. Figure 200-24 provides data for a series of compressor casings based on
a comparison of data from the industry.
Fig. 200-24 Preliminary Selection Values for Multistage Centrifugal Compressors
In addition, the minimum discharge CFM (DCFM) should be considered. Current

impeller designs limit impeller inlet CFM to approximately 300-500 ICFM. Thus,
process conditions resulting in a discharge volume of less than approximately 250
DCFM may be unacceptable.
232 Horsepower and Efficiency Estimates

One of the major benefits in doing your own estimates, rather than turning every-
thing over to a manufacturer, is that you develop a better understanding of the appli-
cation. You are then in a better position to discuss it with the manufacturers,
evaluate alternate selections, and even catch errors in manufacturer's estimates.
Figure 200-25 is a plot of polytropic efficiency vs. inlet volume flow. This chart
may be used for estimating polytropic efficiencies.
As discussed in Section 100, manufacturers use a computer to calculate compressor
performance on a stage-by-stage basis. Performance is based on each preceding
stage, new impeller inlet conditions, including compressibility (Z) and k values to
determine the individual performance for each successive stage.
If specific stage data is unavailable, overall calculations using average compress-
ibility and a k value based on the average flange-to-flange temperature, will provide
reasonably accurate results. (Refer to Section 100 for compressibility equations.)

Fig. 200-25 Polytropic Efficiency vs. Inlet Volume Flow (Courtesy of Dresser-Rand)
Estimate overall efficiency from Figure 200-25, using average CFM from:
Inlet ACFM + Disch. ACFM

cfm avg = ---------------------------------------------------------------------
2
(Eq. 200-7)
where discharge ACFM is determined using Equation 200-14 and an efficiency of
75%.
Determine n-1/n from:
n–1 k–1
------------ = ------------
n kη p
(Eq. 200-8)

Recalculate head, discharge temperature, and gas horsepower (GHP) from:
n–1
------------
r n –1
H p = z avg RT 1 ---------------------
n–1
------------
n
(Eq. 200-9)
where:
Hp = Polytropic Head in feet
n–1
------------
T2 = T1 r n
(Eq. 200-10)
wH p
GHP = -----------------------
33 ,000η p
(Eq. 200-11)
where:
w = weight flow in lbs./min.
Estimate brake horsepower using:
BHP = GHP + bearing loss + oil seal loss
where bearing loss is determined from Figure 200-26, and oil seal loss is deter-
mined from Figure 200-27. The casing size in the figures is selected by comparing
the cfmavg with the flow range in Figure 200-24
233 Head/Stage
Although special impeller designs are available for higher heads, a good estimate
for the typical multistage compressor is approximately 10,000 ft/stage. This is
based on an assumed impeller flow coefficient of 0.5 and a nominal impeller tip
speed of 800 fps.
The actual head per stage varies between manufacturers and individual impeller
designs, ranging from 9,000 to 12,000 feet for 28 to 30 molecular weight gas at
normal temperatures.
Head per stage is limited by:
• impeller stress levels
• inlet Mach Number

Fig. 200-26 Bearing Losses vs. Casing Size and Speed (Courtesy of Dresser-Rand)
Fig. 200-27 Oil Seal Losses vs. Casing Size and Speed (Courtesy of Dresser-Rand)

Impeller Stress Level

The following speed margins are defined by API:
• Rated (Design) Speed: 100%
• Maximum Continuous Speed: 105% of Rated Speed
• Trip Speed: 110% of Maximum Continuous
• Overspeed: 115% of Maximum Continuous
Figure 200-28 identifies the impeller stresses at various rotational speeds. Reduced
yield strengths required for corrosive gas will correspondingly reduce maximum
head per stage through reduction in speed.
Fig. 200-28 Impeller Stress Levels at Various Speeds
Inlet Mach Number

An increase in gas molecular weight, or a decrease in k, Z or inlet temperature will
result in an increase in inlet Mach Number. For high molecular weight or low
temperature applications, Mach Number may limit head per stage for a given
design.
234 Stages/Casing
The maximum number of stages per casing should normally be limited to eight. It
is usually limited by rotor critical speeds, although in a few cases temperature can
be a limiting factor.
Most multistage centrifugal compressors operate between the first and second criti-
cals (flexible shaft rotor). Figure 200-29 shows the location of critical speeds in
relation to the operating speed range. API specifies the required separation between
critical speeds and the compressor operating range. As the bearing span is increased
to accommodate additional impellers, the critical speed decreases, with the second
critical approaching the operating range. While some manufacturer's bulletins indi-
cate as many as 10 or more stages per casing, designs exceeding eight impellers per
case should be carefully evaluated against operating experience from similar units.

Fig. 200-29 Rotor Response Plot (Courtesy of the American Petroleum Institute)
For compound, or sidesteam loads, additional stage spacing may be required to

allow for intermediate exit and/or entry of the gas. In these applications, the number
of impellers would be reduced accordingly.

If the calculated discharge temperature exceeds approximately 350°F, cooling
should be considered to avoid problems with compressor materials, seal compo-
nents, and clearances. The exact temperature limit is dependent on factors such as
the gas compressed, compressor materials, allowable temperature of the seal oil,
and the type of seals. Also, note that discharge temperature will increase as flow is
reduced toward surge.
236 Selection Review

Refer to Section 2100 for centrifugal compressor checklists, which provide typical
items covered during the review of any centrifugal compressor quotation.

240 Machine Components and Configurations

Centrifugal compressors are made up of a casing with stationary internals,
containing a rotating element, or rotor, supported by bearings. Shaft end-seals are
provided to contain the process gas. Figure 200-30 shows a typical multistage
compressor and identifies the basic components. (Refer to Figure 200-1 for details
of the gas flow path.)
The main machine components are:
• Casings
• Nozzles
• Stage
• Diaphragms
• Impellers
• Rotor
• Shaft
• Radial Bearings
• Thrust Bearing
• Balance Piston
• Interstage Seals
• Shaft-end Seals
Casings
The following is a summary of casing materials and their applications.
1. Cast Iron
• Limited to low pressure applications for non-flammable, non-toxic gases.
• Limited in location and size of main and sidestream connections to available
patterns.
2. Cast Steel
• Quality is difficult to obtain.
• X-ray inspection requirements increase costs.
• High-rejection rate or involved repairs can extend deliveries.
3. Fabricated Steel
• Used for both horizontally- and vertically-split casings.
• Improved quality control possible.
• Delays associated with rejection or repair of castings are avoided.
• Variable stage spacing provides minimum bearing span for required stages.

Fig. 200-30 Centrifugal Compressor Nomenclature (Courtesy of Demag Delaval)
• Main and sidestream nozzle size and location are not limited by pattern avail-
ability.
4. Forged Steel
• Used for small vertically-split casing sizes where application involves very
high pressures.
All centrifugal compressor casings used to be cast. But, due to the problems associ-
ated with quality control on large castings, coupled with improved fabrication tech-
niques and costs, many manufacturers converted to fabricated steel casings,
especially on the larger frame sizes.
Nozzles
Inlet and outlet nozzles are available in a variety of configurations, depending on
the manufacturer. They are normally flanged. (Typical arrangements are shown
later in this section.) API 617 covers requirements for flange type, and ratings of
main and auxiliary connections.
The increased use of fabricated cases has provided additional flexibility in nozzle
orientation.
If the installation permits, the following should be considered:
1. Horizontally-split units with process connections in the lower half (down-
connected) allow removal of the top half, and internals including rotor, without
disturbing the process piping.
2. If overhead process piping is required, the use of vertically-split barrel
compressor casings still allow removal of the inner casing and access to the
internals without removing process piping. Fabricated casing design makes the
vertically-split unit a cost-effective alternative for larger medium pressure
applications.
Stage
The heart of the centrifugal compressor is the impeller “stage”. The stage is made
up of the following parts (illustrated in Figure 200-31):
• inlet guide vanes
• impeller
• diffuser
• return bend (crossover)
• return channel
The stage can be separated into two major elements:
• The impellers which are mounted on the shaft as part of the rotor.
• The stationary components including the inlet nozzle and other components
mentioned above.

Fig. 200-31 Centrifugal Compressor Stage Components (Courtesy of the Elliott Company)
The inlet volute, or return channel, guides the gas to the eye of the impeller, and
aided by the guide vanes, distributes the flow around the circumference of the
impeller eye.
One method of adjusting the stage performance, is to use different guide vane
angles. This changes the angle of incidence on the impeller which in turn varies the
head, efficiency, and stability. There are three types of fixed guide vanes; radial,
against-rotation, and with-rotation. The influence of various guide vane angles on a
given impeller head characteristic is shown in Figure 200-32.
Diaphragms
The stationary members inside the casing are called diaphragms. The diaphragm
includes a diffuser for the gas as it leaves the impeller, and a channel to redirect the
gas through the return bend and return channel into the next stage. Diaphragms can
be either cast or fabricated, with cast diaphragms normally made of iron. Normally,
diaphragms are not exposed to high pressure-differentials, and therefore are not
highly stressed. Diaphragms should be made of steel where high-differentials may
exist (such as back-to-back impellers).
Impellers
The impeller is the most highly stressed component in the compressor. Available
types vary widely, although the three basic types are designated as open, semi-
open and closed:

Fig. 200-32 Head-Capacity Characteristics of Constant Speed Centrifugal Compressor with Capacity Regulated by
Variable Inlet Vane Angle (Courtesy of Dresser-Rand)
Open impellers have the vanes positioned in a radial direction and have no
enclosing covers on either the front or back sides.
Semi-open impellers usually have the vanes positioned in a radial or backward
leaning direction and have a cover on the back side which extends to the periphery
of the vanes. The radial blade, semi-open impeller provides for a maximum amount
of flow and head in a single stage, even in large diameter impellers (Figure 200-33).
Fig. 200-33 Impeller Types – Closed and Semi-Open Backward Leaning (Courtesy of
Dresser-Rand)
Closed impellers have enclosing covers on both the front and back side. This is the
most common type in our large process compressors. The blades are usually back-

ward leaning, although they may be radial. Forward leaning blades are normally
used only in fans or blowers. (See Figure 200-33)
Single-inlet impellers take the gas in an axial direction, on one side of the impeller
only, and discharge the gas in a radial direction.
Double-flow impellers take the gas in an axial direction, on both sides of the
impeller, and discharge the gas in a radial direction. They are, in effect, the equiva-
lent of two single-inlet impellers placed back-to-back and, in general will handle
twice the flow at the same head as a single-inlet impeller of the same diameter oper-
ating at the same speed.
Some impeller designs utilize a three-dimensional blade or vane configuration,
which varies the inlet blade angle from hub to outside diameter, thereby providing
optimum aerodynamic geometry, and improved performance over that of two-
dimensional designs.
Centrifugal compressor impellers discharge gas radially, but the gas enters in an
axial direction. An axial flow element called an inducer is sometimes incorporated
into the impeller. This combination is called a mixed-flow impeller. This configura-
tion results in increased efficiency in high-flow applications.
In the past, riveted impeller construction was used in a large number of applica-
tions. Today, construction with welded components is more common.
Rotor
The rotor is made up of the shaft, impellers, impeller spacers, thrust collar, and the
balance drum. Figure 200-34 shows several rotor configurations with various
impeller types.
If a rotor always operates below the lowest critical speed, it is known as a stiff-
shaft rotor. In contrast, a rotor with a normal operating range above one or more of
its criticals is a flexible-shaft rotor. Most multistage centrifugal compressors have
flexible-shaft rotors; and therefore, must pass through at least one critical during
start-up or shutdown. From an operational point of view, stiff shafts would be pref-
erable. However, it is not practical since the shafts would become prohibitively
large.
Shafts
Shafts are made from alloy steel forgings, finished by grinding or honing to
produce the required finish. Special requirements are detailed in API 617 for
balancing and concentricity during rotor assembly. Impellers are normally mounted
on the shaft with a shrink fit with or without a key, depending on the particular
manufacturer and compressor frame size. Most manufacturers use shaft sleeves to
both locate impellers and provide protection for the shaft in the event of contact
with internal labyrinth seals.
Special attention must be given to minimizing mechanical and electrical runout at
the shaft area observed by proximity probes. See the General Machinery Manual
for more information on mechanical/electrical mount.

Fig. 200-34 Centrifugal Compressor Rotor Configurations (Courtesy of the Elliot Company)

Radial Bearings
Radial bearings on centrifugal compressors are usually pressure lubricated. For
ease of maintenance, they are horizontally- split with replaceable liners or pads.
The liners or pads are usually steel backed with a thin lining of babbitt.
Since centrifugal rotors are relatively light, bearing loads are low. This often leads
to instability problems which must be compensated for by the bearing design. Due
to instability, the straight-sleeve bearing is used only in some slow-speed units with
relatively short bearing spans. The pressure-dam sleeve bearing, and the tilting-
pad bearing are two commonly used designs which improve rotor stability.
The top half of the pressure-dam design is relieved as shown in Figure 200-35,
creating a pressure point where the dam ends. This conversion of oil-velocity into
pressure adds to rotor stability by increasing the bearing load.
Fig. 200-35 Pressure Dam Sleeve Bearing Liner (Courtesy of the Elliott Company)

The tilting-pad bearing shown in Figure 200-36 is usually made up of five indi-
vidual pads, each pivoted at its midpoint. By adjustments to the shape of the pads
and bearing clearance, bearing stiffness and damping characteristics can be
controlled. This bearing is successful in applications where the pressure-dam
design is inadequate.
Fig. 200-36 Tilting-Pad or Pivoted Shoe Radial Journal Bearing (Courtesy of the Elliott Company)
Thrust Bearing
The tilting pad is the most common thrust bearing used in centrifugal compressors.
The flat land and tapered land bearings are used less frequently. Figure 200-37
shows a tilting-pad bearing, consisting of a thrust collar (collar disk) attached to the
rotor shaft, and a carrier ring which holds the pads. A button on the back of the pad
allows the pad to pivot freely, thus allowing adjustment to varying oil velocity at
different compressor speeds. A further refinement to the basic design is the self-
equalizing bearing shown in Figure 200-38. An equalizing bar design allows the
bars to rock until all pads carry an equal load.
Balance Piston
Figure 200-39 represents the pressure profile acting on a centrifugal compressor
impeller, showing net pressure and net thrust pattern. This pressure pattern on the
impeller results in a net thrust force towards the suction end of the machine. The
total net thrust is the sum of the thrusts from all the individual impellers.
The rotor's thrust is handled by the thrust bearing. However, in most multistage
compressors, a very large, if not impractical, thrust bearing would be required to
handle the total thrust load, if not otherwise compensated. Therefore a thrust

Fig. 200-37 Button-Type Tilting-Pad Thrust Bearing (Courtesy of the Elliott Company)

Fig. 200-38 Self-Equalizing Tilting-Pad Thrust Bearing (Courtesy of the Elliott Company)
Fig. 200-39 Impeller Pressure and Thrust Patterns (Courtesy of the Elliott Company)
compensating device, or balance piston (or balancing drum) is normally provided

as part of the rotating element.
As shown in Figure 200-40, compressor discharge pressure acts on the inside end
of the balance piston. The area on the discharge side (outside) is vented, usually to
suction pressure. The resulting differential pressure across the balance piston

develops a force which opposes the normal thrust force, thus greatly reducing the
net thrust transmitted to the thrust bearing.
Thrust compensation can be regulated by controlling the balance piston diameter.
However, there are usually physical and design limitations. Normally a balancing
force less than the total impeller thrust (approximately 75%) is selected to maintain
the rotor on one face of the thrust bearing for all operating conditions. Otherwise,
the rotor could bounce back and forth between the thrust faces as process condi-
tions vary.
Interstage Seals
Internal seals are installed on multistage centrifugals to prevent leakage between
stages, thereby improving performance. Labyrinth seals are commonly used, being
located at the impeller eye and at the shaft between stages. Figure 200-41 illustrates
internal labyrinth seals.
Fig. 200-40 Centrifugal Compressor Balance Drum Fig. 200-41 Interstage Seals (Courtesy of Dresser-
(Balance Piston) (Courtesy of the Howell Rand)
Training Group)

Shaft End-Seals
Centrifugal compressors use shaft end-seals to:
1. Restrict or prevent leakage of air or oil vapors into the process gas stream.
2. Restrict or prevent leakage of process gas from inside the compressor.
Various types of seals are used, depending on the gas being compressed, the pres-
sures involved, safety, operating experience, power savings, and process require-
ments.
Shaft end-seals are separated into two broad categories:
• the restrictive seal which restricts but does not completely prevent leakage; and
• the positive seal designed to prevent leakage.
Restrictive seals are usually labyrinths. They are generally limited to applications
involving non-toxic, non-corrosive, abrasive-free gases at low pressures. In some
cases, ports for injection or withdrawal of the gas are used to extend the range of
effectiveness. Some possible arrangements are shown in Figure 200-42.
Another form of the restrictive seal is the dry carbon ring seal, often used on over-
hung single-stage compressors where maximum sealing and minimum axial shaft
spacing are important. Since this seal can be held to close clearances, leakage is
less than with the labyrinth seal. Also, less axial shaft space is required (see
Figure 200-43).
Positive seals, while varying somewhat in design between manufacturers, are either
liquid-film or mechanical contact type.
The liquid-film type is shown in Figure 200-44. A schematic of a seal system is
shown in Figure 200-45. Sealing oil is fed to the seal from an overhead tank located
at an elevation above the compressor set to maintain a fixed five psi (typically)
differential above “seal reference” pressure. (Seal reference pressure is very close
to suction pressure.)
The oil enters between the seal rings and flows in both directions to prevent inward
leakage to the process gas or outward leakage of the gas to the atmosphere. “Buffer
ports” are often available for injection of an inert gas to further ensure separation of
the process from the sealing medium. The oil-film seal is suitable for sealing pres-
sures in excess of 3000 psi. (See Figure 200-46 for an illustration of a buffer-gas
injection.)
The tilting-pad oil seal (shown in Figure 200-47) is a design that recognizes that in
some cases the seal operates as a bearing. It can be used in high-pressure, high-pres-
sure-rise applications to improve rotor stability.
The mechanical contact seal (Figure 200-48) is used at pressures up to 1000 psi,
and has the added feature of providing more positive sealing during shutdown.
Sealing is provided by means of a floating carbon ring seal riding between a
stationary and a rotating face. The seal medium (oil) functions primarily as a
coolant. Seal oil differential is controlled by a regulator rather than an overhead
tank.

Fig. 200-42 Ported Labyrinth Seals (Courtesy of the Fig. 200-43 Buffered Dry Carbon-Ring Seal (Courtesy
Elliott Company) of the Elliott Company)
Fig. 200-44 Liquid (Oil) Film Seal (Courtesy of Dresser- Fig. 200-45 Oil Film Seal Schematic (Courtesy of
Rand) Dresser-Rand)

Fig. 200-46 Oil Film Seal with Buffer to Separate Seal Oil from Bearing Oil (Courtesy of
Dresser-Rand)
242 Configurations
Configuration refers to the relationship between the inlet, discharge, and side
streams to the mechanical arrangement of the compressor. This will be clarified by
the following examples.
Figure 200-49 shows a typical cross-section of a multistage centrifugal compressor.
This is called a “straight-through” compressor because flow goes in one end and
out the other.
Another common configuration is the “compound,” or “Out-and-In” type
(Figure 200-50). This arrangement allows removal of the total gas stream for inter-
cooling, power savings, or processing, and re-entry for additional compression.
Note the additional spacing required for flow extraction and re-entry. Although
some designs can minimize the effect, this reduces the maximum number of impel-
lers available for compression.
The “sidestream compressor” shown in Figure 200-51 allows the introduction or
extraction of partial flows at intermediate levels to satisfy various process require-
ments. The number of sidestreams in a single casing is limited only by available
spacing. This arrangement adds the complexity of requiring mixed temperature
calculations to determine impeller performance downstream of sidestream inlets.
The “double-flow” configuration effectively doubles the capacity of a given frame
size ( Figure 200-52). The compressor is divided into two sections, the inlet flow
entering at either end, and discharging through a common discharge nozzle at the
center of the casing. The impellers in each section face in opposite directions,
achieving thrust balance at all operating conditions. While flow is doubled, the
number of stages available for increasing head is cut in half. The use of the double-
flow option should be carefully evaluated against other alternatives.
The compressor in Figure 200-53 utilizes what is commonly called the “back-to-
back” impeller arrangement. This type has advantages in high pressure-rise applica-
tions where thrust balancing becomes difficult using a conventional thrust bearing
and balancing drum. Since the back-to-back impellers produce opposing thrust
forces, the net thrust is significantly reduced, eliminating the need for a balance

Fig. 200-47 Tilt-Pad Oil Film Seal (Courtesy of Dresser-Rand)

Fig. 200-48 Mechanical Contact Seal (Courtesy of the Elliot Company)
piston to provide thrust compensation. This arrangement must, however, be care-

fully reviewed with respect to division wall-flow disturbances, bearing span, and
seal design on rotor stability.
One other configuration to note is a combination series/parallel unit, Figure 200-54.
Eastern Region has one of these in booster-compression service, and reports good
performance, and flexibility switching back and forth in order to obtain higher
flows, or discharge pressure, as needed for system operation.

Fig. 200-49 “Straight-Through” Centrifugal Compressor (Courtesy of the Elliot Company)
Fig. 200-50 Compound Centrifugal Compressor (Courtesy of Dresser-Rand)

Fig. 200-51 Centrifugal Compressor with Side-stream Connections (Courtesy of Dresser-Rand)
Fig. 200-52 Double Flow Compressor (Courtesy of Dresser-Rand)

Fig. 200-53 Back-to-Back Impeller Arrangement (Courtesy of Dresser-Rand)
Fig. 200-54 Series/Parallel Compressor

250 Application and System Considerations
251 Effect of System Changes on Performance

A centrifugal compressor operates at the intersection of its performance curve and
the system resistance curve. For constant inlet conditions, the operating point of a
variable-speed unit can be changed by either a change in speed or by altering the
system curve. Constant-speed unit performance can only be modified by changing
the system curve.
Example
In Figure 200-55 a typical system resistance curve has been added to performance
curves indicating the effect of a change in inlet pressure. The solid curve shows
original performance while the lower curve shows the effects of a reduced inlet
pressure. Calculations using fan laws (assuming a constant inlet volume flow)
would indicate revised operation at point C. However, since the compressor would
actually seek a new operating point at the intersection of its revised performance
curve and the system curve, the resulting operation would be at point B.
If the effects of the system curve are large, estimates made using the fan laws will
be significantly in error.
252 Stable Operating Speed Ranges

The compressor stability range is discussed in connection with performance curves
and surge in Sub-section 220. This is very important.
In addition to performance stability, a satisfactory margin must be maintained
between the operating speed range and the critical speeds of both the compressor
and driver.
Although API 617 defines these required margins, the following can be used as a
general guideline:
• lateral critical—should not fall in the range from 15% below any operating
speed to 20% above the maximum continuous speed.
• torsional criticals—(complete train) no torsional critical should fall in the
range from 10% below any operating speed to 10% above maximum contin-
uous speed.
253 Power Margins

The rated horsepower for centrifugal-compressor drivers should be a minimum of
110% of the maximum horsepower required for any specified operating point.
For motor drivers, it is necessary that the motor be carefully matched to the
compressor, and items reviewed such as:
• motor speed-torque characteristics,

Fig. 200-55 Effect on Performance Due to Change in Pressure (From Compressors: Selection & Sizing, by Royce
Brown  1986 by Gulf Publishing Company, Houston, TX. Used with permission. All rights reserved.)
• accelerating-torque requirements of the compressor, and

• motor supply voltage during acceleration.
(See the Motor section of the Driver Manual.) Steam turbines should have a
maximum continuous speed 105% of rated compressor speed.
Driver requirements are further detailed in API 617. API Standards 611 and 612
cover general purpose and special purpose steam turbines.
254 Series Operation

When two or more casings (or sections) are operated in series, the manufacturer
usually furnishes two performance maps: one for each casing, and one showing

overall casing performance. For determination of the surge volume, use the overall
curve.
In most situations, it is desirable to have an individual anti-surge recycle line
around each casing (or around each section of compression of compound casings).
It is not practical for one anti-surge control to accommodate two casings or sections
at operating conditions significantly removed from the rated point. In addition, the
overall operating stability range can be improved because the anti-surge controls
can be set for the stability range of each casing rather than the overall range for all
casings.
255 Weather Protection

Although centrifugal compressors are generally suitable for unprotected outdoor
installations, daily temperature fluctuations can affect equipment alignment. Cold
temperatures, heavy rains, salt atmosphere, blowing dirt or sand can make mainte-
nance difficult, and maintenance of equipment cleanliness impossible.
Most equipment specification packages include detailed requirements for weather
protection of controls and instrumentation. However, conditions vary between loca-
tions. Therefore, get specific input from site personnel. Also, make sure the specifi-
cations accurately reflect what the field has found to be most trouble-free.
256 Process Piping Arrangements

The inlet piping configuration is an important factor that must be carefully evalu-
ated to ensure satisfactory compressor performance. Performance predictions are
based on a smooth, undisturbed flow pattern into the eye of the first impeller. If the
flow has any rotation or distortion as it enters the compressor, performance will be
reduced.
Figure 200-56 may be used as a guideline to establish the minimum length of
straight pipe run ahead of the compressor inlet.
The nozzle loads, or forces and moments that the compressor can accommodate
without misalignment are generally specified by the manufacturer.
API 617 specifies an arbitrary 1.85 times the limits defined by the NEMA SM-23
Standard. This results in limits which are not practical for all machine types. This
criteria relates allowable loadings only to flange size. For example, a lightly
constructed unit with 8-inch, 150-pound flanges would be expected to withstand the
same loadings as a heavy barrel casing with 8-inch, 2500-pound flanges.
Specification, CMP-MS-1876, Centrifugal Compressors, specifies allowable load-
ings related to the weight of the machine. This approach provides limits which are
generally accepted within the industry.
The design and location of piping supports, and the accommodation of thermal
expansion, is generally left to the piping designer, although it should also be
reviewed by the project or machinery engineer. This should be checked in detail
during construction to ensure correct installation of piping, and that the location

Fig. 200-56 Minimum Straight Pipe Run Ahead of Compressor Inlet (1 of 2)

Note: Use the chart to determine Dimension “A”. (Courtesy of the Elliot Company)

Fig. 200-56 Minimum Straight Pipe Run Ahead of Compressor Inlet (2 of 2)

Note: Use the chart to determine Dimension “A”. (Courtesy of the Elliot Company)

and setting of supports is in accordance with design drawings and specifications.

Section 700 contains installation and precommissioning checklists which include
piping installation review.
The following additional items should be considered when reviewing the overall
compressor piping design.
1. High-velocity streams generate noise. Maximum velocity can be limited by the
amount of noise that is allowed.
2. No side connections (such as the balance piston return line) should be put in
the straight piping run ahead of the compressor inlet.
3. When a permanent strainer is used, specified compressor inlet pressure must
include an allowance for strainer pressure drop.
4. To avoid problems prior to startup, the compressor manufacturer should be
advised of the description and location of each strainer.
5. Woven wire mesh should not be used in strainers for centrifugal compressors.
Wire mesh has the tendency to plug very rapidly, requiring frequent removal,
and in some cases, it has been ingested into the compressor causing serious
internal damage.
6. Inlet strainers should be located in the first pair of flanges away from the
compressor's nozzle. Strainers should not be located right at the suction nozzle,
since excessive flow distortion could result.
257 Lube- And Seal-Oil Systems

The lubrication of centrifugal compressors is generally handled by a pressurized
system, which also provides the seal oil and control oil in some cases. One system
usually supplies all machines in a given train (such as the compressor, any gears,
and the driver).
A basic pressurized lube system consists of a reservoir, pumps, coolers, filters,
control valves, relief valves, instrumentation, and other auxiliaries specific to the
application.
Seal oil may be provided from a combined lube and seal oil system, or from a sepa-
rate seal oil system. Generally, combined systems are selected for sweet gas
services. Separate seal oil systems are generally selected for compressors in
services that contain hydrogen sulfide or other corrosive or toxic gases. In either
type of system, the inner (sometimes called ‘sour’) seal oil leakage is normally not
returned to the reservoir. The outer (sometimes called ‘sweet’) seal oil leakage is
returned to the reservoir. Under certain conditions, it is possible for sour gas to
migrate into the outer seal oil stream that is returned to the reservoir. Having a sepa-
rate system positively avoids contamination of the lubricating oil and subsequent
corrosive attack of babbitt-lined bearings and other components served by the lubri-
cating oil system.

API 614, Lubrication, Shaft-Sealing, and Control Oil Systems for Special Purpose
Applications, and Specification CMP-MS-4762 cover the design, manufacture, and
testing of the overall system, as well as individual components. Used as a reference,
they provide guidelines based on user experience which can easily be scaled down
or tailored to fit any requirement.
The system may be designed either as a console or baseplate-mounted package,
with all components mounted on a single baseplate, or alternately as a multiple-
package arrangement, with system components separated into individually pack-
aged units. In this case the individual component packages are piped together in the
field.
Oil return lines must slope toward the reservoir(s) to allow gravity draining. This is
often overlooked when piping is being laid out. Also, be careful to avoid “head
knockers” when laying out pipe.
Off-shore applications may require a system mounted integrally with the
compressor/driver baseplate, with off-mounted air coolers.
The console arrangement, because of its compact layout, may limit or restrict
access to various components making maintenance difficult. The multiple-package
arrangement allows greater flexibility in locating the individual packages for
improved maintenance access. A major disadvantage of the multiple-package
arrangement is that the complete system is seldom shop tested and therefore perfor-
mance is not verified prior to arrival on site.
Careful attention at all phases from initial specification through installation and
startup will contribute significantly to trouble-free compressor train startup and
operation. Historical maintenance data from many compressor installations indicate
approximately 20 to 25% of centrifugal compressor unscheduled downtime results
from instrument problems (many of these associated with operation and control of
the lube and seal system).
When designing or modifying a system, obtain specific input from the field
regarding site requirements, preferences, and operating experience. They may have
already modified the basic system to correct problems experienced, found a partic-
ular type or brand of instrument that functions better under their site conditions, or
standardized on components to reduce spare parts inventories, etc.
The following highlights areas requiring special attention:
1. For critical or non-spared equipment, include a main and an identical full-sized
auxiliary oil pump (not to be confused with an emergency oil pump which is
normally of much smaller capacity, sized only to handle lube and seal require-
ments during coast-down). A popular drive arrangement for turbine-driven
compressors is a steam-turbine driven main oil pump with an electric motor
driven auxiliary. This arrangement has the advantage that auto-start control of
the electric motor driven unit is relatively simple and reliable with rapid accel-
eration to full speed and rated pressure output. For installations where steam is
not available, several alternate drive combinations are used, including motor,

shaft-driven, and in a few cases air or gas expanders. With motor driven main
and auxiliary pumps, each should be supplied by an independent power source.
2. Consider adequate oil-flow to bearings and seals during coast-down following
a trip of the auxiliary pump. The two approaches used most often involve
either an emergency oil pump or overhead rundown tanks.
Overhead rundown tanks are typically located to provide an initial pressure
(head) equal to the low oil pressure trip pressure. API requires capacity to be
sufficient to supply oil for a minimum of three minutes. In the majority of
cases this is adequate.
A second method is an emergency oil pump. This pump would probably be DC
motor driven, with power supplied by a battery backed UPS system.
3. Manufacturers often insist that the response time of a motor driven auxiliary
pump is sufficient to avoid pressure decay tripping the main unit, and therefore
accumulators are not required. However, several tests have shown this not to be
the case. The option should always be held open so that accumulator require-
ments are based on the system demonstrating acceptable stability during the
prescribed testing.
4. The system rundown tanks, and the accumulators are sometimes confused. The
rundown tanks provide lubrication and cooling to bearings and seals during
coast-down. The accumulator is designed to maintain system pressure within
specified limits during transient conditions or upsets, thus avoiding machinery
trips.
5. When oil seals are used, the manufacturer is normally asked to guarantee a
maximum value for this inner seal-oil leakage. The guaranteed value is often
found to be considerably lower than actual leakage on test or following startup.
Since size of the degassing tank is based on this leakage rate, the tank often
ends up being undersized.
API specifies that the degassing tank be sized for a minimum of three times the
guaranteed inner seal oil leakage. Actual leakage, however, has in some
instances exceeded quoted values by more than 10 times. The manufacturer's
sizing criteria should be verified based on review of leakage-rate tests for
similar seals.
6. For centrifugal lube-oil pumps, the pump head should be compared to the
maximum allowable filter pressure drop (of dirty filters) to ensure that suffi-
cient oil flow is provided to the machinery as the filters become dirty.
7. Shaft-driven main lube-oil pumps are not recommended, since any mainte-
nance or repair of this pump requires the machine be shutdown.

260 Instrumentation and Control
261 Typical Instrumentation

Typical instrumentation is shown in Figure 200-57.
API 614 and 617 data sheets include several additional instrumentation options.
These data sheets provide a good checklist for defining the requirements of a
specific application.
Whatever alarms and shutdowns are chosen, it is very important to make sure they
are installed with facilities to allow testing.
Fig. 200-57 Typical Centrifugal Compressor Instrumentation

Indicator Alarm Shutdown
Lube and Seal System
Lube oil pump discharge pressure x
Oil header pressure (each level) x
Low lube-oil header pressure x x
Standby oil pump running x
Seal-oil pump(s) discharge pressure x x
Seal-oil differential pressure x
Standby seal-oil pump running x
Low seal-oil level x
Low seal-oil pressure x x
Run-down tank level x x
Compressor
Compressor flow rate x
Compressor suction pressure low and high
(each section) x
Compressor discharge pressure low and
high (each section) x
High compressor discharge temperature x WS(1)
Journal bearing temperature WS(1) WS(1) WS(1)
Thrust bearing temperature WS(1) WS(1)
High liquid K.O. levels x x x
Surge event x
Shaft Vibration x x x
Axial Position x x x
(1) WS = when specified

262 Compressor Control

The control system must regulate compressor output to satisfy the process require-
ments and must also keep the compressor from operating in surge.
Performance requirements are usually established during the process-design phase,
based on a cooperative effort between the process designer and machinery engineer.
Although control parameters for an existing process may already be set, (making
selection of the compressor control system relatively straight forward), a process
update or modification, a change in type of compressor or driver, or a need for
improved efficiency, may dictate a change. Refer to the Instrumentation and
Controls Manual for coverage of control system design.
An understanding of the effect of varying gas conditions on compressor perfor-
mance is necessary to properly evaluate control alternatives. Figure 200-58 shows
the performance curve for a centrifugal compressor operating at constant speed
with varying inlet conditions.
263 Control System Selection

Variable-speed and constant-speed suction throttling are the two most common
control methods. Adjustable inlet guide vanes are sometimes used, primarily on
single-stage units.
Turbine driven compressors typically use variable speed, with either pressure or
flow as the controlled variable. Suction throttling is generally used for motor-driven
compressors. Variable-speed motors and hydraulic or electric variable-speed
couplings are seldom applied to centrifugal compressors due to their added cost,
and because they significantly lower the efficiency of the unit.
A review of centrifugal compressor characteristics highlights the differences
between these two methods:
For variable-speed control, the capacity varies directly with speed and the head
varies proportional to the square of speed. Therefore, as speed is reduced, capacity
and head are reduced to meet the process requirements, with a corresponding reduc-
tion of horsepower and a minimum loss in efficiency.
On the other hand, constant-speed operation essentially produces a constant head.
Throttling reduces the inlet and outlet pressures but adds losses by introducing
added resistance to the system.
Figure 200-59 shows typical constant-speed performance curves indicating the
effect of suction throttling. Figure 200-60 shows typical variable-speed perfor-
mance curves. A comparison gives an indication of the difference in power require-
ments between the two methods.
For a capacity requirement of 80%, suction throttling requires approximately 86%
horsepower. For the same 80% capacity, control by variable speed requires approxi-
mately 81% horsepower.

Fig. 200-58 Effects of Changing Gas Conditions at Fig. 200-59 Constant Speed Performance Curves
Constant Speed (Courtesy of the Elliott (Courtesy of the Elliott Company)
Company)
Parallel Operation
Parallel operation of two or more compressors adds additional complexity to the
control system evaluation.
Slight variations in compressor performance characteristics, piping configuration,
and instrument settings can cause one unit to take all the load, thus forcing the
others into recycle, or alternately causing endless “hunting” between units.
For example, if one unit starts to recycle slightly ahead of the other and suction
temperature is increased due to the recycle, its capability to produce head will be
reduced, thereby locking this unit into recycle. Alternately, if suction temperature is
reduced by recycle, head output is increased forcing the other unit into recycle,
starting a back-and-forth swing between units.
Simulation studies are often necessary because of the complexity involved in
matching parallel compressors. Direct your efforts toward developing the least
complex control logic that will meet process and operating requirements. One
common approach is to base load one unit, allowing the second unit to take process
swings.

264 Surge Control

In the case of air compressors, surge control is often accomplished by a discharge
blow-off valve, regulated to maintain the required minimum flow to the
compressor. This is based on a minimum flow setting and is applicable only for
units operating at constant inlet conditions. In most applications, however, it is
necessary to recycle flow back to the suction, through a bypass cooler, in order to
maintain stable operation. Consult a company specialist for assistance in selecting
an appropriate control system.
265 Machinery Monitoring

Machinery monitoring systems are covered in detail in the General Machinery
Manual. In summary:
Fig. 200-60 Variable Speed Performance Curves (Courtesy of the Elliott Company)
• Monitoring systems are used to confirm that machinery is operating within

specified design limits, to provide an indication of machinery condition, and to
warn of changing conditions which might result in machinery damage or
failure.
• Machinery monitoring varies from periodic manual recording of data, to auto-
mated continuous computer data logging and performance analysis.

The most common systems are those described in the General Machinery Manual.
Virtually all new centrifugal compressors come with some monitoring system.
270 Rerates and Retrofits

It is often desirable to modify process conditions to improve overall plant efficiency
or to increase production. However, this often requires rerating an existing
compressor.
Before spending a considerable amount of time and effort in redesigning the
process, it is advisable to make a preliminary feasibility estimate to determine the
rerate capabilities of the existing compressor. This will identify various limitations
and help avoid completing a total process redesign only to find out that a
compressor cannot meet these new requirements.
The major areas which require evaluation include capacity, pressure, speed, and
power. Consider consulting the OEM, and/or a Company specialist before making
significant changes to any critical (unspared) centrifugal compressor.
271 Capacity
While impellers and internal stationary components can be relocated and new ones
added, the casing nozzle sizes are fixed. The maximum capacity that can be
handled with a reasonable pressure drop is therefore dependent on the nozzle size
and related to inlet gas velocity.
Inlet velocity is dependent on gas conditions, allowable noise levels, and inlet
piping configurations. An acceptable rule-of-thumb is a maximum of 140 ft/sec for
air or lighter gases and approximately 100 ft/sec for heavier hydrocarbons.
The actual inlet gas velocity can be calculated from:
Q
V = 3.06 -------
D2
(Eq. 200-12)
where:
Q = ACFM in ft3/minute at inlet pressure, temperature, Z, MW
D = inside diameter of the nozzle, in inches
If side load or compound inlets are involved, inlet gas velocity should be checked
for all inlet connections.
272 Pressure
Next, check the pressure rating of the existing unit:
During manufacture, the casing was hydrotested to 1-1/2 times the maximum oper-
ating pressure (nameplate rating). If the pressures involved in the rerate exceed the

nameplate rating, it will be necessary to re-hydrotest the casing for the new condi-
tions.
Note the following items:
• It may be necessary to check with the manufacturer to confirm that the casing
design pressure is adequate for rerating and rehydrotesting.
• Compressor operating characteristics, relief valve settings, or settle out pres-
sures may set the maximum operating pressure.
• If set by compressor characteristics, use pressure rise to surge at maximum
continuous speed.
• Side stream or compound compressors may have been hydrotested by sections
with a different pressure for each. Check each section for compatibility with
new conditions.
Check the compressor to determine its capability of producing the head required.
Use Equation 200-3 to calculate the head for the rerated condition based on the
desired pressure ratio. An attempt may be made to re-use some or all of the existing
impellers, based on an overall polytropic efficiency of 70% for the initial estimate.
Initially estimate the speed from the affinity law (see later discussion regarding
speed limitations):
H p 1---
N 2 = N 1 --------2 2
Hp
1
(Eq. 200-13)
where:
N1 = original speed
N2 = rerated speed
Hp1 = head for rerated pressure
Hp2 = head for original pressure
This same procedure will work for applications involving side loads or intercooling
between sections. The head for each section is determined based on the conditions
for that section, and the total head is the sum of the individual section heads.
273 Power
Since motor drivers are seldom oversized, anything more than a minor power
increase may require a new motor. This requires close evaluation of proposed
process changes to see if necessary improvements can be achieved while still
staying within the driver's capabilities.

In contrast, turbines and gears can usually be modified to provide increased power.
Although turbine data sheets will sometimes provide information regarding
maximum steam flow or uprate capabilities, discussions with the manufacturer may
be required.
From Equation 200-11, you can see that gas horsepower (GHP) is directly propor-
tional to weight flow (w) and head (H), or:
w 2 H p2
GHP 2 = GHP 1 ----------------
-
w 1 H p1
(Eq. 200-14)
For example, if weight flow is increased by 10% and head is increased by 10%, the
power requirement is increased by:
1.10 x 1.10 = 1.21 or 21%
Furthermore, a driver power margin of 10% is recommended. Therefore, the total
recommended requirement is increased by:
1.21 + 10% (1.21) = 1.33 or 33%
274 Speed
Finally, review the speed based on impeller stress and compressor critical speeds.
Impeller stress levels are related to the impeller tip-speed as discussed in
Section 240. While the maximum allowable tip speeds vary with manufacturer,
impeller design, and material, a good rule-of-thumb for impellers with backward
leaning blades is 900 ft/sec maximum tip velocity.
Determine impeller tip speed by:
DN
u = ---------
229
(Eq. 200-15)
or, using the 900 ft/sec., maximum speed is:
299 ( 900 )
N max = -----------------------
D
(Eq. 200-16)
Maintain the following critical speed separation margins:
• Any critical speed at least 20% below any operating speed
• Any critical speed at least 20% above maximum continuous speed
Revamping of the rotor may have some effect on critical speeds; however, ignore
this effect for the initial feasibility estimate.

280 Foundations
This sub-section provides a basis for establishing the dynamic forces to be used by
civil engineers in foundation design calculations. Soil mechanics, natural frequency
calculations, bearing pressure, concrete strength, and other design factors are not
covered here. Refer to the Civil and Structural Manual for such information. Foun-
dations, anchor bolts, and grouting are discussed in the General Machinery Manual.
In addition to knowing the dimensions and weights of the machinery to be
supported, engineers designing the foundation must know the magnitude, direction,
and frequency of the dynamic forces that the machinery will exert on the founda-
tion.
The importance of foundations to a compressor installation cannot be overem-
phasized. Foundations attenuate vibratory forces generated by the machinery, and
reduce transmission of these forces to the surrounding plant and equipment. Foun-
dations also keep the machinery in alignment.
To perform these essential functions throughout the life of the installation, the foun-
dation must be sized to support the weight of the machinery while imposing a toler-
able bearing pressure on the soil or structure. It must be properly designed so that
the system, consisting of the foundation, soil, machinery, and piping, is not at or
near a resonant condition. It is particularly important on offshore structures, which
may be susceptible to resonance from the machinery vibration.
The purchaser of the machinery is normally responsible for the design of the foun-
dation. The vendor or manufacturer of the machinery will seldom take this
responsibility because his expertise is not in this field. It would not be in his
best interest to accept the risks associated with the design. Additionally, the
vendor does not have specific knowledge about the soil conditions at the site.
281 Foundation Mounting

Centrifugal compressors are installed on either soleplates or fabricated steel base-
plates. The baseplates may be of the non-self-supporting or self-supporting type,
depending on site requirements. These intermediate supports provide a permanent
mounting point for the machine feet, which can then be shimmied for final location
and alignment. In many cases, the baseplate is extended to support both the driver
and driven equipment, and in cases such as off-shore installations, it can also
contain the lube and seal system. The baseplate simplifies installation.
Section 700 contains a detailed checklist including foundation mounting. This
checklist may be used in conjunction with Specification MAC-MS-3907, Grouting
of Machinery for Foundation Mounting. (See the General Machinery Manual for
more information on foundations, anchor bolts, and grouting.) Section 100 includes
criteria for establishing forces to be used in foundation design for centrifugal
compressors.

282 Design Basis for Rotating Compressors

Dynamic (centrifugal, and axial) and rotary compressors generally exert much
smaller dynamic forces than reciprocating compressors. Nevertheless, these forces
should be accounted for to avoid a potentially serious vibration problem during
operation of the compressor. A fault in the design of a concrete foundation is
extremely difficult to correct after the concrete has been poured. There is no
easy way to add mass, alter the stiffnesses, or adjust damping to change the natural
frequency of a concrete foundation in an effort to move the system away from a
condition of resonance. In a few extraordinary cases, it has been necessary to break
out an existing foundation and pour a redesigned foundation to solve a serious
vibration problem. Obviously, such instances are exceedingly expensive and time
consuming.
While guidelines have been developed over the years for the allowable vibration of
the foundation itself, criteria for defining the forces to be used in foundation design
have been lacking.
A misunderstanding between the foundation designer and the compressor manufac-
turer regarding the unbalanced forces to be allowed for in the design has contrib-
uted to many foundation vibration problems. These problems have commonly been
caused by not designing for the actual dynamic forces, but rather for some lower
value, due to communication problems between the foundation designer and the
machine manufacturer.
Depending on how the question about unbalanced force is asked, the manufacturer
might respond with the rotor's residual unbalance from the dynamic balancing
machine. This balancing-machine tolerance is an extremely small number which
might be only 1/20th of the actual force at rated speed. At other times, arbitrary
values are assumed for foundation design, yet they may not be representative of
actual machine operation.
Dynamic Forces
The dynamic force generated by the rotor(s) of rotary and dynamic compressors is
related to the running speed and the vibration of the rotor. Because of the
complexity of the subject, it is impossible to accurately predict the behavior of a
rotor system with one or two simple equations.
Fortunately, however, standards have been developed for allowable limits of vibra-
tion for new machinery. One of the most widely used standards is the API limit for
dynamic and rotary machines:
1
---
A v = 2, or 12000
--------------- 2, whichever is less
N
(Eq. 200-17)
where:
Av = Peak-to-peak amplitude (displacement) of vibration in mils
(0.001 inches)

N = Rated speed in RPM

Note This equation is valid for speeds down to about 3000 RPM. Below 3000
RPM the limit is 2 mils.
The following equation may be used for calculating the force used in foundation
design. This equation is based on a vibration three times the amplitude calculated
from Equation 200-17. A safety factor of three is recommended because that is
about the maximum vibration level where you would ever allow a compressor to
continue to operate.
F = 4.3 × 10 –8 N 2 W R A v
(Eq. 200-18)
where:
F = Dynamic force, lbs
N = RPM
WR = Weight of rotor, lbs
The force calculated is actually a rotating vector, and it should be assumed that it is
acting perpendicularly at the center of the rotor. It should also be assumed that there
will be a 50% reaction at each bearing from the unbalanced rotating force. The reac-
tions at the machine's hold-down bolts can then be resolved.
Figure 200-61 shows the resolution of these forces to bearing reactions. The latter
reactions are transmitted to the foundation via soleplates or baseplate and anchor
bolts. Note that Equation 200-18 can also be applied to the rotors of turbine drivers
and gearboxes.
Occasionally the foundation designer may want to add a factor above the dynamic
force determined by Equation 200-18, although Equation 200-18 is quite conserva-
tive. Five times the API vibration limit has been used as a design criterion in some
cases where there were special concerns about the design. This would provide a
safety factor of 1.67 beyond Equation 200-18. To make the calculation, substitute
7.1 for 4.3 in Equation 200-18.
Other Considerations
The question sometimes arises about whether the foundation would survive if a
large chunk of metal, such as a piece of an impeller or turbine blade(s), were
thrown off the rotor while running at full speed. A second question might be
whether the foundation should be designed to accommodate such an occurrence.
Foundations usually will survive such accidents, although some repairs to anchor
bolts, hold-down bolts, or bearing pedestals may be necessary. Generally, such
occurrences are not taken into account in the design. The forces involved are
extremely high, and it is impossible to predict their magnitude. It is suggested that
bolting and structures be checked for adequacy at 10 times rated torque. This value
is often used on turbine-generator foundations, because a short circuit can cause an

Fig. 200-61 Unbalanced Forces from Compressor and Turbine Rotors
instantaneous torque increase to that level. Similarly, a compressor rotor might

cause such a torque increase in the event of a severe rub.
It is recommended that the natural frequency of the foundation system be at least
30% above or below the frequency of any compressor or driver operating speed.
As a rule of thumb, the weight of the foundation should be no less than three times
the weight of the rotating machinery it supports.
290 Materials
Selection of casing material is influenced by the service involved. Steel casings are
required by API 617 for air or nonflammable gas at pressure over 400 psig or calcu-
lated discharge temperature over 500°F (anywhere in the operating range), and for
flammable or toxic gas. Stainless steel and high nickel alloys are generally used for
low temperature refrigeration units. A materials guideline which covers recom-
mended materials for compressor components is included as an Appendix of API
617.
Although manufacturers have a background of experience in applying materials and
manufacturing processes to special applications, never assume the manufacturer
completely understands your process.
Include a complete process gas analysis, with emphasis on corrosive agents, and
water vapor, together with any anticipated variation in composition, off-design or
alternate operating conditions, or possible process upsets. Specifications should
encourage the manufacturer to offer alternatives or comment based on their experi-
ence.
When defining the operating environment, also consider the possibility of contami-
nant build-up during compressor shutdown which might contribute to subsequent
component failure. For example, the addition of water or cleaning chemicals during
a unit shutdown may add one of the components that lead to a sulfide stress
cracking failure (see Sub-section 291).
API imposes specific design limitations for corrosive gas applications. However,
actual operating experience may dictate addition or modification to these require-
ments.
API also contains an appendix of material specifications for major compressor
component parts.
The following discussion will help you recognize applications where the potential
for problems may exist. Detailed descriptions of the failure mechanisms mentioned
is beyond the scope of this manual. (See the Materials Manual.)
291 Sulfide Stress Cracking

A prevalent problem is sulfide stress cracking of highly stressed components, espe-
cially impellers. It requires the presence of hydrogen sulfide, water in the liquid
state, an acid pH, and tensile stress.

The use of inhibitors has been investigated, although in most cases the practical
solution for operation in this environment has been a change of material.
Studies indicate that for materials with yield strengths between 100,000 to 110,000
psi, stress levels required for sulfide cracking are near the yield strength. In
contrast, materials with yield strengths of 140,000 psi exhibited susceptibility at
stresses as low as 30,000 psi.
Continuing studies have resulted in establishing the generally accepted API 617
guidelines, which limit material yield strength to 90,000 psi or less, and a hardness
not exceeding Rockwell C22.
Note that in 1987, sulfide cracking caused the loss of a critical compressor
supporting a major hydroprocessing facility, costing several million dollars. The
cause was impeller stage pieces with too high a yield strength.
292 Stress Corrosion Cracking

Materials operating where the combination of tensile stress, a corrosive medium
present, and a concentration of oxygen are susceptible to stress corrosion cracking.
The effects of stress and corrosion combine to produce spontaneous metal failure.
Because all conditions required for stress corrosion cracking are less likely to exist
in a normal environment, corrosion cracking is not as common. Also, materials
modified for sulfide cracking produce a material less susceptible to stress corrosion.
293 Hydrogen Embrittlement

Compressors handling hydrogen (hydrogen at partial pressures greater than 100
psig, or concentrations greater than 90 molar-percent at any pressure) are suscep-
tible to hydrogen embrittlement. This embrittlement occurs when a metal is stressed
in a hydrogen-rich atmosphere.
Metals highly prone to embrittlement include high-strength steels and high-strength
nickel base alloys. Those having only a slight tendency include titanium, copper,
austenitic stainless steels and aluminum alloys, with most materials commonly used
on centrifugals falling in between.
As in the previous cases, the most practical solution has been found in selection of
material properties compatible with the process involved.
API 617 limits impellers to 120,000 psi yield strength and a hardness less than
Rockwell C34. Figure 200-62 shows that this stress level is for overspeed RPM,
and is therefore conservative at running speed.
294 Low Temperature

Standard compressor casing materials are generally good for temperatures of -20 to
-50°F. Below these temperatures, standard materials become brittle, and materials
with improved low temperature properties must be used.

Nickel based steel alloys are generally used, with suitable alloys available for both
fabricated and cast casings, for temperatures to approximately -150°F. Special
nickel alloys and austenitic stainless steels may be used for temperatures to -320°F.
Fig. 200-62 Impeller Stresses at Various Speeds of Rotation (Courtesy of the Elliott Company)
Also review other component materials for compatibility with the operating temper-
ature range. The materials appendix of API 617 is an appropriate guide for material
selection since temperature limits specified indicate limits commonly applied by
compressor manufacturers.
An unusual example of the application of low temperature material requirements is
an air compressor located in a cold climate region. Although this compressor might
be located in an enclosed (even heated) building, it could be exposed to inlet air
temperatures well below -50°F. Suction throttling would further reduce inlet temper-
atures.
Where reduced maximum yield strength and hardness are specified, apply the same
requirements to any welding and repair procedures.
295 Impellers
Centrifugal compressor impellers are most commonly made from alloy steel forg-
ings of AISI 4140 or 4340. Materials such as AISI 410 stainless steel and precipita-
tion hardened stainless steels (including Armco 17-4 pH or 15-5 pH) may be used
in situations where corrosion resistance is required. Austenitic stainless steels,
monel, and aluminum, although somewhat limited in their application, are used in
some special cases. Figure 200-63 identifies the chemical analysis of various
impeller materials. Figure 200-64 provides a listing of mechanical properties.

296 Non-Metallic Seals

Elastomeric seal requirements in centrifugal compressors are generally handled by
O-rings. Since compressor applications seldom involve pure gases or fluids, selec-
tion of the proper O-ring material can become quite difficult. Carefully evaluate the
operating environment, considering factors such as temperature, pressure, and fluid
composition (with special emphasis on corrosiveness of the gas).
Operating experience in the same or similar service is of prime importance.
Figure 200-65 provides “application charts” for typical O-ring materials.
297 Coatings
Coatings are not widely used to improve corrosion or erosion resistance of
compressor internals. Problems include:
• surface preparation prior to coating
• maintenance of critical tolerances
• balancing coated components
• protection of coating during handling
• modification of established manufacturing procedures
Selection of compatible materials or material properties is generally the most prac-
tical approach.
Fig. 200-63 Chemical Analysis of Impeller Materials (Courtesy of the Elliott Company)

Fig. 200-64 Mechanical Properties of Impeller Materials (Courtesy of the Elliott Company)

Fig. 200-65 O-Ring Application Charts (Courtesy of the Elliott Company)

300 Reciprocating Compressors
Abstract
This section discusses engineering principles, types of reciprocating compressors,
configurations, and performance characteristics. It contains sufficient information
for understanding how to specify and apply reciprocating compressors including
auxiliaries and support systems.
Contents Page

320 Engineering Principles 300-3
321 Compression Cycle
322 Volumetric Efficiency
323 Capacity and Power Calculations
325 Number of Stages
326 Cylinder Sizing
330 Compressor Types / Performance Characteristics 300-25
331 Types
340 Machine Components and Cylinder Arrangements 300-31
342 Cylinder Arrangements
350 Selection Criteria 300-57
351 Rod Loading
353 Rotating Speed and Piston Speed
354 Compressor Valves
355 Drivers

300 Reciprocating Compressors Compressor Manual
356 Footprint and Weight

357 Noise
358 Efficiency and Economics
360 Application and System Considerations 300-70
361 Cylinder Thermal Performance
362 System Resistance
363 Capacity Control
364 Parallel Operation
365 Power Margins
366 Foundation Mounting and Grouting
367 Shaking Forces (Foundation Requirements)
370 Piping and Arrangements 300-76
372 Control Devices
373 Instruments
380 Foundations 300-80
381 Reciprocating Compressor
382 Pulsation Suppression
390 Rerates and Materials of Construction 300-85
391 Capacity Changes
392 Valve Upgrades
393 Suction System Modifications
394 Materials of Construction

Compressor Manual 300 Reciprocating Compressors
310 Introduction
Section 100 provided general information and fundamental compression equations
applicable to all types of compressors. This section presents additional equations,
charts, and recommendations specifically related to reciprocating compressors. The
machinery covered is limited to crosshead compressors having power ratings from
approximately 150 to several thousand horsepower, with speeds ranging from 250
to 1000 RPM. With engineering judgment, much of the information presented can
be applied to machines with ratings below 150 HP and speeds to 1500 RPM.
The purpose of Section 300 is to provide information to assist the reader in:
• Making initial estimates of power consumption, number of stages, cylinder
sizing, and plot area for a proposed new compressor installation.
• Evaluating retrofits and modifications to re-rate existing compressors for new
service conditions.
• Troubleshooting performance problems occurring on existing equipment.
Figure 300-1 shows a cross-section of a typical single-cylinder (one crankthrow)
compressor, and includes the basic nomenclature that will be used throughout this
section.
320 Engineering Principles
321 Compression Cycle

In a reciprocating compressor, compression takes place as a result of the back-and-
forth travel or stroke of a piston in a cylinder equipped with inlet and discharge
valves. The cycle is usually described by a Pressure-Volume (PV) diagram,
similar to the one shown in Figure 300-2.
322 Volumetric Efficiency

Volumetric efficiency (Ev) is an important variable in reciprocating compressor
calculations, affecting the diameter, stroke, and speed for a given compressor
capacity. The compressor cylinder's actual inlet flow (ICFM) is the product of the
volumetric efficiency and the cylinder's displacement over time, expressed in cubic
feet per minute (CFM).
Ev is related to the clearance volume in the cylinder (the volume to the left of the
dotted lines in Figure 300-2). On the PV diagram, it is the volume between points 0
and 3. The total volume displaced by a full stroke of the piston in the single-acting
cylinder illustrated in Figure 300-2 is the volume between points 1 and 3. Clear-
ance is usually expressed as a percentage of the displaced volume as follows:
Vc
- ( 100 )
C = ---------
V cyl
(Eq. 300-1)

Fig. 300-1 Typical Reciprocating Compressor (From Ingersoll-Rand Compressor Catalog, 1977. Courtesy of
Dresser-Rand)
1. Crankpin 8. Piston Rod 15. Cylinder

2. Crankshaft Counterweight 9. Wiper Packing 16. Cylinder Head
3. Flywheel 10. Distance Piece 17. Liner
4. Frame 11. Piston Rod Packing 18. Valve Cap
5. Conrod 12. Piston 19. Suction Nozzle
6. Crosshead 13. Discharge Valve 20. Discharge Nozzle
7. Crosshead Guide (Dog house) 14. Suction Valve
where:
C = percent clearance
Vc = clearance volume, cubic inches
Vcyl = displacement volume, cubic inches
The theoretical volumetric efficiency (in percent) of a cylinder is:
1
E v (theo.) = 100 – C r k – 1
---
 
(Eq. 300-2)

Fig. 300-2 Steps in the Cycle of a Reciprocating Compressor (From Compressors: Selection & Sizing, by Royce
Brown  1986 by Gulf Publishing Company, Houston, TX. Used with permission. All rights reserved.)
The “ideal indicator diagram” is followed by a

series of cylinder illustrations depicting piston
movement and valve position. The figure shows,
in diagram form, one complete crankshaft revolu-
tion representing a complete compression cycle.
To begin the cycle, refer to the figure at:
(a) where the piston is at the lower end of the
stroke (bottom dead center) and is at path point 1
on the indicator diagram. At this point the
cylinder has filled with gas at intake pressure P1.
Note that the valves are both closed.
(b) the piston has started to move to the left. This
is the compression portion of the cycle and is
illustrated by Path 1-2.
When the piston reaches point 2 on the indicator
diagram, the exhaust valve starts to open. The
discharge portion of the cycle is shown at (c).
This is shown on the indicator diagram Path 2-3.
Note that the discharge valve is open during this
period while the intake valve is closed. The gas is
discharged at the discharge line pressure P2.
(c) When the piston reaches point 3 it has trav-
eled to the upper end of its stroke (top dead
center). Physically, at this point in the stroke,
there is a space between the piston face and the
head. The space results in a trapped volume and
is called the clearance volume.
(d) Next in the cycle, the piston reverses direc-
tion and starts the expansion portion of the cycle,
as illustrated at (d) in the figure. Path 3-4 shows
this portion of the cycle. Here the gas trapped in
the clearance volume is re-expanded to the
intake pressure. Note that the discharge valve
has closed and the intake valve is still closed.
(e) At point 4 the expansion is complete and the
intake valve opens. The intake portion of the
cycle is shown at (e). This is indicated by
Path 4-1 on the indicator diagram. The cylinder
fills with gas at intake line pressure P1.
When the piston reaches point 1 the cycle is
complete and starts to repeat.

where:
P P
r = -----2- or -----d- = pressure ratio
P1 Ps
Cp
k = ------
Cv
Corrections to Ev for Gas Characteristics

In practice, corrections have to be made to Ev to account for valve losses, non-ideal
re-expansion of gas in the clearance volume, internal leakage, compressibility, and
other effects. Each manufacturer has his own set of empirical corrections. There-
fore, several corrections for Ev are used in the industry.
Several of these corrections were compared for natural gas (S.G. = 0.72) and for
propane. They were all within about 5% for pressure ratios between two and four.
However, for hydrogen-rich gases with molecular weights below 10, the corrections
varied as much as 17% at a pressure ratio of four. However, the maximum pressure
ratio for hydrogen-rich gases is typically about three (to keep the discharge tempera-
ture below 300°F). At a pressure ratio of 3, the deviation is less than 10%.
The following equation yields results that are approximately the average of the
other formulas when used for more ordinary lubricated-cylinder compressor appli-
cations. Also, see the following discussion for limitations and corrections.
1
 Z  ---
E v = 97 – F r – C  -----s-  r k – 1
Zd
(Eq. 300-3)
where:
Ev = volumetric efficiency, in percent
Zs = compressibility at suction conditions
Zd = compressibility at discharge conditions
F = 2.4 for mol. wt. < 10
= 1.4 for mol. wt. 10 to 30
= 1.0 for mol. wt. > 30.1
r = pressure ratio
Equation 300-3 is similar to the formula in the GPSA Handbook. The main differ-
ence is that F in Equation 300-3 adjusts for internal gas slippage which varies
inversely with molecular weight.

Mechanical Corrections to Ev
Equation 300-3 applies to lubricated cylinders. Non-lubricated cylinders have a
lower Ev due to greater piston-to-liner clearances, and other factors. For non-lube
applications, change the 97 in Equation 300-3 to 94.
Speed also affects Ev. Equation 300-3 applies to slower speed machines up to 600
RPM. For 1000 RPM machines, Ev is about 3% less, and the Ev determined from
Equation 300-3 should be multiplied by 0.97.
Applications and Limitations of Ev

Although Equation 300-3 is somewhat complex, it does not necessarily imply a
high level of accuracy. It should only be used for estimating when pressure ratios
range from two to five. Furthermore, the equation assumes the cylinder design
provides ample valve flow area, the valve dynamics are satisfactory, and pressure
pulsations are moderate. If any one of these conditions is abnormal, the Ev predic-
tion is questionable.
Note that although Ev is a vital sizing consideration, it does not affect power
consumption. Ev becomes an important factor, if the owner is considering a re-rate,
or is troubleshooting a compressor capacity problem. Manufacturers may be
consulted to determine highly accurate values of Ev based on proprietary informa-
tion and programs.
Actual Inlet Flow

Actual inlet flow (ICFM) to the cylinders is determined by the equation:
ICFM = Q = VdEv
(Eq. 300-4)
where:
Vd = displacement rate, CFM
Ev = volumetric efficiency expressed as a decimal.
Note When Ev appears in an equation, it is expressed as a decimal value, not a
percent.
(Refer also to Section 100, Equations 100-14 and 100-15 for other Q relationships.)
323 Capacity and Power Calculations

Background
The power required by a reciprocating compressor is normally calculated using
adiabatic (isentropic) relationships. The common industry practice is to state power
in units of “brake horsepower per million cubic feet per day” (Bhp/MMCFD).
It is important to differentiate between:

• Bhp/MMCFD - brake horsepower per million cubic feet per day (14.4 psia
and actual suction temperature)
• Bhp/MMSCFD - brake horsepower per million standard cubic feet per day
(14.7 psia and 60°F)
When the capacity is given in MMSCFD, it may be converted to MMCFD as
follows:
14.7 T s   Z rc 
MMCFD = MMSCFD  ----------   --------
 14.4   520   Z 
- --------
o
(Eq. 300-5)
where:
Ts = Actual suction temperature, °R
Zrc = Compressibility at reference conditions of 14.4 psia and actual
suction temperature
Zo = Compressibility at 14.7 psia and 60°F
Z rc
Note -------
- can usually be taken as 1.0 with negligible error
Zo
If the capacity is given in SCFM, or pounds per minute, MMCFD can be calculated
as follows:
( SCFM )T  Z rc 
MMCFD = ----------------------------s  -------
-
353 ,742  Z o 
(Eq. 300-6)
wT s Z rc
MMCFD = ------------------
932 M
(Eq. 300-7)
where:
w = weight flow in lbs/minute
M = molecular weight
When the flow rate in MMCFD, and Bhp/MMCFD are known, brake horsepower
can be calculated from:
Bhp =  -----------------------  ( MMCFD )

Bhp
 MMCFD 
(Eq. 300-8)

MMCFD can be converted to ICFM (inlet cubic feet per minute), or Q as follows
(bearing in mind that MMCFD is equal to 106 cubic feet/day):
14.4  Z s 
Q = ( MMCFD ) ( 10 6 )  ----------   --------   -------------------------- 
day
 P   Z   1 ,440 min. 
s rc
10 4  Z 
= ( MMCFD )  --------   -------s- 
 P  Z 
s rc
(Eq. 300-9)
where:
Ps = Suction pressure in psia
(Notice that division of 14.4 by 1440 results in 1/100 which simplifies the arith-
metic, and it is for this reason that 14.4 psia is used as a convenient reference pres-
sure for MMCFD.)
Combining Equations 300-4, 300-8 and 300-9:
Bhp ( 10 4 )Z S
Q = V d E v = -------------------------------------------------------------
-
( Bhp ⁄ MMCFD )Z rc ( P s )
(Eq. 300-10)
where:
Ev = volumetric efficiency as a decimal
Note Zrc is often taken as 1.0 in Equations 300-9 and 300-10 as a simplifying
assumption. The error is usually small.
A number of formulas and charts have been developed over the years for deter-
mining Bhp/MMCFD. (Note that Bhp/MMCFD is often shortened to Bhp/MM.)
Most of the recently published charts and equations have been for large motor-
driven, low-speed, heavy-duty machines for critical refinery and chemical plant
services covered by API 618. These relationships are also generally applied to large
low-speed integral gas-engine compressors.
The Bhp/MM curves are used along with several correction factors to account for
specific gravity, low-inlet pressure, etc. Additional correcting factors are often
applied for smaller frames with higher speeds.
Computer programs have also been developed to calculate the theoretical horse-
power and power losses associated with specific types of valves, and mechanical
friction. The resulting power predictions are much more accurate than the Bhp/MM
curves and the correction factors, and the computer methods continue to be
improved. By the mid-1980's, the major manufacturers were using computer
methods on most applications.

The manufacturers consider their valve designs and loss factors to be proprietary,
and they are, therefore, not available. However, fairly good estimates can be made
using updated Bhp/MM curves or formulas with some corrections.
Rough Compressor Horsepower Estimate

Equation 300-11 can be used to obtain a quick and rough estimate (plus or minus
10%) of compressor horsepower. It was developed for large low-speed (300-450
RPM) units handling 0.65 specific gravity gases and having stage compression
ratios above 2.5. The equation may produce a result that is as much as 20% low for
high-speed compressors (900-1200 RPM) due to the higher valve losses in these
machines.
Bhp = (22) (MMCFD) (f) (n) (r)

(Eq. 300-11)
where:
r = compression ratio per stage (should be between 2.5 and 4.0)
n = number of stages
f = 1.0 for single-stage compression
= 1.08 for two-stage
= 1.10 for three-stage
Note that:
r = roa 1/n
(Eq. 300-12)
where:
roa = overall compression ratio
Equation 300-11 will also provide a rough estimate of horsepower for gases with
higher specific gravities or for lower stage compression ratios, with modification.
For specific gravities between 0.8 and 1.0 use a multiplication factor of 20 instead
of 22 in the equation. Likewise, use a factor of 16 to 18 for stage compression
ratios between 1.5 and 2.0.
More Accurate Power Estimates

Figure 300-3 summarizes the equations and charts available to determine power for
four classes of reciprocating compressors as defined in the chart. A Reciprocating
Compressor Performance Calculation Worksheet, CMP-EF-873, is included in the
Standard Drawings and Forms section. A sample problem using the worksheet is
also included in Appendix B.
Equation 300-13 along with correction factors may be used to obtain a more accu-
rate estimate of compressor horsepower.

Fig. 300-3 Classes of Reciprocating Compressors and Reference Data

Nominal Nominal
Typical Speed Range, Stroke Range, Equation Figure
Class HP Range RPM inches Reference Reference
Class A: 500-10,000 250-600 10-20 300-11 300-4
API 618 type heavy-duty 300-12 300-5
process gas machine 300-13 300-6
300-14 300-7
300-15
300-16
Class B: 150-3000 600-1000 5-6 300-17 300-8
Often called “separable” 300-18
are normally used in oil
and gas field operations.
Class C: 20-300 250-600 5-13 (multiply
Similar to Class A, but the results from
frames are smaller. Used in Class A by 1.03)
both process and oil field
services.
Class D: 10-200 800-1500 2.5-4 (multiply
Smaller light-weight results from
versions of Class B. Class B by 1.05)
Usually applied in the oil
field.
k–1
r -----------
k – 1
-
46.9   Zs + Zd
----------------------- =  ----------  --------------------------  ------------------ 
Bhp
MMCFD Z  k–1  2 
rc ------------
k
(Eq. 300-13)
where:
Cp
k = ------ at 14.7 psia and average compression temperature T s + Td
-----------------
-
Cv  2 
Equation 300-13 includes a correction for a mechanical efficiency of 93%. (In other
words, if the compressor frame and cylinders had zero mechanical losses or 100%
mechanical efficiency, the 46.9 constant in Equation 300-13 would be 43.6.) The
93% is an arbitrary average. Actual mechanical efficiency can vary significantly
with machine selection. See Section 330, “Compressor Types and Performance
Characteristics.”
Figures 300-4, 300-5, and 300-6 are graphic representations of Equation 300-13,
less compressibility effects. These figures are similar to figures found in the GPSA
Handbook and other handbooks, and may be used instead of Equation 300-13 to
determine the uncorrected BHP/MMCFD.

Fig. 300-4 Basic Bhp/MM for Gas Compressors 150 HP and Above
Note: This chart applies to Class A machines, as defined in Figure 300-3, and also applies to Integral-
Engine Compressors. Refer to Sub-section 323 for further instructions, and for corrections to this chart
for specific gravity, moisture, and non-lubricated cylinders.



Corrections to Equation 300-13. There are several potential factors which may be
accounted for in order to obtain a more accurate horsepower estimate. See
Equation 300-20 for the total adjusted horsepower. The corrections are described as
follows.
Valve Loss Corrections. Valve losses tend to increase with increasing gas density.
Molecular weight (specific gravity) and inlet temperature affect density. These
effects can be taken into account with an addition to the basic Bhp/MM. For Class
A compressors, this correction is as follows:
Corrected Bhp/MM = Basic Bhp/MM + Bhp/MM (SG)

(Eq. 300-14)
where:
Bhp/MM(SG) = valve loss correction
When Specific Gravity ≥ 1.0
4 ,320 ( SG )
Bhp ⁄ MM ( SG ) = ---------------------------
T s Z rc
(Eq. 300-15)
When Specific Gravity < 1.0
3 ,624 ( SG ) + 696
Bhp ⁄ MM ( SG ) = ------------------------------------------
T s Z rc
(Eq. 300-16)
The corrections in Equations 300-15 and 300-16 are appropriate for cylinders
having good valve flow characteristics. However, if the valves are not properly
selected for the compressor application, or if the machine's service conditions differ
significantly from the original design conditions, the corrections may not provide
an accurate prediction of compressor power. Excessive pressure pulsations can also
affect the accuracy of predictions.
Class B compressors, with higher speeds, often have higher valve losses. Methods
of predicting horsepower for Class B machines vary from simply adding 5% to the
Bhp/MM, regardless of the gas, to a set of additions related to specific gravity. The
latter method is the one used by the GPSA Handbook (Refer to the “References”
section of this manual).
While the GPSA method will provide fairly good predictions for average cases,
inlet temperature is not accounted for, and applications with higher pressure ratios
tend to be overcorrected. Corrections similar to those for low-speed compressors
are also available. Following are additions to the basic Bhp/MM which have been
used in the industry for Class B compressors:

When Specific Gravity ≥ 1.0
6 ,027 ( SG )
Bhp ⁄ MM ( SG ) = ---------------------------
T s Z rc
(Eq. 300-17)
(The correction calculated is applied in Equation 300-14.)
When Specific Gravity <1.0
5 ,672 ( SG ) + 335
Bhp ⁄ MM ( SG ) = ------------------------------------------
T s Z rc
(Eq. 300-18)
Figures 300-7 and 300-8 may be used in place of Equations 300-15, 300-16,
300-17, and 300-18 for valve loss corrections for Class A and B machines. They
neglect compressibility effect (Zrc = 1).
Moisture Correction. When the gas being compressed contains water vapor, the
vapor content should preferably be included in the gas analysis. When it is
included, there is no need to correct the Bhp/MM for moisture. If it is not included,
a moisture correction should be made. The moisture correction is typically used in
air compressor calculations. The moisture correction factor is:
Ps
MF = ----------------
-
Ps – Pv
(Eq. 300-19)
where:
MF = Moisture correction factor
Ps = Suction pressure, psia
Pv = Vapor pressure of water at suction temperature (from steam
tables/charts).
The moisture factor must be calculated for each stage. After the first stage, it is
usually assumed that the gas is saturated (relative humidity = 100%) with water
vapor as it leaves the intercooler. Note that there will be water drop-out at each
intercooler.
Correction for Non-lubricated Cylinders. Another correction factor is applied
when the cylinders are not lubricated. The commonly used non-lube correction
factor (NLCF) is a multiplier of 1.05. This factor is widely accepted in the industry.
Although there is some evidence that a well-engineered non-lube design will only
require 1 - 2% more power, using 1.05 is recommended unless you know the correc-
tion should be less.

Fig. 300-7 Addition to Basic Bhp/MM to Correct for Valve Losses in Class A Compressors, as defined in
Figure 300-3.

Fig. 300-8 Addition to Basic Bhp/MM to Correct for Valve Losses in Class B Compressors, as defined in
Figure 300-3.

Total Corrected Power. The total adjusted Bhp/MM per stage is then:
Bhp
Total adjusted -----------
MM
= Basic -----------  ( MF ) ( NLCF ) + ---------------------

Bhp Bhp
 MM  MM ( SG )
(Eq. 300-20)
The result of Equation 300-20 can then be applied in Equation 300-8 to determine
the Bhp for each stage. The total Bhp for the machine is the sum of the Bhp's for
the stages.
Power Estimates for Class C and D Compressors. A quick estimate for Class C
Compressors can be made by adding 3% to the horsepower calculated on the basis
of a Class A machine. Similarly, for Class D machines, add 5% to the power deter-
mined for Class B units.
In making performance estimates, it is customary to subtract 1% from the initial
suction pressure, and add 1% to the final discharge pressure. These allowances are
for the pressure drop through the pulsation dampers.
For interstage pressure drop, use 3% to account for pulsation dampers, piping,
knockout drum (separator), and intercooler. If Equation 100-36 is used, replace
0.98 with 0.97 in the denominator. If actual values for pressure drops are known,
they should be used instead of the foregoing estimates.

Properly cooled compressor cylinders stay reasonably close to the theoretical adia-
batic (isentropic) process with respect to discharge temperature. Therefore, the adia-
batic discharge temperature equations in Section 100 may be used to predict the
discharge temperature with fairly good accuracy. These equations can be rewritten
as follows so that Fahrenheit temperature may be used:
k–1
------------
td = ( ts + 460 )r k – 460
(Eq. 300-21)
where:
ts and td are in Fahrenheit.
This equation is applicable for machines with ideal cylinder cooling, and may be
used as a first approximation for all applications. If more accurate estimates are
needed, refer to Section 360 of this manual, “Application and System Consider-
ations” where cylinder cooling and deviations from Equation 300-21 are discussed.
Refer to Figure 300-9 for a graphic representation of Equation 300-21.

Fig. 300-9 Theoretical Discharge Temperatures Single-Stage Compression (Read r to k to ts to td) (Courtesy of
GPSA)

325 Number of Stages

The number of stages is governed by the following factors:
1. Allowable discharge temperature.
2. Rod loading.
3. Existence of a fixed sidestream pressure level (where flow is added to or with-
drawn from main flow of compressor).
4. Allowable working pressure of available cylinders.
Discharge temperature is the most important factor affecting the number of
stages. Class A and B reciprocating compressors are generally limited to 300°F for
most gases in upstream and downstream plants. API 618 further limits the
discharge temperature of hydrogen-rich gases to 275°F. These limits restrict the
stage pressure ratios. It is often necessary to increase the number of stages so that
intercoolers can be added to keep the discharge temperature within limits, while
achieving the required overall pressure ratio. Knowing the discharge temperature
limit, Equation 300-21 can be rewritten to find the allowable pressure ratio as
follows:
k
 t d + 460  ------------
r =  -------------------  k – 1
 t s + 460 
(Eq. 300-22)
Figure 300-9 may also be used to find r (pressure ratio) corresponding to a given
discharge temperature limit.
Adding intercoolers to a centrifugal compressor tends to save horsepower. With
reciprocating compressors, however, there will seldom be any benefit in adding
intercoolers beyond those needed to maintain discharge temperature limits. The
reasons are: (1) reciprocating compressors are already highly efficient, and adding
an intercooler adds pressure drop which offsets the power savings, and (2) addition
of a stage requires additional cylinder(s), pulsation dampers, knockout drum and
piping.
The rod-load limit can affect the number of stages since the combined rod loading
is related to the differential pressure across the cylinder. Increasing the number of
stages obviously reduces the differential pressure of each stage. Quite often a rod
loading problem can be solved by using two cylinders for one compression stage. In
this case, the differential pressure would remain the same, but piston area, upon
which the differential pressure acts, would be reduced. Rod loading is covered in
further detail in Sub-section 350, “Selection Criteria.”
Sometimes a compressor application has more than one suction or discharge
pressure level. For example, in an oil field gas system, the compressor may take
different quantities of gas from the separator at two pressures, say 40 and 250 psig.
This machine could also be required to deliver a portion of the gas at 1000 psig for
gas lift, and the remainder at 2500 psig for injection back into the formation. In this

case, these pressures would set the interstage pressures so that the sidestreams are
accommodated. Note also that two stages might be required between the 40 and
250 psig levels (depending on suction temperature and k value) to stay below the
discharge temperature limits.
Allowable Working Pressure. Occasionally a given pressure ratio might be
achieved in one stage with satisfactory discharge temperature and rod loading, but
an actual cylinder does not exist to handle both the capacity (ICFM) and pressure.
In these situations, it is necessary to use two stages, or use two smaller single-stage
cylinders depending on hardware and economics.
326 Cylinder Sizing

Cylinder displacement is easily calculated with basic geometry. There are three
cylinder configurations to consider:
1. single-acting
2. standard double-acting
3. double-acting with tail rods (see Sub-section 351)
Refer to Figure 300-2 for an illustration of a single-acting cylinder. Figure 300-10
illustrates double-acting configurations. Following are displacement and displace-
ment rate formulas.
Single-Acting
Cylinder displacement can be calculated:
π
V cyl = --- D 2 S = 0.785D 2 S
4
(Eq. 300-23)
where:
Vcyl = displacement, cubic inches
D = piston diameter, inches
S = stroke, inches
The displacement rate can be calculated:
π D 2 SN D 2 SN
V d =  ---  --------------- = ---------------
 4  1 ,728 2 ,200
(Eq. 300-24)
where:

N = RPM
Fig. 300-10 Double-Acting Cylinders
Double-Acting
Cylinder displacement is calculated:
Vcyl = 0.785 (2D2 - d2) S

(Eq. 300-25)
where:
D = piston diameter, inches
d = rod diameter, inches
Cylinder displacement rate is calculated:
( 2D 2 – d 2 )SN
V d = -----------------------------------
2 ,200
(Eq. 300-26)

Double-Acting with Tail Rod

Cylinder displacement is calculated:
Vcyl = 1.571 (D2 - d2 ) S

(Eq. 300-27)
Cylinder displacement rate is calculated:
( D 2 – d 2 )SN
V d = --------------------------------
1 ,100
(Eq. 300-28)
Estimating Cylinder Size to Accommodate a Given Flow Rate

Compressor cylinders are made in certain classes defined by:
1. Maximum allowable working pressure (MAWP)
2. Stroke
3. Number of valves per cylinder
4. Diameter range
The diameter in a class is varied by changing the wall thickness of the inner
cylinder, or liner. Each class of cylinder has essentially the same clearance volume
regardless of the diameter. However, the percent clearance varies with diameter.
Volumetric efficiency also varies since it is related to clearance.
For example, assume that a 12-inch-stroke cylinder (double-acting) has a 3-inch
rod, a MAWP of 1000 psig, a speed of 360 RPM, a diameter range of nine to 11
inches, and a clearance of 15% when the diameter is 10 inches. Further assume that
the application has a pressure ratio of three, a molecular weight of 20, and a k value
of 1.25. Figure 300-11 shows how percent clearance and volumetric efficiency vary
with diameter for this cylinder class.
Fig. 300-11 Example: Percent Clearance and Volumetric Efficiency Variance

Displ. rate,
Dia.(1) Vd, CFM Displ., Vcyl, in3 Cl. vol., in3 % Clearance Ev, %
9 300 1442 270 18.7 66.5
9-1/2 337 1616 270 16.7 69.3
10 375 1800 270 15.0 71.7
10-1/2 415 1993 270 13.6 73.6
11 458 2196 270 12.3 75.5
(1) Practice varies among manufacturers, but cylinders can usually be furnished in diametral increments of 1/8 inch up to about 12-inch
diameter, 1/4-inch increments from 12 inches to 20 inches, and 1/2-inch increments beyond 20 inches.

The percent clearance varies from about 8% to well over 30% among the many
classes of cylinders available. There is no rule of thumb to relate percent clearance
to diameter with much accuracy. However, for rough estimates use:
• 20% for diameters up to eight inches
• 15% for eight to 20 inches
• 12% in excess of 20 inches
The common approach to cylinder sizing is to make an educated guess at Ev, and
then solve for the displacement rate using Equation 300-4. Cylinder diameter can
then be calculated using Equations 300-24, 300-26, 300-28, as appropriate. This
approach may have to be repeated two or three times to arrive at a combination that
satisfies a given inlet flow quantity, Q.
As cylinder diameters do not come in an infinite number of increments, it is
customary to select the next largest increment. In multistage machines, depending
on the size of increments, oversizing of an initial stage is sometimes balanced by
slightly undersizing the subsequent stage, assuming the interstage pressure level is
not fixed (by a sidestream for example).
330 Compressor Types / Performance Characteristics
331 Types
There are two basic types of reciprocating compressors distinguished by the style of
piston and the linkage between the piston and crankshaft. One type covers the
lighter-duty machines having trunk-type (automotive-type) single-acting pistons
lubricated by crankcase oil, with no crossheads. These machines are typically used
for air compression to 125 psig, although cylinders are available for working pres-
sures to 6000 psig, for various gases. They operate at speeds in the range of 1200 to
1800 RPM and have ratings to about 125 HP. This type of machine is not often used
for petroleum gas service, therefore, it is not described further in this manual.
The other type of reciprocating compressor is a heavy-duty crosshead-type
machine where each piston is usually double-acting, and is connected to the
crankpin by a piston rod, crosshead, and connecting rod. The cylinders are lubri-
cated by a force-feed lubricator. Refer to Figure 300-1 for a cross-section of a
typical single-cylinder reciprocating compressor.
Crosshead-type machines may be categorized into four broad classes:
• Class A – API 618 type of heavy-duty process gas machine.
• Class B – Often called “separable,” are normally used in oil and gas field oper-
ations.
• Class C – Similar to Class A, but the frames are smaller. Used in both process
and oil field services.

• Class D – Smaller, light-weight versions of Class B. Usually applied in the oil

field.
The manual concentrates generally on Classes A and B, but much of the informa-
tion is also generally applicable to Classes C and D. (Also see Figure 300-3.)

One of the inaccuracies involved in estimating power from Bhp/MM equations, or
curves, stems from friction horsepower losses. For example, say a compressor has a
12-inch stroke frame with a maximum rating of 4000 Bhp. Also assume that the
frame and cylinders have a mechanical efficiency of 93% (basis of
Equation 300-13). Friction horsepower would be 280 HP (4000 x 0.07) for the
frame. Now, say this frame is only loaded to 2000 Bhp for a certain application.
The friction HP is about the same (i.e., 280 HP) so now that friction loss is 14%
(280 ÷ 2000) of load and the mechanical efficiency is 86%.
This example may be somewhat out of the ordinary, but it points out the fact that
significant error can arise from not accounting for frame loading. It is impractical to
develop a loading factor, because it varies from one design to the next. Friction HP
also varies with the number of throws and sizes of cylinders. The vendor should be
contacted if there is serious concern about the friction HP contribution to overall
compressor power.
Figure 300-12 shows a theoretical PV Diagram and the effects of changes in clear-
ance, pressure ratio, and k value on the area (work) of the compression cycle. The
figure shows that increasing the clearance decreases the volumetric efficiency;
hence, the ICFM is reduced. Therefore, clearance is an appropriate variable to use
to control the capacity.
Capacity Control by Unloading

Reducing the capacity is commonly called unloading, and devices that cause
capacity reduction are called unloaders. Capacity control is often stated in terms of
loading steps. Five-step unloading, without further clarification, means nominal
capacity steps of 100, 75, 50, 25, and 0%; three-step means 100, 50, and 0%.
There are two general types of unloading devices. One type adds clearance to the
cylinder to reduce the capacity. The other type fully deactivates one end of a
cylinder. To avoid confusion between the two types, the former devices are often
called clearance pockets (fixed or variable), clearance bottles, or clearance
spacers; whereas, the latter devices are called unloaders. These are described
further in Sub-section 340.
There is some parasitic gas power loss in the unloaded end of a cylinder as a result
of gas flowing back-and-forth through suction valves held open or through the port
of a plug-type unloader. Moreover, when one end of a cylinder is unloaded, the
capacity of the loaded end is reduced to some extent by heat build-up caused by the
back-and-forth flow in the unloaded end. The heat built-up from the power loss
causes a rise in suction temperatures, resulting in a lower weight flow. This effect is

Fig. 300-12 Effect of Various Parameters on P-V Diagram

(Note: The original drawing used VE in place of E v. The drawing was changed
for consistency of units in this manual.) (Courtesy of Dresser-Rand)
usually small but can be as much as 10 - 15% if the parasitic loss is proportionally
high.
Bypassing, suction throttling, and varying speed are other means of capacity control
that are external to the compressor. These methods are occasionally used for recip-
rocating compressors. Speed control is available only on units with variable-speed
drivers, such as internal combustion engines.
Reciprocating compressor performance is usually presented in a tabulation of data
showing Bhp's and capacities for various pressure conditions and gas compositions.
Also, if there are clearance pockets or many unloading steps to accommodate
highly variable pressure conditions, curves may be furnished by the vendor (similar
to Figures 300-13 and 300-14).
Valve Losses
Figure 300-15 shows a PV diagram with an “ideal” valve system. Note that there is
no valve loss as shown in Figure 300-16. The valves open and close instantaneously
at the exact moment required.
However, in reality, it is virtually impossible to obtain an ideal PV diagram. In an
actual compressor cylinder, the valves do not open and close instantaneously; they

Fig. 300-13 Typical Performance with Fixed Clearance Fig. 300-14 Typical Performance with Variable Volume
Pocket on Head End of One Cylinder Clearance Pocket on Head of One Cylinder
Fig. 300-15 Ideal PV Diagram and Valve Motion
may lag behind the optimum open or close timing, either due to weak or overly
strong springs. For example, if the springs are too stiff, the valve may not remain
fully open but will close prematurely. Real valves also present a restriction to flow
which, combined with any plates that do not open fully, could cause a greater pres-
sure drop across the valve, thus increasing the power consumption. In addition,
volumetric efficiency is reduced.
The compression efficiency of a cylinder depends largely on the valve losses. Manu-
facturers have made vast improvements in analytical techniques to optimize valve
design. Optimized valve designs have effected up to a 15% improvement in
Bhp/MM for some applications.

Fig. 300-16 Actual PV Diagram
Figure 300-16 is a typical PV diagram showing valve losses. Suction and discharge
valve loss is represented by Areas A-F-E and B-C-D. The amount of loss is a func-
tion of the flow rate, drag coefficient and mass of the valve elements, valve-spring
stiffness, pressure drop, gas pulsations, effective valve flow area, and compressor
speed. Therefore, calculation of valve losses is not a straightforward process. It
requires a complex computer program with empirical factors related to each
specific valve design and cylinder.
Whenever possible, each cylinder should have at least two suction and two
discharge valves per end (four suction and four discharge valves total for a double-
acting cylinder). A greater number of valves will reduce the effect of a broken valve
on cylinder performance and rod loading. In some small bore cylinders, it may be
impossible to provide more than one suction and one discharge valve per end. If
this is the case, ask the vendor if clearance can be added to a larger cylinder with
more valves to achieve the same inlet capacity. In extreme cases, it may be possible
to reduce the stroke on a particular crank throw in order to utilize a larger cylinder.
Rod loading may be adversely affected, however.

Valve porting also influences volumetric efficiency by contributing to the clearance

volume. If the porting must be enlarged to reduce the flow loss, it is done at the
expense of clearance volume and a reduction in volumetric efficiency.
Compressor specifications often refer to the average inlet valve velocity as a
general index of valve performance. The average inlet valve velocity can be used to
make very generalized comparisons of compressor offerings with respect to valve
performance. Generally, the lower the average inlet valve velocity, the lower the
power loss as a result of valve losses.
The average inlet valve velocity is calculated from the cylinder displacement and
the total valve lift area of all the suction valves in the cylinder. The following
formula is used to calculate the average inlet valve velocity:
288V
V = ---------------d-
A
(Eq. 300-29)
where:
V = average gas velocity, FPM
Vd = cylinder displacement rate, CFM
A = product of the actual lift, valve opening periphery, and the
number of suction valves per cylinder, Square Inches
Figure 300-17 shows the lift area in a plate type valve. The product of the actual lift
and valve periphery is the valve lift area. These values are furnished by the
compressor valve manufacturer. When the valve lift area is not the smallest area in
the valve flow path, the average inlet valve area is calculated on the basis of the
smallest area.
Fig. 300-17 Lift Area of a Plate Valve

Note The 288 factor in the valve velocity formula in Paragraph 2.7.1 of API 618
is correct. For many years API, GPSA, and other references erroneously used a
constant of 144 in the formula. The 144 was wrong because the original formula
was based on all suction valves of a cylinder being open at the same time. Actually,
only half the valves are open at any given time in the cycle.
In reviewing bids for compressors, look for large differences in average valve veloc-
ities among the proposed machines. Small differences such as 5000 versus 6000
FPM are probably not significant. But if one vendor consistently quotes velocities
twice those of another vendor, find out why. Also, determine whether they are
quoting “average” or “effective” valve velocities.
340 Machine Components and Cylinder Arrangements

The machine components of a reciprocating compressor are:
• Running Gear
• Pistons
• Piston-to-Rod Attachment
• Crankshafts
• Piston Rod
• Unloaders and Clearance Devices
• Compressor Valves
• Compressor Cylinders
• Piston Rings and Rider Rings
• Packing
• Distance Pieces
• Bearings
Running Gear
The internal moving parts are often called the running gear. A typical set of
running gear is shown in Figure 300-18. Note that a balancing weight(s) (usually a
circular plate, not shown) can be added at the threaded end of the crosshead.
Lubrication of Running Gear. Lubrication is normally accomplished with a pres-
surized system using the sump of the compressor frame as the reservoir. API 618
describes requirements for the system components. Although many systems do not
necessarily meet the requirements of API 618, the diagram included in API 618
shows a typical system schematic arrangement.
Whether a single oil filter or duplex filters are to be furnished is usually a matter of
plant preference, based on the criticality of the service and number of machines
applied to the service. Unlike centrifugal-compressor systems, twin oil coolers are
seldom used in reciprocating compressor systems.

Fig. 300-18 Typical Running Gear (Courtesy of Dresser-Rand)
Splash type systems are sometimes used to lubricate the running gear of smaller
machines (200 HP or less).

Compressor cylinder and packing lubrication is provided with force-feed mechan-

ical lubricators. There are two types of lubricator systems: the multiple pump type
(also called “single-plunger-per-point”), and the distributor type (also called
“divider block”).
These lubricator systems are described further in Appendix J.
Pistons
One-piece pistons are made of cast iron, or steel for small diameters and high-
differential pressures. They are also sometimes used when it is necessary to add
weight for balancing to reduce reciprocating shaking forces. (Figure 300-19 illus-
trates three styles of pistons.)
Fig. 300-19 Piston Designs (Courtesy of Dresser-Rand)
Two-piece designs are used for ease in casting and weight control. They are made
of aluminum or cast iron, and are generally applied for diameters above 10 inches.
Aluminum is used to reduce reciprocating mass.
The three-piece segmental design incorporates a ring carrier. They are used to
facilitate installation of rider rings (wear bands) which, when required, are placed
on each side of the carrier. In this way, the rider band can be thicker because it does
not have to be stretched over the outside diameter of the piston.
Another piston design worth mentioning is the labyrinth piston for non-lube
service. This piston has no rings, and is used only in vertical machines. It has a
large number of labyrinth grooves to limit blow-by. The blow-by is slightly more

than that of ringed pistons, but the advantage is in low piston maintenance. The
labyrinth compressor is manufactured only by Sulzer in Switzerland, and is used in
rather special services such as oxygen at relatively low pressures.
Piston-to-Rod Attachment
Rods are attached to pistons with a single extension of the rod through the piston
(see Figure 300-18), or with multiple through-bolts as shown in Figure 300-20. The
advantages of multiple bolts are:
1. The smaller bolts are much easier to accurately tension.
2. Adequate pre-stress levels are reliably maintained.
3. Loading by the bolts is more evenly distributed in the piston.
Fig. 300-20 Pistons with Multiple Thru-bolts (Courtesy of the Cooper Cameron Corporation.)
This feature is especially useful for large diameter aluminum pistons with large
diameter rods. Such pistons with the single through-bolt attachment sometimes
have nut-loosening problems after a number of temperature cycles. Factors contrib-
uting to this looseness are the difficulty of properly torquing one large nut, and
possible non-squareness of the nut's face with the piston surface.

Crankshafts
Crankshafts are one-piece forgings or castings, although provisions are usually
made for removable counterweights.
Reciprocating machines have two kinds of motion - rotational and reciprocating
(translational). In rotational motion, a rotating force is caused when there is an
unbalanced weight at some distance from the center of rotation. The imbalance
involved in the rotational motion of one crankthrow of the compressor consists of
the weights of the crankpin, crankshaft webs, and a portion (usually about 2/3) of
the connecting rod. Counterweights are sometimes used to compensate for the off-
centered weights of these components. (Figure 300-21 illustrates these terms.)
The components involved in translational motion are the piston, piston rod, cross-
head, and the remaining portion (usually about 1/3) of the connecting rod. A fluctu-
ating force results when these parts are accelerated and decelerated as the piston
travels back and forth.
For a single-cylinder compressor, the forces caused by both kinds of motion can be
resolved into two sets of forces, primary and secondary, acting both horizontally
and vertically.
Primary forces result from the rotational motion, and their frequency is that of
running speed. Secondary forces result from translational motion, and their
frequency is two times running speed due to the acceleration and deceleration
during each stroke of the piston. Secondary forces act only along the axis of the
cylinder.
Now, if a horizontally opposed compressor has two cylinders, a force couple can be
generated by the unbalanced force of each cylinder acting in opposite directions
and separated by the distance between the crankthrows. Figure 300-22 shows a
primary couple for a two-throw machine having equal reciprocating weights on
each throw. It also shows how counterweights can be added to the crank webs to
reduce the primary couple.
Pistons on opposite adjacent throws are often not of the same diameter, so their
weights are unequal. Figure 300-22 shows the location where a balance weight
could be added to equalize the reciprocating weights. Dissimilar piston materials
can also be used to equalize the weights.
It is seldom practical to fully compensate for forces and couples with counter-
weights and balance weights. The design becomes more complex where the
machine has more than two throws. The resultant magnitudes of the unbalanced
forces and couples, then, depend on:
• the number of throws,
• the angular orientation of the crankpins with respect to each other,
• the distance between the throws,
• the difference in reciprocating weights, and
• the amount of counterweighting that can be applied.

Fig. 300-21 Number of Main Bearings

Fig. 300-22 Counter Weights and Balance Weights
It is probably possible to balance the reciprocating weights on a pair of adjacent

throws, but to have identical weights for all throws of a machine with several stages
is seldom practical.

Figure 300-22 shows the simple case of a two-throw machine with a crankpin orien-
tation of 180 degrees. As the number of throws increases, the effect of crankpin
orientation on forces and couples gets quite complicated. Figure 300-23 qualita-
tively shows these effects for some of the more common crank arrangements with
equal and unequal reciprocating weights.
Selecting the best arrangement from Figure 300-23 is not always the complete
answer to the matter of shaking forces and couples. For example, for a four-throw
machine, the 180 degree “flat” crankshaft is obviously the best choice from the
standpoint of shaking forces and couples, and it eliminates the need for counter-
weights. However, the “flat” crankshaft causes all cylinders to be compressing at
the same time. Hence, the torque-effort diagram (see Section 100, Figure 100-35)
of the compressor may have undesirable oscillations from the standpoint of the
driver. The “flat” crankshaft might require the addition of a large flywheel effect to
the driver system, larger crankshaft diameter, and a special coupling to attenuate the
oscillations. Therefore, the 90-degree arrangement might be more economical for
an application that is not sensitive to shaking forces and couples. On the other hand,
if the application is offshore, or onshore with undesirable soil conditions, the “flat”
crankshaft will likely be the best choice.
A question that often arises concerns the number of main bearings. There are two
configurations in Figure 300-21. One has two main bearings and a common web
between the throws; the other has three main bearings, both for a two-throw crank-
shaft.
The advantage of the two-bearing design is that the throws are closer together, so
the magnitude of the couple is less than that of the three-bearing design. With the
three-bearing design, however, the crankshaft is more uniformly supported so that
shaft deflection and bending stresses are less than that of the two-bearing design.
The three-bearing arrangement has more places to attach counterweights to reduce
the primary couple, but can the added complexity be justified? Opinions vary, but
the fact remains that both designs are common, and both work.
Note that with a main bearing between each throw, the frame can have odd and
even numbers of throws. When two throws have a common web, only even
numbers of throws are possible.
Piston Rods
The piston rod (Figure 300-18) is a principal component in the running gear. The
primary design factor regarding piston rods is a phenomenon loosely called “rod
loading” described in detail in Sub-section 351. As the rod is subjected to high
alternating stresses (compressive and tensile), its surface finish must be extremely
smooth to avoid stress intensification, which could lead to fatigue failure. The
threads on the rod where it attaches to the crosshead are critical for the same reason.
For hardness and surface finish specifications for commonly used rod materials,
refer to API 618 and/or Section 800. For clean non-corrosive gas service, AISI-

Fig. 300-23 Effect of Crank Arrangements on Forces & Couples (typical only) (Courtesy of Dresser-Rand)

4140 carbon steel is a typical rod material. For this material, guidelines for the
allowable stress at the root area of the threads at the crosshead are:
Thread Type Stress, psi
Cut 6000
Cut-and-ground 7500
Rolled 8000
Cut threads have a higher stress intensification factor.

These guidelines may be used by dividing the vendor's maximum allowable contin-
uous rod load rating (in pounds) by the thread root area (square inches). Obviously,
if the rod material is not 4140, the guideline stress values should be adjusted by the
ratio of tensile strengths of the two materials. Rolled threads are preferred for all
applications, but may not be available on some of the smaller machines.
Some new piston rods are provided with metal coatings for certain services. Metal
coatings are also used to recondition rods. A summary of Company experience with
piston-rod reconditioning is included in Sub-section 830.
Unloaders and Clearance Devices

Unloaders and clearance devices are used to:
• Unload the compressor for startup;
• Maintain fixed suction or discharge pressure in a process;
• Control capacity (flow rate);
• Maintain optimum loading on driver under varying compressor operating
conditions; and
• Maintain operating pressures, temperatures, or piston rod loads within allow-
able limits under varying compressor operating conditions.
Unloaders are applied to the suction side of a compressor cylinder to deactivate
one or both ends of the cylinder. Unloaders are installed on suction valves only, so
the gas circulating through the valve will be cooler than if the unloaders were
installed on discharge valves. Metal fatigue and attendant valve failure occurs more
quickly at elevated temperatures. The two types of unloaders, plug and finger, are
There are two kinds of plug-type unloaders (as shown in Figure 300-24, Items A
and B). Item A is fitted on a suction valve. Item B is applied to an individual gas
port on the suction side of the cylinder. With either kind, when the unloader is actu-
ated, an opening is maintained during both the suction and discharge strokes. With
this opening, the gas is no longer trapped, but is free to flow back to the suction
side during the compression stroke. Normally, only one plug-type unloader is
required on a cylinder end. Either kind can be operated manually or automatically
with air or gas as the motive fluid.

Fig. 300-24 Unloaders
The finger type suction valve unloader (Item C of Figure 300-24) is applied to all
suction valves on a cylinder end. This type is sometimes called a “suction valve
depressor”. When actuated, the fingers push down on the suction valve plate(s), and
hold them open. Again, the gas flows back to suction during the compression stroke.

The plug-type tends to be more reliable than the finger-type. Valve plate failure can
be caused by the concentrated loads where the fingers push on the plate. The disad-
vantage of using plug-type unloaders is that there is less overall available valve area
in the cylinder, resulting in higher valve losses.
One European compressor valve manufacturer markets a “stepless” controller for
their valve unloaders. In this scheme, the finger type unloader holds the suction
valve plate open for a specific length of time corresponding to the desired capacity.
Since the suction valves are not allowed to close at the normal time (at or near
bottom dead center), in effect, the displacement of that end of the cylinder is
reduced. Therefore, it is theoretically possible to provide an infinite number of
capacity steps depending on valve timing.
The stepless system has been applied to quite a few installations in Europe, but it
has not gained much favor in the domestic petroleum applications due to its
complexity. One USA manufacturer offers a similar stepless control system, but it
is typically applied only to storage (pump-in, pump-out) compressors having contin-
ually varying suction and discharge pressures.
There are two kinds of clearance devices: clearance pockets and clearance
spacers. Pockets can be fixed or variable volume. (Figure 300-25 shows examples
of fixed and variable volume pockets.) Fixed volume pockets can be either manu-
ally or pneumatically (air or gas) operated.
Variable volume pockets are normally only manually operated. Hydraulic actua-
tion has been tried, but the results have generally been unfavorable. Variable
volume pockets are applied only to the head end of a cylinder, because it is physi-
cally impossible to locate them on the crank end. Occasionally, variable-volume
pockets may be capable of more adjustment than required for the load step.
Opening the pocket too far can cause overheating problems because the volumetric
efficiency becomes too low. External mechanical stops can be installed to limit
handwheel travel to the length required in the capacity control design.
Fixed volume pockets are normally applied to the head end for the same reason,
although fixed pockets can be applied to suction valve caps on either the head or
crank ends. Fixed-clearance pockets often look like an ell-shaped piece of pipe,
pointed upwards to prevent liquid accumulation. This type of pocket can be
installed by the manufacturer, or as a field retrofit.
Valve cap pockets require a special suction valve with an opening at the center of
the seat so that the pocket volume is in direct communication with the cylinder's
interior when the pocket is opened. Installation of valve cap pockets on discharge
valves is not recommended because of the possibility of collection of oil or liquids
in the pockets.
Clearance spacers are sometimes used to increase the clearance volume. A spacer
can be installed between the cylinder head and cylinder body. Also, a compressor
valve can be designed with a two-piece yoke (hold-down for valve). By using one
piece of the yoke as a spacer, the valve seat and guard can be moved farther away
from the cylinder bore, thus increasing the clearance. A shutdown is required to
change clearance with spacers.

Fig. 300-25 Clearance Devices (1 of 2)
A. Manual variable volume clearance pocket—high pressure

(Courtesy of the Cooper Cameron Corporation)
B. Manual variable volume clearance pocket—low pressure

(Courtesy of Dresser—Rand)

Fig. 300-25 Clearance Devices (2 of 2)
C. Pneumatically operated fixed volume clearance pocket

D. Manual fixed volume clearance pocket E. Pneumatically operated fixed volume clearance pocket
(Courtesy of Dresser-Rand) for valve cap

Compressor Valves
Valves are manufactured by the original equipment manufacturer (OEM), and by
non-OEM suppliers. The compressor will almost always be supplied with OEM
valves, but non-OEM valves are often retrofitted to solve a particular problem, or
when a unit is re-rated. Occasionally, non-OEM valves are specified on new
machines to match existing equipment or to solve known problems. For more infor-
mation on various types of compressor valves, see Section 354.
Compressor Cylinders
Cylinder design is dependent mainly on the working pressure and diameter range.
Cylinder bodies can be castings of gray iron, nodular (ductile) iron, or steel. Forged
and fabricated steel cylinders are also available for higher pressures. Figure 300-26
shows a variety of cylinders. All of these cylinders have liners. Many of the cylin-
ders offered for high-speed compressors (Class B and D) do not have liners.
Note that cylinders are available in the tandem arrangement having two sizes of
pistons. This rather uncommon arrangement allows two cylinders to be placed on
one crankthrow. Usually both pistons are single-acting, but in some designs only
one of the two will be double-acting.
Piston Rings and Rider Rings

The purpose of piston rings is to prevent the blow-by of gas from one end of the
piston to the other. Rider rings or wear bands support the weight of the piston,
help guide the piston in the bore, and prevent rubbing of the piston on the cylinder
wall. Some designers use nylon buttons in the piston skid to prevent contact with
the cylinder on trunk-type pistons.
For many years, piston rings were made from non-abrasive, relatively soft metallic
materials. Cast iron was the most common material, later largely replaced by
bronze. Metallic rings were favored because of their good heat transfer characteris-
tics.
However, much development of non-metallic piston rings and rider rings occurred
when non-lube applications became common in the 1950's.
Carbon-graphite was tried first, but was found to be brittle and did not have suitable
wear characteristics. Phenolic and laminated plastics such as Bakelite and Micarta
were used when temperatures were low. Although it is relatively weak with poor
heat transfer properties, PTFE (teflon) with various filler materials eventually
became the favored material, because of its excellent low-friction characteristics.
Today PTFE is used almost exclusively for lubricated, as well as nonlubricated
services. Bronze is still used on rare occasions for clean and dry lubricated service
when good heat transfer is needed.
The shapes of piston and rider rings are shown in Figure 300-27. Some designs call
for an inner ring or expander ring (not shown) to be fitted under the piston ring to
energize the piston ring and keep it against the cylinder wall as wear takes place.
However, the most popular and safest design employs gas pressure to energize the
piston ring.

Fig. 300-26 Compressor Cylinders (1 of 2)
Large Cast Iron Cylinder for Low Pressure

(Courtesy of the Dresser-Rand)
Forged Steel Cylinder with Tall Rod for High Pressure

(Courtesy of Dresser-Rand)

Fig. 300-26 Compressor Cylinders (2 of 2)
Non-lube Cast Iron Cylinder with Two-compartment Distance Piece for Medium Pressure
(Courtesy of Dresser-Rand)
Fabricated Steel Cylinder Cast Iron Tandem Cylinder with

for Medium to High Pressure 2-Volume Head End Pocket
(Courtesy of Dresser-Rand) (Courtesy of the Cooper Cameron Corporation)

Fig. 300-27 Piston Rings and Rider Rings (Courtesy of the Cooper Cameron Corporation)
Piston Rings
Rider Rings

The “angle” cut is generally preferred, and is the most commonly used. For smaller
lower-pressure cylinders, the “step” cut is used, although care must be taken in the
design to avoid joint breakage. The “seal” cut provides the best seal, but is more
expensive.
Pressure in the cylinder acts on the piston rings, and assuming that the ring does
some sealing, there will be a pressure drop from one side of the ring to the other.
This pressure difference results in a net “pressure induced force” holding the ring
against the side of the piston groove and outward against the cylinder bore (refer to
Figure 300-28).
Fig. 300-28 Pressure Induced Forces Acting on a typical Compression Piston Ring (Courtesy of the ASME)
Figures 300-29 through 300-31 provide some typical dimension ranges for piston
rings and piston clearance. The latter is governed mainly by the coefficient of
thermal expansion of the piston material. In general, the ring should not protrude
from the piston groove by more than 25% of its thickness.
Rider rings and piston rings are almost always of the same material. Rider rings
must be designed so that they do not act as a piston ring. Otherwise, wear will
occur too rapidly. Solid rider rings are not prone to outward expansion, but cut rider
rings must be vented with holes or slots to bleed off pressure. Figure 300-32 and
Figure 300-33 are examples of typical thicknesses for solid and cut rider rings
versus cylinder diameter.
Rider-ring width is determined by the bearing pressure. Figure 300-34 shows piston
ring and rider ring arrangements on the rider ring. The bearing pressure is generally
limited to five psi for PTFE in non-lube services and 10 psi for lubricated cylinders
(see API 618). These pressures are based on the weight of the piston plus one-half
the weight of the rod divided by 0.87 DW (where D is the piston diameter, and W is
the width of all rider rings on the piston).

Fig. 300-29 Compilation Compression Ring—Axial Width (Courtesy of the ASME)
Fig. 300-30 Compilation Compression Ring—Radial Thickness (Courtesy of the ASME)

Fig. 300-31 Compilation Piston to Cylinder Clearance—A-B (Courtesy of the ASME)
Fig. 300-32 Compilation Band-type (Solid) Rider Rings Radial Thickness (Courtesy of the ASME)

Fig. 300-33 Compilation Joined (Cut) Rider Ring Radial Thickness (Courtesy of the ASME)
Fig. 300-34 Typical Arrangements for Piston & Rider Rings (Courtesy of the ASME)

Packing
On double-acting cylinders (and some single-acting), the piston rod must be sealed
to reduce gas leakage from inside the cylinders. This seal is called pressure
packing. It is of the full-floating design so that the packing rings follow any lateral
motion of the piston rod.
As with piston rings, PTFE is used extensively for packing rings. Figure 300-35
shows the forces on a packing ring. Figure 300-36 shows a typical arrangement of
packing rings. The back-up ring limits deformation of the packing ring, and is
usually not required below 500 psi. The back-up ring is sometimes made of bronze
for better heat dissipation.
Fig. 300-35 Pressure Induced Forces Acting on a Typical Packing Ring (Courtesy of the ASME)
Fig. 300-36 Typical Radial Cut & Tangent Cut Packing Sets with Back-up Ring (Courtesy of the ASME)
Packing cases with vent and buffer arrangements are shown in the Appendix of API
618. Figure 300-37 shows a packing case with passages for coolant. Guidelines for
when cooled packing is applied are included in the text of API 618 (also see Specifi-
cation CMP-MS-1626).

Fig. 300-37 Pressure Packing Case with Coolant Passages (Courtesy of the ASME)
Wiper packing is also shown on the diagrams in API 618. The purpose of this
packing is to minimize leakage of crankcase oil.
Distance Pieces
The distance piece (refer to Figure 300-1) separates the cylinder from the cross-
head guide (doghouse). It provides a housing for both wiper packing and pressure
packing. The distance piece prevents entry of compressed gas into the crankcase,
and provides access for maintenance of the packing and piston rod.
Four types of distance pieces (with corresponding diagrams) and their applications
are covered in API 618. Vent and purge connections are shown on the API 618
diagrams. Further information on venting and purging is provided in Section 360,
“Application and System Considerations.”
Bearings
Main and connecting rod bearings for the larger heavy-duty frames are split-
sleeve precision insert type (refer to Figure 300-18). The most common materials
are cast iron/babbitt or steel/babbitt. Occasionally, aluminum bearings are used.
Aluminum bearings require better oil filtration as they are sensitive to dirt.
Although sleeve bearings are the most common, API 618 allows rolling-element
(anti-friction) main bearings for Class A machines up to a rating of 200 HP. Rolling-
element bearings are used in some Class B machines for ratings in excess of 1000
HP.

Refer to the General Machinery Manual for additional information on both types of
bearings.
342 Cylinder Arrangements

Refer to Figure 300-1 for a single-cylinder compressor. However, most recipro-
cating compressors are multi-stage (refer to Figure 300-39). Even single-stage
machines are often multi-cylinder for better balance. There are numerous arrange-
ments of the cylinders. Figure 300-38 covers most of the possible arrangements.
The horizontally opposed machine shown in the lower right-hand corner of this
Figure is the most widely used configuration. Figures 300-39 and Figure 300-40
show other views of typical horizontally opposed machines.
The integral gas engine shown in Figure 300-38 is still popular for many oil field
duties. A cutaway view is shown in Figure 300-41. Figure 300-42 illustrates an inte-
gral-engine compressor.
Fig. 300-38 Cylinder Arrangements Used for Various Reciprocating Compressors. Dots on Connecting Rods Indicate
Crossheads (From Hydraulics Pnematics, “Air Compressors, Conditioning, Costs and the Crunch” ed.
N.R. Stull  1976)

Fig. 300-39 Low-Speed Horizontally-Opposed Compressor (From Compressed Air & Gas Data ed. by A.W. Loomis 
1982 by Ingersoll-Rand. Courtesy of Dresser-Rand)
Fig. 300-40 Package High Speed Engine (Courtesy of Demag Delaval)

Fig. 300-41 A “V”-angle Arrangement of an Internal Gas-engine Driven Compressor (From Compressed Air & Gas
Data ed. by A.W. Loomis  1982 by Ingersoll-Rand. Courtesy of Dresser-Rand)
350 Selection Criteria

When new compressors are being purchased, obviously the first consideration is
installed cost. However, with compressors, it is particularly important to evaluate
the present worth of the overall project for a chosen life cycle. Evaluated cost
includes consideration of energy consumption as well as other direct costs. (Refer
to Life Cycle Costs in Sub-section 154.)
In addition to costs, the technical merits of proposed machines must be weighed.
Rod loading and discharge temperature are important. Other major factors include
reliability, number of stages, piston speed, rotating speed, number and type of
valves, driver, “footprint” size (plot area) and weight, shaking forces (foundation
requirements), and noise. The following is a brief discussion of these factors.
351 Rod Loading

Rod Loading is a general term having many interpretations. It is also called “pin
loads,” “frame loads,” and “combined rod loads.” Excessive rod loading can result
in rod or crosshead failure and possible destruction of the machine.

Fig. 300-42 Integral-engine Compressor (Courtesy of the Cooper Cameron Corporation)
API 618 gives definitions for the terms “combined rod loading,” “gas load,”
“inertia force,” and “rod reversal.” Combined rod loading is the important term as
it is the net effect of gas and inertia loading. Rod reversal occurs when the force on
the rod changes from tension to compression, or vice versa. It is a critical lubrica-
tion factor for the crosshead pin and bushing. If there is no reversal, the pin and
bushing surfaces do not separate; hence, oil is prevented from lubricating these
surfaces. This can result in catastrophic damage to the crosshead, connecting rod,
bushing, and crosshead pin.
Frame loading is the result of reaction forces from the gas-pressure resultant
forces. Frame loading stresses static items such as crosshead guides, distance
pieces, the frame itself, and the bolting between these items.
Rod loading is somewhat of a misnomer in some cases. A manufacturer's adver-
tised maximum allowable continuous rod load (MACRL) rating is based on the
weakest link in the running gear/frame system. The piston rod is not always the
weakest link. It may be the crosshead pin or bushing, for example.
Years ago, quite often only gas loads were considered in evaluating proposed
compressors. In most cases, a quick comparison of gas loading with the MACRL
was adequate. But occasionally, inertia forces augmented the gas loading at certain
crank angles so that the MACRL was exceeded.
Rod reversal becomes a problem at low pressure ratios. It can also be a problem at
high-pressure ratios for single-acting cylinders, half loaded cylinders, or when the
bore of double-acting cylinders is not much larger than the piston rod. Tail rods can
be used to alleviate the latter situation.
Figure 300-43 shows gas, inertia, and combined loading for pressure ratios of 4.00
and 1.05. The 4.00 ratio examples show the maximum combined loading is less
than the gas loading (the inertia force helped the situation). Such is not always the
case, however. It depends on the differential pressures throughout the stroke, and
the weights of the reciprocating parts. It is impossible to provide a “rule of thumb”
for this phenomenon.
Figure 300-43 also illustrates a cylinder with a very low pressure ratio (1.05). In
this case, the maximum combined load is greater (negative) than either the gas or
inertia loads. Also the combined load only reversed for 15-20 degrees of crankshaft
rotation. (Note that API 618 suggests a minimum of 15 degrees of reversal).
Figure 300-44 shows the ideal reversal (see dark areas labeled “A”) at the crosshead
pin.
A subtlety often overlooked is that the actual differential pressure that exists at a
certain crank angle inside the cylinder is higher than the theoretical differential
pressure. Refer to Figure 300-15 and note that the vertical distance between points
C and F is significantly greater than discharge minus suction pressure. Pressure
pulsations can make matters worse. It should be noted that, at any one instant, the
upper part of the diagram in Figure 300-15 would correspond to the head end,
while the lower part would correspond to the crank end.
When purchasing new compressors, you should insist that the vendor make a study
of combined rod loading versus crank angle using internal cylinder pressures with:

Fig. 300-43 Rod Loading vs. Crank Angle (Courtesy of Dresser-Rand)
Fig. 300-44 Load Reversal at Crosshead Pin (Courtesy of Dresser-Rand)
(1) normal operating conditions, and (2) with any broken valve, with relief valve
setting as discharge pressure. Refer to CMP-MS-1626 and CMP-MS-4735.
Calculated gas loads can be very misleading, but sometimes they can be used as a
preliminary index to estimate the frame size or number of cylinders per stage.

These calculations can be made using pressures at the cylinder flanges and the full
area of the piston on the head end and the net area (piston area minus rod area) for
the crank end. Loading should be calculated for tension and compression. When
one end of a cylinder is unloaded, that end will have suction pressure in it at any
crank angle.
See Equations A-6, and A-7 (Appendix A) for calculating gas loads.

Discharge temperature is an important factor, as it must be limited to prevent mate-
rial damage. Additionally, higher discharge temperatures mean higher differential
temperatures which cause greater differences in thermal expansion of components
made of dissimilar materials. This in turn, causes higher stresses and larger devia-
tions from design clearances.
300°F is a good all-around limit for process and oil-field compressors. The limit
often applied to machines compressing hydrogen-rich gases is 275°F.
Although temperatures as high as 350-375°F have been used with a fair amount of
success, 300°F provides a better margin of safety for several design factors, thus
improving reliability and availability. The widely used PTFE piston ring and
packing materials last longer and perform better at lower temperatures. With a
calculated or observed temperature of 300°F, there are likely localized temperatures
50 degrees higher or more.
The 300°F limit sometimes causes a machine to have a greater number of stages
than a higher temperature limit. More stages reduce rod loading by reducing the
differential pressure. Another benefit of lower discharge temperatures is a reduced
tendency toward deposits of solids on the discharge valves. This is likely to occur in
dirty gas and heavy hydrocarbon services.
The penalties of lower discharge temperatures are cost, more working parts, and
increase in footprint size. However, experience has shown that the benefits
outweigh the penalties in the long run. There may be isolated cases where higher
discharge temperatures may be justified, but these cases should be carefully studied.
353 Rotating Speed and Piston Speed

Rotating Speed
Higher rotating speed increases the number of cyclic events (such as stress rever-
sals) that occur in a given period of time. For instance, the number of valve open-
ings and closures increase directly with speed. Valve life is related to the number of
cycles of operation, as are the lives of other components. For a given stroke, an
increase in rotating speed directly increases the average piston speed.

Piston Speed
Average piston speed is an index of the rubbing speed and wear of the piston and its
rings. Average piston speed, in feet per minute (FPM), may be calculated with the
following formula:
A.P.S. = SN/6
(Eq. 300-30)
where:
S = stroke in inches
N = RPM
For critical service heavy-duty Class A compressors, a speed limit of 360 RPM is
recommended. The average piston speed should be limited to about 860 FPM for
lubricated machines, and 700 FPM for non-lubricated machines.
Class B, high-speed machines used in medium- to light-duty applications in the oil
field typically have upper limits of 1000 RPM. Machines will work at these levels,
but significant improvement in reliability can be achieved by running these units at
900 RPM or slower. Although the slower speeds result in larger cylinder sizes and
increased rod loading, this disadvantage is usually overbalanced by the reduced
wear.
354 Compressor Valves

Valves are highly stressed wearing parts that account for the majority of compressor
downtime. Reciprocating compressors represent 1% of the machinery in Chevron
Refineries but account for 12% of the maintenance budget. The Company spends
approximately five million dollars per year for maintenance of reciprocating
compressors. A significant percentage of that cost is attributable to compressor
valves.
Although liquid, dirt, or process contaminants often cause valve failures, design
factors are often a major contributor. Furthermore, valve design can also reduce the
effects of contamination in some cases. Valve life in some severe services has been
as short as 4 days when the wrong combination of valve lift and materials was spec-
ified.
Although new materials and a better understanding of valve dynamics have greatly
improved reliability, valves continue to have a major impact on overall compressor
availability. For example, a large refinery compressor shut-down for valve replace-
ment reduced the plant feedrate by 40%, which cost $65,000 (1990 dollars) in lost
production. Even small improvements in valve life which postpone valve repairs
can have an a large impact on plant profitability.
There are many types of compressor valves. Almost all are spring loaded and gas
actuated. Reciprocating compressors generally used one of the three basic valve
configurations: plate, strip, or poppet. These are described in the following para-
graphs.

Plate Valves
Figure 300-45 shows a typical plate valve. This type of valve is actuated by unbal-
anced pressures on either side of the valve. The valve plates or elements are held
against the ports in the valve seat by spring force. The gas pressure overcomes the
spring force, the elements lift away from their seats and stop against the guard,
opening the valve.
Fig. 300-45 Plate Valves
Concentric Ring Valves. The plate valve shown in Figure 300-45 is a concentric
ring valve. This type of valve can be fitted with plastic elements, which is an advan-
tage in corrosive services. The concentric ring valve can be used over the widest
range of compressor applications and can withstand the most extreme operating
conditions. Concentric ring valves have been used for pressures as high as 60,000
psi with differential pressures greater than 10,000 psi and temperatures in excess of
500°F.
Ported Plate Valves. Ported plate valves are very similar to concentric ring valves
except that the individual rings are joined to form one or two larger plates. Their
chief advantages are ease of manufacture and simpler assembly. Ported plate valves
are used primarily for high speed gas field compressors. Ported plate valves are
Strip Valves. Strip valves include channel and flexible element valves. They are
used primarily for air service, either lube or nonlube. A disadvantage is that they
cannot be used with plastic elements and are therefore not very tolerant of dirt or
liquids in the gas stream. They have good flow areas and are relatively inexpensive.

The maximum discharge pressure for these valves is about 1,500 psi. The highest
recommended operating temperature is 350°F and the maximum pressure differen-
tial is approximately 500 psi. Strip valves may be used in compressors with rotating
speeds up to 1,800 rpm.
One type of strip valve, called a “feather” by the original manufacturer, employs a
single component to serve as the sealing element and the return spring. Application
of the feather valve is generally limited to operating pressures less than 1000 psi,
differential pressures no greater than 400 psi, and maximum temperatures of 350°F.
A feather valve is shown in Figure 300-47.
Fig. 300-46 Ported Plate Valves (Courtesy of Dresser- Fig. 300-47 Feather Valves (From Compressed Air &
Rand) Gas Data ed. by A.W. Loomis  1982 by
Ingersoll-Rand. Courtesy of Dresser-Rand)
Another type of strip valve, called a channel valve, is shown in Figure 300-48.
Poppet Valves. Poppet valves have an effective lift area approximately 50% greater
than that provided by the same size concentric ring valve. Poppet valves can operate
with lifts as great as 1/4 inch and are used extensively in the natural gas transmis-
sion industry. They have recently been applied in other process applications such as
carbon dioxide injection for tertiary oil recovery. By design, they add built-in clear-
ance, which causes a capacity penalty, especially with high specific heat gases.
The poppet valve utilizes a mushroom-shaped element made from a variety of mate-
rials. The sealing element material determines the range of application. Valves with
metallic poppets can withstand pressures up to 3000 psi and temperatures to 500°F.
However, metallic poppets are seldom used due to inertial effects.

Fig. 300-48 Channel Valve (From Compressed Air & Fig. 300-49 Poppet Valve
Gas Data ed. by A.W. Loomis  1982 by
Ingersoll-Rand. Courtesy of Dresser-Rand)
Nonmetallic poppets are limited to 450°F and 800 psi, with compressor speeds up
to 1,800 rpm. Typically NYLON, TORLON, and now PEEK are used for the
poppet material because of their light weight and conformability to the valve seat.
Several OPCOs are using poppet valves with good success. Figure 300-49 shows a
poppet valve.
Valve Motion
The motion of valve elements during the compressor cycle are affected by two
forces, as shown in Figure 300-50. The first is an aerodynamic force due to flow of
gas around the element. The second is the spring force resisting this aerodynamic
force.
Plate or strip motion affects compressor performance and reliability. Not only must
the valve open and close at the correct time, but it must open completely and seal
tightly upon closing. In addition to being able to open fully and close completely,
the valve element must not strike the seat or guard with excessive force, or short
valve life will result.
Each valve is a damped spring/mass system with natural frequency. If the natural or
resonant frequency is forced by some driving frequency, such as the pulsations from
the compressor pistons, rapid cycling of the valve element will occur. The element
generally bounces between the guard and the seat. This is commonly called
“flutter”. Flutter can greatly reduce the life of springs and valve elements.

The manufacturer modifies the valve lift to suit the gas specified. For example, an
air compressor might be furnished with a lift of .100 inches. The same compressor
valve applied in a low mole weight service such as hydrogen, might use a lift of
.032 inches.
The problem with a higher lift valve in the hydrogen service is that hydrogen lacks
the damping properties of air. As a result, the valve elements would experience high
impact forces and might bounce. Broken valve elements might result.
Valve Element Failure

When the valve element is stopped abruptly at the guard or seat, it may not land
evenly. Typically, one edge contacts first, which induces a bending moment. This
flexing will eventually cause fatigue failure of the valve element. Several steps can
be taken to reduce the flexing. Reducing valve lift is one remedy, but frictional
power loss may increase. Providing balanced spring arrangements that allow the
valve element to return to the seat as evenly as possible and/or providing a gas
cushion can reduce fatigue failures of the valve element.
The gas cushion is produced by a close clearance between the valve element and a
groove in the valve seat, which also locates the valve element. As the gas trapped in
the space between the underside of the valve element and the walls of the groove
escapes along the edges of the element, the element is cushioned as it returns to the
seat, as shown in Figure 300-51.
Fig. 300-50 Forces Acting on a Valve Plate Fig. 300-51 Gas Damped Valve Plate
Another type of damping, mass damping, is used in the “damped plate” design. A
disk ported the same as the valve element is attached to the valve element, usually
at its center. This damping plate adds inertia to the valve element and therefore
retards the impact velocities of the valve element against the guard and seat. This
type of damping is useful for high speed compressors where valve velocities are

high. It is also more desirable than gas damping, where the gas stream is dirty or
heavily lubricated. A damped plate valve is shown in Figure 300-52.
Fig. 300-52 Damped Plate Valve
Allowable Plate Impact Velocity

Excessive valve plate impact velocity at the valve seat or at the valve guard contrib-
utes heavily to valve plate and valve spring failures.
One manufacturer's operating experience has shown that, in order to eliminate valve
plate or spring failures resulting from improper valve dynamics, the plate impact
velocities in Figure 300-53 should not be exceeded.
Fig. 300-53 Maximum Allowable Plate Impact Velocity (inch/sec)

Valve Design At Valve Guard At Seat
Std. Plate 150 75
Damped-Plate 200 100
Most vendors have computer programs that mathematically model valve element
motion, aerodynamic drag coefficients, and flow through the valves during the
compression cycle. These programs assess the valve dynamics and optimize the
design in terms of lift, spring stiffness, and the damping for a specific application.
The programs have a fairly good record of success, and continue to be improved
with time. Figure 300-54 shows the results of a typical computer analysis (note the
greatly reduced valve flutter).

Fig. 300-54 Results of Computer Study of Valve Dynamics (Courtesy of Dresser-Rand)
If practical, before purchasing, have the vendor run a computer study for new
machines, or for any valve upgrades planned for existing machines. It is highly
recommended to discuss actual field experience with users of any particular type of
valve proposed. Avoid valves which are not being used in similar services.
355 Drivers
Figure 300-55 presents a generalized curve of speed versus horsepower for Class A
machines based on one vendor's experience. Figure 300-56 shows the distribution
of driver types for Class A compressors, again based on one vendor's experience.
Refer to the Driver Manual for detailed application information, and use the
following general comments for any preliminary work:
1. Synchronous motors are 3-4% more efficient than induction motors of the
same speed, and usually offer power factor improvement for the electrical
system. High-efficiency induction motors should not be used with recipro-
cating compressors, because the oscillating torque causes excessive heat.
Rather, use standard induction motors.
2. Steam and combustion gas turbines can be applied to reciprocating compres-
sors, although it is not a frequent practice (see Figure 300-57). A torsional anal-

Fig. 300-55 Reciprocating Process Compressors—Rotative Speed vs. Horsepower
Fig. 300-56 Reciprocating Process Compressors Driver Practice (Courtesy of Dresser-Rand)

Type Driver % of Installations Criteria for Selection
Low Speed Synchronous 80 Efficiency—Price—Power
Factor Correction
Low Speed Induction 16 Simplicity—No Excitation
Required
Induction Motor/Gear 1 Low Torque per KVA in
Starting. Lower Mainte-
nance. Explosion Resistant
Enclosure
Steam Turbine/Gear 3 Availability of Low Cost
Steam
Coupled Internal Negligible
Combustion Engine
ysis is essential to be certain the train will not operate close to a torsional
critical speed.
3. Spark-ignited gas engines are available to drive Class B machines up to about
2000 HP at 900-1000 RPM.
4. Belt-drive systems can be used up to about 200 HP.
356 Footprint and Weight

General footprint and weight data were presented in Section 100. If more detailed
information is needed, obtain it from vendor bulletins or directly from the vendor.

357 Noise
Noise data must be obtained from the vendor. Compressor vendors generally cannot
meet the 85 dbA noise limit recommended in many Company specifications. They
usually guarantee 90 dbA. Acoustic treatment may be required if it is necessary to
meet 85 dBA.
358 Efficiency and Economics

Efficiency directly affects power or fuel cost, and this cost will be the dominant
factor in the total life cycle cost. The reciprocating machine is very efficient not
only at full load, but also at partial load. Figure 300-58 shows the typical full-load
efficiency of Class A machines compressing hydrogen.
Fig. 300-57 Typical Turbine Drive (Courtesy of Dresser- Fig. 300-58 Typical Efficiency Reciprocating Process
Rand) Compressors—Hydrogen (Courtesy of
Dresser-Rand)
It is impractical to provide general cost estimating factors such as $/HP or $/ICFM.

Such factors can be very misleading owing to wide variances in power levels, pres-
sures, etc., in the range of applications. (See Sub-section 154.) Cost estimates for
the machinery should be obtained from the vendor.
360 Application and System Considerations
361 Cylinder Thermal Performance

Figure 300-59 shows heat rejection rates for forced liquid cooling of cast iron cylin-
ders. Cast steel or forged steel cylinders have lower heat rejection rates, mainly
because the walls are thicker, and the jacketed areas are smaller. The following
values may be used for estimating purposes for average conditions:
• cast iron cylinders 700 BTU/Bhp-hr
• cast steel cylinders 250 BTU/Bhp-hr

• forged steel cylinders 200 BTU/Bhp-hr
Fig. 300-59 Gas Temperature Rise Characteristics for Operation with Thermally Circulated Coolant and Dry Jackets
(From Compressed Air & Gas Data ed. by A. W. Loomis  1982 by Ingersoll-Rand. Courtesy of Dresser-
Rand)
The coolant inlet temperature should be at least 10°F above the suction temperature
to prevent condensation. The coolant temperature-rise across each cylinder should
be at least 10°F, but no more than 20°F.
The following relationships should be treated as guidelines. They will not provide
exact answers for all applications. Consult the vendor if it is necessary to know the
discharge temperature more accurately.
The average gas and coolant temperatures affect the actual discharge temperature of
cylinders with forced cooling. If the average gas temperature less the average
coolant temperature is between 50°F - 60°F, the discharge temperature should be
close to that predicted by Equation 300-25. For other temperature differentials,
refer to Figure 300-60 to determine an estimate of the deviation from adiabatic
discharge temperature.
Two other types of cooling systems are applied to cylinders: thermosyphon and no
coolant circulation (static filled jackets). Refer to API 618 for criteria to apply
these systems. Figure 300-61 gives temperature relationships for these systems.

Fig. 300-60 Gas Temperature Rise Characteristics with Forced Coolant Circulation
362 System Resistance

Because a reciprocating compressor can usually be unloaded in 25% capacity steps
down to zero throughput, it is possible to overlook the fact that suction or discharge
pressure (or both) will normally vary with each step (unless these pressures are
fixed by process controls). At lower capacity steps, the suction pressure could be
much higher than it is at the full capacity step. This condition could cause relief
valves to pop during operation unless the higher pressure is accounted for in the
system design. Accordingly, a system pressure profile calculation should be made
for each capacity step as well as for full load. The Compressor Pressure Profile
Worksheet (CMP-EF-876) along with the Fluid Flow Manual will help in making
and recording these calculations.

Fig. 300-61 Gas Temperature Rise Characteristics for Operation with Thermally Circulated Coolant and Dry Jackets
363 Capacity Control

Capacity may be controlled on the basis of suction pressure, discharge pressure,
flow or a combination of these variables. Capacity can be varied by use of
unloaders, clearance pockets, and/or by speed variation when the driver is a vari-
able-speed machine.
Whenever possible, constant-speed operation is recommended in order to avoid
possible excitation of torsional or acoustical resonances. This is of particular impor-
tance on complex compressors with three or more stages, or when the unit(s) are to
be located on an offshore platform. (The acoustical simulation becomes increas-
ingly difficult with variable-speed machines, as does torsional vibration analysis.)
The complex steel structure of an offshore platform has numerous vibratory natural
frequencies which can respond to mechanical or acoustical excitations generated by
the compressor. The risk of encountering such resonances are greater with variable
speed compressors.

364 Parallel Operation

For machines operating in parallel, avoid allowing one machine to take more than
its share of the load. Constant-speed, identical reciprocating compressors may be
well matched, but deterioration can occur on one machine due to a broken valve, or
worn rings. This would cause the other machine to take on more load in situations
where the suction pressure varies with flow rate.
For example, three 50% compressors are piped in parallel to a large receiver vessel
feeding fuel gas to a combustion gas turbine, with fuel gas flow varying between 70
and 100% of the rated flow. Two compressors would be running, with one on
standby. One unit would be on “base load”, and the other would be the “swing” unit
taking all the load variation. This load variation could be accommodated by auto-
matically actuating suction-valve unloaders to maintain the receiver pressure within
a set range. Clearance pockets could be used in combination with the unloaders to
reduce the control fluctuations.
When the system has no receiver, a bypass with control valve is required if it is
necessary to regulate the flow to quantities between those provided by the capacity
steps. Otherwise, the control systems set-up could be the same as described above.
There are numerous possibilities for control system arrangements for parallel opera-
tion which are beyond the scope of this manual. Consult a control systems engineer
to optimize the system and work out the details.
365 Power Margins

The rated horsepower of motor drivers should be at least 10% greater than the
highest power required by the compressor (including any power transmission
losses) at any of the specified operating conditions. For turbine drivers, a 20%
margin is recommended to provide for deterioration in performance and variation
between actual and specified steam conditions. (Moreover, the 20% margin has
been necessary on smaller units to effectively handle the cyclic compressor torque.)
Internal combustion engines should be rated in accordance with DEMA standards.
The DEMA continuous duty rating must be derated for site elevation, maximum
ambient temperature, inlet and exhaust pressure drops, and for shaft-driven acces-
sory loads. In addition, it is desirable to have a 10% margin between the site-
derated continuous duty rating and the maximum compressor power requirement.
With engines, the power margin is not as straight-forward as with other drivers
owing to the different levels of conservatism of the manufacturers. A power margin
is desirable because such factors as emission control devices and the cooling water
temperature to the turbocharger aftercooler can affect engine capability. Engi-
neering judgment will usually have to be applied.
Engines should also meet the DEMA requirement for the capability to carry a 10%
overload for two hours out of any 24-hour period. It is also a good idea to review
the engine vendor's experience at the proposed rating with other owners of that
model.

366 Foundation Mounting and Grouting

Refer to the General Machinery Manual (Section 300) for more information on
foundations, anchor bolts, and grouting.
There are three methods of mounting reciprocating compressors on foundations:
1. Direct grouting
2. Mounting on sole plate (rails)
3. Mounting on a base plate (skid)
Direct grouting of the frame to the foundation is used on smaller machines, such
as air compressors. These machines are short and not likely to experience frame
distortion due to differential foundation displacement.
If longer machines with several crank throws are directly grouted, the heat from the
frame will cause thermal distortion of the foundation. The frame then conforms to
the foundation, causing misalignment of the crankshaft. Misalignment can lead to
crankshaft failure; therefore, sole plate mounting is used. With this method there is
air space between the frame and the foundation. Chock blocks and/or shims are
used between the sole plate and the frame. If foundation distortion occurs over the
years, the frame can be re-chocked or re-shimmed to restore alignment.
Figure 300-62 shows a typical sole plate and chock arrangement for a crosshead
pedestal. A similar arrangement would be used under the frame, although the foun-
dation bolt is usually one-piece. Note that the foundation bolt sleeve is packed to
prevent entry of grout. This feature is important.
Fig. 300-62 Crosshead Pedestal Sole Plate (Courtesy of the Cooper Cameron Corporation)

Many Class B units are typically skid-mounted. In this case, the frame is mounted
on a base plate, and the base plate is grouted to the foundation. When the base plate
becomes quite large, sole plates are sometimes used under the base plate.
Except for very small units, epoxy grout is recommended for reciprocating
machines. Although more expensive than cementatious grout, epoxy grout has
superior strength, is oil-resistant, and has negligible shrinkage. Some cementatious
grouts include an additive that expands during the curing process to reduce
shrinkage. However, this process has been unreliable in many cases, and the grout
deteriorates with constant exposure to lube-oil. One recommended rule-of-thumb is
to use epoxy grout on all reciprocating machines rated at 500 HP or more, or that
weigh 5000 pounds or more.
367 Shaking Forces (Foundation Requirements)

Refer to Sub-section 366, “Foundation Mounting and Grouting”. Carefully review
the vendor's unbalanced forces and couples with the engineering group designing
the foundation. This aspect of the compressor installation is critical, especially if it
is offshore or on very poor soil. It may be necessary to provide guidance to the
vendor when shaking forces are crucial. It is possible to alter the proposed design to
improve the balance of forces and couples.
370 Piping and Arrangements

Refer to the Piping Manual for detailed information on piping design and configura-
tion. A few of the fundamental guidelines are presented here.
Reciprocating compressors are sensitive to dirt. Therefore, the suction piping to
each stage (from the knockout drum to the suction pulsation damper) should be
“pickled” (chemically cleaned). Temporary strainers should be installed and left in
place for several days during initial operation. These strainers are usually of the
truncated-cone or conical type, and made of perforated steel plate with a double
overlay of stainless steel wire mesh screen (often 100 mesh over 30 mesh). The
screen is attached to the outside of the strainer basket so that the flow encounters
the screen fist. The strainer is typically located at the inlet to the suction pulsation
damper.
Liquid is also a significant problem. Suction piping must be configured so that
liquids cannot be trapped in low spots. Liquids that collect in “pockets” in the
piping can “slug” the compressor causing extensive damage. The suction line imme-
diately attached to the separation device (knockout drum, scrubber) should be
slightly sloped so that liquid drains back to the vessel. Inadequacy of liquid separa-
tors is a common complaint in operating plants. They may be too small, unable to
take slugs, or located too far from the compressor. The latter is a very common
failing. This aspect of plant design should be studied very carefully. Very often the
design is based on preliminary dew point calculations for a given gas, but later the
composition changes. Accordingly, the design should include a generous safety
factor.

Where there is any possibility of liquid condensation, the suction lines should be
heat-traced. A second line of defense is to include a liquid separation chamber in
the pulsation damper (see API 618). Pulsation dampers can be heat-traced with a
“plate coil” for steam, or with electrical heaters. Bayonet heaters can also be
supplied.
The distance between the pulsation damper and the compressor cylinder should be
held to a minimum.
It used to be common practice to install intercoolers on top of the compressor cylin-
ders. Each cooler would span across two cylinders, with pulsation-damping volume
built into the coolers. This arrangement made a compact installation, but provided
little defense against liquids, and compromised maintenance access. It also required
that the suction valves of one of the two cylinders be placed in the undesirable loca-
tion on the bottom of the cylinder. Currently, on-compressor mounting of coolers is
no longer used, except perhaps for bone-dry gases.
Piping design should be analyzed to assure that forces and moments exerted on the
cylinder flanges are within the vendor's tolerances. Cold springing should not be
allowed. (Cold springing is forcing pipe to the machine in a cold condition in order
to afford relieved stresses as the pipe heats to operating temperature.)

Compressor control systems use suction pressure, discharge pressure, flow, or an
external process signal to regulate capacity. Control systems are typically electronic
or pneumatic. Capacity of the compressor is adjusted by:
1. Actuating unloaders and clearance pockets
2. A control valve in a bypass
3. Changing speed
The control system can be manual or automatic. Many systems today are program-
mable. This section will briefly describe the control devices and instruments
usually supplied with the compressor. Overall control system design is not covered
(refer to the Instrumentation and Controls Manual for information on system
design).
372 Control Devices

Capacity Control
Five-step unloading means capacity control in approximately 25% steps from zero
to 100%. Therefore, if two 50% compressor units are used, capacity control is avail-
able in 12.5% steps. Suction valve or plug-type unloaders can only deactivate each
cylinder to zero or 50%. If the 25% intermediate step is desired, it is necessary to
use clearance pockets. It is possible to obtain five-step unloading in increments
other than 25%.

When the pressure ratio is quite low (less than approximately 1.7) the volume of the
clearance pocket becomes very large. The actual volume is dependent on the piston
displacement and “k” value of the gas. Refer to the formula for volumetric effi-
ciency. Also, API 618 recommends that volumetric efficiency remain above 40%
since performance prediction is generally unreliable below that value. (However,
values as low as 25% have been used when less precise capacity control is accept-
able.)
Note also that when the cylinder bore is not much larger than the piston rod,
unloading the crank end of the cylinder results in a capacity reduction much less
than 50%.
Three-step (100%, 50%, 0%) capacity control is used on some general purpose
machines such as air compressors. Three-step control requires more cyclic actua-
tion of the unloaders than five-step control. Therefore, three-step control is more
detrimental to machine components (particularly valves).
When precise capacity turndown is required, a bypass with a control valve is neces-
sary. Depending on the system requirements, the bypass may only be across the
first stage. But, more often the bypass spills back across all stages unless the differ-
ential pressure is too high to be handled by a single control valve. The take-off
point for the bypass must be downstream of a heat exchanger so that cooled gas
will be spilled back to the suction. If there is no exchanger in the discharge, the
bypass must branch into the suction line upstream of an exchanger. Alternatively, a
cooler may be placed in the bypass line. In any case, the bypass should tie-in
upstream of a suction knockout drum so that any condensate resulting from the
expansion cannot enter the compressor.
When a bypass is used in combination with step control, five-step operation is more
efficient than three-step operation.
373 Instruments
Loadless Starting
Most motor-driven compressors are equipped with suction valve or plug-type
unloaders on both ends of all cylinders on the frame to permit loadless starting.
Loadless starting is not mandatory, but facilitates startup, and reduces disturbance
in the electrical system. It is also a convenient and less punishing feature for all
types of drivers.
Alarms and Shutdowns

Figure 300-63 is a typical list of alarm and shutdown functions for the compressor
frame and cylinders. Local preferences may call for additions to or deletions from
this list.
The data sheets in API 618 list many other functions. These data sheets also serve
as a good checklist.

Fig. 300-63 Typical List of Alarm and Shutdown Functions

Function Alarm Shutdown
Low lube-oil pressure x x
High discharge temp. (each cyl.) x x
High oil filter diff. pressure x
High cyl. jacket water temp. x
Low cyl. jacket water pressure x
Low lubricator flow x
High vibration x x
High liquid level, gas separator x x
Refer to the Driver Manual for recommended alarm and shutdown parameters for
drivers.
If a vibration detection device is used on the frame, an accelerometer type detector
is recommended to provide continuous measurement. Ball-and-seat or magnetic-
type switches are unreliable. Consult the vendor regarding the best location for the
device. Sometimes it is necessary to install two devices (one for transverse vibra-
tion, and one for axial vibration).
Note that whatever alarms and shutdowns are chosen, it is important to make sure
they are installed with facilities to allow testing.
Gages
Location of the gages is generally a matter of plant preference. They can be
mounted locally on the compressor or piping, or mounted in a local panel. Gages
mounted on the compressor or attached piping may be subject to vibration. Check
with plant operating and maintenance personnel regarding the best location for
these gages. (Figure 300-64 is a typical list of gages.)
Monitoring
Monitoring systems of the continuous type are not widely used on reciprocating
compressors. However:
Eutectic bearing temperature safety devices are available for main and connecting
rod bearings. These devices are spring-loaded and they vent control air to alarm or
shut down the unit when high temperature melts the eutectic material. At one large
Company installation, such devices prevented a major failure. Main bearing thermo-
couples or RTD's are also available.
One device that is gaining more acceptance is a rod-drop monitor. This device can
be a eutectic sensor that melts when rubbed by the rod allowing a signal to be trans-
mitted for alarm or shutdown. This function can also be accomplished with a prox-
imity probe.

Fig. 300-64 List of Gages

Function Temperature-Gage Pressure Gage
C. W. outlet, each cyl. x
C. W. supply x x
Lube-oil to frame x x
Lube-oil out x
Lube filter diff press x
Suction gas, each stage x x
Each interstage gas x
Disch. gas, each stage x
Final disch gas x
Packing (500 psi and higher) x
Lube cooler, inlet/outlet x
Supply to each cooled packing x x
Outlet of each cooled packing x
Various lubricator flow and drive failure sentries are also available for cylinder and
packing lubricator systems.
380 Foundations
This sub-section provides a basis for establishing the dynamic forces to be used by
civil engineers in foundation design calculations. Soil mechanics, natural frequency
calculations, bearing pressure, concrete strength, and other design factors are not
covered here. Refer to the Civil and Structural Manual for such information. Foun-
dations, anchor bolts, and grouting are discussed in the General Machinery
Manual, and Sub-section 366 of this manual.
In addition to knowing the dimensions and weights of the machinery to be
supported, engineers designing the foundation must know the magnitude, direction,
and frequency of the dynamic forces that the machinery will exert on the founda-
tion.
The importance of foundations to a compressor installation cannot be overem-
phasized. Foundations attenuate vibratory forces generated by the machinery, and
reduce transmission of these forces to the surrounding plant and equipment. Foun-
dations also keep the machinery in alignment.
To perform these essential functions throughout the life of the installation, the foun-
dation must be sized to support the weight of the machinery while imposing a toler-
able bearing pressure on the soil or structure. It must be properly designed so that
the system, consisting of the foundation, soil, machinery, and piping, is not at or

near a resonant condition. It is particularly important on offshore structures, which

may be susceptible to resonance from the machinery vibration.
The purchaser of the machinery is normally responsible for the design of the foun-
dation. The vendor or manufacturer of the machinery will seldom take this
responsibility because his expertise is not in this field. It would not be in his
best interest to accept the risks associated with the design. Additionally, the
vendor does not have specific knowledge about the soil conditions at the site.
381 Reciprocating Compressor

Unbalanced Forces and Moments
Reciprocating machines generate primary and secondary forces and couples as a
result of unbalanced rotating masses and unbalanced reciprocating masses which
accelerate and decelerate each revolution (see Section 300). These forces and
couples react at the main bearings, and the resultant forces are transmitted to the
foundation via the frame and bolting. These forces and moments are sometimes
called shaking forces. Primary refers to the frequency of running speed;
secondary means the frequency of twice running speed.
Forces arising from differential gas pressure acting on the piston and piston rod
have no effect on the unbalanced forces and moments transmitted to the foundation.
The magnitude of these forces and moments can sometimes be extremely large, and
they must be accounted for in the foundation design. There is no “rule of thumb” to
predict the magnitudes as reciprocating machine designs vary widely in terms of
the number and sizes of cylinders and crankshaft configuration. Data Sheet CMP-
DS-875 may be sent to the vendor with the Company's quotation request, and
preliminary values are provided by the vendor so that the forces and moments of
the various machines proposed can be evaluated. Preliminary foundation design can
begin with this information, and be refined as the actual forces are furnished by the
vendor.
Other Considerations
Any natural frequency of the foundation should be at least 30% above or below the
primary and secondary frequencies. For instance, on a 450 RPM unit, ideally any
natural frequency should not be anywhere in the range of 315 to 1170 cycles per
minute (cpm). Sometimes it is impractical to keep natural frequencies out of a
range that wide. Accordingly, it may be possible to place a natural frequency
between the primary and secondary frequencies. A natural frequency in the range
of 585-630 cpm would satisfy the criterion of 30% separation margins in the above
example.
For reciprocating units, as a rule of thumb, the weight of the foundation should be a
minimum of five times the combined weight of the frame, cylinders, and driver.

382 Pulsation Suppression

Background
Simple volume bottles were the earliest method, and are still used in some applica-
tions for pulsation suppression. Many individuals and companies had their own
methods of sizing bottles. These bottles generally worked satisfactorily; however,
some installations experienced intolerable piping vibration and failures.
In the early 1950's, the Southern Gas Association appointed Southwest Research
Institute to investigate the problem. The result was the development of an analog
computer to simulate the acoustical interaction of one or more compressors and the
associated piping. At first, the analog results were analyzed only from the stand-
point of pressure pulsation amplitudes and frequencies. Later, the piping systems
were analyzed for mechanical interaction between the gas pulsations and piping
vibration.
Due to this research, in many cases pulsation dampers with proprietary internals
replaced volume bottles except in low pressure applications. These dampers are
also called snubbers or suppressors.
Design Approaches
Numerous approaches are currently employed to avoid excessive vibrations that can
occur in the connected piping, instrumentation, etc. These include:
1. Relying on vendors to design and supply adequate suppression dampers along
with the compressor, without stating any specifications. Vendors may use
digital calculations or proprietary empirical correlations. This is normally 5-
7% of line pressure peak-to-peak pulsation at the bottle outlet unless otherwise
specified.
2. Relying on vendors to design and supply suppression dampers, based on a spec-
ified maximum pulsation amplitude at the outlet of the damper. The specified
pulsation may be 1-5% of line pressure and determined by estimating pulsation
affects on the piping system.
3. Specifying the size of pulsation dampers based on empirical correlations
within the Company.
4. Specifying that the vendor obtain an analog study of the pulsation dampers and
associated piping, for machines not specified by API 618.
5. Specifying one of the three design approaches as outlined in API 618, as
summarized below.
Most manufacturing and many producing locations employ analog studies (from
SWRI) when purchasing new equipment. These studies are expensive, however,
and may not always be appropriate. Analog studies have the disadvantage of not
being very flexible. If changes in piping, vessels, or operating conditions are made
after the analog study, the entire analog must be redone at additional cost. For
example, Warren Petroleum, which employs a large inventory of integral and high-

speed separable compressors used in varying applications, uses all of the previous
approaches, as they determine to be applicable.
API 618 thoroughly specifies the requirements for pulsation suppression devices in
terms of pressure drop, pulsation level, and mechanical design. Three design
approaches are listed in API 618:
Design Approach-1 does not include a simulation study. Empirical factors and
experience are applied, and everyone involved hopes for the best.
Design Approach-2 calls for a simulation study which reveals the pulsation ampli-
tudes and frequencies, but does not predict how much the piping is going to vibrate.
Design Approach-3 is an extension of Design Approach 2 where the structural
design of the piping is reviewed to determine its vibration tendency with respect to
excitation by the gas pulsations.
Some compressor and damper vendors have digital computer programs to simulate
compressor systems. They are faster, and may be less expensive than analog
studies, and have proven to be reliable. Digital programs also have the advantage of
saving a file which can be easily modified when changes are made.
The Company is a member of the SGA-SWRI program for analog simulation.
Many systems have been successfully analyzed for the Company using SWRI's
services. For large, critical projects, it is recommended that SWRI continue to do
this analytical work, because although digital programs have some advantages,
SWRI has the overwhelming amount of simulation experience.
Moisture Removal
In many reciprocating compressor installations the pulsation dampers have integral
moisture removal sections to provide a final line of defense against liquid carryover.
There are two schools of thought. Pulsation dampers can be designed with these
moisture removal sections, or they can be designed so that liquids positively cannot
collect. Most refinery pulsation dampers have moisture removal sections. Many oil
field dampers do not have moisture removal sections.
Designing pulsation dampers without moisture removal sections takes great care
when the damper includes internals for pulsation attenuation (choke tube and
baffle). The baffle needs to have a hole at the bottom to prevent liquid from accumu-
lating on either side. However, a hole in the baffle can make the damper less effec-
tive as an acoustic filter. The way around this is to design the damper with an
additional choke tube at the bottom of the damper and acoustically model the
damper in this configuration. Another problem is the lip created by the nozzle
projecting into the bottle. Figure 300-65 illustrates the design aspects.
Additional Notes
Some have questioned the bottle-sizing equation in API 618, and would prefer to
use other, less-expensive procedures. Nevertheless, the API equation is based on a
combination of theory and statistics, and is recommended as a conservative prac-

Fig. 300-65 Pulsation Damper Without Moisture Removal Section
Note: The very nature of pulsations cause aerosols and particles to agglomerate within the bottle. A path
should be provided to keep the bottom of the bottle clean and dry.
tice. If an exact equation were available, acoustical simulation studies would not be
needed.
Note that for pulsation control, bigger is generally better. On the other hand, there
can be interference problems and access to cylinders can be limited. There is a
point of diminishing return where a bigger bottle does not gain that much on pulsa-
tion attenuation.
To guard against high late charges after the purchase order has been committed, it is
a good idea to ask the vendor to quote a “dollar-per-pound” price addition in his
proposal for pulsation damper changes. In this way, if the simulation study reveals
the necessity for changes to the dampers, there will be a firm-price basis for them.
In setting up the simulation study, be sure to consider all operating conditions.
Beware of variations in molecular weight. For example, some hydrogen compres-
sors handle nitrogen during regeneration. The acoustic velocities of these two
gasses differ by nearly a factor of four (4400 fps versus 1200 fps @ 100°F). If the
machine is an addition to a plant, the existing machines should be included if they
are in the same system. Evaluate combinations of unloading steps, speeds, and vari-
ation in gas composition. Sometimes only the extremes of the conditions need to be
simulated, but SWRI should be the judge of which conditions can be ignored.
The simulation is not a design tool. The piping design must be completed before
simulation can be started. It can, however, indicate trouble spots which can be
corrected, and the simulation is then re-run. In view of this procedure, it is advis-
able to have a Company piping designer or other representative present during the
simulation.

390 Rerates and Materials of Construction
391 Capacity Changes

The following methods can be used to change the capacity of the machine:
• Change speed
• Increase or decrease clearance of cylinders
• Re-bore unlined cylinders and change pistons
• Re-line cylinders and change pistons
• Replace cylinders
Speed change is rarely a viable option. Obviously, increasing speed will not be an
option if the frame is already running at the maximum rated speed. Change in the
speed of a motor-driven unit requires replacement of the driver. If the driver is a
variable speed machine, there is a chance that something can be done, but the
system must be carefully studied. The torque and power ratings of the driver,
compressor, couplings, and gear (if any) should be checked, and a torsional analysis
of the system conducted. A review of the pulsation dampers and piping design may
also be required.
For small changes in capacity, it may be possible to alter the clearance of the cylin-
ders. It will usually be very difficult to significantly increase capacity in this
manner unless the cylinders were originally over-clearanced. However, it might be
possible to use this method in combination with other methods. Ordinarily, capacity
can be reduced quite easily by adding clearance, with spacers or clearance pockets,
or by reducing piston length.
Unless the cylinders are at maximum diameter, unlined cylinders can be re-bored,
sometimes by a substantial amount, to increase displacement. Similarly, liners can
be replaced in lined cylinders to increase or decrease displacement. There is no
guideline for the amount of displacement change that can be achieved. Consult the
manufacturer. If changes are contemplated, a computer study of the combined rod
loads should be made. Although a large change would not be expected, the manu-
facturer should review the torque-effort diagram.
In rare cases, where it is desired to increase capacity and power, the crankshaft may
be a limiting factor. Crankshafts have maximum horsepower-per-throw and total
horsepower (torque) ratings.
There is no way to upgrade the maximum allowable working pressure of a cylinder,
unless it was under-rated for the original application. It is worthwhile asking the
manufacturer whether the cylinder's present nameplate is the actual maximum
rating.
392 Valve Upgrades

Before considering valve upgrades, the overall compressor system must be evalu-
ated. For example, to cure a liquid problem, the suction vessel must be looked at.

Check the vessel sizing and the damper boot sizing. Check for insulation and heat-
tracing if condensation is a possibility. Always keep the cylinder jacket water at
least 10 to 20°F above the inlet gas temperature. Most liquid slugging occurs at
startup when the compressor is cold. Make sure there are no dead legs where
liquids can accumulate. All of these problems should be corrected before making a
decision to upgrade the valves.
Valves do not pass liquids well. Liquid slugs have been known to cause broken
pistons and, in at least one case, actually separate the compressor cylinder from the
crankcase. The usual evidence of liquid slugging is severely damaged plates or no
plates at all; only pieces. Springs can also collapse, although this is sometimes diffi-
cult to detect, since by the time the cylinder is opened the water or hydrocarbon
liquid may have drained or evaporated.
Lube oil accumulation from over-lubrication can have similar effects. This is espe-
cially prevalent with some compressors equipped with plug type unloaders on the
suction or top side of the cylinder. In one case, a piston assembly and valves were
severely damaged when the compressor was loaded after being operated unloaded
for about 30 minutes. Oil had accumulated in the valve pocket due to the design of
the internal suction passages.
There are many new valve designs available from OEM and non-OEM sources.
Valve problems are often design related, and they can be solved by a change in
materials, or valve type. For example, one Company compressor experienced over
50 valve failures over a three-year period. Although the gas was wet, changing from
strip to peek plate valves dramatically reduced the failure rate.
Before recommending replacement of existing compressor valves, ask the vendor to
conduct a valve motion study on the existing application. Be sure the valve design
is such that neither the valve guard nor the assembly bolting can fall into the
cylinder, even if the valves assembly bolting breaks or comes loose.
Ask the prospective supplier how his valves and unloading system deviate from
API 618. Confirm that the existing valves are being built to specifications according
to dimensions, material hardness, etc. Whether valves are repaired by a
contractor, or in-house, established specifications and procedures are a prereq-
uisite to reliable performance.
Non-metallic valve plate materials have been developed for relatively high tempera-
tures. These materials are only about one-sixth the weight of steel. Also, non-
metallic materials can be contoured to reduce the drag coefficient for the flow
around the plate. These designs have shown a great deal of improvement in valve
life at some installations. However, existing valves should not be indiscriminately
replaced with these new designs.
It is important to determine whether the manufacturer designs and manufactures the
unloader system or only the valves. Be careful of a manufacturer who supplies only
valves but relies on others for the unloader mechanism. The unloader system is an
integral part of most compressors and must be designed in conjunction with the
valves.

Also, determine the manufacturer's capability in materials engineering, finite

element analysis, and non-destructive examination. Find out whether the manufac-
turer can perform mechanical testing including tensile, hardness, and impact tests.
393 Suction System Modifications

Caution should be exercised when modifying reciprocating compressor suction
systems because changes may alter the acoustic response. Unacceptable levels of
vibration, high piping and nozzle stresses, and compressor valve problems may
result from the addition of knockout vessels and coalescers, or from piping
changes. Chances are often good that problems will not result, but there is a very
real risk, and your project may be the statistic. In new equipment installations, an
acoustic study is the tool used to mitigate this risk.
Installing a coalescer or other piece of equipment in a reciprocating compressor
suction line changes the acoustic length of the line, or creates two new acoustic
lengths where there was previously one. An acoustic study is a design review of
these lengths to determine if any acoustic resonances will occur and if they will
coincide with the mechanical natural frequencies in the piping system. In some situ-
ations it is prudent to revisit this work when making field changes.
API 618 gives guidance as to when an acoustic study is recommended for new
machinery installations. An acoustic study should be considered when any of the
following are true:
• Two or more compression stages
• Three or more cylinders per stage
• Final discharge pressure exceeds 1000 psig
• Driven equipment horsepower is 500 Bhp or greater
• Service alternates between gases of significantly different molecular weights
• Interaction is anticipated between compressors of 150 Bhp and greater
Acoustic studies are usually not performed for machines of less than 150 Bhp.
The API recommendations provide a good basis for deciding whether to perform an
acoustic study when altering a system, but risk assessment should also play a part
in decision making as these studies can be quite expensive. Generally, risk of
having harmful pulsations increases as compressor running speed decreases and as
the gas acoustic velocity increases (usually as molecular weight decreases). As
these parameters change, acoustic lengths get very long and fall out of the normal
range of field piping lengths. Also, the intended use of the compressor plays a part
in risk assessment. The cost of production losses should be weighed against the cost
of performing an acoustic study as part of an alteration.
All things considered, a packaged high-speed compressor in a producing field gas
application would be considered low risk because it is high-speed, high molecular
weight, with low to moderate production losses. Conversely, a large hydrogen
booster compressor in a refinery would be considered high risk for acoustic prob-
lems because it is low speed, low molecular weight, with high production losses.

394 Materials of Construction

The following is a description of materials available for some of the principle
components.
Crankshafts
Crankshafts are most commonly one-piece forgings or castings. (One exception is
the Worthington “Cub” which has a two-piece, coupled crankshaft.) Forged steel is
used exclusively for Class A machines. Steel or nodular iron castings are some-
times used for other machines up to 1500 HP. The advantages of a casting is that
counterweights can be an integral part of the shaft. However, the Company prefers
forged steel for ratings of 200 HP and higher. A typical material designation is
ASTM A688 Class F.
Piston Rods
The most common material is heat-treated AISI 4140 steel with a maximum Rock-
well C hardness of 40 at the core and a minimum of 50 at the surface. If stress
corrosion is a design factor, this material is annealed to a hardness of 22C
maximum (core) and 50C minimum (surface). AISI 8620 with the same hardness
provides higher working stresses for stress corrosion applications.
Rods of 17-4 PH stainless steel are used for corrosive services. Core and surface
hardnesses are 40-50C for standard applications. When stress corrosion is present,
the through-hardness is limited to 33C.
Crossheads
Crossheads are available in cast gray iron, nodular iron, or steel. The Company
prefers cast steel for all high-horsepower applications, but has accepted nodular
iron as an alternate on a few applications. It is recommended that cast gray iron be
allowed only on smaller machines with ratings less than about 200 HP.
Connecting Rods
Connecting rods should be forged steel. A typical material designation is ASTM
A235.
Maximum allowable working pressures (MAWP) corresponding to materials are
typically limited to the values shown in Figure 300-66.
Note that nodular iron may be used for Class A machines above 1000 PSIG only in
special cases. Nodular iron is an excellent engineering material, but homogeneity of
the material throughout the casting can sometimes be a problem. Thus, the yield
strength may not be as high as anticipated. API 618 calls for specimen testing and
other NDE in an effort to ensure the quality of nodular iron castings.

Fig. 300-66 Limitations for MAWP Based on Cylinder Materials

MAWP,PSIG Oil
Material MAWP, PSIG API 618 Field ≤8 Inch Diameter 8 Inch Diameter
Gray Cast Iron, ASTM 1000 1600 1000
A278
Cast Nodular Iron ASTM 1000(1) 2500 1500
A395
Cast Steel, ASTM A216 2500 2500 2500
Forged Steel, ASTM A668 >2500 7500 —
(1) May be quoted to 1500 PSIG as separate option
Compressor Valves
Valve materials must be selected for both durable, long-term operation and compati-
bility with the gas being handled. Extensive research and field testing contribute to
the improvement of valve materials.
Figure 300-67 shows materials for valve guards and seats. Valve plates are available
in various types of stainless steels and thermoplastics, as shown in Figure 300-68.
Figure 300-69 shows the wide variety of spring materials available, from music
wire to Inconel. Other super alloys, such as Elgiloy and Haynes 25, are being used
to avoid hydrogen embrittlement for springs.
Fig. 300-67 Typical Guard and Seat Materials for Compressor Valves
Material Application
1141 Light Duty Non-Corrosive Service
Heat Treated 1141 Light to Medium Non-Corrosive Service
Ductile Iron Light to Medium Service - Resistance to some
Chemical Attack
4140 Medium to High Strength - Resistance to some
Chemical Attack
Heat Treated 4140 High Strength Service - Resistance to Some Chemical
Attack
400 Series Stainless Steel Corrosive Service
300 Series Stainless Steel Extreme Corrosive Service
17-4 PH Stainless Steel

Fig. 300-68 Typical Valve Plate Materials

Glass Filled Nylon Thermoplastic Good Impact and Corrosion Resistance. 270°F Temperature Limit
Peek - Polyetheretherketone High Strength - High Temperature (up to 375°F)
Linen Based Phenolic Laminate Clean Gas. Low Compression Ratios. 225°F Temperature Limit
Laminated cloth Based Phenolic High Temperature Applications up to 400°F - Available for Ported Plate
Application only
410 Stainless Steel Moderate Corrosion Resistance, Good Impact Resistance
17-7 PH Stainless Steel Moderate Corrosion Resistance, Good Impact Resistance
Inconel X-750 High Corrosion Resistance and High Strength Properties in High Tempera-
ture Applications
Fig. 300-69 Typical Valve Spring Materials

Music Wire Low Corrosion Resistance. Good Durability in Clean Gas Environments and Low
Temperatures
302 Stainless Steel Moderate Corrosion Resistance. Average Durability in Moderate Temperatures
17-7 PH Stainless Steel Excellent Corrosion Resistance, High Strength Properties in Moderate/High Tempera-
tures (700°F Max)
Inconel X-750 High Corrosion Resistance, High Strength Properties in High Temperature Applica-
tions (1100°F Max)
Quality assurance and accurate dimensions are equally important. Surface finish
and parallel face surfaces are the most serious considerations for metallic plates.
Dimensional stability of thermoplastic plates in humid and high temperature envi-
ronments is essential.
One drawback to the use of thermoplastic plates is their affinity for moisture, called
hygroscopicity. Newer materials, such as PEEK and TORLON, have lower absorp-
tion rates (.06%) than nylon glass composites (1%). Also, some of these materials
have a lower coefficient of thermal expansion. For example, Dresser-Rand's
“HiTemp” valve material has a thermal expansion factor of 1.2x10-6 in/in-F, almost
half that of nylon glass composites. A low thermal expansion factor makes the plate
more resistant to deformation at higher temperatures and better able to hold dimen-
sional integrity.
Quality Assurance on Replacement Parts

A number of processes are used to manufacture valve plates. Among them are die
stamping, electron discharge machining, laser cutting and water jet cutting. Each
process has advantages and disadvantages with regard to the plate's fatigue strength.

Laser cutting, for example, causes a heat affected zone, which can be minimized if
the plate is cut at optimum speed. A recast layer will be found on the cut edge as it
comes from the laser; this must be removed. One manufacturer does this by
tumbling the plates in a stone media. This method satisfactorily removes the recast
layer and also forms a radius on the edge of the plate surface.
Metal valve disks or plates should be suitable for installation with either side
sealing and should be finished on both sides to 16 microinches RMS. Edges should
be suitably finished to remove stress risers. Valve seats and sealing surfaces should
also be finished to 16 microinches.
The ends of coil-type valve springs must be squared and ground to protect the plate
against damage from the spring ends.

600 Inspection and Testing
Abstract
This section contains information on the purpose of and general principals for
inspecting and testing compressors. It covers several quality-control tests, giving
general guidance on when the respective tests may be cost-effective and appropriate.
Contents Page
610 General Comments 600-2

620 Non-Witnessed, Witnessed, and Observed Tests 600-2
630 Centrifugal Compressor Inspections 600-3
640 Centrifugal Compression Tests 600-5
641 Four-Hour Mechanical Test
642 Assembled Compressor Gas Leakage Test
643 Performance Test
644 Complete-Unit Test
645 Full-load, Full-pressure, Full-speed Test
646 Other Tests
650 Reciprocating Compressor Inspections 600-13
660 Reciprocating Compressor Tests 600-15
661 Mechanical Running Tests
662 Bar-over Test

600 Inspection and Testing Compressor Manual
610 General Comments

Inspection at the point of manufacture is normally done by the Quality Assurance
(QA) section of Purchasing, or by an inspector contracted by Purchasing QA to
inspect the equipment. The purpose of shop inspection is to ensure that the equip-
ment meets specification and order requirements, displays good workmanship, and
is free of significant defects or damage before it ships.
Inspection is warranted for all process gas compressors. Inspection coverage may
also involve a Company machinery engineer and/or a mechanical specialist from
the client's maintenance organization. Coverage should be agreed upon as early as
possible and communicated to the vendor. Typically, the machinery engineer or
mechanical specialist would always witness mechanical run or performance tests
for large machines, and one of them might also witness:
• Final rotor balancing (centrifugals)
• Final assembly
• Dismantling after mechanical or performance testing and reassembly
• Operational and cleanliness tests on lube and seal oil systems
620 Non-Witnessed, Witnessed, and Observed Tests

Inspection and testing of a compressor or parts of a compressor by the manufacturer
may be “non-witnessed”, “witnessed”, or “observed”.
Non-Witnessed. This means that the manufacturer does the required test and certi-
fies the results; the test results are reviewed by the Purchaser's inspector during
other inspection visits. Production is not stopped as it is for “witnessed” tests.
Witnessed. This means that a hold is applied to the production schedule and the
test carried out with the Purchaser's inspector present. This may result in a double
test. The vendor will include in his bid a cost extra for witnessing a test.
Observed. This means that the Purchaser requires notification of the test's timing.
However, the test is performed as scheduled, and if the Purchaser's inspector is not
present, the vendor may proceed with the test. A hold is not placed in the produc-
tion schedule. Since only one test is scheduled, the Purchaser's inspector can expect
to be in the factory longer than for a witnessed test, while set up is completed or
debugging test equipment is done. The vendor will include a cost extra for
observing a test that is less than the cost for witnessing a test.
The differential cost between observed and witnessed tests can be more than offset
by increased inspector's time for observed tests; observed tests may also be missed
because of insufficient advance notification by the vendor. Specifying an observed
test is therefore not recommended.
If a test is important enough to warrant the presence of an inspector or engineer, a
witnessed test should be specified. When a test is to be witnessed, it must be stated
on the compressor data sheet or elsewhere in the order documents.

Compressor Manual 600 Inspection and Testing
630 Centrifugal Compressor Inspections

The principal inspection points are listed below in the normal manufacturing
sequence. The cost of testing is usually added to the purchase cost in a compressor
quotation.
1. Pre-Inspection Meeting. Held to review specifications and order requirements
at the point of manufacture to verify there will be compliance. This visit should
always be made at the compressor manufacturer's plant and normally at the
manufacturing plants for:
– Lube- and seal-oil consoles
– Overhead seal oil tank (pressure vessel)
– Gear (speed changer)
– Driver (prime mover)
The Pre-inspection meetings will help resolve ambiguities that may delay final
shipment or result in equipment that is not what the user specified. They also
verify that manufacturers understand our inspection and testing requirements
and are aware of the required witness points. These meetings should be held
for all except small utility compressors.
2. Review of Compressor-Casing Fabrication Drawings (by Purchaser's
inspector prior to start of fabrication). This visit should always be made for
compressors with fabricated casings. The casings are pressure containing parts,
but compressor manufacturers may use joint designs and materials that do not
meet normal minimum requirements for pressure vessels or pressure piping
(required by API 617).
3. Visual Inspection of Fabricated or Cast Casings Before Machining. This
visit should always be made for fabricated casings, even when sound joint
designs are on the fabrication drawings. Actual weldments frequently have
major flaws that can be found visually; weld repairs must be made before
machining since some distortion from welding is inevitable. Cast casings
should be visually examined prior to machining to verify that they do not have
significant visible defects.
4. Non-Destructive Examination of Fabricated or Cast Casings (liquid pene-
trant, magnetic particle, ultrasonic, radiographic). Company compressor
specifications will usually require some degree of NDE in addition to visual
examination and a successful hydrostatic test. Supplementary NDE beyond
that contained in the specification should not be added unless it is clearly justi-
fied by the service conditions, material characteristics, or established specifica-
tion requirements. A materials engineer, QA engineer, or both should be
consulted if supplementary NDE is being considered for other reasons. NDE in
itself is frequently inexpensive; it is the resulting repairs to upgrade the
material which have been subjected to NDE that can be very expensive.
When one form of supplementary NDE is specified, an acceptance standard
must always be specified as well. Whenever NDE is specified, it should always
be witnessed (radiographs interpreted when radiography is specified) and

should be identified as a witness point on the compressor data sheet. (See

Sub-section 620 for definitions.)
5. Visual Inspection of Welded Baseplates Before Machining. This visit should
always be made for large, or critical compressor baseplates. Weld quality and
inadequate weld size have been problems on large baseplates.
6. Hydrostatic Test. A casing hydrostatic test is always performed. Witnessing
the test is always warranted. Helium testing, if specified, should also be
witnessed. (See item 4, Sub-section 650.)
7. Visual Inspection of Welded or Cast Impellers Before Heat Treatment and
Machining. This is warranted in most cases. Welding the impellers is difficult.
The customer does not specify a quality standard, and the compressor manufac-
turer will not be likely to initiate weld repairs on completed impellers since
another round of heat treatment and machining would be required. Cast
compressor impellers frequently have significant defects but the compressor
manufacturer may be inclined to use them anyway.
8. Overspeed Test and Subsequent NDE of Impellers. Both should always be
witnessed to check for cracks and distortion. Impellers are made from high-
strength alloys and often have hub stresses close to the material yield point.
9. Stacking and Incremental Balancing of Rotor. This is usually not witnessed.
It can require days of inspector time since the rotor is balanced several times
during the course of assembly. If witnessing incremental balancing is being
considered, consult a machinery specialist.
10. Final Balancing of Rotor. This should normally be witnessed along with dial
indicator measurement of runouts at bearing journals, thrust bearing faces, and
all points along the rotor with close clearances. Impeller wobble caused by
warpage during weld repair is also checked at this time.
11. Runout Checks for Proximity Probes. This should be done before the
compressor is assembled and should be witnessed. Its purpose is to verify that
mechanical and electrical runouts of the rotor surfaces are low enough for the
vibration monitoring system to operate satisfactorily without electronic
compensation. (See the General Machinery Manual for additional information.)
12. Final Assembly of Compressor. This should usually be witnessed to verify
internal clearances are correct, parts do not have significant visible flaws, and
internal damage is not done during assembly. This will require a resident
inspector for one week or more.
13. Mechanical Run and Performance Tests. One of these is usually specified to
verify that the compressor is mechanically sound and to prove it will meet
performance requirements. A mechanical test is often required by the manufac-
turer's own internal specifications. These tests should always be witnessed by a
machinery engineer or mechanical specialist.
14. Dismantling After Test. As a minimum the bearings and seals are removed
and inspected when the mechanical run or performance test is completed.

Inspection is done by the machinery engineer or mechanical specialist who

witnessed the mechanical run or performance test.
15. String Test of All Job Equipment. A string test is a mechanical running (and
sometimes performance) test of all the ordered equipment assembled together
on the job baseplates to make sure everything operates satisfactorily. Consult a
machinery specialist if a string test is being considered. A string test should
always be witnessed.
16. Final Inspection. This is always done after compressor, driver, piping, and
instrumentation are installed on the baseplate, but before painting is finished.
Final inspection includes but is not limited to:
a. Review of equipment against specifications and data sheets line by line.
b. Dimensional check against reviewed outline drawings.
c. Verification that all required piping and appurtenances are present.
d. Visual inspection for defects or damage.
The following are inspection points for auxiliary equipment and drivers.
17. Drivers. (See the Driver Manual.)
18. Gears. Degree of testing and inspection will vary with speed and load carrying
requirements. The following are usually witnessed.
a. Gear contact and backlash check in contact-checking stand.
b. Gear contact and backlash check in casing.
c. Mechanical run test (unloaded or loaded) if run test is specified.
19. Overhead Seal Oil Tanks. Checked for a high degree of internal cleanliness.
(Also see the Pressure Vessel Manual for information on inspection of vessels.)
20. Lube and Seal Oil Consoles. The following are usually witness points:
a. Visual inspection of components prior to assembly for weld quality and
cleanliness.
b. Pressure tests of completed systems.
c. Operational and cleanliness tests per API 614.
d. Final inspection before finish painting.
640 Centrifugal Compression Tests

Note This is a lengthy section. Nevertheless, these are typically expensive
machines that are critical to large process plants, and they warrant considerable
attention.

641 Four-Hour Mechanical Test

The four-hour mechanical spin test is a standard test for most vendors. It is also
specified in API 617 and in Company Specification CMP-MS-1876. The purpose of
this test is to:
1. Check the vibratory behavior of the rotor-bearing system during acceleration
and at maximum continuous speed.
2. Check for proper assembly and running clearances.
3. Prove that the bearings and seals operate satisfactorily under running condi-
tions.
This test is considered to be strictly “mechanical.” No part of the aerodynamic
performance of the compressor is measured during the test. The test is usually
conducted with the compressor operating in a closed piping loop at a relatively low
pressure (100-200 psi discharge is common). An open piping loop could also be
used. Although tests with the rotor running in a vacuum in its casing are sometimes
proposed, the Company's Specification CMP-MS-1876 prohibits the practice of
testing without flow through the casing. Vacuum-type tests are disallowed because:
1. The lack of significant gas density inside the casing can have an influence on
rotor dynamics.
2. The casing heats up abnormally from the churning of residual gas in casing
(vacuum is not perfect).
3. The operation of oil-film type seals cannot be tested concurrently with the
vacuum-type spin test.
For “flexible” rotors (those operating above the first critical), the location of the
first critical speed is verified during acceleration and/or deceleration when possible.
If the rotor system is highly damped, and if the rotor is dynamically balanced to an
extremely low level of residual unbalance, it is not always possible to discern the
first critical speed from plots of X or Y filtered vibration amplitude versus speed.
Plots of phase angle versus speed also may not provide a reliable indication of the
frequency of the first critical for the same reasons. For these rare occasions, the
vendor's calculations are usually relied on for the location of the first critical. If
other unusual phenomena were observed during the test, it might be advisable to
deliberately unbalance the rotor or coupling to make the critical more distinguish-
able. Engineering judgment must be employed in such cases, and it is strongly
suggested that a mechanical specialist be consulted.
The inner seal leakage of the contract oil-film seals should be measured during the
four-hour spin test. As pointed out in API 617, it may not be possible to use the
contract outer seal bushing(s) during the test if the pressure in the test loop is too
low to cause an adequate oil flow rate through these bushing(s). In this case, special
test bushing(s) with greater clearance is used. The inner seal ring, however, should
have proper differential pressure such that the inner seal leakage may be evaluated.
CMP-MS-1876 includes some acceptance limits, the principal one being that one

seal cannot have a leakage rate greater than 70% of the combined leakage of both
seals.
642 Assembled Compressor Gas Leakage Test

This test comes after the four-hour spin test, and is conducted at maximum seal
design pressure (usually settling-out pressure) at zero speed with the seal system
operating. The purpose is to check for gas leaks at all joints and connections. Also,
the test is applied to compressors handling hazardous or flammable gases. If the
compressor has oil film seals, it is a good idea to have the seal oil leakage rate
measured in this static condition, because this condition will often exist at the
compressor installation during startups and shutdowns. The static leakage rate will
be somewhat higher than that when the rotor is turning since the inner seal ring
could be in an eccentric position (leakage varies approximately with the square of
eccentricity). Very high static leakage could indicate an O-ring problem or some
other fault that might not be apparent when the shaft is rotating.
If during the four-hour spin test, the seal oil leakage rate was not measured, or if the
complete contract seal assemblies (both inner and outer rings) were not installed, a
low-speed seal leakage test should be conducted at maximum seal design pressure.
The complete contract shaft seals should be used, and the rotating speed should be
at least 1000 RPM. This test will provide more meaningful seal leakage rates than
those that can be obtained using non-contract outer seal rings. In fact, the low-speed
leakage test should be the acceptance test. It is often not possible to spin the
machine faster than 1000 RPM for this test because of test stand power or discharge
temperature limitations.
Alternatively the seal leakage can be measured during the full-pressure, full-speed
test if this optional test is specified.
643 Performance Test

The aerodynamic performance of a stage, of a section, or of a complete casing can
be evaluated with an optional test using the procedures covered in the ASME Power
Test Code (PTC-10, 1965), Compressors and Exhausters.
Aerodynamic performance refers to the shape of the head-versus-capacity character-
istic curve. The ASME test is conducted to determine whether the compressor
meets the quoted power and head at one operating point on the curve for one speed.
This point is usually the normal operating point, but can be any other point as speci-
fied. The surge point is determined during the test, and at least four other points are
taken along the speed line including one at a capacity beyond that of the point in
question. Specification CMP-MS-1876 calls for additional points to be taken for
variable speed machines. These additional points result in a higher cost for the
performance test, but experience has shown that the added cost is justified.
Acceptance criteria are given in API 617 and CMP-MS-1876. Note that some
vendors use the term “head rise-to-surge (head RTS),” and that this term is not
numerically equal to “pressure RTS.” RTS is an important factor as it can have a

major influence on the operating stability of the machine, and on the design of the
anti-surge system. RTS tends to become a problem with gases that are heavier than
air and have relatively low acoustic velocities. Propane and propylene are examples
of gases that can have a very flat characteristic from the normal operating point to
the surge point. Accordingly, a small change in the system resistance would effect a
major change in capacity causing a potentially unstable situation. CMP-MS-1876
requires a guarantee on the RTS quoted by the vendor.
There are three classes of ASME loop tests as follows:
Class I Tests
The test gas used is the same as the actual gas specified. The pressures are essen-
tially the same as those specified. In general, this class of test can be applied only to
air compressors with an atmospheric suction for strict conformance to the ASME
code. The test piping would be an open loop with an atmospheric inlet and the
discharge vented to atmosphere downstream of a control valve. The test conditions
of Class I tests more closely duplicate actual operating conditions than do the test
conditions used in the other two classes of ASME tests. Modified open-loop Class I
tests that do not meet the Code are sometimes run to quickly approximate the
performance.
Class II Tests
The test gas is different than the specified gas, and in the reduction of test data it is
assumed that the test gas and the specified gas behave in accordance with perfect
gas laws. The test piping is a closed loop.
Class III Tests

This test is the same as Class II except that compressibility factors are applied
along with changes in “k” value from suction to discharge.
In Class II and III tests, the test speed and test pressures and temperatures are often
greatly different than the specified values. The ASME code includes tables showing
the allowable deviations for volume reduction, Q/N, machine Mach number, and
machine Reynolds number for Class II and III tests. Similarly, permissible depar-
ture from specified conditions for Class I tests are listed including pressure, temper-
atures, specific gravity of the gas, speed, and capacity. See Figure 600-1.
Class II tests are seldom used for compressors in the petroleum industry. Class III
tests are the most common. Test gases for Class III tests include carbon dioxide,
nitrogen, Refrigerant 12 or 22, and mixtures of helium and nitrogen. Generally, it is
preferred to run the test with a pure unmixed gas. With a mixture of helium and
nitrogen, it is sometimes difficult to maintain a constant gas composition for the
duration of the test. If makeup is required in the loop during the test, it is not easy
to add the correct proportions of the two gases. In such cases, it may be advisable to
require the compressor vendor buy an adequate quantity of certified pre-mixed gas
from a specialty gas manufacturer.
Some Class III tests are run with a sub-atmospheric suction to reduce power require-
ments during the test. This procedure invites air leakage into the loop which will

upset the gas composition. Therefore, flange tightness should be carefully checked
prior to test startup.
Figure 600-1 shows some typical test gases used for various specified gases in
Class III closed-loop tests. In general, the heavier test gases are used for heavy spec-
ified gases. Helium/nitrogen mixtures are used for hydrogen-rich gases such as
ammonia synthesis and refinery recycle gases.
Note that the equivalent speed, capacity-speed ratio, and volume ratio, at which a
Class III test is run, are generally compromises between the various departures
allowed by the PTC-10 code (see Figure 600-2). CMP-MS-1876 requires that the
test speed has a safe margin from the rotor's critical speed.
The subject of Reynold's Number corrections of the results usually comes up when
the performance test agenda is being developed by the vendor and purchaser. The
corrections suggested by ASME PTC-10 have been proven to be very misleading,
and are inclined to favor the vendor. Depending on conditions, the ASME correc-
tions could allow a specious improvement in efficiency of 6% or more. Most
purchasers have disallowed any correction, and some vendors voluntarily decline to
make corrections. In some special cases, 50% of the corrections would be allowed.
The effects of flow in different regimes of Reynolds Number is well known, and
some correction should logically be applied. The problem is in developing suitable
correlations of the complex flow path in the compressor.
In the early 1980's, a group of eight major compressor manufacturers in the United
States and Europe got together under the auspices of the International Compressor
and Allied Machinery Committee (ICAAMC) to develop a new correction method.
Test data were pooled, and good correlations between measurements and predic-
tions were established. The ICAAMC method includes the friction factor concept
that is used in the analysis of flow in piping. The method has been proposed to
ASME for possible adoption in the next revision of the PTC-10 Code. It has already
been used successfully on several compressors. The ICAAMC method should be
considered for cases where the ratio of Reynolds Numbers for test and specified
conditions are in the range of 0.01 to 100.
Modified closed-loop Class I tests have been run on high-pressure machines with
discharge pressures ranging from about 3000 to over 9000 psi. Such machines are
used for injection of natural gas into an oil field formation. For these tests, the test
gas is formulated by blending several hydrocarbon gases and other gases to closely
approximate the composition of the actual gas. The test is run at full pressure and
full load. Sometimes the main objective of such a test is to determine mechanical
behavior at high-pressure levels, and aerodynamic performance may be of
secondary importance. A Class III test is usually run in addition to the modified
Class I test. The full pressure test along with the Class III test will provide good
data for predicting gas properties.
Performance tests are ordinarily specified for all machines in critical service where
the process flow and pressure is crucial, or where the service is troublesome and
unpredictable such as gas injection. If some components of the machine are

Fig. 600-1 Typical Test Gases and Equivalence Values (Courtesy of the Elliot Company)
Fig. 600-2 Allowable Departures From Specified Design Parameters ASME PTC-10 (1965) Test (From ASME PTC-10
(1965). Courtesy of the ASME)

unavoidably unproven, the machine should have a performance test. The perfor-
mance test will often shake out mechanical problems.
The performance test is generally good insurance for machines in tough duty, since
it is far less expensive and time consuming to modify a machine at the factory than
at the jobsite.
When it is decided that a performance test is required, merely specifying an ASME
test is seldom sufficient to obtain the desired results. The objective of the tests
should be stated in order that the vendor and purchaser can work out an appropriate
test procedure. In this regard, consultation with a mechanical specialist is strongly
recommended.
644 Complete-Unit Test

The complete-unit test is also called a “String” test. It consists of coupling up all
the components and auxiliaries of a compressor train, and running them together in
a mechanical spin test. This test is strictly mechanical, and can be performed in
place of or in addition to separate mechanical tests of individual components. The
purpose of the test is to confirm the mechanical compatibility of the components
and auxiliaries. The auxiliaries can include the contract couplings, the lube and seal
oil system(s), and the basic instrument and control systems. If the compressor train
includes a gearbox, the test agenda may include torsional vibration measurements
to verify the vendor's analysis.
Sometimes it is impossible to test the actual driver with the rest of the components
owing to its size or lack of power or fuel in the shop. In this case a shop driver may
be used. Although this test is not as informative as a complete string test, it still has
merit when the compressor train is complex.
645 Full-load, Full-pressure, Full-speed Test

A full-load, full-pressure, full-speed (FLFPFS) test is often called for when the
compressor train is in gas injection service or other services where the discharge
pressure exceeds 2000 or 3000 psi. There is no hard-and-fast rule for the pressure
level at which such a test should be specified. Much depends on the Company's and
the vendor's experience. A compressor handling natural gas at a discharge pressure
of 4000 psi should undergo a FLFPFS test. As mentioned previously in regard to
performance tests, such a machine would also be a likely candidate for a modified
ASME Class I test to be run concurrently with the FLFPFS test.
A FLFPFS test for a compressor delivering a hydrogen-rich gas at 3000 psi prob-
ably would not be justifiable. The appropriateness of the FLFPFS test is related to
the density of the gas in the compressor casing. Extremely dense gases can cause
excitation of the rotor resulting in destructive levels of sub-synchronous vibration.
The high pressure level in the casing can cause the oil film seals to partially act as
bearings resulting in a shorter effective length of the rotor. Thus, the frequency of
the sub-synchronous vibration is usually higher than that of the first critical speed,
but lower than the frequency of running speed. Sub-synchronous vibration has

occurred on lower pressure machines when the rotor had an unusually long bearing
span.
This sub-synchronous phenomenon is known as aerodynamic whirl, and is too
complex to adequately cover in this manual. When high-pressure centrifugal
compressor applications arise, it is recommended that a mechanical specialist
become involved in the specifications for the machinery as well as for the testing.
646 Other Tests

The helium test, sound-level test, auxiliary-equipment test, and other optional tests
listed in API 617 are self-explanatory. Refer to CMP-MS-1876 for other require-
ments.
650 Reciprocating Compressor Inspections

1. Pre-Inspection Meeting. Held to review specifications and order requirements
at the point of manufacture to verify there will be compliance. This visit should
always be made at the compressor manufacturer's plant and normally at the
manufacturing plants for:
– Lube-Oil System
– Pulsation Dampers (pressure vessels)
– Gear (speed changer)
– Driver (prime mover)
The Pre-Inspection meetings will help resolve ambiguities that may delay final
shipment or result in equipment that is not what the user specified; Pre-Inspec-
tion meetings also verify that manufacturers understand our inspection and
testing requirements and are aware of the required witness points. These meet-
ings should be held for all except small utility compressors.
2. Non-Destructive Examination of Cylinders (liquid penetrant, magnetic
particle, ultrasonic, radiographic). Cylinders are normally accepted on the
basis of visual examination and successful hydrostatic tests. Supplementary
NDE should not be added unless it is clearly justified by the service conditions,
material characteristics, or established specification requirements. A materials
engineer, QA engineer, or both should be consulted if supplementary NDE is
being considered for other reasons. NDE in itself is frequently inexpensive; it
is the resulting repairs to upgrade the material which have been subjected
to NDE that can be very expensive. When one form of supplementary NDE
is specified, an acceptance standard must always be specified as well. When
some form of supplementary NDE is specified, it should always be witnessed
(radiographs interpreted when radiography is specified) and should be identi-
fied as a witness point on the compressor data sheet. (See Sub-section 620 for
definitions.)
3. Hydrostatic Tests. Cylinder hydrostatic tests are always performed and should
always be witnessed. The purposes of the hydrostatic test are to prove the struc-

tural integrity of the cylinder, to reveal leaks caused by material flaws that
extend through the cylinder wall, and to reveal leaks caused by machining
errors or damage to machined surfaces. The gas side of the cylinder and
cylinder heads are tested separately from the cooling water side to verify there
is no leakage from one side to the other.
4. Helium or Air Pressure Test. API 618 or the job specification may require
helium or air pressure tests in addition to the hydrostatic tests. Gas tests are
more likely to find small leaks than hydrostatic tests; gas tests are made with
the cylinder submerged in water (a helium probe is sometimes used for helium
tests instead of submergence). Since compressed gas has a great deal of stored
energy, high-pressure gas tests should always be preceded by a successful
hydrostatic test for safety. When a helium or air test is required, it should
always be witnessed.
5. Compressor Valve Leak Test. This test measures the amount of time for a
fixed volume of gas behind a valve to drop from one defined pressure to
another. Special fixtures are required for this test which is sometimes specified
for all of the compressor valves. If the test is required, it should be witnessed.
6. Alignment of Cylinders to Frame. Concentric and axial alignment of frame,
crosshead guide, distance piece, and cylinder are carefully measured.
Witnessing the alignment check should be considered for large machines;
consult a machinery engineer to determine if it is warranted. Note that if these
alignments are not done correctly in the shop, then field alignment will be
much more difficult. Although the vendor would still be liable, getting them to
take care of it could be very troublesome. Manufacturers will usually resist
fitting the distance pieces and cylinders on large units.
7. Piston Rod Runout and Piston/Head Clearance. These measurements on the
assembled compressor provide assurance that cylinder alignment is satisfac-
tory, machining/assembly of crosshead/piston rod/piston are correct, and that
the manufacturer's specified head clearance is in fact present. These measure-
ments should always be witnessed. Dimensional check of the compressor
against the outline drawing, and visual inspection for defects and damage are
done at this time. These steps would also be difficult in the field, as would
getting the vendor to correct any problems. The vendor might claim some
external factors.
8. Mechanical Run Test. This test is usually run without pressure-loading the
cylinders to verify that the compressor is mechanically sound. Cylinder heads
are removed after the test for inspection of the cylinder liners. This test (and
post-test inspection) should always be witnessed. For very large compressors,
manufacturers do not have the facilities to make mechanical run tests.
9. Final Inspection. This may not be required if the compressor is shipped disas-
sembled as many are. For compressors that ship assembled, final inspection is
similar to item 16, Sub-section 630.
The following are inspection points for auxiliary equipment and drivers.

10. Drivers. (See the Driver Manual)

11. Gears. (See item 18, Sub-section 630)
12. Pulsation Dampers. (See the Pressure Vessel Manual). Checks are made for:
a. A high degree of internal cleanliness and adequate preservation of cleanli-
ness.
b. Flange faces being in the same plane for nozzles in a single bottle that
connect to two separate cylinders.
13. Lube-Oil System. (See item 20, Sub-section 630)
660 Reciprocating Compressor Tests
661 Mechanical Running Tests

API 618 reciprocating compressors are almost never run at full speed in the factory.
Packaged and skid-mounted units are sometimes run unloaded at the compressor
factory or at the packager's shop. Alarms, shutdowns, gages, lube systems, and over-
speeds may be functionally tested at this time to avoid problems in the field. This
test is described in API 618. Shops often lack power or fuel to conduct such tests.
The mechanical running test is not as meaningful for the reciprocating machine as
it is for the centrifugal compressor. Although the running test would check mechan-
ical compatibility and the workability and heat loads of the lube system, generally
the test is not cost-effective.
Class B machines going offshore tend to be considered for mechanical testing more
often, but again the test facilities may limit the sizes of machines and types of
drivers that can be tested. Mechanical testing of Class B machines is still not a
common occurrence.
Because of their smaller size and rating, Class C and D compressors can be given a
mechanical running test more easily. For the same reason, such a test may be more
difficult to justify unless the service is semi-critical or offshore.
The vendors should be consulted regarding their testing capability before speci-
fying a mechanical running test for reciprocating machines.
662 Bar-over Test

The bar-over test is usually a manufacturer's standard test. Its purpose is to check
the end clearances of the pistons, and to measure the cold vertical and horizontal
piston rod runout. A complete description of rod runout is included in the Appendix
of API 618.
Chevron Corporation 600-15 [Revision Date]

700 Compressor Installation and
Precommissioning
Abstract
This section contains general guidelines and checklists for installation and precom-
missioning of new compressors and recommissioning of existing ones.
Contents Page

720 Reciprocating Compressor Installation Checklist 700-4
730 Reciprocating Compressor Precommissioning Checklist 700-14
740 Centrifugal Compressor Installation Checklist 700-22
750 Centrifugal Compressor Precommissioning Checklist 700-31

700 Compressor Installation and Precommissioning Compressor Manual
710 Introduction
These guidelines focus on new installations, although many aspects also apply to
existing installations where equipment has been repaired, rerated, retrofitted, etc.
Proper compressor installation and precommissioning helps ensure trouble-free
startup and long-term reliability. Thorough inspection and critical review during
each phase of the installation process eliminates “built-in” deficiencies or problems
which later result in equipment failures or poor performance. The checklists in this
section are intended to aid in this inspection/review process.
711 Installation/Precommissioning Checklists

In general, the Installation Checklists cover items to be done well in advance of,
and in preparation for the initial equipment run-in and startup. They are applicable
to most common on-shore and off-shore installations.
The Precommissioning Checklists should be used immediately preceding startup.
These checklists cover a final check of equipment readiness and general steps to be
followed during equipment run-in and startup. As with the Installation Checklists,
the Precommissioning Checklists cover general requirements applicable to most
installations.
These checklists are general, and do not include specific acceptance criteria (align-
ment tolerances, pipe forces, vibration limits, etc.). These criteria should be devel-
oped for the specific application based on the manufacturer's instruction manual,
applicable industry standards, project specifications, and local practice. Any
discrepancies should be resolved prior to installation or start-up. Consult the manu-
facturer's instruction manual for detailed run-in/startup procedures specific to the
equipment involved, and modify the final checklist accordingly.
712 Summary
Successful startups depend on:
• Documented execution of maintenance/installation work during the turn-
around/construction phase.
• Startup procedures developed for each unique startup (with follow-up and
documentation support).
• Clearly defined startup tasks and responsibilities.
• Communicated tasks and responsibilities in a Pre-startup Meeting to review
timing, communications during startup, contingencies, startup sequencing, and
other pertinent items.
713 References
The following provide additional information:

Compressor Manual 700 Compressor Installation and Precommissioning
• Specification MAC-MS-2983, Field Cleaning of Compressor Lube-Oil and

Seal Oil Systems.
• Specification MAC-EG-3907, Grouting of Machinery.
• Specification PIM-MS-2411, Descaling and Cleaning Steel Piping.
• Integrated Machinery Inspection Candidate Manual (data acquisition and
condition monitoring procedures).
• Machinery Reliability Procedures—El Segundo Refinery (machinery stan-
dards, repair and operating procedures, and specific checklists).
• Total Alignment, V.R. Dodd (machinery alignment standards, procedures, and
general background)
Note All of the startup data described in the following pages should be reduced
during and immediately after the startup, then filed in the appropriate machine
binder.
Instructions are covered in detail in the CUSA Mfg., IMI Candidate Manual. This
standard startup information is used routinely and successfully in all CUSA refin-
eries.

720 Reciprocating Compressor Installation Checklist

The manufacturer's installation manual, equipment specifications, as-built
data sheets, and the specific process requirements should be reviewed in detail,
and modifications made to this checklist, as appropriate, to cover individual
requirements.
Reciprocating Compressor Installation Checklist (1 of 10)

Initial Date
Step 1. Documentation
The following documents covering all major compressor train components
should be available. Review as applicable:
Manufacturer's instruction manual for the equipment involved. _____ _____
Equipment specifications, as applicable:
• API Equipment Standards _____ _____
• Project Specifications _____ _____
Purchase Documents:
• Purchase Order _____ _____
• Quotation Request _____ _____
• List Sheets _____ _____
• Other Documents Referenced in Purchase Order _____ _____
As-built Equipment Data Sheets _____ _____
Performance Data _____ _____
Lubrication Chart _____ _____
Installation Drawings _____ _____
Shop Test/Inspection Records and Reports _____ _____
Safety Instruction Sheets _____ _____
Existing Installations:
Maintenance History _____ _____
Performance/Vibration History _____ _____
Inspection/Trouble Reports since last major turnaround _____ _____
Step 2. Safety Precautions
Lock out and properly tag the main driver. _____ _____


Initial Date
Insure all piping and hot surfaces (above 140°F) are suitably guarded or insu-
lated for personnel protection. _____ _____
Verify all relief valves are installed, properly set, and tested. Notify the proper
equipment inspector that the valve exists so that his database can be updated. _____ _____
Confirm no block valves are located between the source of pressure and safety
valves, unless locked open. _____ _____
Insure outlets of crankcase and distance piece explosion relief doors point
downward away from personnel. _____ _____
Insure suitable guards meeting OSHA requirements are in place around all
exposed rotating parts such as couplings, belts, etc. _____ _____
Eliminate tripping/slipping hazards or mark clearly as hazards. Remove oil
from floors or decking. _____ _____
Insure suction and discharge valves are correct and properly placed in
compressor cylinders. _____ _____
Relieve pressure within unit (cylinders, piping, bottles, etc.) before any tie-in
work is performed. Install blinds per local procedures. _____ _____
Isolate compressors handling toxic or flammable gases from process piping
and purge or evacuate, as applicable. _____ _____
Open piston vent holes and confirm piston does not contain pressure (when
removing a cylinder head). _____ _____
Bar-over unit more than one complete revolution before any startup/re-start to
insure there are no mechanical interferences, nor any liquid in cylinders. _____ _____
Step 3. Equipment Condition (Before Installation)
As Received:
Check all bill of materials for completeness of material received. Insure all
“tagged” materials are correctly labeled. _____ _____
Insure all required spare parts and special tools received, and location docu-
mented. Take immediate action on any shortages or damage. _____ _____
Check internal/external cleanliness. _____ _____
Inspect cylinder bore, pistons, rods, bearing journals, etc. for corrosion,
pitting, or damage. _____ _____
Confirm integrity of preservative per manufacturer's recommendations and
local practice. _____ _____


Initial Date
Insure baseplate/skid is straight and flat. _____ _____
Insure baseplate/skid mounted compressor/driver not bolt-bound (free to move
for alignment, as necessary). _____ _____
Confirm compressor/driver rotates freely. _____ _____
Inspect condition of all bearings. _____ _____
Check alignment shim (number, material, condition) acceptability. _____ _____
Insure coupling condition is acceptable and all components have been received. _____ _____
Temporary Storage:
Insure storage protection requirements met (refer to the General Machinery
Manual and manufacturer's installation manual). _____ _____
Blanket equipment with inert gas or dry air/inert gas purge as appropriate. _____ _____
Confirm rust preventive/lubricant compatibility. _____ _____
Schedule and perform inspection of equipment condition at regular intervals
during storage. (Check condition of equipment and storage protection if stored
for more than one month. Follow-up required.) _____ _____
Step 4. Foundations and Grouting
Concrete Foundations:
Clean or coat metal surface of soleplates, rails, or compressor parts (crankcase
or crosshead frame). _____ _____
Check for properly rounded corners of soleplates or rails. _____ _____
Confirm the mounting feet or base are free of burrs. _____ _____
Disconnect coupling before leveling. _____ _____
Level soleplates, rails, and compressor parts in accordance with manufacturer's
recommended procedure and local standards. _____ _____
Cure concrete foundation for at least 14 days before grouting preparation. _____ _____
Properly roughen and clean (free of oil, grease and other foreign substances)
concrete surface. If cementitious grout is used, saturate concrete surfaces with
water for 24 hours prior to placement of grout. Remove any free standing
water before grouting (Refer to Specification MAC-MS-3907, Grouting of
Machinery, for recommended procedures.) _____ _____
Insure proper grout material/thickness. _____ _____


Initial Date
Confirm anchor bolt cavities in foundation are not filled with grout. _____ _____
Cure grout for at least three days. Piping should not be connected to equip-
ment until grout has thoroughly cured. _____ _____
Check there are no hollow areas or major cracks in grouting. _____ _____
Back off leveling bolts. _____ _____
Tighten anchor bolts using a torque wrench to values in accordance with manu-
facturer's recommendation. _____ _____
Other Foundations (Structures):
Locate mounting plates at load bearing support beams. _____ _____
Insure shims are of corrosion-resistant material. _____ _____
Properly level baseplate/skid. _____ _____
Tighten bolting using a torque wrench to recommended values. _____ _____
Step 5. Cleaning of Piping, Pulsation Dampers and Separators—New Construction
Check cleanliness of all cylinder suction vessels and piping to protect against
damage to compressor valves and cylinder walls during/after startup. _____ _____
Thoroughly clean all lube systems as recommended below. _____ _____
Isolate the system, and if possible, inert gas blanket it after cleaning to insure
that no further foreign material can enter the system. _____ _____
Piping
Chemically clean steel process gas and lube-oil system piping internally, in
accordance with appropriate procedures. PIM-MS-2411 is available in the
Piping Manual as a cleaning specification. _____ _____
Clean alloy piping in accordance with applicable project or local procedures. _____ _____
Note When chemically cleaning the frame lube-oil system, clean all of the
piping from the discharge of the oil pump, through the oil cooler and oil filters
and up to the inlet of the compressor (generally, only the oil cooler shell and
filter bodies should be pickled; tube bundles and filter cartridges removed).
Mechanically clean the cooler shell and filter bodies if they are large enough. _____ _____
Thoroughly drain all gas suction lines. _____ _____
Protect piping against oxidation by jetting oil using high- pressure air or inert
gas blanket, as applicable. _____ _____


Initial Date
Check inlet line to air compressor for corrosion protective coating of internal
surface (except stainless steel). _____ _____
Completely remove all grit from sandblasted lines. _____ _____
Cover the ends of all intake piping and fittings, and vessel nozzles to insure
that no foreign material can enter during construction/turnaround. _____ _____
Clean interstage piping mechanically. Blow clean. (Do not blow back into the
compressor cylinder unless piston rods and valves are removed and packing
area is blanked off.) _____ _____
Flush frame lube-oil and packing cooling oil piping. _____ _____
Pulsation Dampers/Separators
Remove inspection covers on pulsation dampers/separators and inspect vessels
for cleanliness and integrity of all internals. _____ _____
Insure wedge-type supports used on discharge pulsation dampers are loose
when cold. _____ _____
Step 6. Piping Installation/Support Systems/Alignment
Check all process and auxiliary piping valves, including safety valves, for
proper location, position, flow direction, and tightness of supports and anchors. _____ _____
Inspect suction strainers, if used, for proper installation, correct orientation,
and differential pressure gage, if applicable. If strainers have fine mesh
overlay, orient so that flow contacts mesh overlay first. _____ _____
Insure insulation and heat tracing is installed in accordance with installation
drawings. _____ _____
Confirm there are no pockets or low spots in the gas piping which cannot be
drained. _____ _____
Insure correct separator mesh material, with adequate corrosion resistance. _____ _____
Drain all separators/K.O. pots to a safe location. (Hazardous service.) _____ _____
Check all piping against final installation drawings and P&ID's for correct
material and installation. Confirm necessary pressure gages, block valves, and
control valves are provided. _____ _____
Vent all high points in liquid piping. _____ _____
Insure oil piping on frequently used vents/drains properly routed to prevent
spraying oil over equipment. _____ _____
Confirm pipe plugs are not installed in packing case drain valves. _____ _____


Initial Date
Inspect auxiliary equipment for properly installed block valves. _____ _____
Use proper thread sealant for screwed piping. (Sealant should not be used
when connection is seal welded.) Do not use teflon tape for lube-oil pipe
threads. _____ _____
Insure nitrogen or dry air purge to reservoirs, sump, bearing housings, etc., is
connected and functional. _____ _____
Inspect all drain lines for proper slope (1/4-inch/foot minimum). _____ _____
Insure suction and discharge piping is properly supported and clamped. _____ _____
Confirm that no significant strains have been introduced on the compressor
cylinder(s) during erection and bolt up of process piping. _____ _____
Insure provision is made for thermal expansion of discharge line. _____ _____
Insure cylinder supports installed and adjusted in conformance with design
drawings. Under no circumstances should a cylinder be supported by its piping. _____ _____
Inspect all bolted connections for tightness. Tape flanges for sniffer inspection. _____ _____
Check alignment of all coupled equipment. _____ _____
Check alignment of frame by measuring crankshaft web deflection in accor-
dance with manufacturer's recommendations. _____ _____
Check cylinder-to-frame alignment by measuring piston rod runout in accor-
dance with manufacturer's recommendations. _____ _____
Step 7. Compressor Valves/Cylinders
Inspect the cylinder bore and gas passageways for dirt and foreign material.
Clean each cylinder as necessary. _____ _____
Check piston-to-head clearance on cylinder head-end and crank-end. _____ _____
Insure suction ports of each cylinder are free of all foreign material. _____ _____
Confirm all valves are correct for the service intended. _____ _____
Inspect valves for correct installation in the cylinders. _____ _____
Note Valve strips or plates in the suction valves open toward the cylinder
bore. Strips or plates in the discharge valves open away from the bore. _____ _____
Check valve gaskets for correct type and material. _____ _____
Use torque wrench to insure valve cap holddown bolts are torqued to manufac-
turer's recommended values to avoid valve seat distortion. _____ _____


Initial Date
Remove one or more suction valves (and their covers) from each end of each
cylinder to reduce load during initial run-in. _____ _____
Step 8. Cylinder Cooling System
Insure all thermosyphon, static, and closed-loop forced circulation cylinder
cooling systems contain treated water and/or antifreeze type fluids where
necessary. _____ _____
Avoid use of raw water due to its fouling tendency. _____ _____
Properly inhibit any coolant to minimize rusting. _____ _____
Static Cooling
Completely fill cylinder jackets with appropriate coolant. _____ _____
Check that the stand pipe or expansion chamber and vent extends above the
top of the cylinder to accommodate expansion of the coolant. _____ _____
Thermosyphon Cooling
Remove high-point vent plugs and fill cylinder jackets with coolant. _____ _____
Fill the expansion tank to the proper level, leaving room for the level to rise as
the system temperature increases. _____ _____
Replace all vent plugs. _____ _____
Forced Coolant System
Disconnect water lines at cylinder and cooler outlets, and thoroughly flush the
system with clean water. _____ _____
Open all cylinder and piping vents to remove air, completely fill the system,
and replace plugs. _____ _____
Cylinder Cooling System Design/Other Compressor Cooling Systems
Occasionally, there is a portion of the hot coolant outlet system where it is
difficult to obtain good circulation due to air entrainment. To remove the air
and thus restore circulation, an “air expelling trap” can be installed on the high-
point of the line. _____ _____
Shell-and-Tube Type Oil Cooler:
Run coolant through to confirm all connections are tight. _____ _____
Vent the coolant side of exchanger and all auxiliary piping to remove all air. _____ _____
Water- or Oil-Cooled Packing Assemblies:


Initial Date
Check for external leaks, and vent air from system piping. _____ _____
Step 9. Frame Lubrication
Thoroughly clean frame lubricating system before startup. After cleaning all
newly installed piping and auxiliary equipment as outlined previously in step
5, the following additional cleanup steps are recommended: _____ _____
Drain rust preventive from the frame lubrication system, as applicable. _____ _____
Check frame oil filter elements for proper micron rating. Check for dirt and
lint. Clean as necessary. _____ _____
Remove frame and frame extension inspection covers, inspect for foreign mate-
rial, and clean as necessary. _____ _____
Flush the frame lubrication system in accordance with manufacturer's recom-
mendations. (If auxiliary oil pump is available, bypass crank driven main
frame oil pump and circulate flush oil through oil cooler, oil filter and all
piping.) Check external piping for leaks. _____ _____
Circulate flush oil with bearings bypassed until no foreign material is detected
ahead of the oil filters. _____ _____
Circulate flush oil through bearings using the following procedure to achieve
similar cleanliness:
Connect the oil lines to the first main bearing and flush for approximately one
hour. Then continue, connecting to other main bearings one at a time until all
lines are connected. Bar the crankshaft through 90 degrees every 10-15
minutes during the flush cycle on each bearing. _____ _____
If special flush oil is used, completely drain frame, external piping and equip-
ment after flushing is completed. For any oil, check for foreign material in oil
filter housings. Remove any accumulated material and clean or replace oil
filter elements, as appropriate. _____ _____
Fill the frame oil sump to the proper level with the proper grade of oil. _____ _____
Circulate oil and completely fill the frame lubrication system using the motor
driven or hand pump, as appropriate. Add oil to the crankcase as required. _____ _____
Check internal piping for tightness. _____ _____
Inspect the crankshaft oil seals, clean, and apply a few drops of oil, if possible.
(May be impractical on units with flywheels or large couplings.) _____ _____
Confirm that correct size flow control orifices are installed in oil supply to
bearings (pressure systems). _____ _____


Initial Date
Step 10. Cylinder Lubrication—Lubricated Units
Drain lubricator of all rust preventive oil unless compatible. _____ _____
Fill the lubricator with the proper grade of cylinder oil. _____ _____
Install special lubricant if a new cylinder or cylinders and packing have been
installed and the final lube-oil to be used is not suitable for break-in. (Gener-
ally, lubricants required for normal operations will be suitable for break-in.)
During the break-in periods, oil feed to both cylinders and packing should be
adjusted to a heavy feed rate, as recommended by the manufacturer. _____ _____
With the oil lines disconnected at the check valve, operate the lubricator by
hand, or use an oil filler pump, to eliminate all air in the system. Pump the
system until oil is forced out of the line, indicating tubing is full. _____ _____
Reconnect piping and operate the lubricator or hand pump for one minute
more to inject oil into the cylinder and packing cases. Confirm that the lubrica-
tors are adjusted to deliver feed rates, as recommended by the manufacturer. _____ _____
When it is not possible to adjust the lubrication rate to an individual packer,
additional oil can be added to the rod by mounting a temporary lube reservoir
on the distance piece. This reservoir can then provide drops of oil on the rod. _____ _____
Apply lubricating oil to the cylinder bore. _____ _____
Inspect the oil seal on lubricator drive shaft (where it emerges from the crank-
case). Clean, and apply a few drops of oil. _____ _____
If used, insure synthetic oils are compatible with materials of construction.
Some synthetic oils attack aluminum bearing components.
Step 11. Non-lubricated Cylinders
Carefully examine all portions of cylinders, pistons, and rods for foreign mate-
rial. _____ _____
Note It is extremely important that all components be thoroughly cleaned. _____ _____
Check suction filters, if any, for cleanliness. _____ _____
Step 12. Instrumentation and Controls
Check all safety valves for proper location and setting. _____ _____
Confirm that all indicating gages are properly installed, and are oriented to be
clearly seen by an operator when making control adjustments. _____ _____
Test all alarm, shutdown, and safety functions. _____ _____


Initial Date
Insure alarms and shutdowns are operating and arranged to permit testing
while the compressor is on line. _____ _____
Confirm operation and sequencing of pneumatic valve unloaders, if the unit is
provided with them. This is extremely important. A crossed connection could
result in compressor damage. _____ _____
Confirm that all manual unloaders are operating freely. _____ _____
Step 13. Drivers
Refer to the Drivers Manual for Installation Checklists for compressor drivers.

730 Reciprocating Compressor Precommissioning Checklist

Use the following checklist during run-in of the compressor for the first time, and
also following major equipment overhauls. Review the manufacturer's installa-
tion manual and the specific process system in detail and modify this checklist,
as appropriate, to cover individual requirements.
Reciprocating Compressor Precommissioning Checklist (1 of 8)

Initial Date
Review the final modified checklist with the operators and all other personnel
involved in the precommissioning to insure that everyone understands the
procedures and the specific objectives involved. _____ _____
Confirm that operators are familiar with new equipment and required oper-
ating procedures/training has been implemented in accordance with local prac-
tice. A Pre-startup Meeting of all concerned is highly recommended. _____ _____
Step 1. General
New equipment installations should first be checked in accordance with the
Reciprocating Compressor Installation Checklist. _____ _____
Reconfirm checks previously completed if there has been extended time
between installation and startup and/or additional work has been performed on
the unit. _____ _____
Review existing installation overhaul/repair records for completeness of
repairs and repair documentation. _____ _____
Lock out and properly tag the main driver, and complete all checks. _____ _____
Do not operate any equipment in excess of its rated capacity, speed, pressure,
compression ratio, or temperature. _____ _____
Confirm all safety relief valves are installed, properly set, and tested. _____ _____
Confirm no block valves are located between the source of pressure and the
safety relief valves, unless locked open. _____ _____
Insure outlets of crankcase and distance piece explosion relief doors, if any,
are pointed downward away from personnel. _____ _____
exposed rotating parts such as couplings, belts, etc. _____ _____
Eliminate tripping/slipping hazards or mark clearly as hazards, and remove all
oil from floors or decking. _____ _____


Initial Date
Check that all vent lines (including packing and distance piece vents) are open
and purge gas, if required, is properly connected to the distance piece and/or
wiper packing. _____ _____
When overheating is suspected, the crankcase should not be opened until
components have cooled sufficiently. _____ _____
Avoid creation of flammable mixtures in compressor cylinders, in suction and
discharge piping, and in interstage equipment. _____ _____
Step 3. Pre-Run-in Data Review
Define data acquisition requirements and develop list (or data sheets) covering
specific data to be recorded during precommissioning. _____ _____
Review the final run-in procedure to be certain that non-reversing rod load
conditions cannot occur in any cylinder. _____ _____
Check all interstage pressure switches or differential switches, if provided, to
insure that the shift in interstage pressure when bringing the unit on line will
not cause a shutdown. _____ _____
For motor drivers, determine how many restarts are permitted during one
hour's time. Do not exceed these limits. _____ _____
Review manufacturer's instructions for loading and unloading compressor
cylinders. _____ _____
Step 4. Pre-Run-in Installation Check
Check that all appropriate blinds are in place and that suction and discharge
line block valves are closed. _____ _____
Insure all alarms and shutdown have been set and tested. _____ _____
Insure monitoring systems, including all alarms and shutdowns, are in service
and not bypassed during initial operation and startup. _____ _____
Insure gas lines are drained and prewarmed, if applicable, by turning on heat
tracing before operation of the compressor. _____ _____
Confirm that suction and discharge valves are correct and properly placed in
compressor cylinders. _____ _____
Confirm that at least one suction valve and valve cover has been removed from
each end of each cylinder. _____ _____


Initial Date
Bar the unit over manually at least one complete revolution before any
startup/restart for a few revolutions to confirm that all components are working
freely and that lube-oil is distributed to all running surfaces and there is no
liquid in the cylinders. _____ _____
Check the direction driver of rotation by bumping it. Check rotation of all
auxiliary system motor drivers. Resolve conflicts. _____ _____
Check the oil level of the crankcase. If a separate motor-driven frame oil pump
is provided, start the pump to pressurize the lubrication system. _____ _____
When the unit is not equipped with a separate motor-driven pump, manually
prelubricate the running gear for approximately five minutes. _____ _____
For lubricated compressor cylinders:
Check that the lubricator reservoir is filled. _____ _____
Confirm the proper break-in oil is being used. _____ _____
Squirt oil on rods prior to initial run-in. _____ _____
Flood the packing with lubricant. _____ _____
Check that both cylinder and packing lubricators are set at correct rate. _____ _____
Manually turn shaft-driven lubricators to confirm that oil is being fed. _____ _____
Prime divider block type lubricator systems with a priming pump. _____ _____
Check lubricator oil level. _____ _____
Start lubricator motor (if separately driven). _____ _____
Turn on coolant to compressor cylinders, packing, etc.; and start closed
coolant system pumps and air cooler as applicable. Vent trapped air from
cylinder jackets or any other parts of the cooling system. _____ _____
Note Avoid turning on cooling water to the frame lube-oil cooler until the oil
is almost up to normal operating temperature. (In colder climates it may be
necessary to initially heat the lube-oil.)
This completes the specific pre-check prior to equipment run-in. Make one
final walk completely around the unit making sure that all equipment is ready
for operation. Confirm that all personnel are in a safe position and are aware
that the unit is about to be started. _____ _____
Step 5. No-Load Run-in
Start the driver in accordance with manufacturer's instructions. If possible, the
unit should be run-in at reduced speed. _____ _____


Initial Date
When the unit comes up to speed, note the frame oil pressure, check the
cylinder lubricator for proper feed rate and check all coolant flows and temper-
atures. Adjust as necessary. _____ _____
For motor-driven units, record the no-load amperage. _____ _____
Run the unit for approximately one minute and stop it. Record the time it takes
the compressor to roll to a stop. _____ _____
During the initial startup, operators should be alert for abnormal noises, pres-
sures, temperatures, etc. Watch for smoke or other signs of overheating. Imme-
diately shut the unit down if overheating is indicated. If an auxiliary frame
lube-oil pump is provided, and it has started on unit shutdown, keep it running
to facilitate cooldown. _____ _____
If overheating is suspected or smoke is coming out of the frame oil sump
breather, do not open any crankcase inspection cover for at least 15 minutes.
Sufficient time must elapse for the hot parts to cool. Opening a cover allows an
inrush of fresh air and may trigger a crankcase explosion. _____ _____
If overheating is not indicated, open crosshead and frame covers as soon as the
compressor stops turning. Check all bearings (main, thrust, and crankpin),
crosshead pin bushing, and crosshead shoe temperatures. Eliminate any condi-
tion causing overheating in these parts. Replace inspection covers. _____ _____
Restart the unit and run it for approximately five minutes. Check driver and
driven unit for abnormal vibration. Stop the unit and repeat internal inspection. _____ _____
Examine compressor cylinders. (Remove valve covers and inspect cylinder
bore condition.) _____ _____
On lubricated cylinders, check for satisfactory lubrication of cylinder bores.
Check temperature and lubrication of piston rods and packing. _____ _____
Check temperatures in non-lubricated cylinders for indication of overheating. _____ _____
Run the compressor at no load for at least a 15-minute period as long as no
overheating or other signs of distress are noted. Repeat bearing and lubrication
checks. _____ _____
Reinstall suction valves and covers previously removed from each end of each
cylinder. Clean parts thoroughly before installing. _____ _____
Purge all air from compressor cylinders and piping inside process piping block
valves. _____ _____
When process gases are toxic or noxious, pressurize the cylinders with
nitrogen to approximately 50 psi and check for leaks in flanged piping joints
and valve covers. Use portable gas sniffers. Correct leaks. _____ _____


Initial Date
Alternately for non-toxic gases, check for leaks by gradually pressurizing the
system by opening unit block valves to admit process gas. _____ _____
Apply full suction pressure (using nitrogen or process gas) to each cylinder
and recheck for leaks. _____ _____
Blow piping and cylinders down through vent valves. _____ _____
Step 6. Run-in Under Load
There are a variety of ways to run-in new packings and rings. The basic idea is
to allow working parts to adjust and to seat satisfactorily without overheating
or overstressing. Gradual load application is recommended to avoid burned
spots on rings and packing. This damage will appreciably reduce overall life. _____ _____
Be sure manufacturer's instructions for loading and unloading cylinders are
available and have been reviewed. _____ _____
☞ Caution Confirm that the specific run-in procedure
developed insures that a non-reversing rod load condi-
tion will not occur in any cylinder.
Open all fixed and variable volume clearance pockets on each cylinder (to the
maximum allowable volume). _____ _____
With all cylinder valves in place, unload the compressor as much as possible
by one or more of the following methods:
1. Open discharge-to-suction bypasses. (Be sure bypass cooler, if any, is
operational.) _____ _____
2. Open discharge vents (not interstage) to blowdown. _____ _____
3. Unload suction valves on one end of each cylinder. _____ _____
With the compressor unloaded, start the unit and allow it to warm up in accor-
dance with manufacturer's recommendations (at least 15 minutes). _____ _____
Closely observe gas temperature indication for each cylinder. Do not exceed
the manufacturer's recommended maximum allowable temperature in any
cylinder. _____ _____
Turn on purge gas, if any, to rod packers, distance pieces and wiper packing. _____ _____
During the following loading procedure it is particularly important that piston
rod packing be properly run-in. The rate of pressure buildup in a cylinder
depends on piston rod packing leakage. Follow specific manufacturer's recom-
mendations on the maximum rate of pressure buildup for the particular
packing material supplied. _____ _____


Initial Date
Depending on the particular installation, it may be necessary to make special
provisions for gradual partial loading until the packing seals properly. This is
especially true for high-pressure applications. _____ _____
For units equipped with discharge-to-suction bypass capability, gradually
load the unit by slowly opening the discharge block valve, closing the bypass,
and then slowly opening the suction block valve. _____ _____
Note If the bypass stream is not cooled, some intake gas must be admitted to
maintain safe gas temperatures. _____ _____
For units equipped with discharge vents only, slowly open the discharge
block valve and while opening it, close the vents. _____ _____
Open the suction block valve slowly. _____ _____
If design permits, utilize suction valve unloaders on the crank end of the
cylinder to minimize pressure on the rod packing. (First, verify that the config-
uration of unloading will not cause non-reversing rod loading.) _____ _____
☞ Caution Suction block valves must be opened fast
enough to avoid rod overloads caused by an excessive
compression ratio.
For multi-stage compressors, the following loading procedure is recommended:
Note When stages are loaded in the following manner, no gas will be
pumped. Cylinder pressures will be reduced during each stroke. This will not,
however, be detrimental for the short period of time it takes to put the machine
on line.
1. Load the last stage (highest pressure cylinder) by opening the discharge
block valve, then the suction block valve on that stage. _____ _____
2. Load the next highest pressure cylinder as above. _____ _____
3. Continue to load each succeeding lower pressure stage in a similar manner. _____ _____
Use the following procedure to break in new rings and packing on each new
stage:
1. Apply full load (open discharge and suction block valves) for approxi-
mately one minute. Remove the load entirely for approximately 15
minutes to permit rings and packing to cool. _____ _____
2. Apply full load for two minutes and remove it for 15 minutes. _____ _____
3. Repeat initial step for five minutes. _____ _____
4. Apply full load and leave it on unless severe heating occurs in the packing. _____ _____


Initial Date
During the run-in period, make sure lubricator feed rates are properly set. In
addition, check the following items:
1. Packing for overheating and leakage. If severe heating occurs or the
packing blows by excessively, shut the unit down, determine and correct
the cause. If the packing blowby rate is low but persists for more than a
few hours, shut the unit down and correct the problem. _____ _____
2. Suction valve temperatures by checking valve covers for excessive heating. _____ _____
3. Valve leakage using an ultrasonic transducer or an electronic engine
analyzer. _____ _____
Step 7. Bringing the Unit On-stream
Following initial break-in of rings and packing the unit may be put in service.
Re-check adequacy of cooling and lubrication system operations. _____ _____
After the unit has been in operation long enough for temperatures to stabilize,
supports under compressor cylinder and pulsation dampers should be adjusted
in accordance with manufacturer's recommendation. _____ _____
Shut down the compressor after a few hours of service (or after unit has
reached thermal stability). _____ _____
Remove inspection covers and check bearings, bushings, and crosshead shoes
for overheating. _____ _____
Check piston rods and packing for overheating and adequate lubrication. _____ _____
Remove valve covers and check for satisfactory lubrication of cylinder bores
(lubricated cylinders). Check bores of non-lubricated cylinders for proper
condition. _____ _____
Retighten to manufacturer's recommended torque (or stretch) all bolting
including external frame bolting, packing gland nuts, piston rod crosshead
nuts, main bearing nuts, foundation bolts, driver holddown bolts, pulsation
dampers, and cylinder flange mounting bolts, etc. _____ _____
After the unit has run for approximately two days, shut down the unit and
perform the following steps:
1. Check alignment of the compressor, driver, and gearbox (if any). _____ _____
2. Retorque holddown bolts for compressor, driver and gearbox (if any). _____ _____
3. Remove several valves and check each cylinder bore for proper condition. _____ _____
4. Check piston rod alignment. _____ _____
5. Check piston rod crosshead nuts for proper tightness. _____ _____


Initial Date
6. If a special break-in oil is used, drain oil from the frame oil system
including sump, filters, coolers, pump, and piping. Fill the sump to the
proper level with the lube-oil recommended for the service intended. Fill
the cylinder and packing lubricator reservoir with the proper oil. Replace
or clean oil filters, as applicable. _____ _____
Gradually reduce the lubricant rate to cylinders and packing to the feed rate
recommended by the manufacturer. _____ _____
Note Caution should be used in operating at maximum lubricator feed rates
for extended periods to avoid excessive lube-oil accumulation in cylinders.

740 Centrifugal Compressor Installation Checklist

The manufacturer's installation manual, equipment specifications, as-built
data sheets, and the specific process system requirements should be reviewed
in detail, and modifications made to this checklist, as appropriate, to cover
individual requirements.
Centrifugal Compressor Installation Checklist (1 of 9)

Initial Date
Step 1. Documentation
As applicable, review the following documents which cover all major
compressor train components:
Manufacturer's instruction manual(s) _____ _____
Equipment Specifications, as applicable:
• API Equipment Standards _____ _____
• Project Specifications _____ _____
Purchase Documents:
• Purchase Order _____ _____
• Quotation Requests _____ _____
• List Sheets _____ _____
• Other documents referenced in Purchase Order _____ _____
As-built Equipment Data Sheets _____ _____
Performance Data/Curves _____ _____
Lubrication Chart _____ _____
Installation Drawings _____ _____
Shop Mechanical/Performance Reports, and Inspection Reports _____ _____
Shaft Alignment Chart _____ _____
Safety Instruction Sheets _____ _____
Existing Installations:
Maintenance History _____ _____
Performance/Vibration History _____ _____
Inspection/Trouble Reports done since last major turnaround _____ _____


Initial Date
Lock out and properly tag the main driver. _____ _____
Insure all piping and hot surfaces (above 140°F) are suitably guarded or insu-
lated for personnel protection. _____ _____
Confirm all safety valves are installed, properly set, and tested. _____ _____
Insure no block valves are located between the source of pressure and the
safety valves, unless locked open. _____ _____
exposed rotating parts. _____ _____
Relieve all pressure within the unit before any work is performed. _____ _____
Isolate compressors handling toxic or flammable gases from process piping
and purge or evacuate, as applicable. _____ _____
Step 3. Equipment Condition (Before Installation)
As Received
Check all bill of materials for completeness of material received. Insure all
tagged materials are correctly labeled. _____ _____
Confirm required spare parts and special tools received, and location docu-
mented. _____ _____
Take immediate action on any shortages or damage. _____ _____
Check internal/external cleanliness. _____ _____
Insure baseplate/skid straight and flat. _____ _____
Insure baseplate/skid mounted compressor/driver not bolt-bound (free to move
for alignment, as necessary). _____ _____
Confirm that compressor/driver rotates freely. _____ _____
Inspect condition of all bearings. _____ _____
Confirm alignment shims (number, material, condition) are acceptable. _____ _____
Confirm coupling condition is acceptable and all components received. _____ _____


Initial Date
Temporary Storage:
Insure storage protection requirements met (refer to the General Machinery
Manual and Manufacturer's installation manual). _____ _____
Confirm equipment inert gas blanketed or dry air/inert gas purged, as appro-
priate. _____ _____
Confirm rust preventive/lubricant compatibility. _____ _____
Schedule and perform inspection of equipment condition at regular intervals
during storage. _____ _____
Step 4. Foundations and Grouting
Concrete Foundations
Clean and properly coat metal surface of soleplates or baseplate/skid. _____ _____
Confirm corners of soleplates or baseplate/skid are properly rounded. _____ _____
Insure mounting feet or base are free of burrs. _____ _____
Disconnect coupling before leveling. _____ _____
Level soleplates or baseplate/skid in accordance with manufacturer's recom-
mended procedure and local standards. _____ _____
Cure concrete foundation for at least 14 days before grouting preparation. _____ _____
Properly roughen and clean (free of oil, grease and other foreign substances)
concrete surface. If cementitious grout is used, saturate concrete surfaces with
water for 24 hours prior to placement of grout. Remove any free standing
water before grouting. (Refer to Specification MAC-EG-3907, Grouting of
Machinery for recommended procedures.) _____ _____
Insure proper grout material/thickness. _____ _____
Confirm anchor bolt cavities in foundation are not filled with grout. _____ _____
Cure grout for at least three days. _____ _____
Piping should not be connected to the equipment until grout has thoroughly
cured. _____ _____
Confirm no hollow areas or majors cracks in grouting. _____ _____
Back off leveling bolts. _____ _____
Tighten anchor bolts using a torque wrench to values in accordance with manu-
facturer's recommendation. _____ _____


Initial Date
Other Foundations (Structures) _____ _____
Insure mounting plates are located at load bearing support beams. _____ _____
Use shims of corrosion-resistant material. _____ _____
Dowel driver after successful solo (uncoupled) run. _____ _____
Dowel compressor after hot alignment check confirms proper alignment. _____ _____
Step 5. Alignment and Couplings
Install compressor and driver on foundation in accordance with the manufac-
turer's recommendations and local procedures. _____ _____
Check for correct axial spacing between compressor and driver shaft ends. _____ _____
Check axial float of motor driver. _____ _____
Confirm that motor driver is properly positioned. (Limited end float coupling.) _____ _____
Review and finalize the compressor train Shaft Alignment Chart. _____ _____
For existing installations, use historical data as a basis for determining cold
alignment settings necessary to achieve the desired running (hot) alignment. _____ _____
Lubricate bearings before rotating shaft for cold alignment. _____ _____
Install coupling per manufacturer's instructions. _____ _____
Check for proper shim installation on flexible coupling. _____ _____
Check for proper coupling lubrication. _____ _____
Check alignment of all coupled equipment. _____ _____
Install hot alignment tooling/equipment, as applicable. _____ _____
Check hot alignment only after the compressor has been operated for several
hours and stable operating temperatures reached. _____ _____
Make final alignment moves based on a thorough review of data obtained
during the hot alignment. _____ _____
Install coupling guard. _____ _____


Initial Date
Step 6. Piping
Thoroughly clean all piping and vessels which are on the suction side of any
compressor to protect against damage of compressor internals during/after
startup. Also thoroughly clean all lube systems as recommended below.
Precautions must be taken after cleaning to insure that no further foreign mate-
rial can enter the system. Cleaning of piping usually requires chemical or
mechanical means, or both. Appropriately seal all component parts following
cleaning. _____ _____
Compressor flanges should remain sealed until the final piping is to be
connected. _____ _____
Mechanically clean steel piping for suction gas and blow down with air. _____ _____
Chemically clean steel piping for lube-oil systems in accordance with appro-
priate procedures. Sandblasting may be appropriate for some installations. _____ _____
Clean alloy piping in accordance with applicable project or local procedures. _____ _____
Drain all gas suction lines thoroughly. _____ _____
Remove all grit from sandblasted lines. _____ _____
Confirm that piping interior is free from all dirt, scale, rust, weld slag and
other foreign material. _____ _____
Braces on expansion joints and pins in spring supports should remain in place
during installation, and any subsequent testing, such as hydrotesting. _____ _____
Piping should not be connected to the equipment until grout has thoroughly
cured. _____ _____
Confirm flange bolt holes are in line and flanges are parallel within specified
tolerance. _____ _____
Check the equipment installation (including auxiliary systems) against final
drawings to insure correct location and orientation of safety valves, block
valves, check valves, recycle lines, etc., as required by the specific system.
Check all piping and components for proper material. _____ _____
Check the location and setting of pipe anchors, fixed supports and spring
hangers to insure they are in accordance with drawings and specifications, and
properly set and anchored to avoid any casing strains. _____ _____
Check spring supports after removal of pin to insure springs freely carry the
pipe load. _____ _____
Provide adequate allowance for expansion of suction and discharge piping. _____ _____


Initial Date
Maintain angular offset of expansion joints within manufacturer's prescribed
limits (expansion joints not used to correct misalignment of pipe). _____ _____
Maintain compressor and driver movement within allowable limits during
piping bolt-up. If movement exceeds limits, piping must be loosened and refab-
ricated, realigned, or anchors adjusted as required. _____ _____
Insure suction strainers are accessible and removable without disturbing equip-
ment alignment. _____ _____
Inspect screen for adequate construction, compliance with specification and
proper orientation. _____ _____
Verify that strainers are installed and that piping is provided with pressure taps
both upstream and downstream of the strainer. _____ _____
Check inlet line to air compressor for corrosion protective coating of internal
surface, or that line is stainless steel. _____ _____
Confirm insulation and/or heat tracing installed in accordance with installation
drawings. _____ _____
Confirm there are no pockets or low spots in the gas piping which cannot be
drained. _____ _____
Vent all high points in liquid piping. _____ _____
Route oil piping on frequently used vents/drains away from equipment to
prevent spraying oil over equipment. _____ _____
Inspect auxiliary equipment for properly installed block valves. _____ _____
Insure proper thread sealant used for screwed piping. (Sealant not used when
connection is seal welded.) Do not use teflon tape to seal threads on lube-oil
piping. _____ _____
Confirm purge gas to reservoirs, bearing housings, etc., connected and func-
tional. _____ _____
Inspect all drain lines for proper slope (l/4-inch/foot minimum). _____ _____
Step 7. Special Notes for Lube and Seal Systems
Since centrifugal compressor trains are often among the last items to be started up, cleanup of the
lube and seal system is usually on the critical path to plant startup. Refer to MAC-MS-2983, Field
Cleaning of Compressor Lube and Seal Oil Systems, and PIM-MS-2411, Descaling and Cleaning Steel
Piping for additional information.


Initial Date
Substantial time savings can be realized by proper planning prior to the start of flushing. Historical
records from previous projects indicate revised procedures and improved planning can reduce overall
flushing from five-six weeks to less than two weeks.
Consider the following areas:
Pre-plan approach—Put one individual in charge and familiarize all
personnel with objectives. _____ _____
Define goal of cleanliness, and establish criteria for measuring. _____ _____
Initial startup of flush—A very effective way to expedite cleanup is to
initially remove all screens, filters, orifices, or any other removable restrictions
and sweep all foreign material through the system into the reservoir (make
sure filters are removed and the compressor and driver seals/bearings, turbine
control system and overhead seal oil tank are bypassed). _____ _____
Schedule around-the-clock flushing right from the start. _____ _____
Heat the oil—Optimum flushing temperatures are in the order of 160°-180°F.
Permanently installed reservoir heaters will probably not be adequate. Plan to
make special provisions for temporary heating of the oil. _____ _____
Shock the system every way possible—This includes sudden changes in flow
velocity, hammering on all the piping and components, and thermal shock. _____ _____
Plan for adequate flushing velocity—Oil flushing velocity should be at least
twice the normal operating velocity. Walk the piping, count fittings and defin-
able pressure drops, determine the system curve and plot on pump curves.
Consider alternate methods of maximizing flow (parallel pumps, series pumps,
operate steam driven pump above its rated speed, temporarily replace positive
displacement pumps with centrifugal, etc.). Check to make sure any pump
bypasses back to the reservoir remain closed. _____ _____
Maintain close and continual DAILY communication with all parties
involved. Immediately resolve problems and develop a revised course of action. _____ _____
Do not assume the system or components are clean because they were
“cleaned at the factory.” _____ _____
Do not install anything that isn't clean. _____ _____
The key to an efficient cleaning program is recognizing that lube-oil is a
very inefficient rust, slag, scale or paint remover. Timely completion there-
fore relies heavily on thorough cleaning of individual components and piping
prior to assembly. Specifically:
Disassemble and thoroughly clean all components. _____ _____
Reassemble cleaned components in a clean work environment. _____ _____


Initial Date
Stainless steel systems often include carbon steel block valves, slip-on flanges,
coolers, filters, switch valves, and pumps. _____ _____
Remove carbon steel components, dismantle and clean mechanically before
starting flushing. _____ _____
Carefully analyze all material that appears on the flushing screens (identify
and remove source of contamination). _____ _____
Make prompt decisions to remove contaminates or to live with them. _____ _____
Do the previous steps concurrently with the final piping assembly and testing
for the most efficient use of time. _____ _____
Recycle through the previous steps as necessary. _____ _____
Step 8. Instrumentation and Controls
Check all safety valves for proper location and setting. _____ _____
Insure all indicating gages are installed, and oriented to be clearly seen by an
operator when making control adjustments. _____ _____
Test alarm, shutdown, and safety functions. _____ _____
Confirm alarms and shutdowns are operating and arranged to permit testing
while the compressor is on line. _____ _____
Complete required loop checks and other tests of Compressor anti-surge,
capacity and process control systems, confirming proper operation. _____ _____
Step 9. Drivers
Consult manufacturer's instruction manual for specific installation instructions. _____ _____
Operate turbines uncoupled and check the actual trip speed three times before
coupling to the driven equipment. Trip speeds should be non-trending and all
within ±1%. _____ _____
Also confirm that trip setting is within the allowable range for all driven equip-
ment. _____ _____
Operate motors uncoupled from compressor to check rotation and general
operation. Provide supplementary lubrication for motors normally lubricated
by a shaft driven oil pump on the driven equipment. _____ _____
Coordinate mechanical checks, such as air gap and magnetic center, with
appropriate electrical personnel. _____ _____
Check for proper rotation of all auxiliary system motor drivers. _____ _____


Initial Date
Consult the Drivers Manual for more comprehensive installation checklists for
drivers.

750 Centrifugal Compressor Precommissioning Checklist

Use the following checklist during run-in of the compressor for the first time, and
also following major equipment overhauls. Review the manufacturer's installation
manual and the specific process system in detail, and modify this checklist, as
appropriate, to cover special requirements.
Review the final modified checklist with the operators and all other personnel
involved in the precommissioning to insure that everyone understands the proce-
dures and the specific objectives involved. A Pre-startup Meeting of all
concerned is highly recommended.
Centrifugal Compressor Precommissioning Checklist (1 of 4)

Initial Date
Step 1. General
New equipment installations should first be checked in accordance with the Centrifugal Compressor
Installation Checklist.
Reconfirm checks previously completed if there has been extended time
between installation and startup and/or additional work has been performed on
the unit. _____ _____
For existing installations the overhaul/repair records should first be reviewed
for completeness of work and recording of pertinent data. _____ _____
Lock out and tag main driver. _____ _____
Insure all safety valves are installed, properly set, and tested. _____ _____
Confirm no block valves are located between the source of pressure and safety
valves, unless locked open. _____ _____
exposed rotating parts. _____ _____
Step 3. Pre-Startup Data Review
As a minimum, the following data should be available:
A list (or data sheets) covering specific data to be recorded during startup. _____ _____
Critical speeds for all train components. _____ _____
Any maximum temperature/pressure limits. _____ _____
Minimum and maximum governor speed settings (turbine drivers). _____ _____


Initial Date
Overspeed trip setting (turbine drivers). _____ _____
Maximum turbine exhaust temperature (condensing turbines). _____ _____
For motor drivers, determine how many restarts are permitted during one
hour's time. Do not exceed these limits. _____ _____
Review the precommissioning procedure with the appropriate operating and
startup personnel, to insure a safe, reliable initial operation, and a smooth tran-
sition from startup conditions to normal operation. _____ _____
Resolve any conflicts between precommissioning checklist and manufacturer's
instruction manual procedures. _____ _____
Define data acquisition requirements, and schedule appropriate personnel and
monitoring equipment. (See Figure 700-1 for data recommended for all major
machinery startups.) For turbine drivers, define the specific speed steps at
which data will be taken during startup. _____ _____
Operation on Air—Initial Startup
Operation on air or inert gas, when permitted, requires special precautions.
Both discharge temperature and/or seal operation may be limiting factors.
Specifics of the proposed operation should be reviewed in detail, and the manu-
facturer consulted for any recommendations or limitations on the specific
equipment involved. _____ _____
Run-in on air should only be done with an open loop for flammable gas
machines with oil seals—never with a closed loop, this can be extremely
dangerous. _____ _____
Step 4. Pre-Startup Installation Check:
Removal of all liquids from gas suction piping is mandatory. Be sure lines are
drained and prewarmed, if applicable, by turning on heat tracing before opera-
tion of the compressor. _____ _____
Confirm that the coupling and coupling guard are properly installed. _____ _____
Remove any rust preventive, as appropriate. _____ _____
Confirm that all instrumentation (including vibration, thrust, and temperature
probes) has been calibrated, and is operational. _____ _____
Confirm that all alarms and shutdowns have been properly set and tested. _____ _____
Confirm that monitoring systems, including all alarms and shutdowns, are in
service and not bypassed during initial operation and startup. _____ _____


Initial Date
Check the lube and seal system for proper oil supply pressure, temperature,
and flow; and confirm that all system alarms, trips, and the auxiliary pump
startup are functioning properly. _____ _____
For turbine drivers—confirm that the main trip-throttle valve and any extrac-
tion valves trip on proper signals. _____ _____
Step 5. Startup
Revise the following general checklist for the specific installation and equip-
ment involved, and incorporate detailed procedures from the manufacturers
instruction manual(s), as appropriate.
Steam Turbine Drivers
Open drains to remove condensate from the turbine casing and steam lines. _____ _____
Warm the turbine by cracking open the steam supply block valve or the
warmup bypass valve. _____ _____
Close drain valves when condensate has been purged. _____ _____
Open sealing steam lines, when provided, at both low and high pressure ends. _____ _____
Manually begin turbine rotation up to slow roll speed (approximately 500
RPM) by further cracking open the main steam supply valve. _____ _____
Allow the unit to warm up while monitoring operation. Watch exhaust tempera-
ture on condensing units to make sure it does not exceed the specified limit
while at reduced speed. _____ _____
Manually trip overspeed mechanism in accordance with local procedures to
check for proper action. Reset and continue startup. _____ _____
Gradually increase speed in steps as previously defined. Record required data
at each step. Pass through criticals rapidly without stopping. _____ _____
Monitor unit operation as speed is increased to minimum governor. Increase to
approximately 100% speed on governor control. Check that the governor is
controlling to proper speed. _____ _____
Motor Drivers
Determine how many restarts are permitted in one hour's time and follow those
limits.


Initial Date
☞ Caution Do not frequently push the “Stop” button
before motor has reached full speed, particularly on
larger motors. Do not push the “Start” button until
motor has coasted to a complete stop. Such actions may
trip or even damage the electrical equipment.
If motor repeatedly trips on start attempts, check:
Process for excessively high flow or pressure demands. _____ _____
Improper electrical switchgear settings. _____ _____
Low system voltage during starting. _____ _____
Mechanical compressor problem such as bad bearing or internal rubbing. _____ _____
Electronic Monitoring of Startup
Note The following information is applicable to electronic monitoring of
centrifugal-compressor start-ups.

Fig. 700-1 Recommended Startup Data for Major Turbomachinery

Data Type When Recorded
During
Minimum Maximum 500 RPM Speed Contin-
Slow Roll Governor Governor Intervals Change uous
1. Scope Photos x x x
2. Hand Logged Data x x x x
3. Probe Spectrums x x x
4. FM Tape Recording x x
5. Bode/Nyquist Plots x x
6. Raster Plots x x
7. Strip Chart x x
8. Velocity Spectrums x x
9. Acceleration Spectrums x x
Notes: 1. Scope photos should be fully documented, and on X-Y probes, should include filtered and unfiltered orbits at speeds above slow
roll. All photos must be done in real-time.
2. Hand logged data should be logged as often as possible during the run as outlined above. Do not try to hand log data within the
critical range, which must be traversed rapidly. (Refer to Figure 700-2 for a hand-log form.)
3. Probe spectrums should be recorded on each probe as outlined above. Averaging is not necessary if the spectrum is stable. (i.e.,
no pulsating amplitudes, etc.)
4. FM tape recordings should include a known reference calibration signal and a tape log. At a minimum, the X-Y probes on each
side of each coupling, one of the X-Y probes at the end of the machine opposite the coupling, and the key-phasor probe should be
recorded for each machine casing. (This will require more than one 8-channel recorder if the train consists of more than two
machine cases.) Under no circumstances should the recordings be interrupted for any reason.
5. Bode/Nyquist plots should be made for all radial probes. Normally, one probe is done in real-time during startup and the others are
done from the tape recorded signals.
6. Raster plots should be made at 500 RPM intervals for each X-Y probe. These may also be done from the tape.
7. Strip chart recordings should be made for any radial probe(s) not being tape recorded, and as a minimum should include speed
and unfiltered amplitude. If all radial probes are being tape recorded, a strip chart recording of axial position versus speed should
be recorded.
8. Velocity spectrums should be made at all points on the bearing caps for each machine as outlined previously. A minimum of eight
linear averages should be done, and each spectral line's frequency identified.
9. Acceleration spectrums should be made on turbine casings and gearboxes as previously outlined, using a stud-mounted acceler-
ometer. These must also be averaged at least eight times and each spectral line over 0.5 G's should have the frequency identified
on the plots.

Fig. 700-2 Turbomachinery Hand-logged Data Sheet
800 Maintenance and
Troubleshooting
Abstract
This section reviews reciprocating compressor/engine predictive maintenance, recip-
rocating piston rod reconditioning, and contains troubleshooting checklists for
centrifugal and reciprocating compressors. Maintenance checklists referred to in
this section are included in the Appendix. For information on predictive mainte-
nance of centrifugal compressors and vibration troubleshooting, see the CUSA, IMI
Candidate Manual.
Contents Page
810 Performance Analysis of Reciprocating Compressors and Engines 800-3

811 Introduction
812 Principles of Compression Analysis
813 Principles of Combustion Analysis
814 Characteristics of Ignition Problems
815 Vibration vs Crankangle
816 Hardware
817 Example of a Typical Predictive Maintenance Program
818 Examples of Program Benefits
820 Maintenance Checklists 800-28
830 Reciprocating Compressor Piston-Rod Reconditioning 800-30
831 Introduction
832 Rod Leakage/Surface Finish
833 Rod Deviations
834 Rod Reconditioning
835 Rod Coating Processes
836 Experience

800 Maintenance and Troubleshooting Compressor Manual
837 Recommendations
838 Inspection and Specifications
840 Troubleshooting 800-50
841 Introduction
842 Troubleshooting Guidelines
843 Problem Solving Guides

Compressor Manual 800 Maintenance and Troubleshooting
810 Performance Analysis of Reciprocating Compressors and Engines
811 Introduction
Performance analysis is employed in several Company locations as one of several
available methods of predictive maintenance.
Performance analysis is a program involving several elements, which can include:
• Analysis of power-cylinder pressure versus time,
• Analysis of compressor-cylinder pressure versus time, or volume,
• Analysis of vibration caused by mechanical events,
• Analysis of computed values, such as horsepower, and/or
• Analysis of power-cylinder ignition.
The concept of predictive maintenance is being successfully used throughout the
industry to reduce maintenance expense. The essential philosophy behind a predic-
tive maintenance program is a concentrated effort to gather pertinent data on a peri-
odic basis. Data acquisition is covered later on in this section.
The advantages of a predictive maintenance program include:
• Elimination of catastrophic damage, thereby avoiding very high expense.
• Avoiding equipment (and plant) downtime.
• Performing only necessary maintenance.
• Avoiding disassembly of healthy machinery (periodic “overhauls,” for
example) and exposing it to risks of maintenance errors.
• Allowing reliable machinery to continue operation.
• Optimizing fuel consumption.
The following is information summarized from two programs: one at a producing
facility, the other at a large refinery.
812 Principles of Compression Analysis

Pressure-Volume Analysis
The purpose of this analysis is to:
• Detect mechanical problems before they become serious enough to cause
significant damage to the machine,
• Evaluate compressor/engine performance in conjunction with P-T (Pressure-
Time) and vibration analysis, and
• Automatically compute indicated horsepower, volumetric efficiency,
compressor horsepower loading, and power loss.

Figure 800-1 is a simplified summary of a typical Pressure-Volume display and
how it correlates to piston/valve actions. It gives the basic pattern and events rela-
tive to piston travel.
Figure 800-2 represents one format to display the compression cycle. Note that it is
similar to Figure 800-1, except for being reversed. Figure 800-2 also shows typical
problems that can be detected (with interpretation).
Figures 800-3 and 800-4 further illustrate methods for detecting impending
compressor valve problems.
813 Principles of Combustion Analysis

Much of the material in Sub-sections 813, 814, 815 and 816 has been extracted
from materials provided by Rotating and Reciprocating Specialists.
The purpose of this analysis is to:
• Optimize fuel consumption, and
• Detect mechanical problems before they become serious enough to cause
significant damage to the machine.
Typical combustion patterns are depicted on Figure 800-5 and may be defined as
follows:
1. Normal Combustion—Ignition timed correctly, proper air/fuel mixture, no
malfunctions.
2. No Combustion (Dead miss)—Cause: ignition or mixture, also water in
cylinder.
3. Early Combustion—Cause: ignition timing, mixture, or temperature.
4. Late Combustion—Cause: late ignition, mixture (rich or lean) or water in
cylinder.
– Terminal pressure high—rich mixture
– Terminal pressure low—lean mixture
5. Detonation (too rapid combustion rate—uncontrolled)—Cause: mixture,
excess load. Rich mixture tends to detonate.
6. Pre-ignition (auto-ignition)—Cause: hot spot, carbon or foreign matter in the
combustion chamber, excess cylinder temperature, presence of heavy hydrocar-
bons.

Fig. 800-1 Typical Pressure Volume Display (Courtesy of the American Gas Association)

Fig. 800-2 Typical Compressor Cylinder Problems Identified with P-V Displays (1 of 5)
(Courtesy of the American Gas Association)





Fig. 800-3 Detection Patterns for Valve Problems
Fig. 800-4 Detection Patterns for Valve Problems

Fig. 800-5 Typical Combustion Patterns (Courtesy of the American Gas Association)
NOTE: Frames 1-6 are all cylinder pressure vs. crankangle displays.

2-Stroke Cycle versus 4-Stroke Cycle

Both types of engines have advantages and disadvantages. The individual applica-
tion governs the selection of a 2-stroke cycle or 4-stroke cycle unit.
The primary difference between the engines is cylinder design, and:
• The 2-stroke cycle requires the piston to make only two strokes through the
cylinder (one revolution of the crankshaft) for each complete combustion cycle.
• The 4-stroke cycle requires the piston to make four strokes through the
cylinder (two revolutions of the crankshaft) for each complete combustion
cycle.
• The 2-stroke cycle engine is the less complicated of the two, since it has no
CAM-actuated intake valves and most have no CAM-actuated exhaust valves.
Some 2-stroke cycle units do, however, have CAM-actuated exhaust valves.
• The 2-stroke cycle engine requires a positive scavenging air pressure (recipro-
cating scavenging air cylinder, mechanically-driven blower or turbocharger).
The 4-stroke cycle engine can be naturally aspirated. More horsepower can be
derived from the 4-stroke cycle engine by utilizing a mechanically-driven
blower (supercharger or turbocharger).
• The 4-stroke cycle engine has a longer functional stroke than the 2-stroke cycle
engine, since the 4-stroke cycle maintains a positive pressure (due to combus-
tion) on the piston for more degrees of crankshaft rotation and opens the
exhaust valve near the bottom dead center. Therefore, if a 2-stroke cycle and a
4-stroke cycle cylinder had the same displaced volume and were operating at
the same crankshaft speed with the same average cylinder pressures, the 2-
stroke cycle would be developing 65 to 75% more horsepower.
• The 2-stroke cycle engine develops more power per cubic inch of displaced
volume.
• The 2-stroke cycle performs efficiently 100 to 110% of its rated load. The effi-
ciency drops rapidly as the load is reduced. Modern 2-stroke cycle engines do
operate more efficiently at lighter loads than the earlier generations did.
• The 4-stroke cycle engine is more efficient over a wider load range and
responds faster to drastic load changes, since the flow of gases is better
controlled by the intake and exhaust valves.
814 Characteristics of Ignition Problems

Ignition can be analyzed similar to compression and vibration. The following
describes such an analysis:
(Also, refer to Figures 800-6 and 800-7.)
Point A—Breaker points close/transistor turns on. If there is any abnormal voltage
change at this point, or if this point varies horizontally, a problem is expected with
the points or the switching mechanism.

Fig. 800-6 Details of Combustion Pattern (Primary) (Courtesy of the American Gas Association)
Fig. 800-7 Details of a Combustion Pattern (Inductive Secondary) (Courtesy of the American Gas Association)

Point B—Breaker points open/transistor turns off. This occurs at the same degree
each cycle if normal, and varies if the drive is worn or if the points stick or arc.
Point C—(line I) Peak ionization voltage. Voltage required to ionize the plug gap.
As this increases, the duration (line III) will decrease.
High voltage indicates:

• Wide plug gap of bad plug. Arc voltage (II) will be high also
• High resistance in the secondary lead (arcing broken strands or corroded
connectors)
• Heavy cylinder load (rich, dense mixture)
• Misfires—Excessive ionization voltage with no arc (III)—plug or secondary
lead bad
Low voltage indicates:

• Narrow plug gap
• Shorted plug—No or very little voltage rise
• Shorted secondary—Low voltage with no arc (III)
• Transformer—No arc (III)
• Light cylinder load—Arc voltage (II) also low and duration (III) long
No voltage rise—Shorted primary or primary distributer problem
Point D—Arc voltage (II) and arc duration (III)
High arc voltage indicates:

• Bad plug or wide gap
• High resistance in the secondary lead
• Heavy cylinder load
Low voltage indicates:

• Narrow plug gap
• Light cylinder load
Things to Remember:
• Be sure to analyze the whole pattern.
• Watch for multiple fires. Voltage rises at wrong crankangles.
• Approach the ignition analysis systematically.
• Be sure all cylinders are firing at the correct crankangle. Variation is often
found between the cylinders.
• Know the characteristics of your ignition system.

815 Vibration vs Crankangle

The purpose of vibration analysis is to display the vibration amplitude vs cran-
kangle and to analyze the pattern. The vibration is composed of many different
components as they vibrate at various frequencies, amplitudes, and degrees of
crankshaft rotation.
If you know the exact degree at which each event occurs, its amplitude of vibration,
and its shape, you can determine if this event is normal for this type cylinder, the
condition of the various components, and even predict failures or schedule the exact
repairs as needed before the unit fails.
Refer to Figure 800-8 for typical vibration patterns and problems associated with
power cylinders. Although not discussed, similar patterns are evident on compres-
sion cylinders. Figure 800-9 shows typical compression-analysis signals.
Point A
Peak Pressure Vibration. The flame front is moving at maximum velocity at this
point and usually causes this normal vibration. If detonation occurs, this vibration
becomes a high-amplitude sharp spike. Piston slap also occurs at or near this point,
since the piston will rock in a worn cylinder under the maximum pressure.
Excessive wear in the wristpin or bushing is often seen at this point.
A badly worn rod bearing will knock at this point or slightly later, normally
detected at BDC long before it appears at this point. The same is true of a worn
wristpin. We normally look for the rod bearing, wristpin, or a piston loose on the
hanger at 10 degrees before and after BDC when it is in the early stages of wear.
Point B
Top Ring Enters the Exhaust Port. If the top ring is doing its job, the pressure
will be released when this event occurs. If this ring becomes worn, stuck, broken, or
the piston or cylinder port area wear, this vibration becomes a high-amplitude,
sharp spike. If something happens to the top ring, the second ring will hold most of
the pressure, resulting in a vibration spike when it enters the port. (This spike will
occur earlier, since the second ring enters the port at an earlier degree of crank rota-
tion.)
Evaluate the ring condition by watching this area. Also watch for carbon buildup in
the ports, which will cause the rings to clip. This can occur in the intake port as
well as the exhaust. Normally, a ring is not picked up as it enters the intake port
unless there is a problem. The same is true of the rings going back up through the
ports on the compression stroke. Since there is no pressure to hold the rings against
the cylinder walls, they do not clip in the ports on the compression stroke unless
there is a problem with the rings or the cylinder port.
If one of the lower rings is broken, it will cause a sharp spike in the exhaust port on
the power stroke, indicated by the degree at which it occurs.

Fig. 800-8 Typical Vibration Patterns with a 2 Stroke Power Cylinder. (Courtesy of the American Gas Association)
Fig. 800-9 Typical Vibration Patterns with Compression Cylinders (Courtesy of the American Gas Association)

Watch these ring vibrations, and they will increase in amplitude as the condition
gets worse. A new set of rings will clip in the ports until they wear in. Then the
vibration will drop down to a normal level until they begin to deteriorate.
Point C
Exhaust Blowdown—This is vibration of the gas as it leaves the cylinder. This
vibration will be present when the cylinder fires on a normal cycle and will disap-
pear when the cylinder has no combustion within the cycle. Use the exhaust blow-
down as a standard to compare all other vibrations within the pattern. If the
mounting or transducer changes, it will affect the whole pattern amplitude, which
the operator will note if he compares to a standard within the pattern.
The exhaust will elongate if the ports are restricted by carbon.
The operator may also note that on V-type units with a common exhaust manifold
between the V, the exhaust blowdown from the cylinder on the other bank may
carry over in the vibration trace. This blowdown (or ghost vibration) will always be
there and in the same place or crankangle. The operator can disregard it once he
identifies it.
Point D
Injection Valve Opens—This vibration is caused by the slack taken out when the
valve train activates the injection valve. The operator can get a fix on the CAM
timing and lobe condition from this vibration and the closure vibration. Some units
with hydraulic lifters will not have this vibration unless there is a problem with the
CAM or lifter. To pick up this vibration on such a unit, put the pick-up directly on
the rocker arm pin.
This vibration will be excessive if there is any wear in the valve actuation assembly.
Pressure applied to the rocker arm sometimes will eliminate much of the vibration
and allow the operator to make a true analysis of the rest to the pattern, possibly
distorted by this vibration.
Point E
Injection Valve Closes—The front (flat) side of this vibration is the degree at
which the valve hits the seat. The higher the amplitude, the harder the valve hits the
seat. The wider the vibration spike, the wider the mating surfaces. This is a good
indication of valve lash, CAM timing, injection valve, and seat condition.
If the vibration fades into the baseline, it is a good indication that the valve has
sealed. If it balloons out or continues to vibrate for too long, the valve is leaking.
Note the pattern in Figure 800-10.
816 Hardware
A variety of electronic equipment is used to make the program analysis. This equip-
ment is continually being improved and perfected to obtain additional or more
precise information. The system components are as follows:

Analyzer—This unit is the control center for the analyst. Various signals are
selected, calibrated, and controlled for accuracy of display, and if applicable
computing the horsepower. There are two available types:
Fig. 800-10 Vibration Patterns (Courtesy of the American Gas Association)
• Type I—Maintenance Analyzers—These devices display ignition, vibra-

tion/ultrasonic and pressure waveforms on an oscilloscope versus crankangle
or time for condition analysis.
• Type II—Performance Analyzers—These devices have all the capabilities of
the maintenance analyzers plus RPM, and accurate pressure versus volume
display, and digital readouts of horsepower developed or consumed by a
cylinder. These are the most expensive.
Oscilloscope—The oscilloscope displays electrical signals. It only understands
voltage. The signals it receives can be amplified and changed, but it primarily
displays the signals it receives as voltage wave forms. Scopes have one or more
vertical inputs and at least one horizontal input. The scope then provides a dynamic
X-Y plot of the wave form. These wave forms are observed or photographed for
analysis or evaluation.
Transducers—A transducer is a device that takes a mechanical or nonelectrical
signal and converts it into an electrical signal that can be displayed on the oscillo-
scope. The program analyzer uses various types of transducers. These transducers
are:
• Ignition—Since ignition is an electrical signal, it requires no transducer, only
an ignition pickup. The ignition pickup carries the voltage from any point on
the ignition system (excluding direct secondary ignition voltage) to the oscillo-
scope form display. A 10:1 ignition attenuator is provided for voltage reduction.

• Vibration—The accelerometer uses a piezoelectric crystal device to convert

the physical or mechanical movement (1 Hz to 6 Hz) of the transducer into an
electrical signal proportional in amplitude to the actual movement or vibration.
• Pressure—Pressure transducers convert the instantaneous pressure into elec-
tronic signals that can be displayed or processed by the programming unit. The
pressure transducers can be used to sample the pressure inside any cylinder or
at any accessible point on the engine/compressor system. The transducers are
current state-of-the-art strain gage pressure transducers that can be automati-
cally calibrated by the program analyzer.
• Crankshaft Position—The encoder converts the physical crankshaft position
into electronic pulses. The crankangle may be determined by key-phasors
measuring each revolution, or by an encoder which produces one pulse for
each degree of crankshaft rotation.
• Ultrasonic—The ultrasonic probe converts the high-frequency vibrations (36
Hz to 44 Hz) to lower frequency electronic signals that can be displayed on the
oscilloscope or evaluated audibly through headphones.
X-Y Plotter—This is a multi-pen X-Y plotter for large-scale, hard-copy records of
pressure traces and alphanumeric data.
Commercial Hardware Available

Listed in Appendix M are the established analyzer systems on the market today
(December 1988). These analyzers will be upgraded as electronic and digital tech-
nologies are expanded. Long-term digital storage of the various parameters is
currently being incorporated into these analyzers.
817 Example of a Typical Predictive Maintenance Program

The philosophy of predictive maintenance is to predict when, and what mainte-
nance will be necessary. It is best implemented as an element of an integrated reli-
ability program, as outlined below:
Record Keeping. Records of maintenance history, cost, performance and vibration
data are essential.
Machinery Surveillance and Diagnostics. Routine surveillance to monitor online
conditions: vibration diagnostics, performance testing, oil analysis are utilized.
Design Review. Excessive maintenance and down time usually indicates a design
fault or misapplication.
Quality Control. Provide detailed maintenance checklists, inspection by qualified
personnel, and on-the-job technical advisors.
Machinery Protection. Shut the unit down before catastrophic failure, utilizing
appropriate shutdown protection, such as vibration, low-lube-oil pressure, high-
discharge temperatures, etc.

The above are the standard elements developed by the CUSA Manufacturing IMI
(Integrated Machinery Inspection) Program.
The essential philosophy behind a predictive maintenance program is a concen-
trated effort to gather pertinent data on a periodic basis. Data acquisition includes
the recording of visual inspections, temperature and pressure readings, along with
photographs of pressure, vibrations, and ultrasonic patterns. The conditions listed in
Figure 800-11 should be checked on a periodic basis: typically every 30 days on
critical machinery and 60 to 90 days on basic units.
Fig. 800-11 Summary of Typical Records Maintained: Reciprocating Compressor/Engine Predictive Maintenance
Program
General Operating
Power Cylinders Compressor Cylinders Conditions Scavenger Cylinders
Original specifications, or baseline data, plus recent trends as appropriate:
Horsepower per cylinder Horsepower per Oil temperature
head-end and crank-end
Power loss per cylinder, Jacket water temperature

suction and discharge
Compression per cylinder RPM during test Oil pressure
RPM during test Suction and discharge Oil filter differential
pressure and temperature
RPM surge Effective horsepower Crankcase pressure
Ignition timing Brake horsepower Scavenging air pressure
Exterior examination of Percent of rated load Exhaust pressure
fuel valves, rocker arms, Operation of unloaders Motor amperage, power
push rods, coils, plug and clearance pockets factor, field current, etc.
wiring, starting air valves,
etc. Valve cover and cylinder System parameters,
temperatures knock-outs, pot liquid
Visual inspection of level, spill-back opera-
cylinder parameters, jack tion, flow rates, specific
stands, piping, etc. gravity, etc.
Photographic/X-Y Plot Records:

Pressure versus crank Pressure versus crank Vibration verses crank
angle degree angle degree angle degree
Vibration versus crank Vibration versus crank Ultrasonic versus crank
angle degree angle degree angle degree
Pressure versus volume Pressure versus crank
Ultrasonic versus crank angle degree
angle degree

Followup Surveillance
During the time between periodic compression analysis, plant personnel may
perform followup surveillance of equipment highlighted by the analysis team. This
followup surveillance consists of the following:
• Visually inspect the compressor/engine;
• Record gage pressures and temperatures per individual equipment “road maps;”
• Monitor and record valve cover temperatures;
• Note oil levels; i.e., crankcase, McCord, Trabon, etc.;
• Use ultrasonic translator to help locate leaking and broken valves, valve
covers, rod packing, and auxiliary equipment leaks; and
• Monitor temperatures on fuel injection valves and starting air check valves.
Plant personnel should also review the surveillance schedule to determine which
compressors are due for analysis the next period. Notification should be given
responsible parties to make sure the equipment is online and available.
A periodic surveillance report should be prepared for each piece of equipment in
order to inform operations of any problems in their plant. Care should be taken to
ensure that all interested parties understand this information.
Machinery Surveillance and Diagnostics

An engine/compressor surveillance program's main objective is to keep machinery
running reliably as long as possible, thereby reducing maintenance expense and
supporting production. Scheduled maintenance is recommended only when it is felt
that the machine will not “last” until the next surveillance period. The term “last”
can mean: (1) if equipment continues to operate, a failure could cause machinery to
become unsafe, or (2) a catastrophic failure could occur resulting in extended down-
time and more expensive repairs.
The following parameters may be established to classify machinery conditions:
Phase I. Potential problem. Symptom of a potential problem is present, but of low
magnitude. If, however, the unit is shutdown for another reason, before the next
analysis, it would be advantageous to make the repair.
Phase II. Predictable failure stage. Schedule maintenance within a few days. Condi-
tions call for scheduled maintenance. Experience indicates that machinery in this
condition can deteriorate rapidly.
Phase III. Failure imminent. Recommended immediate shutdown. Analysis indi-
cates probable catastrophic failure. The shutdown surveillance team will gather
needed data and then immediately contact the operator to shut down the unit. The
surveillance team will then notify proper personnel and present them with
supporting data.

Through coordinated efforts between the surveillance team, operations, and mainte-
nance, the recommended repairs are scheduled, and when complete, are recorded
for review by interested personnel.
Design Review
Repetitive failures are almost always caused by design deficiencies. A design
review consists of first identifying repetitive problems, then reviewing and rede-
signing the system to eliminate them.
The following case history is one example of a persistent problem solved by an
analysis program, combined with a design review. The problem was excessive fail-
ures of inboard suction valves on a high-stage hydrogen-booster compressor in a
large refinery.
Compression analysis showed several instances of cylinder-pressure variations.
Normal compressor valves required an average differential pressure of 20 psig to
open suction valves. Prior to valve failure, however, the differential pressure
increased to as high as 220 psig. With this information, the surveillance crew began
to gather data on a twice-per-month basis to study valve life in relation to the pres-
sure differential. They concluded that after the differential exceeded 75 psig, less
than two weeks valve life could be expected.
A criterion was established for these valves to be considered in a “Phase II” condi-
tion when the pressure differential exceeded 50 psig. After this criterion for repair
was established, the breakage of inboard suction valves ceased.
Investigation also showed that the only time failures occurred were during, or after
the outboard end of the cylinder had been operated in the unloaded position.
Subsequent investigation of the valve repairs found that the plates and seats were
being honed to a mirror-like surface. With oil between the seat and plate, it was
impossible to lift the plate off the seat. This phenomenon was labeled “stiction.”
Valves were subsequently rebuilt with machined surfaces which alleviated a large
percentage of this “stiction”. Inboard valves were breaking because all the oil
supplied to the cylinder was dissipated during each stroke, except when the
outboard end was unloaded. This allowed oil to travel back through the outboard
suction valve and coat the inboard valve with excess oil. The following steps were
taken to eliminate the excessive failures of inboard suction valves:
• Valve surfaces were closely monitored to ensure proper finish.
• Lubrication rate to the cylinder was modified to the minimum required.
• Operations alternated outboard loads when notified of Phase I conditions by
the surveillance team.
Machinery Protection
Instrumentation for shutdowns and alarms are monitored, repaired, and upgraded as
necessary to prevent catastrophic failures of reciprocating equipment. The
following parameters are commonly considered critical for constant monitoring:

• Oil pressure,
• Discharge temperature,
• Jacket water temperature,
• Liquid knockout level,
• Vibration,
• Lubrication rate, and
• Amperage.
An important element of machinery protection is periodic testing of alarms and
shutdowns. In locations where there are regular, documented testing programs, tests
are conducted as often as weekly, but more commonly monthly. Longer intervals
are also used. One thing is clear: You cannot rely on shutdown protective
devices if they are not being tested and documented regularly.
Analysis worksheets used in the Warren Petroleum program are included in
Appendix M. They may be ordered from Warren or used as models to develop local
checklists.
818 Examples of Program Benefits

The justification of an analyzer program depends on many factors which must be
analyzed for each individual location. Several locations have adopted programs,
and several others use less-sophisticated, less-costly methods such as periodic moni-
toring of valve temperatures.
Some factors worth considering include the cost of the program itself, the level of
attention the equipment gets from operators and/or other predictive maintenance,
the remoteness, number and sizes of machines, criticality of service (production
value), and past maintenance costs.
Warren Petroleum and the El Segundo Refinery currently (1988) have active
programs in place. The following text illustrates some typical savings noted by
Warren, who have primarily integral-engine compressors. The cost-justification
worksheet (Figure 800-12) at the end of this sub-section was developed at El
Segundo, where most machines are slow-speed, motor driven.
In summary, the following discusses:
• Background,
• Fuel savings,
• Problems and cost,
• Power cylinders,
• Compressor cylinders, and
• Cost justification worksheet.
Background
Typical maintenance programs consist of repairs only after failures, or doing peri-
odic overhauls. Needlessly, all power pistons and cylinders would be pulled and

inspected for damage, when only one or two pistons or cylinders on each engine
might need repair or replacement. A complete power cylinder overhaul of a Clark
RA-8 can cost a conservative $40,000 in parts, not including labor.
With a routine analyzer program, power piston rings that are worn, broken, or stuck
can usually be spotted and pulled for repair before the cylinder is damaged. A
costly overhaul, or worse, catastrophic damage, is thereby avoided.
Fuel Savings
When an engine is not balanced, some of the power cylinders carry more than their
share of the load. Consequently, the unbalanced engine will use more fuel to carry
the same load. This extra fuel varies depending on the severity of unbalance and the
type of engine. Besides the extra fuel, maintenance problems will arise from the
overloaded cylinders.
Balancing the horsepower between the power cylinders evenly distributes the load,
and wear is not excessive on any one cylinder. This is a basic preventive mainte-
nance procedure.
Ignition problems and poor ignition timing will cause the engine to use more fuel
than required. If there is no combustion in a power cylinder due to ignition difficul-
ties, then the fuel will be swept out the exhaust. If the spark is early or late by as
little as four degrees, it will cause the engine to consume more fuel than necessary.
Other problems that will cause excessive fuel consumption are improper fuel and
air quality, improper air/fuel ratios, engine load, and engine RPM. The result of
these problems can cause the engine to consume as much as 15 to 25% more fuel
than necessary.
Example: A Cooper Bessemer GMVA-8, rated at 1350 HP, consumes 250 MCFD
at an estimated price of $1.50/MCF. If it consumes 20% extra fuel, or 50 MCFD,
the annual cost of the extra fuel would exceed $27,000.
Problems and Costs Summary

An analyzer program can discover many compressor engines running at less than a
full load. It can determine if the cylinder is moving the assumed amount of gas. It
checks the indicated horsepower consumed for each compressor cylinder.
Typical problems are listed below that are frequently found from an analysis
program. In all cases, simple, inexpensive problems are caught and corrected before
they lead to serious, very costly repairs. The approximated costs are typical for the
West Texas region. The costs do not reflect any labor cost to install or replace the
various components. Labor typically runs 100 to 150% of parts costs.
A Clark RA is a medium-sized, slow-speed integral engine. A Clark BA is a
slightly larger, slow-speed integral engine.
Problems and Costs: Power Cylinders

Piston Slap—This creates a major wear pattern in the cylinder and piston which
will have to be completely changed out. If the cylinder and piston have to be

replaced, the costs are approximately $2500 to $4500 for a Clark RA and Clark
BA, respectively.
Ring Blow-by—This leads to oil contamination and also leads to piston slap if left
undetected and allowed to progress. If the repair is limited to piston ring changeout,
the cost is approximately $250 to $450 for a Clark RA and a Clark BA, respec-
tively. If the cylinder and piston require repair, the cost is about 10 times higher.
Detonation—This can be a very serious problem if allowed to continue for very
long. It breaks rings, cracks pistons, cracks heads, and wears piston bearings out
very quickly. The costs for replacing broken rings are noted under Ring Blow-by.
The reworking of the piston dome and cylinder costs approximately $700 each, and
the piston bearings cost $400 for a Clark RA. If the crankshaft is cracked or ruined,
a used RA-8 crankshaft costs $25,000, and a new one costs $65,000, with an
extended delivery time.
Cracked Head—This leads to detonation and visa versa. The costs for this are
detailed under Detonation.
Carbon in Ports—This only takes labor and gaskets to fix, but leads to a loss in
horsepower, which causes the other cylinders to overload, and high cylinder temper-
atures. This eventually leads to a major wear pattern detailed in Piston Slap. If the
carbon begins to get hot and cause premature ignition or detonation problems, then
more maintenance costs are incurred as a result of this relatively simple problem.
Note that excess carbon can also be caused by improper lubricating oils.
Knock in Wristpin/Bushing—This can be replaced for approximately $400. If the
condition is allowed to deteriorate, it creates excessive wear in the piston, cylinder,
and rings. These costs are noted in Piston Slap.
Bad Valves—If the intake and exhaust valves on a 4-stroke engine are leaking,
worn, or need adjustment, the cylinder loses horsepower, causing the other cylin-
ders to overload and have high cylinder temperatures. This can also lead to head
repair, which costs $600 to $1000, depending on the type of head.
Worn Rocker Arms Bushing—This is relatively simple to repair for $10 to $20. If
it is not repaired, it can cause a fuel valve, pushrod, and rocker arm to fail, costing
$200.
Problems and Cost: Compressor Cylinders
Leaking Valves—Repair this valve before it completely fails. Minor repair can cost
about $20; a new 7-1/4-inch valve costs $400. Replacing a cylinder destroyed by a
broken valve can easily exceed $10,000.
Ring Wear—One cause may be hot valves not changed before the rings were
damaged. If the rings fail, the compressor cylinder might be damaged. Relining a
compressor cylinder costs approximately $100 per diameter inch. Compressor rings
cost approximately $25 per diameter inch.

Fig. 800-12 Cost Justification Worksheet (1 of 2)

Engine/Compressor Analyzer
Part I. Operating and Maintenance Data:
1. Horsepower
2. Cost per installed horsepower:
3. Fuel cost, per year:
4. Value of production per year:
5. Repair material cost, per year:
6. Load factor:
II. Cost Justification—Calculations
1. Reduced fuel consumption (per BHP Hr.) resulting from the following:
a. Correct Engine Balancing, using horsepower measurements of the
Engine/Compressor Analyzer:
5.0% of I (3)
b. Elimination of Defects in Ignition System using ignition analysis:
1.0% of I (3)
SUBTOTAL, Reduced Fuel Consumption
2. Added Production, or throughput:
a. Elimination of restriction on horsepower utilization, through the
following:
1. Measurement of indicated horsepower to help accomplish:
a. Correct loading, to utilize 100% of installed H.P.:
3% of I (4)
b. Proper balancing of power cylinders using H.P.
measurements:
1.0% of I (4)
2. Elimination of defects in ignition system using ignition analysis:
0.25% of I (4)
3. Elimination of improper firing conditions through pressure-time analysis:
0.25% of I (4)
b. Elimination of excessive compressor power or valve loss through
measurement of HP.
2% of I (4)
c. Improved volumetric efficiency through measurement of V.E. on
P-V card display:
1.0% of I (4)

Fig. 800-12 Cost Justification Worksheet (2 of 2)

d. Elimination of excessive downtime which may result from:
1. Catastrophic failure.
2. Shutdown for visual inspection.
0.5% of I (4)
SUBTOTAL, ADDED PRODUCTION
3. Reduction in cost of repair parts through reduction of:
a. Catastrophic failure.
b. Periodic inspection.
5% of I (5)
4. Reduction in manpower costs resulting from reduced maintenance
requirements:
TOTAL ESTIMATED VALUE, operation and maintenance savings, and
added production:
Per Year
Multiplied by:
Additional conservative factor: .05
Estimated Value of operation and maintenance savings and added
protection
Per Year
820 Maintenance Checklists

Experience has invariably shown that complex machinery cannot be reliably
repaired without using detailed checklists and without documenting the details of
disassembly and reassembly.
Maintenance checklists which are employed in the Manufacturing Organization of
CUSA are included in Appendix N. They may be helpful in other locations. They
are as follows:
Centrifugal Compressors
• IMI Guidelines for Completing the Overhaul Checklist for Centrifugal
Compressors
• Centrifugal Compressor Overhaul Checklist
• IMI Guideline for Inspection and Repair of Centrifugal Compressor Rotors

Reciprocating Compressors
• Compressor Lubricating Systems
• Compressor Piston and Piston Rod
• Compressor Packing Box and Packing
• Compressor Cylinder and Crosshead
• Compressor Valves and Unloaders
• Compressor Valve Gaskets and Cages
• Compressor Crankshaft and Bearings
• Repair Sheet for Clark Engines
• Compressor Cylinder Repair Report
• Compressor Crankcase Repair Report
• Engine Repair Sheet for Ingersoll-Rand XVG
• Ingersoll-Rand HHE Packer Rebuilding Procedure
• Ingersoll-Rand HHE Packer Rebuilding Check Sheet
• Ingersoll-Rand Packing Box and Packing Worklist
• Engine Driven Reciprocating Compressor Regrout
• Four and Eight Month Maintenance Checklist Prior Shutdown Information
• Ingersoll-Rand HHE Connecting Rod Rebuilding
• Aluminum Bronze Pin Bushing HHE Cylinder Connecting Rod
• Splitting HRA Engine CAM Lobes
• Clark HRA—Engine Power Cylinder Reconditioning
• Clark HRA—Power Cylinder Repair Flow Chart
• Clark HRA Main Crosshead Rebuilding
• Clark HRA Power Cylinder Head Rebuilding
• Clark HRA Gas Injection Valve Rebuilding
• Clark HRA Wesco Valve Lifters
• Clark HRA Power Piston and Connecting Rod Rebuilding
• Clark HRA Packer Rebuilding
• HRA Packer Rebuilding Check Sheet
• Clark Compressor Air Starting Check Valves
• Crankshaft Inspection and Reconditioning
• Crosshead Rebuilding
• Connecting Rod Reconditioning
• Connecting Rod Check Sheet
• Piston Reconditioning
• Piston/Rider Ring Clearance Tables

830 Reciprocating Compressor Piston-Rod Reconditioning
831 Introduction
This section summarizes field experience and provides guidance on reconditioning
reciprocating compressor piston rods. Sub-sections 832 through 836 contain back-
ground information; Sub-section 837 contains recommendations. (It may save you
time to refer directly to the Recommendations sub-section, 837.)
When equipment is not spared, any improvement in component service life can
have a significant effect on plant availability. Properly selected and applied hard
facings can improve reciprocating compressor reliability.
In many cases, worn or scored piston rods may be reconditioned at a fraction of the
cost of new rods.
This section is also applicable to reconditioning positive displacement pump
plungers. (In addition, certain processes used for rod and plunger reconditioning are
also applicable to reconditioning centrifugal compressor and turbine journals and
seal areas.)
832 Rod Leakage/Surface Finish

Factors Affecting Rod Packer Leakage
Any packing will weep or bleed a certain amount of gas. Minor amounts of
weeping will occur due to gas forced into rod pores or into the lubrication film.
This gas is released when the rod comes out of the high pressure portion of its
stroke. In some cases, dissolved gases reduce the effectiveness of the lubricant,
possibly resulting in increased friction. More commonly, leakage occurs due to
incorrect fit of packing rings to rod and disturbances along the sealing surfaces.
Excessive leakage, if permitted over long periods of time, will cause deterioration
to the point that it will become difficult to correct. Even new packing cannot be
expected to seal adequately if the surface condition of the piston rod is poor or rod
runout is excessive. For any given service, factors such as rod undersize or oversize,
surface finish, taper and runout significantly influence the degree of leakage.
Surface Hardness and Finish

Rod wear rates are greatly influenced by whether a packer is lubricated or not, and
the operating pressure and corrosivity of the gas. API 618 provides design stan-
dards for hardness and surface finish for various services. Without proper hardness,
rod wear rates can be excessive. Surface hardness and finish become increasingly
important as the amount of lubrication is reduced. In general, most rod and packing
materials will perform well against each other if the surface finish and fitup are
correct.
Manufacturers' standard piston rods are normally made of case hardened, highly
polished steels. Two common rod surface hardening techniques are induction and

flame hardening. Both processes involve heating the surface of rods above the
upper critical temperature followed by rapid quenching using water or other suit-
able coolants. Typical case thicknesses range from 1/16 to 1/8 inch, with surface
hardnesses in the range of Rockwell C50 to 60.
In certain cases, the hardness must be limited due to potential embrittlement prob-
lems. Sour hydrocracking services are one such service. For these applications, rods
are often fabricated from softer steels, then hardfaced for wear resistance in the
packing and oil wiper ring areas.
Figure 800-13 provides general guidance on appropriate hardness and surface
finishes for various applications. These hardnesses and finishes have normally
resulted in acceptable packer sealing and life.
Fig. 800-13 Hardness and Surface Finish Recommendations

Minimum Rod Surf. Finish(1)
Operating Lube or Hardness(1) (Micro-inches
Service Pressure (psi) Non-Lube Rod Material (Rockwell C) RMS)
Noncorrosive Through 6000 L,NL Low-Alloy 50 10-20
Steel, Through
Hardened or
Surface
Hardened
Above 6000 L 55 10-20
Above 6000 NL Hardened or 60 6-8
Coated
Corrosive Through 1000 L, NL 17-4 PH(2) 50(3) 10-20
Above 1000 L 55(3) 10-20
Above 1000 NL Plated or 60(3) 6-8
Coated
(1) Hardness and surface finish recommendations apply to the packing area of the rod.
(2) Commonly used material for corrosive applications. Review each material selection specifically for service intended.
(3) These are general guidelines. Determine appropriate hardness and hardening procedures for each specific service.
As metal is removed from the surface of case hardened rods, hardness decreases.
Wear rates accelerate and susceptibility to galling and abrasion increases. The
acceptable degree of packer leakage depends to a large extent on the nature and
severity of the process application. In less severe applications such as lubricated,
low-pressure service, it is possible to accept much greater wear before replacing or
reconditioning a rod. In high-pressure hydrogen applications, however, leakage of
hydrogen results in further heating of packing, lubricant and the rod (due to Joule-
Thompson effect). An unacceptable operating condition quickly results.

833 Rod Deviations

Undersized Rods
Using standard size packing rings with an undersized rod can still result in an effec-
tive seal as long as the rod is truly circular and is without taper. However, this gener-
ally results in an extended break-in period, with leakage greater during break-in. In
lubricated applications, there is an additional possibility that lubricant may be
blown away at gas pressures in the packing. Contact surfaces become dry and subse-
quently overheat. Some packing materials, such as Teflon, will degrade rapidly if
they become dry after once having been lubricated. Under this condition, an abra-
sive paste or small, hard beads are formed in the packing area. Beads and abrasive
paste can quickly cause deterioration in rod and packing contact surfaces.
For normal applications, standard size packing rings can be used successfully on
rods which are not undersized by more than approximately 0.002 inch per inch of
rod diameter. For high-pressure applications (1000 psi), experience indicates that
standard size packing should be used only if rods are no more than 0.003 inch
undersize. When rod undersize exceeds the above guidelines, specially bored
packing can be purchased. The major problem with the use of special bore packing
is the chance that the wrong size may be installed. Additionally, the use of various
bore packings creates stocking problems.
Oversized Rods
When packing rings have a slightly smaller bore than the piston rod diameter, the
segments contact only at one end. The center portion of each ring segment provides
a direct gas passage along the rod surface. This condition is permissible if it is not
too severe. During the break-in process, packing will gradually wear to the point of
conformation with the general rod surface curvature.
The potential for overheating due to lack of proper lubrication exists for oversized
rods for the same reasons stated for undersized rods.
Tapered Rods
In lubricated services, a certain degree of rod taper can be tolerated. Lubricating
films tend to block small passages through which gas can escape. A tapered rod
combines both the effects of oversized and undersized rods in that packing rings
constantly try to adjust to the variations in surface profile. Excessive amounts of
taper, however, will rapidly destroy the packers' ability to seal.
Generally, the worst taper condition occurs at one end of the stroke. Reasonable
leakage rates and packer life can be expected if the degree of taper does not exceed
approximately 0.0005 inch per inch of stroke. For non-lubricated and high-pressure,
low molecular weight gas services, acceptable taper will be less than this value.
Misalignment
Misalignment of piston rod and packer rings cause another leak path. Rod-to-ring
surface contact area is reduced. In addition, edges of rings at the bore become worn.
This permits gas flow from one radial cut in the ring to another. In API 618, the

maximum allowable rod runout at operating temperature is 0.00015 inch per inch of
stroke. Alignment of cylinder, distance piece and crosshead guides should be
adjusted in order to meet this guideline. Runout should always be checked
following installation of piston rods, crossheads, wrist pins, etc. Noncontacting
probes can be used very effectively to measure and monitor rod runout.
Wear
Wear mechanisms include abrasion, adhesion, corrosion, fretting, erosion, surface
fatigue, etc. Adhesive and abrasive wear are the principal kinds encountered in the
sliding sites of a gas compressor or positive displacement pump packer.
Adhesive-type wear occurs when two parts make metal-to-metal contact and
adhere. Fragments are detached from one surface and welded to the other surface.
To minimize this type of wear, one surface must have films and coatings to mini-
mize the initial adhesion.
Abrasive wear is a cutting-type action where hard fragments embedded in the softer
component (packing) or trapped between relatively hard packing and rod material
act as a cutting tool.
834 Rod Reconditioning

When Is Reconditioning Advisable
Leaking rod packing is not a problem unless it is excessive. Depending upon the
particular service, excessive leakage can result in reduction of cylinder discharge
pressure, release of toxic or noxious gases, and in some cases, contamination of
crankcase lubricants. Excessive leakage eventually results in the need for a mainte-
nance shutdown. In many cases, it also results in some loss in plant throughput
since compressors may not be fully spared.
In many instances, rod condition is partially or totally responsible for this excessive
leakage. A rod should be reconditioned before wear is so excessive that required
coating thicknesses (to build it back to original dimension) exceed 20-30 mils. In
many cases, coating processes are less successful when more than a 30-mil buildup
is required. Peeling, spalling and fragmentation problems are commonly encoun-
tered.
Rods are most successfully reconditioned if required coating thickness can be held
to less than 10 mils.
Other factors which affect the sealing ability of a packer include:
• Gas pressure,
• Gas properties (molecular weight, corrosivity, wetness),
• Supply of proper quantity and type of lubricant,
• Break-in procedure (refer to Section 700), and
• Type of packing material and packer design.

Reconditioning Processes
In selecting a wear-resistant coating for rods, the following factors are important:
• Coating roughness and surface texture (smoothness, porosity),
• Coating hardness,
• Combination of sliding materials (rod coating and packer material),
• Corrosion resistance,
• Adhesion of coating to base metal (bond strength), and
• Previous coating/heat-treating history.
Numerous reconditioning processes are available today for restoring worn rods to
their original size and surface conditions. These processes may also be used to
provide extended life of rods in new equipment, especially in difficult services. In
general, only rods in sound condition should be considered as candidates for recon-
ditioning. Base metal surface condition must be carefully inspected prior to use of
any type of coating (discussed later).
Major hardfacing processes include the general categories of flame spraying (metal
spray and plasma spray), electroplating (chrome plating) and flame plating (detona-
tion gun). Figure 800-14 summarizes the relative characteristics of these processes
and the resultant coatings they produce. The acceptability of each process depends
on the service conditions, i.e., lubricated or non-lubricated, sour, corrosive or dirty
gas, etc. Only certain coatings applied by each major process are suitable for recon-
ditioning rods to resist adhesive and abrasive sliding-type wear. For the relatively
low-service temperatures of interest here (up to 400°F), changes in physical proper-
ties and strength of various coatings are of minimal concern.
835 Rod Coating Processes

In selecting appropriate coating processes and compositions consider the following:
• Bonding
Bond strength between the coating and base metal is of paramount importance.
• Residual Stresses
Residual stresses are a primary concern for spray coatings. Residual stresses
have a significant effect on coating bond strength. Generally, the outer portion
of the spray coating is in tension. This reduces the stress required to cause frac-
ture. Thick electroplated chrome coatings, on the other hand, may develop
compressive residual stresses, increasing their resistance to cracking.
• Density
The density of spray coatings depends on individual particle size and density,
degree of oxidation during deposition, and kinetic energy of the impinging
particles. Density of electroplating processes depends primarily on plating bath
temperature and current density.

Fig. 800-14 Comparative Characteristics of Major Coating Processes
Chevron Corporation
Compressor Manual
Maximum Effect of
Coating Application Lubrication Surface
Corrosion Thickness Procedure on Holding Finishing
Process Porosity Hardness Resistance Bond Strength (Approx.) Rod Base Metal Characteristics Characteristics Comments
1. Metal Spray High Low-Moderate Poor-Sealer Poor-Fair 0.040 inch None Good Fair
Required
2. Metal Spray Low Mod-High Excellent Excellent 0.065 inch Significant Good Good Not permitted on
with fusion hard-enabled (SAE
(Wall 4041, etc.) rods.
Colmonoy Must consider
Spraywelding) effect of fusion
process on base
metal physical prop-
erties.
3. Plasma Spray Moderate Moderate Fair-Sealer Fair 0.006 inch None-Slight Good Good
Required
800-35
4. Flame Plate Low Very High Fair-Good Good-Excellent 0.010 inch None Good Good
(Linde D-Gun) Sealers occa-
sionally used
5. Electroplate Post-plating heat

(Hard Chro- treatment at approxi-
mium) mately 350-375°F
800 Maintenance and Troubleshooting

required to liberate
hydrogen.
a. Porous Mod-High High Good-Excellent Good-Excellent 0.015 inch Causes H2 Good Depends
occlusion largely on base
metal surface
finish
b. Non-Porous Low High Excellent Good 0.015 inch Causes H2 Poor-Fair Ditto
December 1988
occlusion
• Corrosion Resistance and Porosity

The corrosion resistance of all coatings is determined by chemical composi-
tion. In addition, coating porosity and cracking may allow corrosion of the
base metal. For lower temperature applications, various epoxy, silicone wax,
and vinyl materials may be used to seal coatings. For high-temperature applica-
tions, sintering (a heat-treating process) may be needed to seal spray coatings.
• Thermal Properties
Thermal conductivity and coefficient of thermal expansion must be considered
when selecting coatings for a particular application. High-pressure, high-
temperature applications require coatings which effectively remove heat from
the contacting surfaces and are resistant to thermal shock.
• Lubricant Retention
Surface porosity and cracks provide storage voids for lubricant.
• Friction
Friction depends on the materials, surface roughness, and the lubricant.
Flame Spray—The Metal Spray Process

Metal spray is the process of applying molten metal to the surface of the rod to
form a hard, wear-resistant coating. The coating material is melted in a flame and
its minute particles are sprayed at relative low velocities onto a prepared surface by
a stream of air. The molten particles impinging on the rod are flattened and inter-
locked to provide a mechanical bond. Alloying with the base metal does not occur.
A subsequent diffusion or sintering heat treatment may be required to obtain accept-
able bonding conditions. The metal spray process requires roughing of the base
metal (sandblasting, rough turning, etc.) prior to coating. Both pure metal and alloy
materials in powder and wire form can be applied. The term “metallizing” is often
used to describe the type of metal spray process which uses metal in wire form. The
term “thermospray” is used to describe the process of using metals in powder form.
Oxyacetylene torches or electrodes are common methods of melting coating mate-
rials. To seal the resulting porous coating, several types of sealers are employed.
Phenolic sealers and silicone-alloyed resins are two common examples. Powders
and application equipment are available from suppliers such as Metco, Wall
Colmonoy, Stellite Division (Cabot), and others.
Advantages include:
• Low base material temperatures are maintained during application.
• Minimal distortion or warping (if diffusion heat treatment is not required).
• Applicable to a wide variety of rod base materials.
• Good lubricant retention characteristics.
• Relatively low cost.
• Can be applied to thicknesses up to approximately 40 mils.

Disadvantages include:
• Bond strength is low. Coatings are mechanically bonded to the base metal.
• Fracture/peeling will occur unless the coating is continuously bonded to itself.
• Coatings are very porous. Must be impregnated with suitable sealers to mini-
mize porosity (and avoid base metal corrosion).
• Coatings have relatively low hardness (Rc 30-40).
• Surface preparation prior to coating is critical to adequacy of bond.
• Coating quality is likely to vary widely from shop to shop.
• Relatively slow powder/wire heating results in greater oxidation and some
change in coating chemical composition.
• Fair surface finishing characteristics.
• Finish machining is required.
An extension of the basic metal spray process is the post-application fusing of coat-
ings. Coatings are applied in the manner described above. Then one additional step
is taken. The deposited metal spray coating is fused with the base metal by use of
an oxyacetylene torch or controlled furnace atmosphere. The resulting bond is
molecular in nature and is claimed to be much stronger. Coatings up to 0.065 inch
can be applied. Hardness ranges from approximately Rc 55 to 63. Corrosion resis-
tance is excellent.
In order to utilize the metal spray and fusion process, the base metal must have a
melting point higher than 1950°F. High temperatures required to achieve fusing of
the coating may result in rod distortion. In addition, when the carbon content of
steel rods exceeds 0.25%, special precautions must be taken to avoid an annealed
metal. Any previous heat treatment applied to the rod to achieve improvement in
physical properties is lost. Annealed rods must be derated to maintain safe oper-
ating stress levels. Fusing followed by air cooling could result in the formation of
brittle martensite, depending on the hardenability of the base metal alloy.
Flame Spray—The Plasma Spray Process

Plasma spray coatings are produced by passing powdered material through a
specially designed gun which ionizes an inert gas to form a plasma. Flame tempera-
tures of 10,000 to 30,000°F are reached. Powder is then injected into the plasma
flame. This rapidly heated powder is propelled at speeds of 400 to 1000 feet per
second onto the part being reconditioned. The resultant coating microstructure
consists of thin lenticular particles, or “splats.”
The principal value of the high temperatures of the plasma process is that the
melting point of the material being sprayed is reached very quickly. Unlike the
oxyacetylene flame (6000°F), powder remains in the hot zone a much shorter time.
There is little oxidation and little change in powder chemical composition. Also,
the powder can be propelled through the plasma at higher speeds and reach the part
being coated with greater impact. In addition, spraying may be done entirely within

a protective atmosphere chamber in order to further protect the sprayed material.

Minimizing oxides produces a more cohesive coating capable of being finished to a
better surface condition. Numerous powder formulations are available to suit the
particular application. Powders are available from suppliers such as Metco, Wall
Colmonoy, Stellite Division (Cabot) and others.
Advantages include:
• Low base material temperatures of 400 to 500°F (205 to 261°C) are maintained
during application. No head affected zone is created.
• Minimal distortion or warping.
• No subsequent stress relief or heat treatment required.
• As applied, coatings are relatively smooth and require little grinding to achieve
finished dimensions.
• Applicable to a wide variety of base materials.
• Good lubricant retention characteristics.
• Reasonably dense coating structure.
• Low oxide content.
• Low-moderate cost.
• Fair bond strength. Coatings are susceptible to spalling.
• Coatings are porous. Base metal corrosion protection is poor unless sealers are
used.
• Thickness of coating is very limited (.006 inch). Excessive coating thickness
increases susceptibility to chipping and spalling.
• Coatings may reduce base material fatigue life.
• High dependence on proper base material cleaning and surface preparation.
• Powder quality and application process parameters must be carefully adhered
to.
• Coating quality can vary from shop to shop.
• Finish machining is required.
Piston rods usually require a grit blasting, grooving, or knurling operation to
achieve an adequate bond between base metal and plasma coatings. It is mandatory
that all parts in the process be clean and dry. Frequent in-process and product
quality control checks are also necessary.
Because a plasma spray coating is relatively porous, it allows gas to penetrate.
Upon release of the gas pressure, the coating may separate from the base metal if a

secure bond has not been achieved. Peeling can result in considerable damage to
packing and perhaps cylinder components.
To obtain a reasonable degree of corrosion protection, plasma coatings must be
impregnated with suitable sealers to minimize porosity.
Flame Plating—Linde Detonation Gun Process (D-Gun)

Flame plating procedures such as Linde's Detonation Gun provide a bond which is
both mechanical and metallurgical in nature. The Detonation Gun procedure is a
process patented by Union Carbide (Linde Division). Coatings are produced by
passing measured quantities of powder, oxygen and acetylene into a firing chamber.
A timed spark then detonates the mixture, creating a hot (6000°F) high-speed gas
stream which in turn instantly heats the powder particles. Powders are composed
principally of tungsten carbine particles. Nearly molten particles leave the firing
chamber at approximately 2500 fps, impinging on the surface of the piston rod and
produce a microscopic welding-type bond. Because of the intense noise generated,
the operation is carried out in a soundproof room, remotely controlled by an oper-
ator. Rapid-fire detonations, as the firing chamber moves along the rod, build up the
coating to the specified thickness. Linde provides several D-Gun powder composi-
tions to suit a variety of process conditions.
Advantages include:
• Low base material temperature [less than 300°F (149°C)] are maintained
during application. No metallurgical changes to the base material occur.
• No distortions or warping.
• No subsequent stress relief or heat treatment required.
• Bond strength is very good (10-25 ksi). Bond is both mechanical and metallur-
gical in nature. (For some coatings, bond strength can be further improved by
post-application heat treatment.)
• Can be applied to a wide variety of base materials.
• Low porosity (sealers can be used to further reduce porosity).
• Good oil retention characteristics.
• Good corrosion protection.
• Very hard coating (Rc 67-76).
• Proprietary process closely controlled by Union Carbide. Good quality control.
• Relatively high cost.
• Limited coating thickness (generally <0.010 inch).
• Finish grinding required.

Electroplating—Porous and Non-porous Hard Chrome Plating

Electroplating procedures, such as chromium plating, have been widely used for
many years. The combination of high hardness, corrosion resistance, and low coeffi-
cient of friction have made chrome plating a commonly used reconditioning proce-
dure. Basically, the chrome plating process involves depositing chromium on the
rod surface by setting up the part (rod) as the cathode in an electrolytic bath. The
bath consists of a solution of chromic acid, water, and one more acid radicals
(usually sulfate and fluoride). The gap between anode and cathode is controlled to
ensure that chrome is deposited evenly along and around the circumference of the
rod. Time, current density, bath temperature, and proprietary chemical additives are
critical parameters which must be carefully regulated. To achieve more rapid
plating rates, bath temperature is normally increased.
Cleanliness and integrity of the base material is critical in assuring good bonding.
Extremely good adhesion to the base metal is required for hard chrome deposits to
perform acceptably in service.
In general, two types of chrome plating are available, non-porous and porous. Non-
porous platings are used not only in restoring piston rods but also to restore such
components as crankshaft journals, crosshead pins, bearing journals, etc. In lubri-
cated service, non-porous chrome platings provide minimal lubricant retention capa-
bility. This in turn causes additional friction and the need for increased lubrication.
For non-lubricated services, non-porous chrome is a poor choice, because packing
material does not adequately deposit on the rod surface. Again, this causes
increased friction, heating, and packing wear.
The difficulty of assuring adequate wettability led to the development of porous
chrome having a high degree of porosity. Porous chrome platings are etched after
the plating has attained a predetermined thickness. For a short time, chromium is
removed selectively from the plated rod surface through an electroetching process.
Small pores or channels are thus produced. These act as lubricant reservoirs. Pores
do not extend entirely through the chrome plating. This process is a patented devel-
opment of the Van der Horst Corporation under the trade name of “Vanderkrome.”
Although the patent has since expired, few chroming shops have demonstrated a
capability to duplicate the electroetching process.
A detrimental effect of chrome plating is hydrogen occlusion. During plating,
hydrogen penetrates the base metal, causing a reduction in mechanical properties,
most importantly, poor resistance to crack propagation. Many chrome plating
control procedures incorporate a final baking to remove this hydrogen. Common
baking temperatures employed are in the range of 350 to 370°F (177 to 191°C).
Approximately 50 to 60% of the total hydrogen present is removed at these temper-
atures with minimal effect on plating hardness. Higher temperatures result in
removal of a greater amount of hydrogen at the expense of decreasing plating hard-
ness and corrosion resistance.
Advantages include:
• Low base metal temperatures are maintained during plating. Original heat treat-
ment of the rod is unaffected.

• Good lubricant retention and wettability (porous chrome plating only).

• Good bonding strength. Molecular type bond.
• Minimal distortion or warping.
• Corrosion resistant (reduces pitting susceptibility of rods in standby service).
• High thermal conductivity. Aids in maintaining low surface temperatures.
• Moderately thick coatings can be applied (up to 0.015 inch).
• Moderately hard coating.
• Can be applied to a wide variety of base materials (ferrous and nonferrous).
• Moderate cost.
• Ease of application and control.
• Low coefficient of friction.
• Quality of workmanship varies widely from shop to shop.
• Bond is highly dependent on proper cleaning and surface preparation.
• Surface finish of chrome plating is highly dependent on smoothness of the base
metal before plating (should be 20 micro-inches RMS or better).
• Fair to poor lubricant retention and wettability (non-porous platings).
• Hydrogen penetrates base metal during coating process causing base metal
hydrogen embrittlement and reduction of fatigue strength. Final baking is
required.
• In services badly corrosive to base metal, chromium plating tends to flake off.
Undercoating
In some instances, a metallic undercoat such as nickel or nickel alumide is applied
between the base metal and the hardface coating. Metallic undercoats are applied to
increase the coating system's resistance to thermal shock and to improve bond
strength. Bonding of the metallic undercoat to the base metal is stronger than the
bond between coating and base metal. In addition, the as-sprayed undercoat
provides a good surface for the coating to mechanically bond. Undercoating is most
frequently used with the weaker bond strength metal and plasma spray processes.
Coating Composition and Compatible Packing

Figure 800-15 summarizes composition of the various types of commonly used
coatings plus compatible packing materials.

836 Experience
Company Experience
Figures 800-16 and 800-17 summarize the results of a May, 1978 Company-wide
survey of experience with various hardface reconditioning processes. These summa-
ries reflect both refinery and producing field experience. Refinery experience
covers gas compressor applications in plants such as Catalytic Reformers, Isomax,
Isomerization, Ammonia, FCC, Naphtha Hydrotreater and Crude Units. Producing
experience generally covers the handling of sweet (wet and dry) natural gas in low-
and high-pressure separation and gas lift services.
Results show that for lubricated, low-pressure (less than approximately 1000 psi)
services, good service lift has been afforded by chroming, plasma spray, metal
spray and D-Gun coating processes. Average service life of reconditioned rods
when used with various grades of Teflon packing has been approximately four
years in sweet, noncorrosive gas services and approximately two years in sour,
corrosive gas environments.
For difficult, high-pressure (above 1000 psi) services, Linde D-Gun coatings have
proven superior. D-Gun coatings have performed consistently well (two to three
years and longer) in high-pressure (up to 5000 psi) lubricated, low- and high-molec-
ular weight gas services. Producing reports acceptable service from metal sprayed
and fused coatings at elevated pressures.
No Company experience was reported for coated rods in high-pressure, non-lubri-
cated service.
Other petrochemical company users report mixed success with metal spray and
plasma spray restoration of compressor rods. One user stated that Linde D-Gun
flame-plated rods were found to perform much better than new (bare) rods.
Compressor Vendor Experience

General experience and recommendations from reciprocating compressor vendors
on various reconditioning processes are summarized in Figure 800-18. Flame
Plating (Linde D-Gun) and porous hard chroming (Vanderkrome) processes are
reported to be the most reliable reconditioning techniques. Specific comments
offered by compressor equipment vendors are summarized below.
Electroplating (Chroming)
Two major compressor vendors indicate generally poor experience restoring piston
rods with various chroming processes. Vendor “A” recommends against recondi-
tioning by any electroplating procedure because of the high number of oilers
reported. In addition, there is also a concern that the electroplating process intro-
duces the risk of fatigue failure from hydrogen penetration into the rod. Vendor “B”
recommends against chrome plating due to the wide variation in the quality of the
plating operation from shop to shop.
If rods are reconditioned by the electroplating process, Vendor “B” strongly recom-
mends that: (1) plating be of the “porous” type; (2) plating thickness not exceed

Fig. 800-15 Common Coating Compositions and Compatible Packing Materials

Vendor
Coating Coating Recommended
Process Vendor Designation Composition Packing Materials
1. Flame Plating UCAR - Linde Divi- LW-1 91% W Reinforced Teflon,
(Detonation- sion (AMS 2435A) 9% Co Carbon, Bronze,
Gun) Cast Iron
LW-15 86% W Reinforced Teflon,
10% Co Leaded Bronze
4% Cr
LW-1N30 87% W Reinforced Teflon,
13% Co Carbon, Bronze,
Cast Iron
LW-1N40 85 % W Reinforced Teflon,
(PWA-46) 15% Co Carbon, Bronze,
Cast Iron
2. Electroplating Van der Horst Vanderkrome 100% Cr Cast Iron, Rein-
(Hard Chrome) forced Teflon
(limited applica-
tions only), Bronze
3. Plasma Spray Metco #2 High Cr. Stainless Bronze, Reinforced
Steel Teflon
#439 50% W Bronze, Reinforced
50% Co Teflon
#451 Hi Ni w/Ni-Al Bronze, Reinforced
Teflon
4. Metal Spray Wall Colmonoy Wallex 55 45% Co Reinforced Teflon
19% Cr
18% Ni
10% W Balance Fe,
B, C, Si
Walcoloy #2 420 Stainless Steel Bronze
Colmonoy #6 74% Ni Reinforced Teflon,
14% Cr Cast Iron
5% Fe Balance Si,
B, C
Notes: 1. Recommended packing materials depend on the nature of the gas handled (corrosiveness, wetness, type of gas, pressure, etc.).
For specific applications, consult compressor vendor, packing suppliers and Company experience.
0.005 to 0.006 inch; (3) rod surface finish prior to plating be 20 micro-inches RMS
or better; (4) rods be ground undersize along their full length, plate only on top of
the undersize area, allowing the plate to fade to the undersize diameter outside the
packing travel area; and (5) inspect the rod surface carefully prior to and after
plating.

Fig. 800-16 Rod Reconditioning Survey Summary (Sweet, Non-Corrosive Gas Services) (1 of 2)
Maximum
Operating Lubricated or
Pressure Non-lubricated Process Unit Experience
Below 500 psig Lubricated Ammonia 4+ yrs service life w/chromed rods. Tinized C.I.
packing. Low-pressure (165 psi), medium piston
speed (700 ft/min) compressor. Total of 12 D-Gun
coated rods in service w/carbon-filled Teflon
packing. 1-2 yr service without signs of wear.
Below 500 psig Lubricated Producing 10 yrs average life w/metal spray (Metco SS # 2) 4140
rods. Bronze packing. Low-pressure (vacuum to 150
psi) services. Wide range (low to high) piston speed
compressors.
Below 500 psig Non-lubricated Air 2-3 yrs service life w/chromed rods. Carbon-filled
Teflon w/bronze backup packing. Low-pressure, high-
temperature (320°F) air compressor.
500-1000 psig Lubricated HGO 2-1/2 yrs life w/plasma-coated (Metco # 450/451) on
X20CR13 rods. Carbon-filled Teflon packing higher
wear rate and cracking of coating noted. Bare
X20CR13 rods lasted 4-1/2 yrs.
500-1000 psig Lubricated Cat Ref New 4140 rods coated w/D-Gun (LW-1) installed
10/77. Teflon w/C.I. backup packing. Good service
experience. No problems reported to date.
500-1000 psig Lubricated Cat Ref 1-2 yrs life w/D-Gun coatings. One month life
w/chrome plating.
500-1000 psig Lubricated Cat Ref Varied experience w/chromed (non-porous) rods.
Teflon and tinized C.I. packing. Chromed rod lasted
4-7 months.
500-1000 psig Lubricated Naphtha Good (5-6 yrs) service on chromed 4140 rods. Glass-
HDTR filled Teflon packing. Low pressure ratio per stage,
760 ft/min piston speed.
500-1000 psig Lubricated Producing Good service experience metal spray (420SS) on 4140
rods. Bronze packing. 3-5 years life for gas lift service
(500-1000 psig).
500-1000 psig Non-lubricated Isomerization Chrome plating wears and peels within 6 months. 1+
year service w/spray-welded (Wall-Colmonoy Wallex
55) 4140 rods. Carbon packing. Low (490 ft/min) piston
speed.
1000-1500 psig Lubricated FCC Feed 3-4 yrs service life w/chromed 4140 rods. Carbon-
Hydrofiner filled Teflon w/C.I. backup ring packing. 1200 psi
maximum discharge pressure, 700 ft/min piston
speed.
1000-1500 psig Lubricated Isomax 3+ yrs service life w/plasma spray (Metco #439) on
4140 rods. Teflon packing. 760 ft/min piston speed.

Fig. 800-16 Rod Reconditioning Survey Summary (Sweet, Non-Corrosive Gas Services) (2 of 2)
Maximum
Operating Lubricated or
Pressure Non-lubricated Process Unit Experience
Above 1500 psig Lubricated Isomax 2 yrs life w/D-Gun (LW-1 w/nickel undercoat) over
4140 rods. Teflon with C.I. backup ring packing. High
(2870 psi) discharge pressure, moderately high (810
ft/min) piston speed.
Above 1500 psig Lubricated Ammonia 1+ year life w/D-Gun (LW-15) 4140 rods. Bronze
packing. 4780 psi discharge pressure. High (850
fit/min) piston speed. No wear after 1 yr.
Above 1500 psig Lubricated Producing Acceptable service life reported w/sprayed and
fused (Tuftin 500 Twin Arc Process) coating on 4140
rods. Bronze packing. Bond reportedly good up to
6000 psig. Metal or plasma sprayed steel rods failed
after 1 month at Swanson River.
Fig. 800-17 Rod Reconditioning Survey Summary (Sour, Corrosive Gas Services)
Maximum
Operating Lubricated or Process
Pressure non-lubricated Unit Experience
Below 500 psig Lubricated HDS Less than 1 yr service w/plasma spray (Comp. Products #3)
on steel rods. Steel/babbitt packing. 800 ft/min piston speed.
Below 500 psig Lubricated Isomax Good (6 yrs) service life w/chromed rods. Teflon w/tinized
C.I. backup ring packing. Low-pressure (195 psi) service.
Moderate (750 ft/min) piston speed. Total of 18 D-Gun
coated rods in service, carbon-filled Teflon packing life
exceeds 2-3 yrs.
Below 500 psig Lubricated Crude 2-3 yrs service w/plasma spray (Metco #2) on 18-8 SS rods.
Teflon packing. 150 psi max. discharge pressure, low (520
ft/min) piston speed.
Below 500 psig Lubricated Flare Gas 2+ yrs. service with D-Gun (LW-1N30) rods. Teflon packing.
Recovery
Below 500 psig Lubricated FCC 1-1/2 yr service w/chromed steel rods. Micarta packing.
Low (165 psi) discharge pressure, 660 ft/min piston speed.
500-1000 psig Lubricated HDS 10-18 months service w/plasma spray (Comp. Products #3)
on steel rods. Steel/babbitt packing. 800 ft/min piston speed.
500-1000 psig Lubricated Rhen. 1-2 yrs. service for plasma spray (Metco #2) on 4140 rods.
Carbon-filled Teflon packing. 750 ft/min piston speed.
Above 1000 psig Lubricated HDN 3+ yrs. service w/D-Gun (LW-1N30) 4140 rods. Carbon-filled
Teflon packing. High (1650 psi) discharge pressure, high
(890 ft/min) piston speed.

Vendor “C” recommends only porous type chrome platings. These platings are
normally provided as original manufacture on such service as high-pressure
hydrogen and sour gas (up to 2% H2S). These environments require moderate hard-
ness base materials with high hardness wear-resistant coatings.
Flame Plating (Linde D-Gun)

Vendor “A” highly recommends the Linde D-Gun process due to its “wide adapt-
ability to a variety of operating conditions.” Field reports indicate long wear life in
services where cylinder discharge pressures are both above and below 1000 psig.
Vendor “A” recommends that: (1) final coating thickness be in the range of 0.002 to
0.003 inch, and (2) rods be in their final heat-treated condition before coating.
Vendor “D” recommends reconditioning of 4140 rods in noncorrosive gas service
by use of Linde D-Gun type LW-1 coatings. Good field experience is cited.
Metal Spray
In general, metal spray coatings were not recommended by compressor vendors.
Vendor “A” does not consider the metal spray and fusing process to be a good
reconditioning procedure. Main problems reported are (1) distortion of rod's
finished surface, and (2) overlay of steel rod whose carbon content exceeds 0.25%
without special proper precaution. Vendor “B” similarly recommends against this
restoration method.
Vendor “C” cites mixed experience with this technique. In one case a 5-inch diam-
eter rod in hydrogen service was hardfaced to a 50-mil thickness by Spraywelding.
Shortly after startup, the rod cracked in half, causing significant damage to the
compressor. Later investigation showed base metal hardness in the range of 500
BHN (originally 240 BHN). Hydrogen embrittlement was thought to be the cause
of this failure.
Plasma Spray
Vendor “B” indicated that their experience shows “no acceptable or successful
process exists to restore rods reliably by plasma spray.” Vendor “D” cited peeling
problems with this reconditioning technique.
Experience Summary
Overall, consistently best service experience in low-pressure and even high-pres-
sure, difficult services has been afforded by the use of the Linde D-Gun coatings. In
addition to favorable Company and compressor vendor experience, Union Carbide
cites numerous applications throughout the domestic petrochemical industry where
D-Gun coatings have performed well. These coatings have been used in both lubri-
cated and non-lubricated services up to 6000 psi.
Experience with chrome plating and flame spray (metal and plasma) coatings varies
throughout the industry. Most diversity is noted in the chroming process. Quality
control varies enormously from shop to shop. Many chroming problems are likely
the result of changes in chrome shop personnel and the use of new shops seemingly
offering comparable quality at lower cost. Because commonly used non-porous
chrome has poor lubricant retention quality, special precaution must be taken to

insure adequate lubrication. Many times, these steps are not taken, resulting in short
packer and rod life.
Metal and plasma spray coating processes are generally less successful (especially
at higher pressures) due to low bonding strength and the need for strict quality
control during the preparation and coating processes. Where reliable shops have
been established, metal spray has proven an economical, reliable reconditioning
technique in lubricated low-pressure services. Metal spray and fused coatings are
good choices in very corrosive services as long as proper attention is given to the
metallurgical effects of the fusing operation. Little experience is available
supporting the general use of plasma spray.
837 Recommendations
Based on service experience available to date, the following procedure is recom-
mended when considering reconditioning used rods or coating new ones.
1. Confirm the technical adequacy and quality control procedures for every
coating shop to be used. Do this periodically for shops used repeatedly for
years.
2. Avoid reconditioning rods which are scored, galled or worn to a depth of more
than 20 to 30 mils; 5 to 10 mils is preferred.
3. Consider hardfacing new rods before putting in service.
4. Complete Figure 800-19 for each individual rod sent to a coating shop. Require
the vendor to complete and return Part II of this figure after all coating and
machining operations are complete. Retain this as a permanent record in the
file for that compressor.
5. For difficult and critical services, consider in-shop inspection prior to, during,
and following coating application.
6. Unless otherwise dictated by local service experience, the following restoration
processes are recommended in order of preference:
a. Union Carbide Linde D-Gun flame plating (most lubricated and non-lubri-
cated, high- and low-pressure services), and
b. Metal spray and fuse (extremely corrosive services only).
c. Porous chrome, Van der Horst Corp. “Vanderkrome” (lubricated services
up to moderate pressures)
d. Plasma spray (limited to low-moderate pressure, lubricated services)
e. Metal spray without fusing (limited to low-pressure, lubricated services)
f. Non-porous chrome (limited to low-pressure noncritical, lubricated
services)

7. Maintain a record of the service life of the coated rod (Part III of
Figure 800-18).
Fig. 800-18 Reciprocating Compressor Vendor Experience Summary (Reconditioning Process)

Vendor Chroming Flame Plating Plasma Spray Metal Spray
A Not recommended. Linde D-Gun highly No comment. Not considered good
Not considered a reli- recommended. Excel- technique. Possible
able procedure. lent field experience. rod distortion prob-
lems with metal spray
and fusing process
B Not generally recom- No experience Not considered Not considered
mended due to enor- acceptable acceptable
mous quality
variations between
platers. Only porous-
type chroming consid-
ered acceptable
C Recommends only No experience No comment Mixed experience.
porous chrome Problem with
coating. Good experi- changing base metal
ence in H2 and H2S (up strength/hardness
to 2%) services
D Not recommended. Linde D-Gun Coating Not recommended. Not recommended.
Peeling problems. LW-1 highly recom- Peeling problems Metal spray plus
Teflon packing (lube mended on 4140 rods, fusing is recom-
and non-lube) not noncorrosive gas mended in corrosive
recommended service. Outlasts gas services. Consider
noncoated rods by at effect of fusing on
least a factor of 2 base metal
E Fairly good experi- No experience Experience varies: Many peeling failures
ence. Chroming some good, some bad reported.
quality varies widely
from shop to shop
838 Inspection and Specifications

Inspection and Quality Control
Reconditioned rods must be closely inspected for proper bonding, surface finish,
taper at ends of coating, hardness, thickness and finish dimensions. Of these items,
verification of proper bonding between coating and base material is of primary
importance. Careful inspection is mandatory when machining or working the
finished coating. Any spalling during machining indicates an inadequate coating
job. Coatings should be completely removed and reapplied. Lack of adequate bond
can result in peeling and spalling with consequential rapid deterioration of packing.
Disbonding can also result in cylinder bore and piston ring damage.

Following initial grinding of a used rod, but prior to plating or coating, the rod must
be carefully inspected for cracks and grinding heat checks by magnaflux or equal
inspection techniques. In addition, base metal surfaces must be properly cleaned.
Certain coating processes demand much closer attention to surface cleanliness than
others. The importance of clean base metal is underscored by a recent two-year
survey by a major chrome plating company. Results showed 80% of the premature
plating failures were attributable to lack of cleanliness. Contamination can arise
from (1) nonmetallic, abrasive particles embedded in the surface or adhering elec-
trostatically from grinding, sandblasting, polishing, and honing operations, (2)
residual traces of metal working fluids, coolants, lubricants used during machining
operations, (3) dusty, moisture-laden coating environment, (4) insufficient interim
protection during various stages of coating, and (5) lack of caution by people
handling parts (dirty or perspiring bare hands).
Close review of a coating shop's quality control standards is essential. Microscopic
examination of rods before and after coating, intermittent inspection between
coating phases and strict adherence to proper handling procedures are mandatory
requirements for every coating process.
When a particular coating has not been previously applied by a coating shop, it is
recommended that the vendor be required to demonstrate the adequacy of his
proposal. One method is to require coating of a short rod of identical material and
similar heat treatment to the proposed rod. After coating, this specimen should be
bent repeatedly on a diameter equal to the diameter equal to the diameter of the rod,
until it fractures.
Acceptable coating adhesion will show no separation from the base metal.
In general, it should be noted that the quality of work by coating shops varies
widely, except for such proprietary processes as Linde D-Gun, which is closely
controlled by Union Carbide.
Specification for Reconditioning Rods

Obtaining proper coatings to achieve acceptable rod life depends largely on (1)
good communications between user and coating vendor, (2) selection of qualified
coating facilities, and (3) adherence to appropriate quality control standards. Poten-
tial areas which may lead to unacceptable rod repair include:
• Rod base metal metallurgy not known. Previous coating history unknown.
• Improperly selected coating for actual operating conditions.
• Inadequate quality control prior to and/or during coating application.
• Poor compatibility of coating with packing material.
• Incorrect or incomplete specification of rod area to be coated.
• Finished rod dimensions and tolerances not specified.
• Improper taper at ends of coating.
• Desired surface finish not stated.
• Excessive coating thickness required to build up badly worn or gouged rod.
• Poor bond strength between undercoat, if any, and base metal.

Figure 800-18 (Part I) includes basic operating, design, dimensional, and metallur-
gical information essential to the coating vendor. This section should be carefully
completed by the Purchaser and included with each piston rod sent to a recondi-
tioning shop. Purchase orders for coating work should require that Part II of
Figure 800-18 be completed by the coating vendor after coating work is complete.
The completed figure, specifying the as-finished coating condition, should then be
returned with the reconditioned rod and become part of the compressor mainte-
nance records. Any refinishing performed after the rod has been in service should
be noted in Part III of Figure 800-18. This information will assist in evaluating the
extension of service life afforded by the coating process.
840 Troubleshooting
841 Introduction
Machinery problems can be exceptionally complex; however, practical solutions
can, in many cases, be simple.
No machine operates perfectly, nor in a perfect environment. Numerous deviations
exist in every machine, yet do not normally surface as operational or maintenance
problems. For example, every machine operates with some imbalance, some
misalignment, some imperfections in installation, etc.
Therefore, when called upon to solve a problem that has surfaced, expect to find
several “deviations” during the investigation. The job is not to find a deviation (or
even several), but to find the deviation, or combination of deviations which are
causing the problem that needs to be corrected.
As in any problem-solving effort, one of the most important steps is to define the
problem. A problem given as “lube-oil pump will not put out—repair as neces-
sary” can result in considerable time and expense spent on overhauling the pump
when replacing a faulty pressure gage or adjusting a turbine governor may have
been all that was required. Look for the simple cause/solution first!
Many problems with compressors fall into one of the following categories:
1. Improper component assembly.
2. Component wear or failure.
3. Deposit-buildup imbalance or flow restriction.
4. Controls/instrumentation out of calibration or faulty.
5. Auxiliary system/driver malfunction.
6. Support system (seals, lubrication, alignment, piping strain, foundation
settling, baseplate warped or poorly grouted).
7. Off-design operating conditions.

By considering the above categories when attempting to define a problem, it will

often be discovered that there is no real problem with the compressor at all. Recali-
brating instrumentation, adjusting piping supports, etc., are all solutions which are
far less expensive than compressor overhaul. Be sure simple solutions are consid-
ered and eliminated before going to more costly solutions.
842 Troubleshooting Guidelines

Step 1
Define the desired performance. Define the deviation from that performance. This
is the real problem.
Step 2
Analyze the cause of the deviation, based on a combination of practical and tech-
nical knowledge.
Use all available resources. Do not attempt to solve the problem single-handedly.
Input from both technical and non-technical personnel operators, maintenance
mechanics, process engineers, etc., can be invaluable. Obtain the manufacturer's
input as appropriate.
Accurate and current performance and maintenance records should be maintained
on all equipment. Use these records as a valuable source of data to identify changes
since the unit was last operating properly.
Keep an open mind. Avoid jumping to conclusions. Make every attempt to obtain
and analyze all relevant facts. Do not resist changing conclusions if warranted by
discovery of new information.
Step 3
Take corrective action to eliminate the cause.
Step 4
Monitor performance following corrective action.
Step 5
Document the important points and communicate to those who will benefit from
the knowledge gained.
843 Problem Solving Guides

Although the troubleshooting checklists that follow are generally aimed at helping
in Step 2, it is important to remember Steps 1 through 5. Repetitive problems are
usually caused by failing to complete one of the steps listed previously. The check-
lists which follow are:
• Reciprocating Compressor Troubleshooting Checklist

• Centrifugal Compressor and Lube System Troubleshooting Checklist

Both checklists reproduced, Courtesy Gulf Publishing Co.
Reciprocating Compressor Troubleshooting Checklist

Symptoms Possible Causes
Noise Vibration
Knocking 7-8-9-10-11-12-14-15-17-18-25
Vibration 3-11-14-18-19-25-32
Pressure
Discharge Pressure High 3-25
Discharge Pressure Low 1-3-5-23-24-32
Inter-Cooler Pressure High 2-4-6-27
Inter-Cooler Pressure Low 1-3-5-21-22
Discharge Temperature High 1-3-13-14-17-25-27-30
Temperature
Outlet Cooling Water Temperature High 1-3-13-25-27-30
Overheating Valves 1-3-25-31
Overheating Cylinder 1-3-13-14-17-25-30-32
Overheating Frames 15-25-32
Flow
Low Capacity 1-3-5-21-22-23-32
Inspection Findings
Abnormal Carbon Deposits 1-3-5-16-17-21-25-26-27-30-32-33
Excessive Piston Ring/Cylinder Wear 5-14-17-21-28-29
Valve Wear/Breakage 1-3-14-16-17-20-21-28-29
Possible Causes
1. L.P. Valves Wear Breakage 18. Foundation/Grouting Inadequate
2. H.P. Valves Wear Breakage 19. Piping Support Inadequate
3. L.P. Unloading System Defective 20. Resonant Pulsations (Suction or Discharge)
4. H.P. Unloading System Defective 21. Suction Filter Dirty/Defective
5. L.P. Piston Rings Worn 22. Suction Line Restricted
6. H.P. Piston Rings Worn 23. System Leakage Excessive
7. Piston Rod Nut Loose 24. System Demand Exceeds Compressor Capacity
8. Piston Loose 25. Discharge Pressure Too High
9. Head Clearance Too Small 26. Discharge Temperature Too High
10. Bearing Clearance Too High 27. Intercooler Fouled
11. Flywheel or Pulley Loose 28. Liquid Carry-Over
12. Crosshead Clearance Too High 29. Dirty/Corrosive Products Into Cylinder
13. Cooling Water Quantity Too Low 30. Cylinder Cooling Jackets Fouled
14. Cylinder Lubrication Inadequate 31. Running Unloaded Too Long
15. Frame Lubrication Inadequate 32. Speed Incorrect
16. Cylinder Lubrication Excessive 33. Suction Pressure Too Low
17. Lubricating Oil Incorrect Spec.

Centrifugal Compressor and Lube System Troubleshooting Checklist

Symptoms Possible Causes
Excessive Vibration 1-4-5-6-8-9-10-11-12-13-14-15-22-23-24-25
Compressor Surges 6-7-16-17
Loss of Discharge Pressure 18-19-20
Low Lube-Oil Pressure 27-29-30-31-32-36-37-38-39-40-41
Excessive Bearing Oil Drain Temperature 2-3-21-28-33-34-35-42-43-44
Units Do Not Stay in Alignment 25-26
Water in Lube-Oil 45-46
Possible Causes Possible Solutions
1. Excessive Bearing Clearance Replace bearings
2. Wiped Bearings Replace bearings

Determine and correct cause
3. Rough Rotor Shaft Journal Surface Stone or restore journals

Replace shaft
4. Bent Rotor (caused by uneven heating or cooling) Turn rotor at low speed until vibration stops, then gradually increase
speed to operating speed.
If vibration continues, shut down, determine and correct the cause
5. Operating in Critical Speed Range Operate at other than critical speed
6. Build-up of Deposits on Rotor Clean deposits from rotor

Check balance
7. Build-up of Deposits in Diffuser Mechanically clean diffusers
8. Unbalanced Rotor Inspect rotor for signs of rubbing

Check rotor for concentricity, cleanliness, loose parts
Rebalance
9. Damaged Rotor Replace or repair rotor

Rebalance rotor
10. Loose Rotor Parts Repair or replace loose parts
11. Shaft Misalignment Check shaft alignment at operating temperatures

Correct any misalignment
12. Dry Gear Coupling Lubricate coupling
13. Worn or Damaged Coupling Replace coupling

Perform failure analysis
14. Liquid “Slugging” Locate and remove the source of liquid

Drain compressor casing of any accumulated liquids
15. Operating in Surge Region Change operating point
16. Insufficient Flow Increase recycle flow through machine
17. Change in System Resistance due to Obstructions or Improper Check position of inlet/discharge valves
Inlet or Discharge Valve Positions Remove obstructions
18. Compressor not up to Speed Increase to required operating speed
19. Excessive Inlet Temperature Correct cause of high inlet temperature

20. Leak in Discharge Piping Repair leak
21. Vibration Probably imbalance or coupling.

Refer to IMI Candidate Manual, or other references.
22. Sympathetic Vibration Adjacent machinery can cause vibration even when the unit is shut
down, or at certain speeds due to foundation or piping resonance.
A detailed investigation is required in order to take corrective
measures.
23. Improperly Assembled Parts Shut down, dismantle, inspect, correct
24. Loose or Broken Bolting Check bolting at support assemblies

Check bed plate bolting
Tighten or replace
Analyze
25. Piping Strain Inspect piping arrangements and proper installation of pipe hangers,
springs, or expansion joints.
26. Warped Foundation or Bed plate Check for possible settling of the foundation support
Correct footing as required
Check for uneven temperatures surrounding the foundation casing
27. Faulty Lube-Oil Pressure Gage or Switch Calibrate or replace
28. Faulty Temperature Gage or Switch Calibrate or replace
29. Oil Reservoir Low Level Add oil
30. Clogged Oil Strainer/Filter Clean or replace oil strainer or filter cartridges
31. Relief Valve Improperly Set or Stuck Open Adjust relief valve
Recondition or replace
32. Incorrect Pressure Control Valve Setting on Operation Check control valve for correct setting and operation
33. Poor Oil Condition/Gummy Deposits on Bearings Change oil

Inspect and clean lube-oil strainer or filter
Check and inspect bearings
Check with oil supplier to ascertain correct oil species being used
34. Inadequate Cooling Water Supply Increase cooling water supply to lube-oil cooler
Check for above design cooling water inlet temperature
35. Fouled Lube-Oil Cooler Clean or replace lube-oil cooler
36. Operation at a very Low speed without the auxiliary oil Pump Increase speed or operate auxiliary lube-oil pump to increase oil
Running (if main L.O. pump is shaft driven) pressure
37. Bearing Lube-Oil Orifices Missing or Plugged Check to see that lube-oil orifices are installed and are not
obstructed
Refer to lube-oil system schematic diagram for orifice locations
38. Oil Pump Suction Plugged Clear pump suction
39. Leak In Oil Pump Suction Piping Tighten leaking connections

Replace gaskets
40. Failure of Both Main and Auxiliary Oil Pumps Repair or replace pumps
41. Oil Leakage Tighten flanged or threaded connections

Replace defective gaskets or parts
42. Clogged or Restricted Oil Cooler Oil Side Clean or replace cooler

43. Inadequate Flow of Lube-Oil If pressure is satisfactory, check for restricted flow of lube-oil to the
affected bearings
44. Water in Lube-Oil Probably a steam leak condensing in bearings or lube-oil cooler leak.
45. Leak in Lube-Oil Cooler Tube(s) or Tube Sheet Hydrostatically test the tubes and repair as required
Replace zinc protector rods (if installed) more frequently if leaks are
due to electrolytic action of cooling water
46. Condensation in Oil Reservoir During operation maintain a minimum lube-oil reservoir temperature
of 120°F to permit separation of entrained water
When shutting down, stop cooling water flow to oil cooler
Commission lube-oil conditioning unit
Refer to lube-oil management guide
NOTE: Vibration may be transmitted from the coupled machine. To localize vibration, disconnect coupling and operate driver alone. This
should help to indicate whether driver or driven machine is causing vibration.

Fig. 800-19 Specification Worksheet for Reconditioned Reciprocating Compressor Rods (1 of 2)

Compressor No. K-_______________________
Stage No.______________________________
Cylinder No.____________________________
Rod Designation No. (if any) ______________
Part I. Information to be completed by Purchaser
A. Service Conditions
1. Gas Composition Yes No Composition(Mol. Pct.)
H2
HC
CO2
O2
N2
H2S
NH3
Air
Chlorine
Other Describe _________
2. Nature of Gas
Wet Dry
Clean Dirty
If wet, liquid is
If dirty, foreign matter is
3. Operating Conditions
Cylinder Discharge Pressure: ______ (psia) ( )
Cylinder Discharge Temperature: ______ (F) (C)
Piston Speed: _______ (ft/min) ( )
B. Packing and Lubrication
1. Packing Material Used:____________________________________________
2. Lubrication: Non-Lube _____ Mini-Lube _____ Lubricated _______________
3. Type Lube-Oil Used:_______________________________
4. Is Packer Cooling Provided: Yes _____ No _____
C. Piston Rod Metallurgy
1. Base Material Specification:
2. Rod Prev. Plated/Coated? Yes _____ No _____ Not Known ___________________________
If yes, describe type coating and approximate thickness:___________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

Fig. 800-19 Specification Worksheet for Reconditioned Reciprocating Compressor Rods (2 of 2)

D. Piston Rod Dimensions/Finish
1. Surface Finish in Packing Area ____ (Micro-inches RMS) ( )
2. Description of Area of Rod to be Plated/Coated:
(Attach Sketch) _____________________________________________________________
3. Finish Tolerances (Attach Sketch):
Diameter: _____ (in)(mm) Length: _____ (in)(mm)
Part II. Information to be completed by Vendor after finishing
A. Date:________________________________________________________________
B. Location of Coating Shop:________________________________________________
C. Vendor Coating Designation:______________________________________________
D. How Applied:__________________________________________________________
E. Finish Thickness (in)(mm): Min____, Max____
F. Undercoat used? Yes _____ No _____
G. Surface Hardness: _____ (Rc)( )
H. Sealer Used? Yes ____ No ____
If yes, describe_________________________________________________________
I. Max. Base Metal Temp. During Coating: ____ (F)(C)
J. Heat Treatment After Coating? Yes _____ No _____
If yes, describe:______________________________________________________________
K. Was Previous Coating, if Any, Removed Prior to Recoating?
Yes _____ No _____
L. Rod Diameter After Grinding/Blasting, but Prior to Coating (in)(mm):
Min_____, Max____
M. Description of Pre- and Post-Coating Inspection Techniques Used:
Part III. Maintenance Service Record

A. Service Life of Original Bare Rod:_____ (yrs)(mos)(wks)
B. New Coated Rod Placed in Service, Date: __________________________________________
C. Measured Rod Runout (in)(mm): Horiz____, Vert_____
D. Rod Removed from Service for Regrinding, Date:____________________________________
Remaining Coating Thickness (in)(mm):______________________________________________

References
1. Compressors, Selection and Sizing. Royce N. Brown (Gulf Publishing

Company, 1986)
2. Compressed Air and Gas Data. Edited A. W. Loomis (Ingersoll-
Rand, 1982)
3. Compressed Air and Gas Handbook. Edited by John P. Rollins (Compressed
Air and Gas Institute, 1973)
4. Engineering Data Book (Gas Processors Suppliers Association, 1972)
5. Gas Properties and Compressor Data (Ingersoll-Rand, 1981)
6. PTFE Seals in Reciprocating Compressors, J.W. Blackwell, et al (ASME
Design Manual, 1975). This book is out of print.
7. Practical Machinery Management for Plants, Volume 2. Heinz P. Bloch (Gulf
Publishing Company, 1983)
8. Process Compressor Technology, Volume1. Ronald P. Lapina (Gulf Publishing
Company, 1982)
9. Sawyer’s Turbomachinery Maintenance Handbook, Volume 1. Edited by John
W Sawyer (Turbomachinery International Publications, 1980)
10. Turbomachinery Handbook (Gulf Publishing Company, 1974)
11. Compressor Handbook (Gulf Publishing Company, 1969)
Chevron Corporation Reference-1 December 1988

References Compressor Manual
December 1988 Reference-2 Chevron Corporation

Appendix A. Reciprocating Compressor Performance Program
Abstract
This appendix gives instructions for using a program made available from Warren
Petroleum. This program will model reciprocating compressor performance as
described in Sub-section A1.0. It is only applicable for natural gas, and for known,
or assumed cylinder dimensions.
Contents Page
A1.0 Background A-2

A2.0 Procedures A-2
A2.1 Installing the Program on a Hard Disk
A2.2 Gathering the Data
A2.3 Building an Input Data File
A2.4 Running the Program
A2.5 Printing the Output
A2.6 Interpreting the Results
Chevron Corporation A-1 March 1991

Appendix A Compressor Manual
A1.0 Background
A computer program “GLTW7100" has been developed by Warren Petroleum to
make preliminary reciprocating compressor calculations for natural gas. Calcula-
tions are based on known, or assumed cylinder dimensions, and are only valid
for natural gas.
These calculations are:
• Flow rates (inlet and standard);
• Interstage and discharge temperatures;
• Horsepower;
• Rod loading (gas loads only);
• Surge drum volume estimates;
• Lead line diameter estimates; and
• Intermediate results, such as, volumetric efficiency, compression ratios, percent
clearance, displacement, and compressibility factors.
With predetermined cylinder geometry, these calculations can be used for:
1. Project scoping - Estimating horsepower prior to making a rigorous, detailed
study—estimates are often used as the basis for appropriation requests.
2. Verification of vendors' designs - Compressor vendors use their own propri-
etary computer programs to design compressors. Program GLTW7100 can be
used to check the vendors' design before awarding bids, or fabrication starts, or
to evaluate the effect of proposed changes during fabrication.
3. Rerates of existing equipment - Changing the service conditions of existing
compressors can be computer modeled to determine the effects.
4. Diagnose problems when compressors exhibit unusual behavior (low flow,
high temperatures, resonance problems, etc.).
GLTW7100 can handle up to four stages and up to four cylinders per stage. The
cylinders can be either double- or single-acting. It cannot accommodate side-
streams, refrigeration, or high molecular-weight applications.
A2.0 Procedures
To run this program, several steps must take place. In general you must:
• Install the program on a hard disk
• Gather the data
• Build an input data file
• Run the program
• Print the output
March 1991 A-2 Chevron Corporation

Compressor Manual Appendix A
• Interpret the results

This program is designed to be run on an IBM-PC, XT, AT, or compatible
computer, and must be installed on a hard disk.
The computer should have a math co-processor in order to run this program more
quickly, but it is not required.
Also note that CUSA Production, Eastern Region, has a modified version of this
program. You may find this version easier to load on your system.
A2.1 Installing the Program on a Hard Disk

Before installing the GLTW7100 program, insert the following command in your
AUTOEXEC.BAT file which is found in the hard disk root directory.
PATH C:\;\UTILITY;\BATCH
If your autoexec.bat file already has a path command, for example,
PATH=C:\;\DOS
Add ;\UTILITY;\BATCH to the end of your path command, for example,
PATH=C:\;\DOS;\UTILITY;\BATCH
After modifying the autoexec file, with the program diskette in Drive A, enter the
following command at the C:> prompt to start the installation:
A:WARREN
Follow the directions as they appear on the screen. When the installation is
complete, an instruction sheet will be printed for using the program. Before using
the program restart DOS by pressing the CTRL, ALT, and DEL keys simulta-
neously. This will execute the revised autoexec file.
Print the two help files (Help1 and Help2) on the program diskette for information
on how to install the program on a hard disk and additional usage tips.
An example data file (titled “Sandhill”) has been included on the program disk. It
may be run as a tutorial, or can be modified to suit a specific application. Note that
this file was previously used by Warren Petroleum as the example in their Program
Guide.
Questions regarding program installation may be referred to Warren Petroleum.
A2.2 Gathering the Data

Prior to creating your input data file, refer to subsequent paragraphs titled
“Building the Data File: Technical Input” and Figure A-1 for a description of the
data required to run the program, and an illustration of how this data must be
arranged.

A2.3 Building an Input Data File

Building the Data File: Computer Instructions
Program GLTW7100 does not create a screen display; therefore, refer to Figure A-1
for the input data file structure. This format is essential to running this program,
so follow it exactly.
You can build input data files one of two ways: (1) using a word processing
program and line editor, or (2) using a full-page editor program.
1. Word Processing Programs. Normally, word processing programs are easy to
use, allowing you to quickly develop data files. One disadvantage is they may
imbed hidden characters or document options into the data file (for formatting,
or to control the appearance of the file for printing). When encountered, these
hidden characters/options cause the GLTW7100 program to stop execution.
Examples of word processing programs are:
– Volkswriter
– WordPerfect
– PC Write
If you use a word processing program to build the input data file, a line editor
program will probably be necessary to remove any imbedded characters. One
common line editor that may be used is “EDLIN.”
Line Editor Programs. Line editors are more widely used, and most users
will have access to the DOS EDLIN line editor program. Use of this program
is briefly described in the following example. Note that this program will not
display cursor location, and does not provide a user friendly “menu” of
commands, but it does display exactly what the computer has in the input file.
2. Full-Page Editor Programs. Full-page editors may be preferred over line
editors because they incorporate some word processing features that make
editing easier, such as displaying the cursor location, and displaying more than
one line at a time.
Setting up data files may be more difficult using a full-page editor for the
following reasons: (1) commands may need to be entered directly (without
recourse to a menu); and, (2) column location of the cursor may not be
displayed. However, full-page editor programs do not imbed characters or
document options (what you type is what you get).
Note Warren Petroleum has had good results using the full-screen text editor
program KEDIT (the PC version of the mainframe Xedit program). Although
KEDIT is not supported or recommended by CITC, it can be purchased from them
for under $100.00. For more information, call CITC-Resources at (CTN) 842-4000,
or your local computer coordinator.

Fig. A-1 Sample Layout for Program File Structure
Example using Volkswriter and EDLIN

If you use Volkswriter, select the option to create a new file, and assign a file
name. Since the data in the file must be organized as shown in Figure A-1, disable
the “reformat” option and assign a file extension of “.DAT” to build a backup file.
Each field of data should be entered on the correct line, in the correct columns.
With Volkswriter, line and column numbers are displayed at the bottom of the
screen. Note that Volkswriter normally starts text on line 6 instead of line 1—this is
done to provide a top margin. However, GLTW7100 is not equipped to deal with
blank lines at the top of data files, so they must either be removed with a line editor
(such as EDLIN), or the Volkswriter document options must be changed so the data
file starts on line 1.
Note Never press return (this will insert a carriage return into the file) or imbed
other characters “hidden” or not, as stated earlier.
Once the data file has been made and checked for blank lines, hidden characters,
and proper organization, it must be stored on a floppy disk. Remember to save the
data file before exiting.
Remember, word processing programs such as Volkswriter are recommended only
when the KEDIT full-screen editor program is not available.
For more information on manipulating Volkswriter, or for information on how to
use other word processing programs, consult the local computer coordinator and
applicable software manuals.
Refer to Figure A-2 for a sample run, and use a DOS manual for guidance to enter
the following simple commands from DOS:
• Type “EDLIN FILENAME.DAT,” the computer will display an asterisk (*).
• To list the entire file, type “L”. To list a portion of the file, type “XX, YYL”:
• XX = starting line
• YY = ending line
• The computer will display line numbers and contents sequentially. Underneath
the listing, another asterisk will appear—the computer is waiting for another
command.
• Review the file, and if there are no changes, type “E” to end the EDLIN
session and save the file.
• To change one line, type the line number. The computer will display that line,
and follow it with an asterisk. Type the correct line after the asterisk and press
enter.
• To delete a line, enter the appropriate line number followed by “D”.
• To insert a line, enter the appropriate line number followed by “I;” type the
data to be inserted after the asterisk. Several lines may be inserted. To end
insertion, type “CTRL C”.

Fig. A-2 Sample Terminal Session (See Figures A-6 and A-7 for the output.)
Example using a Full-Page Editor (KEDIT)

Go to the hard disk directory containing the KEDIT files and type “KEDIT FILE-
NAME.DAT” on the DOS command line. The resulting screen should be similar to
Figure A-3.
Fig. A-3 Initial, Typical Screen Display Using KEDIT
To enter data, press function key F2. This will add a new blank line between the top-
of-file and end-of-file lines and leave the cursor in the first column of the new line
as shown in Figure A-4. Now enter your first line of data and press F2 for another
blank line. Continue this procedure until you have entered all data.
Once you are sure the data is correct, do a save, and exit KEDIT. Press the HOME
key. This will move the cursor to the command line at the bottom of the screen. As
in Figure A-5, type “FILE” and press ENTER. This will save your file and return
you to DOS.
Building the Data File: Technical Input

Enter your information sequentially, as illustrated in Figure A-1. The categories, as
shown in the figure are defined below:
Note Data fields must correspond to the numeric rows as shown in Figure A-1.
Also, right justify your data fields, especially decimal entries.

Fig. A-4 Typical Screen Display, Ready for Data Input
Fig. A-5 Screen Display, KEDIT, Ready for Saving the Data

Record Number 100
Plant Name
Compressor Type-
Stages-
** -Enter a “1” if the cylinder clearance is to remain fixed. The program will calcu-
late clearance if left blank.
*** -Enter a “1” for refrigeration compressor. Leave blank for other applications.
† -Enter a “1” to calculate cylinder pulsation bottle and line sizes. Leave blank if
these calculations are not needed.
††-Enter a “1” for fixed volume and (enter volume in record number 500, ”Stan-
dard Volume MSCFD" column).
Record Number 200

Suction Pressure, PSIA - This value must be given for first stage suction. Interme-
diate stages will be calculated based on stage compression ratio and interstage pres-
sure drop. Note that the vertical dashed lines on Figure A-1 represent decimal point
locations.
Discharge Pressure, PSIA - Final discharge pressure must be given to determine
compression ratio and interstage pressure, if needed. The discharge pressure of
stage N (excluding final stage) is calculated by dividing the stage N+1 discharge
pressure by the stage N+1 compression ratio. This gives the stage N+1 suction pres-
sure. Then, add the stage N interstage pressure drop.
Suction Temperature, °F—Must be given. Assume 90°F for natural gas. Inter-
stage temperature with fin fan cooling, assume 130°F.
K Value - If left blank, the program will calculate. However, the molecular weight
must be entered.
Total Horsepower Available - Used for rerates—program will provide a warning
flag if horsepower requirements exceed what is available.
RPM - Revolutions per minute.
Rod Size, Inches - Rod diameter, inches
Stroke, Inches
Maximum Discharge Temperature, °F - If left blank, the program assumes 290°F
Maximum Rod Loading PSI - This program computes gas loads only—inertial
and friction forces are not calculated. Use PINLOD on the VM T9ENGR ID for
more accurate rod loads. Note that inertial loads often offset gas loads. See
Sub-section 351 for a discussion of combined inertial and gas loads.

Mole Weight of Gas - Must be given in lieu of K Value and Z factors. This
program has minimal error for light gases (e.g., molecular weights less than 35);
heavier gases may cause errors in the flow rate.
Record Number 300

Line 300 is used for the first stage, 301 for the second, 302 for the third, etc. Use
only the lines necessary to specify size and clearance for each stage, omit blank
lines.
Cylinder No. 1 Size, Inches - Diameter, inches.
Cylinder No. 1 Clearance, % - This is the average clearance of both head and
crank ends.
Cylinder No. 2, Clearance, % - Average clearance %.
Cylinder Action - Enter “1" for single action, “2” for double action, etc.
Record Number 400

Line 400 is used for the first stage, 401 for the second, 402 for the third, etc. Use
only the lines necessary to specify temperature, pressure drop, compressibility, etc.
and omit blank 400 series lines. Note that line 400 must be included in the input
file, even if all data fields are blank.
Interstage Temperature, °F - Interstage temperature, °F. Enter desired interstage-
cooler outlet temperature. Not used for single stage machines.
Pressure Drop PSI - Interstage pressure drop, PSI.
Suction Compressibility Factor, Z - If left blank, the program will calculate.
However, the molecular weight of the gas must be entered instead. GLTW7100
assumes the Z factor at standard conditions to be 1.0.
Discharge Compressibility Factor, Z - Z Factors are commonly obtained from
GPSA charts; however, they may also be computed using the PPROP program on
VM ID T9PSIM—use the ideal gas equation:
PV = ZRT, so Z = PV/RT
(Eq. A-1)
If left blank, the program will calculate Z, based on the molecular weight inputted.

Percent Liquid Knockout - Enter the volume percent of liquid knockout after inter-
stage cooling. Note that assuming no knockout will result in a conservative design.
Record Number 500

This line allows pressure and RPM parameters to be incremented for comparison
cases. If there is no need for this option, merely enter “500" in this column. Leave
all the data fields blank. The program needs the line number statement to run,
regardless of whether the data fields are filled in or not.
Suction Pressure Increment (PSI) - Several different cases can be run using Line
500—additional cases are run in a step fashion, given the increment specified in
this field.
Maximum Suction Pressure (PSIA) - Used to end the incremental case calcula-
tions.
Discharge Pressure Increment - PSI
Maximum Discharge Pressure - PSIA
RPM Increment
Maximum RPM
Standard Volume, MSCFD - Enter fixed volume to be compressed (if not calcu-
lated by the program) for the fixed volume option.
A2.4 Running the Program

Refer to the PC Disk section, and follow the instructions below:
1. Place the diskette containing the data file in drive A.
2. Type “Run GLTW7100,” press return.
3. Enter the data file name when prompted.
4. The program will now execute. See the next sub-section for printing or display
instructions.
A2.5 Printing the Output

The GLTW7100 program will generate output automatically. The user still must
specify whether the output will be displayed on the monitor screen or printed out on
paper. Separate commands are used to select the print option:
• LISTOUT will display the output on the screen
• PRINTOUT will print the output on paper
To select the desired option, wait until the program finishes execution and displays
a C: prompt. Next, enter the proper command, either listout or printout.

For examples, refer to Figures A-6 and A-7. These figures show the output for a
test case called “Sand Hill”, developed by Warren Petroleum. The Sand Hill file is
contained on the program disk and may be run as a tutorial, or it can be modified to
suit a particular application.
The main output from the program is:
• ACFM for each stage.
• Discharge temperature for each stage (the program includes heat from friction
and irreversibility effects).
• Brake horsepower (BHP) for each stage.
• Total BHP.
• Surge drum minimum diameter and volume estimates for each stage—note that
drum length must be calculated by hand. (Optional printout.)
• Inlet and discharge line size estimates. (Optional printout.)
A2.6 Interpreting the Results

Although the program output is straightforward, several notes have been added to
Figures A-6 and A-7 for clarification; and three areas further discussed below:
• Total horsepower (BHP)
• Clearance added
• Rod load calculations
Total horsepower. This does not include frame friction losses. Increase the total
horsepower by 5% to account for frictional losses.
Clearance added. Sometimes, the program will add clearance even when “fixed”
by the user. This is normal and is caused by calculation round-off inside the
program. Typically, the added clearance is very small and has no impact on the
results.
Rod load calculations. Inertial rod loads are not calculated by the program,
although gas loads are. In most cases, this is a conservative approach because iner-
tial forces are opposed to gas load forces and reduce the magnitude of the resultant
force. If inertial loads are desired, they may be calculated using the VM “PINLOD”
program on the T9ENGR ID. Note that it will be up to you to determine adequate
rod reversal to assure lubrication of the crosshead pin. (See the Engineering Guide-
lines, Section 300.) Inertial affects can have an influence on rod reversals.
Consult your computer coordinator for assistance in running this program.
GLTW7100 also sizes suction and discharge surge drums and lead lines between
them and the compressor cylinder. The program provides the necessary volume and
drum diameter—the user must calculate the seam-to-seam length and wall thick-
ness.

Fig. A-6 First Page “Sand Hills” Output
Fig. A-7 Second Page “Sand Hills” Output
Sample equations used by this program are listed in Figure A-8.
Fig. A-8 Compressor Sizing Program Equations

Volumetric Efficiency:
RPM≤ 450: (Eq. A-2)
EV = 97 – R – ( %cl ) ( R 1 / K – 1 ) and K = Cp ⁄ C v
%cl = cylinder clearance in %
C = cylinder clearance as a decimal
EV Z = ( 1 + C ) – ( 1 + C – EV ⁄ 100 ) × Z s ⁄ Z d
RPM >450
EV = 97 – 2R – %cl ( R 1 / K – 1 )
EV Z = ( 1 + C ) – ( 1 + C – EV ⁄ 100 ) × Z s ⁄ Zd
(Eq. A-3)
Refrigeration Compressors:
EV = 93 – R – %cl ( R 1 / K – 1 )
EV Z = ( 1 + C ) – ( 1 + C – EV ⁄ 100 ) × Z s ⁄ Z d
(Eq. A-4)
Piston Displacement (CFD):
A HE ⋅ S ⋅ RPM ⋅ 1440 A CE ⋅ S ⋅ RPM ⋅ 1440
PD = -------------------------------------------------- + --------------------------------------------------
1728 1728
(Eq. A-5)
Gas Loads
Head End: Load = (Piston Area x PD) - (Piston Area - Rod Area) x (PS)
(Eq. A-6)
Crank End Load = (Piston Area - Rod Area) (PD) - (Piston Area x PS)
(Eq. A-7)
Inlet Volume:
TS
ACFD = MSCFD ⋅ 14.7
--------- ⋅ -------
-⋅Z
P 520 S
S
(Eq. A-8)
3
Surge Drum Volume (Ft ):
( PD ⁄ Stroke ) ⋅ ∆V PD
V = --------------------------------------------- and -----------------
( P′ ⁄ P ) 1 / K –1 Stroke
PD
= -------------------- for DA Cylinders
2 ( RPM )
∆V = Volume Rate of Change Factor
P′ ⁄ P = Allowable Pressure Fluctuation Ratio
(Eq. A-9)
Surge Drum Diameter (In) and Length = 2D
Minimum Diameter (D) = 10.32 ⋅ V1/3
Length determined manually from volume above

Appendix B. Sample Problem
Contents Page
Sample Problem B-2
Chevron Corporation B-1 December 1988

Appendix B Compressor Manual
December 1988 B-2 Chevron Corporation

Appendix C. Equation List and Nomenclature
Contents Page
C1.0 Equation List C-2

C2.0 Nomenclature C-11
Note See page C-11 for description of nomenclature.
Chevron Corporation C-1 December 1996

Appendix C Compressor Manual
C1.0 Equation List

100-1 Perfect Gas Equation
pV = WRT
100-2 Modified Perfect Gas Equation
PQ = 10.73wT
----------------------
M
100-3 Gas Equation Including Compressibility Factor
10.73wTZ
PQ = --------------------------
M
100-4 Reduced Pressure
P
P r = -----
Pc
100-5 Reduced Temperature
T
T r = ------
Tc
100-6 Mole Fraction
N N N
X 1 = -------1- , X 2 = -------2- , X 3 = -------3- , etc.
Nm Nm Nm
100-7 Ratio of Specific Heats

Cp MC p ( m ) MC p ( m )
k = ------ = ----------------------------------- = ---------------------------------------
Cv Ro MC p ( m ) – 1.986
MC p ( m ) – -------- -
778
100-8 Specific Gravity

Mm
S.G. = -------------
28.96
100-9 Relative Humidity

Pv
% R.H. = --------- ( 100 )
P sat
December 1996 C-2 Chevron Corporation

Compressor Manual Appendix C
100-10 Specific Humidity
Wv 18  P v 
S.H. = ---------- = -------------  --------------- 
W da 28.96  P – P v 
 Pv 
= 0.622  --------------- 
 P – Pv 
100-11 Vapor Pressure of Water in Air

P – P v ( wb )
P v = P v ( wb ) – ------------------------------------- ( t – t wb )
2830 – 1.44t wb
100-12 Mole Percent of Water in Air

Pv
mol % H 2 O = ------ ( 100 )
P
100-13 Conversion of MPH to MMSCFD

MPH ( 379.4 ) ( 24 )
MMSCFD = -------------------------------------------
10 6
100-14 Conversion of SCFM to ACFM

Q 1 = ACFM
14.7   T 1   Z 1 
= ( SCFM )  ---------
 P -   --------
520   Z 0 
- ------
1
100-15 Conversion of ACFM to Weight Flow
P1 Q1 M
w = --------------------------
10.73T 1 Z 1
100-16 Conversion of SCFM to Weight Flow

14.7 ( SCFM )M ( SCFM )M
w = -------------------------------------- = ---------------------------
10.73 ( 520 )Z 0 379.4 Z 0
100-17 Isothermal Relationships

P1 V1 = P2 V2 = Constant
100-18 Isothermal Head

Hisot = RT1 ln r

100-19 Isentropic Relationship
P1V1k = P2V2k = C
100-20 Adiabatic Head
Z1 + Z2
 k-----------
–1
-   ------------------
-
r k – 1  2 
H ad = RT 1 --------------------------
k–1
------------
k
100-21 Factor “X”

k–1
------------
x = r k –1
100-22 Actual Discharge Temperature

T2(theo) = T1 (x + 1)
100-23 Adiabatic Discharge Temperature
T 2 = T 1 1 + -------- 
x
 η ad 
100-24 Gas Horsepower - Adiabatic
wH ad
Ghp = -------------------------
-
33 ,000η ad
100-25 Constant Entropy Relationship

S2(theo) - S1 = 0
100-26 Theoretical Differential Enthalpy

∆h(theo)= h2(theo) - h1
100-27 Actual Enthalpy at Discharge Temperature

∆h ( theo )
h 2 = -------------------- + h 1
η ad
100-28 Adiabatic Head (Alternate Method)

Had = (778) ∆h(theo)

100-29 Polytropic Relationship

n n
P1 V 1 = P 2 V2 = C
100-30 Polytropic Efficiency

k–1
η p = ------------
k
------------
n–1
------------
n
100-31 Polytropic Head
n–1
H poly = RT 1 r n – 1
------------
  Z1 + Z2
--------------------------
n–1  ------------------
2 
-
------------
n
100-32 Polytropic Discharge Temperature

n–1
------------
T2 = T1 r n
100-33 Gas Horsepower - Polytropic
wH poly
Ghp = -----------------------
33 ,000η p
100-34 Polytropic/Adiabatic Head Relationship
 ηp 
H poly = H ad  -------- 
 η ad 
100-35 Polytropic/Adiabatic Efficiency Relationship
k–1
------------
r k –1
η ad = ----------------------
 k-----------
– 1
-
 kη p 
r –1

100-36 Step Pressure Ratio
1
---
r oa n
r = ------------------------
-
( 0.98 ) n – 1
100-37 Steam Rate
2545
SR = --------------------------------
( h1 – h2 ) ( ηi )
200-1 Head/Velocity Proportionality
U2
H = K -------
g
200-2 Head/Velocity Relationship
µU 2
H = ----------
g

n–1
------------
r n –1
µU 2
H poly = ---------- = Z avg RT 1 --------------------------
g n–1
------------
n
200-4 Polytropic Efficiency

k–1
------------
k
η p = ------------
n–1
------------
n
200-5 Stability Against Surge

QD – QS
% stability = --------------------- × 100
QD
200-6 Inlet Mach Number

V rel
Mach No. = ----------
a1

200-7 Average Flow

Inlet ACFM + Discharge ACFM
cfm avg = ------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2
200-8 Polytropic Exponent

n–1 k–1
------------ = ------------
n kη p

n–1
------------
–1 r n
H p = z avg RT 1 ---------------------
n–1
------------
n
200-10 Polytropic Discharge Temperature

n–1
------------
T2 = T 1 r n

wH p
GHP = -----------------------
33 ,000η p
200-12 Actual Inlet Gas Velocity

Q
V = 3.06 -------
D2
200-13 Affinity Law Relating Head and Speed
H p 1---
N 2 = N 1 -------- 2
2
Hp
1
w 2 H p2
GHP 2 = GHP 1 -----------------
w 1 H p1
200-15 Impeller Tip Speed

DN
u = ---------
229

200-16 Maximum Impeller Speed

299 ( 900 )
N max = -----------------------
D
200-17 API Vibration Amplitude Limit

1
---
A v = 2, or 12000
--------------- 2, whichever is less
N
200-18 Dynamic Force for Foundation Designs
F = 4.3 × 10 –8 N 2 W R A v
300-1 Clearance Volume

Vc
C = ---------- ( 100 )
V cyl
300-2 Theoretical Volumetric Efficiency

1
E v (theo.) = 100 – C r k – 1
---
 
300-3 Corrected Volumetric Efficiency

1
 Z  ---
E v = 97 – F r – C  -----s-  r k – 1
Zd
300-4 Actual Inlet Flow

ICFM = Q = VdEv
300-5 Conversion of MMSCFD to MMCFD
14.7 T s   Z rc 
MMCFD = MMSCFD  ----------   --------
 14.4   520   Z 
- --------
o
300-6 Conversion of SCFM to MMCFD
( SCFM )T  Z rc 
MMCFD = ----------------------------s  -------
-
353 ,742  Z o 

300-7 Conversion of Weight Flow to MMCFD
wT s Z rc
MMCFD = ------------------
932 M
300-8 Brake Horsepower from Bhp/MMCFD
Bhp =  -----------------------  ( MMCFD )

Bhp
 MMCFD 
300-9 Inlet CFM from MMCFD
14.4  Z s 
Q = ( MMCFD ) ( 10 6 )  ----------   --------   -------------------------- 
day
 P   Z   1 ,440 min. 
s rc
10 4  Z s 
= ( MMCFD )  --------   -------- 
 P  Z 
s rc
300-10 Inlet CFM, Bhp/MMCFD Relationship
Bhp ( 10 4 )Z S
Q = V d E v = -------------------------------------------------------------
-
( Bhp ⁄ MMCFD )Z rc ( P s )
300-11 Rough Horsepower

Bhp = (22) (MMCFD) (f) (n) (r)
300-12 Approximate Stage Pressure Ratio

r = roa 1/n
300-13 Brake Horsepower Per MMCFD

k–1
r -----------
k – 1
-
46.9   Zs + Zd
----------------------- =  ----------  --------------------------  ------------------ 
Bhp
MMCFD Z  k–1  2 
rc ------------
k
300-14 Corrected Brake Horsepower Per MMCFD

Corrected Bhp/MM = Basic Bhp/MM + Bhp/MM (SG)
300-15 Class A Valve Loss Correction - High
4 ,320 ( SG )
Bhp ⁄ MM ( SG ) = ---------------------------
T s Z rc

300-16 Class A Valve Loss Correction - Low
3 ,624 ( SG ) + 696
Bhp ⁄ MM ( SG ) = ------------------------------------------
T s Z rc
300-17 Class B Valve Loss Correction - High
6 ,027 ( SG )
Bhp ⁄ MM ( SG ) = ---------------------------
T s Z rc
300-18 Class B Valve Loss Correction - Low

5 ,672 ( SG ) + 335
Bhp ⁄ MM ( SG ) = ------------------------------------------
T s Z rc
300-19 Moisture Correction Factor
Ps
MF = ----------------
-
Ps – Pv
300-20 Total Corrected Power
Total adjusted ----------- = Basic -----------  ( MF ) ( NLCF ) + ---------------------

Bhp Bhp Bhp
MM  MM  MM ( SG )
300-21 Adiabatic Discharge Temperature

k–1
------------
td = ( ts + 460 )r k – 460
300-22 Allowable Pressure Ratio

k
 t d + 460  ------------
r =  -------------------  k – 1
 t s + 460 
300-23 Cylinder Displacement - Single Acting

π
V cyl = --- D 2 S = 0.785D 2 S
4
300-24 Cylinder Displacement Rate -Single Acting
π D 2 SN D 2 SN
V d =  ---  --------------- = ---------------
 4  1 ,728 2 ,200

300-25 Cylinder Displacement - Double Acting

Vcyl = 0.785 (2D2 - d2) S
300-26 Cylinder Displacement Rate - Double Acting
( 2D 2 – d 2 )SN
V d = -----------------------------------
2 ,200
300-27 Cylinder Displacement - D.A. With Tail Rod

Vcyl = 1.571 (D2 - d2 ) S
300-28 Cylinder Displacement Rate - D.A. With Tail Rod
( D 2 – d 2 )SN
V d = --------------------------------
1 ,100
300-29 Average Inlet Valve Velocity
288V
V = ---------------d-
A
300-30 Average Piston Speed

A.P.S. = SN/6
C2.0 Nomenclature
A Area
ACFM Compressor volume flow rate at any conditions specified
A.P.S. Average piston speed of reciprocating compressor pistons
Av Peak-peak vibration amplitude
a1 Speed of sound in gas at inlet conditions
Bhp Brake horsepower

Bhp/MM Brake horsepower per million cubic feet per day
Bhp/MM(SG) Bhp/MM correction factor for specific gravity
C Cylinder clearance in %; constant

cfmavg Compressor volume flow rate at average conditions
Cp Specific heat at constant pressure
Cv Specific heat at constant volume

D Inlet nozzle diameter (ID); impeller diameter

DCFM Compressor volume flow rate at discharge conditions
Ev Volumetric efficiency of reciprocating compressor
F Molecular weight factor in volumetric efficiency equation for

reciprocating compressor
f Factor in rough horsepower equation for reciprocating compressor
g Constant in Newton's law

GHP Gas horsepower
GHP1, GHP2 Gas horsepower at conditions specified
H Compressor head
Had Adiabatic head
Hisot Isothermal head
Hpoly Polytropic head
H p , Hp Polytropic head at conditions specified
1 2
h1, h2 Enthalpy at conditions specified
h2(theo) Theoretical enthalpy at conditions specified
ICFM Compressor volume flow rate at inlet conditions
K Constant
k Ratio of specific heats
M Molecular weight
Mach No. Mach number in gas at inlet conditions
MCp Molal heat capacity of a gas
MCp(m) Molal heat capacity of gas mixture
M.F. Moisture factor in BHP/MM equation
Mm Molecular weight of a mixture
MMCFD Million cubic feet per day at 14.4 psia pressure and compressor
inlet temperature
MMSCFD Million cubic feet per day at standard conditions
MPH Moles per hour

N Rotating speed
n Polytropic exponent; or number of compression steps
N.C.L.F. Non-lube factor in BHP/MM equation
Nm Total moles in a gas mixture
Nmax Maximum impeller speed
N1, N2 Operating speed at conditions specified
N1,2,3...i Number of moles of a gas component in a gas mixture
p Pressure in pounds per square foot
P Pressure in pounds per square inch (gage or absolute)
Pc Critical pressure of a gas
Pc(m) Critical pressure of a gas (Mixture)
Pd Discharge pressure
Pr Reduced pressure
Ps Suction pressure
Psat Partial pressure of water vapor in air when fully saturated
Pv Partial pressure of water vapor in air
Pv(wb) Vapor pressure corresponding to wet bulb temperature
P1, P2 Pressure at conditions specified
Q Voltage flow rate

QD Volume flow rate at discharge conditions
Qs Volume flow rate at suction conditions
Q1 , Q 2 Volume flow rate at conditions specified
R Gas constant for a specified gas

r Pressure ratio
Ro Universal gas constant
roa Over-all pressure ratio of several compression steps
S Reciprocating compressor stroke

SCFM Cubic feet per minute at standard conditions
S.G. Specific gravity of a gas relative to air
S.H. Specific humidity
SR Steam rate
S1, S2 Entropy at conditions specified
T Absolute temperature

t Drybulb temperature
Tc Critical temperature of a gas
Tc(m) Critical temperature of a gas mixture
Td Absolute discharge temperature
td Fahrenheit discharge temperature
Tr Reduced temperature
Ts Absolute suction temperature
ts Fahrenheit suction temperature
twb Wetbulb temperature
T1, T2 Absolute temperature at conditions specified
T2(theo) Theoretical discharge temperature
U Impeller tip speed
V Volume, Velocity
Vc Reciprocating compressor cylinder clearance volume
Vcyl Reciprocating compressor cylinder displacement volume
Vd Reciprocating compressor displacement rate
Vrel Inlet gas velocity relative to an impeller blade
V1, V2 Volume at conditions specified
W Weight
w Weight flow rate
Wda Weight of dry air
Wv Weight of water vapor in air
w1, w2 Weight flow rate at conditions specified
X A factor
X1,2,3...i Mole fractions in a gas mixture
Z Gas compressibility
Zavg Gas compressibility at compressor average conditions
Zd Gas compressibility at discharge conditions
Zo Gas compressibility at standard conditions
Zrc Gas compressibility at 14.4 psia pressure and suction temperature
Zs Gas compressibility at suction conditions
Z1, Z2 Gas compressibility at conditions specified

φ Individual impeller flow coefficient

µ Individual impeller head coefficient
ηad Adiabatic efficiency
ηi Isotropic efficiency
ηp Polytropic efficiency

Appendix D. Conversion Factors
Contents Page
D1.0 Conversion Factors D-2

D2.0 Temperature Conversion Chart D-6
D3.0 Flow Measurement Nomograph SCFM to ICFM D-8
D4.0 Flow Measurement Nomograph LB/MIN to ICFM D-9
Chevron Corporation D-1 March 1991

Appendix D Compressor Manual
D1.0 Conversion Factors
Units of Length Multiply units in left column by proper factor below

in. ft. yd. mile mm.* cm.* m.* km.*
1 inch 1 0.0833 0.0278 — 25.40 2.540 0.0254 —
1 foot 12 1 0.3333 — 304.8 30.48 0.3048 —
1 yard 36 3 1 — 914.4 91.44 0.9144 —
1 mile — 5280 1760 1 — — 1609.3 1.609
1 millimeter* 0.0394 0.0033 — — 1 0.100 0.001 —
1 centimeter* 0.3937 0.0328 0.0109 — 10 1 0.01 —
1 meter* 39.37 3.281 1.094 — 1000 100 1 0.001
1 kilometer* — 3281 1094 0.6214 — — 1000 1
*SI Metric Units
(1 micron = 0.001 millimeter)
Units of Weight Multiply units in left column by proper factor below

grain oz. lb. ton gram* kg.* metric ton*
1 grain 1 — — — 0.0648 — —
1 ounce 437.5 1 0.0625 — 28.35 0.0283 —
1 pound 7000 16 1 0.0005 453.6 0.4536 —
1 ton — 32000 2000 1 — 907.2 0.9072
1 gram* 15.43 0.0353 — — 1 0.001 —
1 kilogram* — 35.27 2.205 — 1000 1 0.001
1 metric ton* — 35,274 2205 1.1023 — 1000 1
Units of Density Multiply units in left column by proper factor below

lb/cu. in. lb/cu. ft. lb/gal. g/cu. cm. kg/m3*
1 pound/cu. in. 1 1728 231.0 27.68 27,680
1 pound/cu. ft. — 1 0.1337 0.0160 16.019
1 pound/gal. 0.00433 7.481 1 0.1198 119.83
1 gram/cu. cm. 0.0361 62.43 8.345 1 1000
1 kilogram/cu. meter* 0.0000361 0.0624 0.00835 0.001 1
March 1991 D-2 Chevron Corporation

Compressor Manual Appendix D
Units of Area Multiply units in left column by proper factor below

sq. in. sq. ft acre sq. mile sq. cm.* sq. m.* hectare
1 sq. inch 1 0.0069 — — 6.452 — —
1 sq. foot 144 1 — — 929.0 0.0929 —
1 acre — 43,560 1 0.0016 — 4047 0.4047
1 sq. mile — — 640 1 — — 259.0
1 sq. centimeter* 0.1550 — — — 1 0.0001 —
1 sq. meter* 1550 10.76 — — 10,000 1 —
1 hectare — — 2.471 — — 10,000 1
Units of Volume Multiply units in left column by proper factor below

cu. in. cu. ft. cu. yd. cu. cm. cu. meter* liter* U.S. gal. Imp. gal
1 cu. inch 1 — — 16.387 — 0.0164 — —
1 cu. foot 1728 1 0.0370 28317 0.0283 28.32 7.481 6.229
1 cu. yard 46656 27 1 — 0.7646 764.5 202.0 168.2
1 cu. centimeter 0.0610 — — 1 — 0.0010 — —
1 cu. meter* 61,023 35.31 1.308 1000000 1 999.97 264.2 220.0
1 liter* 61.025 0.0353 — 1000.028 0.0010 1 0.2642 0.2200
1 U.S. gallon 231 0.1337 — 3785.4 — 3.785 1 0.8327
1 Imperial gallon 277.4 0.1605 — 4546.1 — 4.546 1.201 1
*SI Metric Units
Units of Multiply units in left column by proper factor below

Pressure
lb/sq. in. lb/sq.ft. int. atm. kg/cm2 mm Hg at in. Hg at ft. water at kPa*
32°F 32°F 39.2°F
1 pound/sq. in. 1 144 — 0.0703 51.713 2.0359 2.307 6.895
1 pound/sq. ft. 0.00694 1 — — 0.3591 0.01414 0.01602 0.04788
1 intern. 14.696 2116.2 1 1.0333 760 29.921 33.90 101.33
atmosphere
1 kilogram/sq. 14.223 2048.1 0.9678 1 735.56 28.958 32.81 98.07
cm


Pressure
lb/sq. in. lb/sq.ft. int. atm. kg/cm2 mm Hg at in. Hg at ft. water at kPa*
(Cont’d.)
32°F 32°F 39.2°F
1 millimeter- 0.0193 2.785 — — 1 0.0394 0.0446 0.13307
mercury—
1 torr (torricelli)
1 inch mercury 0.4912 70.73 0.0334 0.0345 25.400 1 1.133 3.387
1 foot water 0.4335 62.42 — 0.0305 22.418 0.8826 1 2.989
1 kilopascal* 0.14599 20.898 0.009869 0.010197 7.5146 0.29526 0.33456 1
Units of Energy Multiply units in left column by proper factor below
ft.-lb. Btu g. cal. Joule* kw-hr. hp-hr.

1 foot-pound 1 0.001285 0.3240 1.3556 — —
1 Btu 778.2 1 252.16 1054.9 — —
1 gram calorie 3.0860 0.003966 1 4.1833 — —
1 int. Joule* 0.7377 0.000948 0.2390 1 — —
1 int. kilowatt-hour 2655656 3412.8 860563 — 1 1.3412
1 horsepower-hour 1980000 2544.5 641617 — 0.7456 1
Units of Specific Energy Multiply units in left column by proper factor below
absolute Joule/g int. Joule/g cal/g int. cal/g Btu/lb.
1 absolute Joule/gram 1 0.99984 0.23901 0.23885 0.42993
1 int. Joule/gram 1.000165 1 0.23904 0.23892 0.43000
1 calorie/gram 4.1840 4.1833 1 0.99935 1.7988
1 int. calorie/gram 4.1867 4.1860 1.00065 1 1.8000
1 Btu/lb 2.3260 2.3256 0.55592 0.55556 1

Units of Power Multiply units in left column by proper factor below

(rates of energy use)
hp watt* kw* Btu/min. Btu/hr. ft-lb/sec. ft-lb/min. g. cal/sec. metric hp
1 horsepower 1 745.7 0.7475 42.41 2544.5 550 33.000 178.2 1.014
1 watt* — 1 0.001 0.569 3.413 0.7376 44.25 0.2390 0.00136
1 kilowatt* 1.3410 1000 1 56.88 3412.8 737.6 44,254 239.0 1.360
1 Btu per minute — — — 1 60 12.97 778.2 4.203 0.0239
1 metric hp 0.9863 735.5 0.7355 41.83 2509.6 542.5 32.550 175.7 1

Refrigeration
Btu(IT)/min. Btu(IT)/hr. kg. cal/hr. ton (U.S.) ton (Brit) frigorie/hr.
comm comm
1 ton (U.S.) comm 200 12,000 3025.9 1 0.8965 3025.9
1 ton (Brit) comm 223.08 13,385 3375.2 1.1154 1 3375.2
1 frigorie/hr. 0.06609 3.9657 1 0.0003305 0.0002963 1
Note: Btu is International Steam Table Btu(IT). 1 frigorie = 1 kg cal (Not IT).
*SI Metric Units

D2.0 Temperature Conversion Chart

Temperature Conversion Chart (1 of 2)
Centigrade Fahrenheit Centigrade Fahrenheit Centigrade Fahrenheit Centigrade Fahrenheit
-273.17 -459.7 -20.6 -5 23.0 11.1 52 125.6 54.4 130 266
-268 -450 -17.8 0 32.0 11.7 53 127.4 57.2 135 275
-262 -440 12.2 54 129.2 60.0 140 284
-257 -430 -17.2 1 33.8 12.8 55 131.0 62.8 145 293
-251 -420 -16.7 2 35.6 13.3 56 132.8 65.6 150 302
-246 -410 -16.1 3 37.4 68.3 155 311
-240 -400 -15.6 4 39.2 13.9 57 134.6 71.1 160 320
-234 -390 -15.0 5 41.0 14.4 58 136.4
-14.4 6 42.8 15.0 59 138.2 73.9 165 329
-229 -380 -13.9 7 44.6 15.6 60 140.0 76.7 170 338
-223 -370 -13.3 8 46.4 16.1 61 141.8 79.4 175 347
-218 -360 16.7 62 143.6 82.2 180 356
-212 -350 -12.8 9 48.2 17.2 63 145.4 85.0 185 365
-207 -340 -12.2 10 50.0 17.8 64 147.2 87.8 190 374
201 -330 -11.7 11 51.8 90.6 195 383
-196 -320 -11.1 12 53.6 18.3 65 149.0 93.3 200 392
-190 -310 -10.6 13 55.4 18.9 66 150.8 96.1 205 401
-10.0 14 57.2 19.4 67 152.6 98.9 210 410
-184 -300 -9.4 15 59.0 20.0 68 154.4 100.0 212 414
-179 -290 -8.9 16 60.8 20.6 69 156.2 102 215 419
-173 -280 21.1 70 158.0 104 220 428
-169 -273 -459.4 -8.3 17 62.6 21.7 71 159.8 107 225 437
-168 -270 -454 -7.8 18 64.4 22.2 72 161.6 110 230 446
-162 -260 -436 -7.2 19 66.2 113 235 455
-157 -250 -418 -6.7 20 68.0 22.8 73 163.4 116 240 464
-151 -240 -400 -6.1 21 69.8 23.3 74 165.2
-5.6 22 71.6 23.9 75 167.0 118 245 473
-146 -230 -382 -5.0 23 73.4 24.4 76 168.8 121 250 482
-140 -220 -364 -4.4 24 75.2 25.0 77 170.6 124 255 491
-134 -210 -346 25.6 78 172.4 127 260 500
-129 -200 -328 -3.9 25 77.0 26.1 79 174.2 129 265 509
-123 -190 -310 -3.3 26 78.8 26.7 80 176.0 132 270 518
-118 -180 -292 -2.8 27 80.6 135 275 527
-112 -170 -274 -2.2 28 82.4 27.2 81 177.8 138 280 536
-107 -160 -256 -1.7 29 84.2 27.8 82 179.6 141 285 545
-1.1 30 86.0 28.3 83 181.4 143 290 554
-101 -150 -238 -0.6 31 87.8 28.9 84 183.2 146 295 563
-96 -140 -220 0.0 32 89.6 29.4 85 185.0 149 300 572
-90 -130 -202 30.0 86 186.8 154 310 590
-84 -120 -184 0.6 33 91.4 30.6 87 188.6 160 320 608
-79 -110 -166 1.1 34 93.2 31.1 88 190.4 166 330 626
-73.3 -100 -148.0 1.7 35 95.0 171 340 644
-67.8 -90 -130.0 2.2 36 96.8 31.7 89 192.2 177 350 662
-62.2 -80 -112.0 2.8 37 98.6 32.2 90 194.0
3.3 38 100.4 32.8 91 195.8 182 360 680
-59.4 -75 -103.0 3.9 39 102.2 33.3 92 197.6 188 370 698
-56.7 -70 -94.0 4.4 40 104.0 33.9 93 199.4 193 380 716
-53.9 -65 -85.0 34.4 94 201.2 199 390 734
-51.1 -60 -76.0 5.0 41 105.8 35.0 95 203.0 204 400 752
-48.3 -55 -67.0 5.6 42 107.6 35.6 96 204.8 210 410 770
-45.6 -50 -58.0 6.1 43 109.4 216 420 788
-42.8 -45 -49.0 6.7 44 111.2 36.1 97 206.6 221 430 806
-40.0 -40 -40.0 7.2 45 113.0 36.7 98 208.4
7.8 46 114.8 37.2 99 210.2 227 440 824
-37.2 -35 -31.0 8.3 47 116.6 37.8 100 212.0 232 450 842
-34.4 -30 -22.0 8.9 48 118.4 40.6 105 221 238 460 860
-31.7 -25 -13.0 43.3 110 230 243 470 878
-28.9 -20 -4.0 9.4 49 120.2 46.1 115 239 249 480 896
-26.1 -15 5.0 10.0 50 122.0 48.9 120 248 254 490 914
-23.3 -10 14.0 10.6 51 123.8 51.7 125 257 260 500 932
NOTE: The center column of numbers refers to the temperature in degrees, either Centigrade or Fahrenheit, which it is desired to convert into the other scale. If converting from Fahrenheit to
Centrigrade degrees, the equivalent temperature will be found in the left column, while if converting from degrees Centrigrade to degrees Fahrenheit, the answer will be found in the column
on the right.

Temperature Conversion Chart (2 of 2)

Centigrade Fahrenheit Centigrade Fahrenheit Centigrade Fahrenheit Centigrade Fahrenheit
The formulas at the right may also be used 5

for converting Centigrade or Fahrenheit DegreesCent., °C = -- ( °F + 40 ) – 40
9
degrees into the other scales.
5
= -- ( °F – 32 ) 9
DegreesFahr., °F = -- ( °C + 40 ) – 40
9 5
DegreesKelvin, °K = °C + 273.2 9
= -- ( °C + 32 )
5
DegreesRankine, °R = °F + 459.7
NOTE: The center column of numbers refers to the temperature in degrees, either Centigrade or Fahrenheit, which it is desired to convert into the other scale. If converting from Fahrenheit to
Centrigrade degrees, the equivalent temperature will be found in the left column, while if converting from degrees Centrigrade to degrees Fahrenheit, the answer will be found in the column
on the right.

D3.0 Flow Measurement Nomograph SCFM to ICFM


D4.0 Flow Measurement Nomograph LB/MIN to ICFM


Appendix E. Physical Factors
Contents Page
E1.0 Properties of Hydrocarbon and Special Refrigerant Vapors E-2

E2.0 Properties of Miscellaneous Gases E-3
E3.0 Vapor Pressure Curves E-4
Chevron Corporation E-1 December 1988

Appendix E Compressor Manual
E1.0 Properties of Hydrocarbon and Special Refrigerant Vapors
December 1988 E-2 Chevron Corporation
Compressor Manual Appendix E
E2.0 Properties of Miscellaneous Gases
From Gas Properties and Compressor Data, Form 3519C  1967. Courtesy of Dresser-Rand.
Chevron Corporation E-3 December 1988
Appendix E Compressor Manual
E3.0 Vapor Pressure Curves
From Gas Properties and Compressor Data, Form 3519C  1967. Courtesy of Dresser-Rand.
December 1988 E-4 Chevron Corporation
Appendix F. Generalized Compressibility Charts
Contents Page
F1.0 Generalized Compressibility Chart No. 1 F-2

Chevron Corporation F-1 December 1988

Appendix F Compressor Manual
F1.0 Generalized Compressibility Chart No. 1
From “Chemical Engineering,“ July 1954. Courtesy of Dresser-Rand
December 1988 F-2 Chevron Corporation
Compressor Manual Appendix F
Appendix F Compressor Manual
December 1988 F-4 Chevron Corporation
Compressor Manual Appendix F
Appendix G. Compressibility Charts
Contents Page
G1.0 Compressibility Chart for Air G-2

G2.0 Compressibility Chart for Ammonia G-3
G3.0 Compressibility Chart for Carbon Dioxide G-4
G4.0 Compressibility Chart for Nitrogen G-6
G5.0 Compressibility Chart for Hydrogen G-7
G6.0 Compressibility Chart for Methane G-8
G7.0 Compressibility Chart for Ethylene G-9
G8.0 Compressibility Chart for Ethane G-11
G9.0 Compressibility Chart for Propylene G-13
G10.0 Compressibility Chart for Propane G-14
G11.0 Compressibility Chart for Isobutane G-16
G12.0 Compressibility Chart for N-Butane G-18
G13.0 Compressibility Chart for Natural Gas (0.60 Specific Gravity) G-19
G14.0 Compressibility Chart for N-Butane G-20
Chevron Corporation G-1 December 1988

Appendix G Compressor Manual
G1.0 Compressibility Chart for Air

Courtesy of Dresser-Rand
December 1988 G-2 Chevron Corporation

Compressor Manual Appendix G
G2.0 Compressibility Chart for Ammonia


G3.0 Compressibility Chart for Carbon Dioxide



G4.0 Compressibility Chart for Nitrogen


G5.0 Compressibility Chart for Hydrogen


G6.0 Compressibility Chart for Methane


G7.0 Compressibility Chart for Ethylene



G8.0 Compressibility Chart for Ethane



G9.0 Compressibility Chart for Propylene


G10.0 Compressibility Chart for Propane



G11.0 Compressibility Chart for Isobutane



G12.0 Compressibility Chart for N-Butane


G13.0 Compressibility Chart for Natural Gas (0.60 Specific Gravity)


G14.0 Compressibility Chart for N-Butane














Appendix H. Thermodynamic Property Charts
Contents Page
H1.0 Temperature - Entropy Chart for Air H-2

H2.0 Temperature - Entropy Chart for Ammonia H-3
H3.0 Temperature - Entropy Chart for Carbon Dioxide H-4
H4.0 Temperature - Entropy Chart for Nitrogen H-5
H5.0 Temperature - Entropy Chart for Hydrogen H-6
H6.0 Temperature - Entropy Chart for Methane H-7
H7.0 Temperature - Entropy Chart for Ethylene H-8
H8.0 Temperature - Entropy Chart for Ethane H-9
H9.0 Temperature - Entropy Chart for Propylene H-10
H10.0 Temperature - Entropy Chart for Propane H-11
H11.0 Temperature - Entropy Chart for Isobutane H-12
H12.0 Temperature - Entropy Chart for N-Butane H-13
H13.0 Properties of Saturated Steam—Temperature Table 32°F to 212°F H-14
H14.0 Properties of Saturated Steam—Pressure Table H-18
H15.0 Psychrometric Charts H-22
Chevron Corporation H-1 December 1988

Appendix H Compressor Manual
H1.0 Temperature - Entropy Chart for Air

December 1988 H-2 Chevron Corporation

Compressor Manual Appendix H
H2.0 Temperature - Entropy Chart for Ammonia


H3.0 Temperature - Entropy Chart for Carbon Dioxide


H4.0 Temperature - Entropy Chart for Nitrogen


H5.0 Temperature - Entropy Chart for Hydrogen


H6.0 Temperature - Entropy Chart for Methane


H7.0 Temperature - Entropy Chart for Ethylene


H8.0 Temperature - Entropy Chart for Ethane


H9.0 Temperature - Entropy Chart for Propylene


H10.0 Temperature - Entropy Chart for Propane


H11.0 Temperature - Entropy Chart for Isobutane


H12.0 Temperature - Entropy Chart for N-Butane


H13.0 Properties of Saturated Steam—Temperature Table 32°F to 212°F

From “Thermodynamic Properties of Steam” by Keenan and Keyes, 1936, Ingersoll-Rand. Courtesy of Dresser-Rand




H14.0 Properties of Saturated Steam—Pressure Table





H15.0 Psychrometric Charts

From Pressure-Enthalpy Charts for Selected Engineering Substances by Short, Kent and Walls,  1970 by Gulf
Publishing Company, Houston, TX. Used by permission.

Appendix I. Miscellaneous Charts
Contents Page
I1.0 Synchronous Speeds I-2

I2.0 Altitude and Atmospheric Pressures I-2
Chevron Corporation I-1 December 1988

Appendix I Compressor Manual
I1.0 Synchronous Speeds

I2.0 Altitude and Atmospheric Pressures

December 1988 I-2 Chevron Corporation

Appendix J. Reciprocating Compressor Lubrication
Contents Page
J1.0 Overview J-2

J2.0 Part 1: General J-2
J3.0 Part II: Detailed Discussion J-5
Chevron Corporation J-1 December 1988

Appendix J Compressor Manual
J1.0 Overview
Appendix J consists of two parts, which collectively cover compressor cylinder and
packing lubrication. In summary:
• Part 1 - This is an overview of compressor cylinder and packing lubrication,
discussing the importance of cylinder and packing lubrication. It defines the
differences between distribution block and pump-to-point lubrication
schemes. Part 1 also provides oil feed rates, and outlines precautions necessary
for a trouble-free installation.
• Part 2 - This is a vendor discussion of the subject (Courtesy of Cooper
Cameron Corporation). It is primarily intended for field personnel, concen-
trating on the “nuts and bolts” of cylinder and packing lubrication. It provides
enlarged illustrations, and installation and maintenance procedures.
J2.0 Part 1: General

Compressor cylinder and packing lubrication is required for reciprocating compres-
sors to:
• lubricate moving parts with a fluid film;
• reduce energy consumption;
• seal against pressures and minimize packing losses; and
• minimize corrosion by coating metal with a protective oil film.
Cylinder and packing lubrication systems are usually mounted externally on the
compressor. They provide oil to cylinders, rod packing, and other devices that
require lubrication. The lube rates normally encountered are measured in drops per
minute or pints per day. There are two main types:
• Distribution Block (e.g., Trabon)
• Pump-to-Point (e.g., McCord)
The distribution block system uses one large pump to supply oil to all the lube
points. The oil flow is divided in distribution blocks so that each point receives the
correct amount of oil, at the proper time. Distribution block systems are used for
many lubrication points, at pressures up to 2000 psig. Special high-pressure distri-
bution blocks are also available, for pressures up to 7500 psig.
The pump-to-point system uses individual pumps (called “oilers” or “lubricators”)
to supply each lube point with oil (see Figure 5B-1). Pump-to-point systems are
used for only a few lubrication points, and for pressures above 2000 psig.
Cylinder and packing lube-oil is consumed. It is injected into the compressor, and
either drains out through the packing glands or exhaust valves, or is burned in
power cylinders. Since oil is consumed on a regular basis, it is necessary to provide
a constant supply. For distribution block systems, the compressor crankcase is a
good source, provided the same oil can be used for both services (cylinder and
packing oil as well as crankcase oil). As crankcase oil is withdrawn for injection, it
is constantly replaced with fresh oil. This extends the oil change interval because
December 1988 J-2 Chevron Corporation

Compressor Manual Appendix J
fresh oil continuously dilutes the old, maintaining the correct viscosity and benefi-
cial effects of the additives. If the crankcase oil is not compatible with cylinder oil,
distribution block systems then use separate reservoirs. Pump-to-point oilers have
self-contained reservoirs and do not use crankcase oil.
The quantity of cylinder and packing oil is critical. If too much oil is injected, it
may build up inside the cylinder or lead to valve deposits; it can flood the packing
and lead to a housekeeping mess; and it will increase operating costs. Too much oil
can also damage teflon parts. If too little oil is injected, metal-to-metal contact will
occur, leading to overheating problems, scored cylinders, worn rings, and other
repairs.
Figure J-1 is a chart listing typical oil requirements based on cylinder diameter and
piston speed.
Fig. J-1 Oil Feed Rates (Extracted from Salesfax)

Piston Oil Feed per Cylinder
Cylinder Diameter Displacement Rubbing Surface
(inches) (cfm) (sq ft/min) Drops per Minute Pints per 10 Hours
Up to 6 Up to 65 Up to 500 2 in 3 min 0.05
6 to 8 65 to 125 500 to 750 1 0.08
8 to 10 125 to 225 750 to 1100 4 in 3 min 0.11
10 to 12 225 to 350 1100 to 1500 1 to 2 0.14
12 to 15 350 to 600 1500 to 2000 2 to 3 0.20
15 to 18 600 to 1000 2000 to 2600 3 to 4 0.27
18 to 24 1000 to 1800 2600 to 3600 4 to 5 0.36
24 to 30 1800 to 3000 3600 to 4800 5 to 6 0.48
30 to 36 3000 to 4500 4800 to 6000 6 to 8 0.60
36 to 42 4500 to 6500 6000 to 7500 8 to 10 0.74
42 to 48 6500 to 9000 7500 to 9000 10 to 12 0.90
Note Numbers in the “Pints per 10 Hours” column are based upon 8000 drops per pint at 75°F.
One way to vary the lube-oil feed rate is to control the speed of the lubricator.
When several are connected together, the entire assembly must be driven at the
slowest speed that will satisfy all the points. This speed can drive some lubricators
in the train too fast, leading to over-lubrication. See Part 2, Page 5B-1 for additional
information on oilers.
Pump maintenance is described on Page 5B-3 of Part 2. In addition, it is important
to:
1. Keep oil reservoirs closed.
2. Regularly check inside reservoirs for accumulation of water and dirt, especially
after washing down the machinery.

When starting and priming the lubrication system, it is important to check ruptured
disks (if so equipped). Replace any broken ones. Also see Part 2, Page 5B-3.
Distribution block systems often incorporate their own specific reservoir. However,
where the crankcase oil is compatible with cylinder/packing oil, it is suggested that
the crankcase be the sole reservoir for both systems.
For example, oil from a drum (typically mounted on a stand above the crankcase
level) is metered and gravitates to the compressor crankcase. A level controller is
used to maintain the proper level.
A sidestream of low pressure crankcase oil is supplied by the crankcase pump to a
25 micron filter and pressure regulator. The filter should be mounted with the
connections on the top so that waste will be trapped inside the disposable housing.
Note that if oilers with dedicated cylinder/packing reservoirs are used, they must be
checked for the proper level periodically, as make-up oil is not available from the
crankcase.
J2.1 Precautions
Distributor block systems can be trouble free, providing they are properly installed
and maintained. Consider the following:
• Oil must be kept clean and dry.
• Replace filters regularly.
• Keep any disconnected lines closed. Also, block the connection on the machine.
• Replace damaged tubing with new stock—do not reuse old tubing. Blow
through tubing with air to remove any debris, before installation.
• Do not attempt to clean up the pistons or cylinders of the distributor blocks
with coarse abrasive paper. This will destroy the very close clearances (0.0005
inch) and unbalance oil distribution.
• Do not install a higher pressure than specified rupture disk or more than one
disk in a single fitting to prevent ruptures. Repetitive disk ruptures always indi-
cate trouble—either an oil outlet is restricted, the system is incorrectly
designed for existing conditions, the wrong viscosity oil or the wrong rupture
disks are in use.
• Paper oil filter elements are preferred over sintered metal ones because they are
disposable, and it is impossible to tell when a sintered element is clean
enough. Debris lodges inside where it is impossible to see.

J3.0 Part II: Detailed Discussion












Appendix K. Distance Piece/Packer Venting For H2S
Contents Page
K1.0 Introduction K-2

K2.0 Section I: Vent/Purge System Designs K-3
K3.0 Section II: Basic Considerations K-7
Chevron Corporation K-1 December 1988

Appendix K Compressor Manual
K1.0 Introduction
Environmental protection and maintaining safety require close attention to contain-
ment of gas contaminated with hydrogen sulfide. Reciprocating compressors will
always have some gas leakage from the cylinders. The leakage occurs along the
piston rod and through the rod packer. This appendix outlines requirements for
preventing the escape of toxic, corrosive gas into the atmosphere or the compressor
crankcase. Leakage into the crankcase not only will result in atmospheric contami-
nation but, also, can result in crankcase explosions. The principles described herein
may also be applied to other compression services where controlled disposition of
leakage is required.
K1.1 Summary
Six designs for preventing the escape of gas from a compressor cylinder packer into
the atmosphere are discussed in Section I.
Designs 1 and 2 are conventional, non-purged arrangements which provide limited
protection. Designs 3 and 4 use purge gas to block the entry of gas into the distance
piece. Using a purge will prevent any leakage of H2S containing gas into the atmo-
sphere except when poor compressor rod or packer condition results in excessive
packer leakage. Designs 5 and 6, using expensive and space consuming double-
compartment distance pieces, will provide some additional protection in the event
of excessive packer leakage. However, the probability of needing this extra protec-
tion is low.
All designs require venting to a gas disposal system operating at a pressure less
than 10 psig and preferably, near atmospheric pressure.
Basic considerations and mechanical design features are discussed in Section II. It
must be emphasized that packer and wiper designs discussed in the following
require careful consideration of pressures to be encountered and of other applica-
tion details. Design must be a coordinated effort between the user, the compressor
manufacturer, and the packing manufacturer.
K1.2 Recommended Designs

Designs 3 or 4 are recommended where operation free from H2S odor is required or
where highly toxic H2S concentrations (500 PPM and over) of gas are being
compressed. Designs 1 or 2 are recommended for isolated compressors which are
handling lower H2S concentration gas. Shelters for such compressors should have
at least three open sides. Designs 5 or 6 are not recommended unless there is an
absolute need to prevent H2S gas escape even if an unlikely combination of poor
mechanical condition and system malfunction occurs.
December 1988 K-2 Chevron Corporation

Compressor Manual Appendix K
K2.0 Section I: Vent/Purge System Designs
K2.1 Selection Tables

Figure K-1 lists factors which must be considered in the selection of a vent/purge
system. Figure K-2 lists the mechanical and system design details for specific
designs. The columns for each figure are headed by a system design number
ranging from one to six. The degree of protection provided, cost, and complexity
increase from a minimum for Design number 1 to a maximum for Design number 6.
Referring to Figure K-1, the governing factor for selecting a design is the permis-
sible concentration of H2S in the surrounding atmosphere. This allowable environ-
mental contamination depends upon the other factors listed in Figure K-1.
Fig. K-1 Guide to the Selection of Packer & Distance Piece Venting Systems for H2S Service (1 of 2)
Design No.
1 2 3 4 5 6
Governing Selection Factor
Allowable Atmospheric Contamination
(a) Continuous, Non-Toxic (odor ok) x
(b) None During Normal Operating x
(c) None, With Exceptions(1) x x
(d) None(2) x
Secondary Selection Factors

A. H2S Concentration In Gas
(a) Mildly Toxic, 100 PPM x x
(b) Toxic, 100-500 PPM x x
(c) Highly Toxic, 500 PPM (3) (3) x
B. Compressor Housing
(a) Open - 3 Side Minimum x x x x x x
(b) Closed (3) (3) x x
C. Environment
(a) Unpopulated Areas x
(b) In-Plant, Populated Areas x x x x x

Fig. K-1 Guide to the Selection of Packer & Distance Piece Venting Systems for H2S Service (2 of 2)
Design No.
1 2 3 4 5 6
Relative Ranking (A=Preferred, B=Acceptable, C=Undesirable)
D. Other Considerations
(a) Operator Safety C B A- A- A A
(b) Minimum Crankcase Contamination A B+ B+ B+ A- A
(c) Installed Cost A A- B B- C C
(d) Maintenance Effort A A- B B C C
(e) Equipment Space Required A A A A B B
(f) Purge Gas Use Rate - B- B C C C-
(g) Adaptability to Existing Compressors A B B B C C
(1) Some H2S escape permitted for short periods in the event of unforeseeable failures
(2) Least H2S escape possible under any circumstance
(3) Design not recommended unless safety devices recommended in Figure K-2 are used
Fig. K-2 Design Details, Packer & Distance Piece Venting Systems for H2S Service (1 of 2)
Design No.
1 2 3 4 5 6
(1) (1) (1) (2)
IB OB IB OB(1)
Distance Piece
No. of Compartments 1 1 1 1 2 2
Solid Access Covers R x x x x x x x
Cover Gaskets x x x x x x
Vent to Disposal System x x x
Vent to Atmosphere x x
Nitrogen Purge x x x
Rod Packer
Vent to Disposal System x x x x x x
Nitrogen Purge x x x
(2) (2)
Sweet Gas Purge
Preloaded Outer Rings R x x
Rod Wiper
Oil Control Rings x x x x x x
Preloaded Seal Rings x x x x
Code: x=required; R=recommended option. Superscripted numbers refer to footnotes.

Fig. K-2 Design Details, Packer & Distance Piece Venting Systems for H2S Service (2 of 2)
Design No.
1 2 3 4 5 6
(1) (1) (1) (2)
IB OB IB OB(1)
Nitrogen Purge (3)
Rod-Diaphragm Packer x x
Safety Devices
Dist. Piece Safety Valve (4) x (4) x x (4)
Dist. Piece Hi Press Alarm (5) R (5) x (5)
Packer Hi Temp. Alarm R R R R R R

Purge Gas Failure Alarm(6) R R R R
Indicators
Purge Gas Flow Rate R R R R R
Distance Piece Pressure (5) R (5) (5)
Code: x=required; R=recommended option. Superscripted numbers refer to footnotes.

(1) IB=inboard (compressor side) compartment; OB=outboard (cylinder side) compartment
(2) May be used if non-toxic and non-corrosive
(3) Recommended if normal distance piece venting pressure is over two psig or if frequent vent system pressure surges can cause back-
flow of hazardous gases into distance piece.
(4) Required if vent disposal system pressure can exceed distance piece maximum allowable internal pressure
(5) Recommended if PSV required per Note 4
(6) Can be actuated by purge gas supply low pressure or by low differential pressure between purge gas and vent gas system
The appendices in API 618 include figures that show the locations of vents and
purges for the designs discussed below.
K2.2 Design 1: Conventional for “Sweet Gas” Service

Design 1 is normally used for general service, sweet gas compressors. It can be
used in H2S services for unhoused compressors in a remote area where H2S odor
can be tolerated. However, if the concentration of H2S in the compressor gas is
highly toxic (500 PPM) or if the compressor is located in a fully enclosed room, the
possibility of injury to operating personnel is too great to allow the use of this
design. A poorly maintained packer or a sudden packer failure could release enough
H2S to pose a significant risk to personnel.
K2.3 Design 2: Purged Packer

Design 2 injects purge gas into the packer to block the escape of compression gas
into the distance piece. No compression gas will escape where the packer and rod

are in good condition, providing the purge gas pressure is always greater than the
packer vent system pressure. However, poor mechanical condition will probably
result in gas blowing through the distance piece and into the atmosphere. Failure of
the purge gas system will have the same result. Therefore, Design 2 should not be
used for compressors handling highly toxic concentrations of H2S, particularly if
the compressor is housed. It should not be used for any H2S service when odor
from escaping gas is highly objectionable.
K2.4 Design 3: Purged Packer, Pressure-Tight Distance Piece

Optional Purged Assembly
Design 3 provides additional protection over Design 2 by gasketing the distance
piece side covers and adding pressure seal rings to the crankcase wall rod wiper
assembly. The distance piece must be vented to a gas disposal system. This design
will prevent gas escape except when poor mechanical condition allows excessive
leakage through the packer and pressure seal rings in the wiper.
Wiper purging may be included in Design 3 where needed to more positively
prevent undesirable gas leakage into the crankcase. Such purging may be needed
where distance piece vent system pressure is normally above two psi or where pres-
sure surges in the vent system could cause frequent backflow of undesirable gases
from the plant vent system into the distance piece.
K2.5 Design 4: Purged Distance Piece

Design 4 is approximately equivalent to Design 3 in that it uses purge gas to block
the escape of packer leakage into the distance piece. However, the purge gas is intro-
duced into the distance piece rather than into the packer. Design 4 will use more
purge gas if the distance piece to cover gaskets leak and if the wiper seal rings are
worn. The design can be applied to existing compressors more easily than Design 3
since it does not require a special rod packer.
K2.6 Design 5 and 6: Double Compartment Distance Pieces

Designs 5 and 6 use double-compartment distance pieces. These are expensive and
require additional plot area. Their only advantage (other than for oxygen service
where they prevent the entrance of lube-oil into the compressor cylinder) is some
additional protection against the escape of H2S gas in very abnormal circumstances.
A sudden packer failure could result in relative high gas pressure in the distance
piece with Designs 3 and 4 if the packer and/or distance piece vent system capacity
is exceeded. H2S gas could leak through worn seal rings in the wiper, through the
crankcase and into the atmosphere. However, Designs 5 and 6 as well as Designs 3
and 4 will allow H2S leakage if the purge gas system fails. In addition, Designs 5
and 6 have only slightly higher reliability.

K3.0 Section II: Basic Considerations
K3.1 Gas Leakage Paths

By design compressor rod packing always allows some gas leakage through the
packer assembly rings and cups. Normally, leakage rates will be less than 0.5 CFM.
Mechanical wear or damage to the packing or piston rod, or bad fouling deposits
can greatly increase the leakage rate up to 50 CFM. Gas leaking through the packer
must escape, either through a vent connection on the packer case or into the
distance piece, or both. Gas leaking into a closed distance piece, if not properly
vented, will be forced through the rod wiper assembly into the compressor crank-
case.
Leakage of gas contaminated with H2S into the crankcase has caused the following
mechanical, safety, and pollution problems:
• Corrosion of exposed machine parts;
• Reaction with the crankcase oil resulting in poor lubrication and/or crankcase
deposits;
• Crankcase explosions; and
• Gas escape into the atmosphere through crankcase breather vents, shaft oil
seals, or gasketed crankcase and cover joints.
K3.2 Packer Venting and Purging

Conventional rod packer designs generally include a venting connection at the first
(or second) cup of the assembly. Thus there are one (or two) packer rings separating
the vent connection space from the distance piece. Special packer designs (see
Figure K-3) can provide separate connections at two or more ring spaces at optional
locations. These designs allow purge gas injection between the packer vent connec-
tion ring and the first (or second) ring adjacent to the distance pieces. Purge gas
pressure must be at least two inches Hg higher than the vent line pressure to block
the leakage of compression gas into the distance piece. Both packer and distance
piece vent systems from each compressor should be designed to provide 50 CFM
per cylinder vent gas capacity.

Fig. K-3 Vented and Purged Packer Assembly
K3.3 Packer Ring Pre-loading

Packer ring sealing action depends, in part, on gas pressure holding the ring axially
against the cup's side mating surface. Rings adjacent to the distance piece which are
side-loaded only with pressure in the vent-cup space will not seal adequately if the
vent pressure is near atmospheric. Special pre-loaded designs must be used to
insure positive sideload on these rings.

K3.4 Crankcase Oil Wipers

Rod wiper assemblies attached to the crankcase wall are designed to minimize
transfer of crankcase oil into the distance piece. Double-action wipers also prevent
cylinder and packing lubricating oil from entering the crankcase. Neither of these
wiper assembly types are effective gas seals. However, they can be modified to seal
gas by adding one (or more) sealing rings (the same type used in packers). One
such modification is shown in Figure K-4. The sealing rings must be side-loaded
with springs for effective sealing if distance piece pressures are near atmospheric.
Fig. K-4 Two Cup Wiper Assembly with One Set of Seal Rings
K3.5 Distance Piece Types

Single compartment distance pieces are usually used. These are normally provided
with solid covers on the access openings, vent connections on the top, and drain
connections on the bottom.

Double-compartment distance pieces are generally used only for very hazardous
services, such as near 100% concentration of highly toxic or corrosive gases, or
oxygen. These distance pieces have a partition containing an auxiliary rod packer to
isolate the two compartments. Either or both compartments may have solid covers
and vent connections. Both compartments should have drain connections.
K3.6 Distance Piece Venting and Purging

Any compartment can be vented or purged, depending on the application. Where
positive pressure venting or purging is needed, the distance piece and access covers
must be able to contain the pressure. Typically, these parts are designed to with-
stand up to 10 psig internal pressure. However, their actual maximum pressure capa-
bility should be verified by the manufacturer. A pressure relief valve must be
installed to protect the distance piece if the maximum allowable pressure can be
exceeded in service.
Gasketed access covers are required where leakage is undesirable. The rod wiper
assembly in the crankcase wall must contain pressure seal rings (refer to “Crank-
case Oil Wipers”) where a single compartment is used. Pressure seal rings must
also be included when the inboard (crankcase side) compartment of a double-
distance piece is pressured.
K3.7 Wiper Assembly Purging

Additional protection against undesirable gas leakage into the crankcase can be
provided, where necessary, by introducing a suitable purge gas in between two pres-
sure sealing rings in the wiper assembly. The purge gas will block any flow through
the wiper assembly as long as the purge gas pressure is higher than the distance
piece internal pressure. Wiper assemblies must have at least one pressure sealing
ring on each side of the purge gas adaptor plate or entry port.
K3.8 Vent Gas Disposal

Packers and distance pieces must be vented to a lower pressure disposal system to
prevent escape of leakage gas into the atmosphere:
• Distance piece vents should be connected to a disposal system which operates
in a pressure range of zero psig (minimum) to the maximum internal pressure
rating of the distance piece (10 psig is typical). Ideally, a zero psig to two psig
vent system design range should be used. Normally, distance-piece vent-line
flow rates will be less than 0.5 CFM and venting to an atmospheric flare
system is economically acceptable.
• Packer vents can be connected to disposal systems which operate at a vacuum
or at pressures of 20 psig and higher. However, where vent system pressures
are outside of a 0-10 psig normal range, the packer design should be closely
reviewed. Packer vent gas flow rates normally are less than 0.5 CFM. Rates
may exceed five CFM with worn or damaged rods or packers. If this leakage
gas is usable for fuel it can be vented to a vapor recovery system.

• Distance piece and packer vents may be piped separately to different gas
disposal systems. They also can be connected to a single disposal system
through common piping outside of the compressor. In either case, it is essential
that the piping does not restrict the flow of vented gas. Any unnecessary restric-
tion will increase the gas pressure in the packer vent cup or in the distance
piece. Increased pressure in either will increase the possibility of leaking unde-
sirable gas to the atmosphere.
K3.9 Purge Gas

Nitrogen is preferred for purging. Other gases may be used for packer purging but
possible hazards should be carefully considered. The purge gas must not react unfa-
vorably with the compression gas or with the packing lubricant. Flammable purge
gases (such as sweet hydrogen or light hydrocarbon gases) may be usable in some
applications but should not be used for purging single compartment (or inboard side
of double compartment) pieces. Corrosive gases, including CO2, are not suitable for
packer or distance piece purging.

Appendix L. Reliability and Availability Analysis
Contents Page
L1.0 Reliability and Availability Analysis L-2
Chevron Corporation L-1 December 1988

Appendix L Compressor Manual
L1.0 Reliability and Availability Analysis

The criticality of the service is related to the availability and reliability expected
of the installation. These terms are often defined as follows:
P–F
Reliability ( % ) = ------------ ( 100 )
P
P–F–S
Availability ( % ) = ---------------------- ( 100 )
P
where:
P = hours in measurement period
F = hours of downtime caused by forced outages in period
S = hours of downtime in period caused by scheduled outages (main-
tenance)
The period P is often taken as the expected length of a continuous run of the plant
in which the compressor is installed. However, most published reliability and avail-
ability values are based on average annual downtimes. In the case of availability,
averaging is necessary because a particular machine probably does not have consis-
tent maintenance needs from year to year. For example, a hypothetical machine
may only require 100 hours of downtime annually for routine inspection and main-
tenance for the first four years. But in the fifth year, it might need fifteen days or
more of downtime for a major overhaul. The availability of the compressor system
should be compatible with the desired availability of the plant.
If possible, the cost of downtime in terms of lost production should be determined.
This will provide a better perspective of the requirements for reliability and avail-
ability.
In some process plants, a forced outage may pose a risk of losses in addition to
production losses. For example, an emergency trip of a recycle compressor could
cause a damaging high temperature excursion in the reactor if the backup quench
system failed to respond soon enough. This might be a rare double-jeopardy situa-
tion, and it would be difficult to do a numerical evaluation of the risk because there
would probably have to be a number of excursions before the reactor failed. Never-
theless, a qualitative consideration of the potential catastrophic loss might give reli-
ability the utmost priority among the major factors to be considered in selecting the
compressor. Such potential risks should be discussed in detail with the client.
L1.1 Parallel Machines

The availability and reliability of equipment in a particular service can, of course,
be improved by increasing the number of machines performing the service duty.
Two 100%-capacity machines installed in parallel would obviously be more reli-
able than a single machine. Likewise, the reliability of three 50% machines in
parallel would be better than that of one 100% machine. For comparison, Figure L-
December 1988 L-2 Chevron Corporation

Compressor Manual Appendix L
1 shows the overall reliability of various combinations of a hypothetical machine

having a unit reliability of 90%.
Fig. L-1 Machine Reliability vs. Number of Machines

One 100% Machine
Ra = 0.90 (converted to a decimal value)
Two 100% Machines
Ra = Rb = 0.90
Ua = Ub = 1 - Ra = 1 - Rb = 1 - 0.90 = 0.10
Rab = 1 - UaUb = 1 - (0.10)(0.10) = 0.990
Three 50% Machines
Ra = Rb = Rc = 0.90
Ua = Ub = Uc = 1 - 0.9 = 0.10
Rab = RaRb = (0.90)(0.90) = 0.81
Uab = 1 - RaRb = 1 - 0.81 = 0.19
Rabc = 1 - UabUc = 1 - (0.19)(0.10) = 0.981
Four 33-1/3% Machines
Ra = Rb = Rc = Rd = 0.90
Ua = Ub = Uc = Ud = 0.10
Rabc = (0.90)3 = 0.729
Uabc = 1 - 0.729 = 0.271
Rabcd = 1 - UabcUd = 1 - (0.271)(0.10) = 0.973
Notes: 1. R = Reliability
U = Unreliability
(A single subscript on R or U denotes reliability or unreliability of the referenced unit by itself. A
multiple subscript denotes the overall or combined reliability or unreliability of the referenced units.)
2. Overall availability may be calculated in the same manner by substituting availability and unavail-
ability values in these formulas.
In the case of two 100% machines, the system is treated as two fully parallel units
because only one machine has to be running at any given time to achieve 100%
capacity. Therefore, the individual or unit reliabilities are not multiplied by each
other. When two 100% machines are in series in a system, the overall system reli-
ability is the product of the individual reliabilities.
In the case of three 50% machines, two machines are treated as though they are in
series, despite the fact they are piped in parallel. Two machines must run simulta-
neously to achieve 100% capacity. Therefore, to make 100% capacity, they act as
though they are piped in series. The spare 50% machine is treated as a unit in
parallel with the other two.
Chevron Corporation L-3 December 1988

Appendix L Compressor Manual
If a 100%-capacity booster machine with an individual reliability of 97% were put

in series with the three 50% machines in the foregoing example, the overall reli-
ability would be 0.952 (0.97 x 0.981).
Historically, two 60% capacity machines (in parallel) have been used where the
process plant could still operate stably at 60% capacity when one compressor was
down. Theoretically, overall mechanical reliability of such a system would be 81%
if the reliability of each machine were 90%. However, the overall reliability calcu-
lated in this simple manner would be misleading from the viewpoint of production
because the plant would be producing at a 60% rate when one unit is down. There-
fore, this arrangement would have a production reliability of about 92%.
It is necessary to use probability theory to calculate the percentage of time that one
machine would be down and both machines would be down simultaneously. Proba-
bility theory is beyond the scope of this manual, but this example points out the fact
that reliability analysis is not always a simple task. First of all, we cannot find an
accurate reliability value for a certain type of compressor in a handbook. It can vary
significantly among manufacturers, with the sophistication of the design, and with
operating and maintenance practices. Then there is always the question of allotting
downtime to a machine that caused a plant shutdown. For example, a minor
compressor failure could shut a plant down and at the same time cause a problem
for another equipment item in the plant. If it takes a longer time to correct the addi-
tional problem than to repair the compressor, how much downtime should be
assigned to the compressor for this outage? Opinions vary. In the case of standby
equipment, starting reliability can affect overall reliability.
Availability is actually the best index for annual production and on-stream time.
Availability is markedly affected by the widely inconsistent factors of the time
required to repair or maintain the machine, maintenance skills and planning, and
accessibility of spare parts.
Although reliability and availability analyses are complex, these factors must be
considered in the application of compressors. The formulas shown in Figure L-1,
although not elaborate mathematically, will provide good guidance for evaluating
the relative merits of different combinations of compression equipment if the input
data are reasonably good. Many plants have well established procedures for
recording reliability and availability data. These data become reasonably accurate
as they are averaged over a period of years. Any specific data the client may have
should be utilized in preference to applying generalized data.
Before embarking on the process of selecting compressors, it is important to
acquire a feel for the economic trade-off between investment cost and production
costs. It may be useful to review with the client the benefits of investment cost
increments to improve reliability, expand maintenance facilities and manpower to
reduce overhaul time, use peak maintenance crews, and enlarge spare parts inven-
tory.
Although many installations have been operated for over thirty years, the service
life of heavy-duty compressors is usually assumed to be a minimum of twenty
years. The client's expectations should be determined.
December 1988 L-4 Chevron Corporation

Appendix M. Equipment Vendors
Contents Page
M1.0 Equipment Vendors M-2

M2.0 Engine/Compressor Worksheet M-3
M3.0 Engine and Compressor Analyzer Report (Work Request) M-4
Chevron Corporation M-1 December 1988

Appendix M Compressor Manual
M1.0 Equipment Vendors
Vendor Equipment
Type I - Maintenance Analyzers
Gas Equipment Testing GET 2000
Roanoke, Texas
(817) 431-3980
PMC/Beta Corporation Beta 350
Houston, Texas
(713) 820-2224
Cooper Energy Services EN-SPEC 2000
Mount Vernon, Ohio
(614) 397-0121
Beta Monitors and Controls Ltd.
300, 1615-10 Ave. S.W.
Calgary, Alberta,
CANADA T3C0J7
(800) 661-9160
Type II - Performance Analyzers
Gas Equipment Testing PRM 2000
Roanoke, Texas
(817) 431-3980
PMC/Beta Corporation Beta 250
Houston, Texas
(713) 870-2224
Cooper Energy Services EN-SPEC 3000
Mount Vernon, Ohio
(614) 397-0121
Beta Monitors and Controls Ltd.
300, 1615-10 Ave. S.W.
Calgary, Alberta,
CANADA T3C0J7
(800) 661-9160
December 1988 M-2 Chevron Corporation

Compressor Manual Appendix M
M2.0 Engine/Compressor Worksheet
Chevron Corporation M-3 December 1988

Appendix M Compressor Manual
M3.0 Engine and Compressor Analyzer Report (Work Request)
December 1988 M-4 Chevron Corporation

Appendix N. Maintenance Checklists
Contents Page
N1.0 Centrifugal Compressors N-3

N1.1 IMI Guidelines for Completing the Overhaul Checklist for Centrifugal
Compressors
N1.2 Centrifugal Compressor Overhaul Check List
N1.3 IMI Guideline for Inspection and Repair of Centrifugal Compressor
Rotors
N2.0 Reciprocating Compressors N-16
N2.1 Compressor Lubricating Systems
N2.2 Compressor Piston and Piston Rod
N2.3 Compressor Packing Box and Packing
N2.4 Compressor Cylinder and Crosshead
N2.5 Compressor Valves and Unloaders
N2.6 Compressor Valve Gaskets and Cages
N2.7 Compressor Crankshaft and Bearings
N2.8 Repair Sheet for Clark Engines
N2.9 Compressor Cylinder Repair Report
N2.10 Compressor Crankcase Repair Report
N2.11 Engine Repair Sheet For Ingersoll Rand XVG
N2.12 Ingersoll-Rand HHE Packer Rebuilding Procedure
N2.13 Ingersoll Rand HHE Packer Rebuilding Check Sheet
N2.14 Ingersoll-Rand Packing Box and Packing Worklist
N2.15 Engine Driven Reciprocating Compressor Regrout
N2.16 Four and Eight Month Maintenance Checklist Prior Shutdown Informa-
tion
N2.17 Ingersoll-Rand H.H.E. Connecting Rod Rebuilding
N2.18 Aluminum Bronze Pin Bushing HHE Cylinder Connecting Rod
N2.19 Splitting H.R.A. Engine Cam Lobes
N2.20 Clark HRA - Engine Power Cylinder Reconditioning
N2.21 Clark HRA - Power Cylinder Repair Flow Chart
Chevron Corporation N-1 December 1988

Appendix N Compressor Manual
N2.22 Clark HRA Main Crosshead Rebuilding

N2.23 Clark HRA Power Cylinder Head Rebuilding
N2.24 Clark HRA Gas Injection Valve Rebuilding
N2.25 Clark HRA Wesco Valve Lifters
N2.26 Clark HRA Power Piston and Connecting Rod Rebuilding
N2.27 Clark HRA Packer Rebuilding
N2.28 HRA Packer Rebuilding Check Sheet
N2.29 Clark Compressor Air Starting Check Valves
N2.30 Crankshaft Inspection and Reconditioning
N2.31 Crosshead Rebuilding
N2.32 Connecting Rod Reconditioning
N2.33 Connecting Rod Check Sheet
N2.34 Piston Reconditioning
N2.35 Piston/Rider Ring Clearance Tables
December 1988 N-2 Chevron Corporation

Compressor Manual Appendix N
N1.0 Centrifugal Compressors
N1.1 IMI Guidelines for Completing the Overhaul Checklist for

Centrifugal Compressors


N1.2 Centrifugal Compressor Overhaul Check List





N1.3 IMI Guideline for Inspection and Repair of Centrifugal

Compressor Rotors






N2.0 Reciprocating Compressors
N2.1 Compressor Lubricating Systems


N2.2 Compressor Piston and Piston Rod


N2.3 Compressor Packing Box and Packing


N2.4 Compressor Cylinder and Crosshead


N2.5 Compressor Valves and Unloaders


N2.6 Compressor Valve Gaskets and Cages


N2.7 Compressor Crankshaft and Bearings


N2.8 Repair Sheet for Clark Engines


N2.9 Compressor Cylinder Repair Report


N2.10 Compressor Crankcase Repair Report


N2.11 Engine Repair Sheet For Ingersoll Rand XVG


N2.12 Ingersoll-Rand HHE Packer Rebuilding Procedure



N2.13 Ingersoll Rand HHE Packer Rebuilding Check Sheet

N2.14 Ingersoll-Rand Packing Box and Packing Worklist


N2.15 Engine Driven Reciprocating Compressor Regrout

N2.16 Four and Eight Month Maintenance Checklist Prior Shutdown

Information

N2.17 Ingersoll-Rand H.H.E. Connecting Rod Rebuilding



N2.18 Aluminum Bronze Pin Bushing HHE Cylinder Connecting Rod

N2.19 Splitting H.R.A. Engine Cam Lobes


N2.20 Clark HRA - Engine Power Cylinder Reconditioning



N2.21 Clark HRA - Power Cylinder Repair Flow Chart

N2.22 Clark HRA Main Crosshead Rebuilding

N2.23 Clark HRA Power Cylinder Head Rebuilding

N2.24 Clark HRA Gas Injection Valve Rebuilding

N2.25 Clark HRA Wesco Valve Lifters

N2.26 Clark HRA Power Piston and Connecting Rod Rebuilding





N2.27 Clark HRA Packer Rebuilding



N2.28 HRA Packer Rebuilding Check Sheet

N2.29 Clark Compressor Air Starting Check Valves

N2.30 Crankshaft Inspection and Reconditioning

N2.31 Crosshead Rebuilding

N2.32 Connecting Rod Reconditioning

N2.33 Connecting Rod Check Sheet

N2.34 Piston Reconditioning


N2.35 Piston/Rider Ring Clearance Tables


Appendix O. Centrifugal Compressor Performance Program
Abstract
This appendix gives instructions for using CENTCOMP a spreadsheet-based
centrifugal compressor performance program for IBM compatible personal
computers. The program allows the user to study performance of existing machines
with varying operating conditions and/or operating modes. The user may also
compare a single field operating test point to original design data provided by the
manufacturer.
Contents Page
O1.0 Introduction O-2

O1.1 History
O1.2 Description
O1.3 Purpose
O2.0 User Instructions O-3
O2.1 Program Requirements
O2.2 Program Operation
O2.3 Custom Menu Descriptions
O2.4 Input Data
O3.0 Program Output O-9
O4.0 Assumptions, Limitations, and Inaccuracies O-13
O5.0 Who to Call for Help O-15
Chevron Corporation O-1 March 1991

Appendix O Compressor Manual
O1.0 Introduction
O1.1 History
CENTCOMP is an updated and expanded version of COMPERF, a centrifugal
compressor performance program which resides in the mainframe VM system.
Based on a Company-wide survey of machinery computer program users in 1989, a
need for a personal computer based centrifugal performance program was identi-
fied. CENTCOMP was developed to fill this need.
CENTCOMP is a template type program which operates on Lotus 1-2-3, Version
2.01. Lotus was selected because it is flexible, “user friendly,” and available to
nearly everyone with an IBM compatible personal computer.
O1.2 Description
CENTCOMP is a spreadsheet-based program which analyzes a centrifugal
compressor's performance at conditions other than the for which it was originally
designed. It can also reduce actual field operating data and compare it to the
expected performance. The program presents results in both tables and graphs. All
operations use a simple custom menu.
Three other programs are provided with CENTCOMP. The first, CENTDATA,
allows the user to develop input files outside of CENTCOMP. It also operates on a
custom menu. Although data may be directly input into CENTCOMP itself, CENT-
DATA is a convenient vehicle for storing individual case files, requiring much less
memory. The second program, named README.DOC, is an ASCII version of this
written documentation. The third is CENT_GPH which is called automatically by
CENTCOMP during graph requests.
O1.3 Purpose
CENTCOMP was designed for engineering, maintenance, and operating manage-
ment people who want to evaluate their centrifugal compressors by:
• Studying “what if” scenarios with different gas, pressure, temperature, and
flow conditions.
• Looking at alternate operating modes by varying speed and/or by selecting
whether the suction pressure or discharge pressure remains fixed.
• Comparing a single field operating test point to the original design data. This
option also considers the influence data inaccuracies have on the solution. It
also may be used to trend a compressor's performance over time.
CENTCOMP analyzes only single section, sometimes called single stage, compres-
sors. A section is any number of compressor impellers which are connected in
series without any external heating or cooling.
March 1991 O-2 Chevron Corporation

Compressor Manual Appendix O
For example, a four nozzle machine with intercooling between the second and third
nozzles is a two section compressor. Each section must be analyzed independently.
However, a train of two direct-coupled compressor casings, piped in series without
intercooling, could be evaluated as one section.
O2.0 User Instructions
O2.1 Program Requirements

Hardware and software requirements:
• IBM Model AT compatible personal computer with at least 640K RAM. RAM
resident programs such as Sidekick, All-ways, and Extra must be
unloaded to provide enough memory to run CENTCOMP.
• DOS 3.0 or higher operating system
• Lotus 1-2-3, Version 2.01
Data requirements:
• Manufacturer's design or factory test sectional performance curves for:
a. Pressure vs. Flow
b. Power vs. Flow
or
Polytropic Efficiency vs. Flow
c. Design and revised gas conditions
• Field test data (only when analyzing a field test):
a. Gas analysis of the test gas to accurately calculate molecular weight,
specific heat ratio, and compressibility
b. Flowmeter, orifice, or venturi original design assumptions
c. Estimated measurement error tolerances of field instruments and sample
gas analyses
O2.2 Program Operation

To get started, file a copy of CENTCOMP, CENTDATA, and CENT_GPH on the
Lotus 1-2-3 default disk drive and directory. All related user files should also be
located there.
The user has the option of inputting data either directly into CENTCOMP or into
the auxiliary program CENTDATA. Direct CENTCOMP input is convenient for
one-time use, but stores files in a difficult to read format. CENTDATA contains
identical input screens that can be easily revised outside of CENTCOMP. There-

fore, it is recommended that the first time user initially call up CENTDATA to input
data.
Both CENTDATA and CENTCOMP contain custom macros which automatically
appear when they are initially loaded. The first screen contains basic operating
instructions. Whenever a macro is in control, a “CMD” will appear at the bottom of
the screen. This means that the program is:
1. Waiting for the user to select an option from the menu appearing at the top of
the screen.
2. Waiting for the user to press [Enter] after reading an information screen or
inputting certain data.
3. Taking an extended time to execute the last command.
The user may stop a macro's control or execution by pressing either [Esc] or [Ctrl]
[Break]. Press [Alt] [x] to return to the custom menu. This will be necessary after
typing data onto the Design or Field input screens.
Both programs are protected from inadvertent input which might change or damage
their function. Input is only permitted in the designated data cells. Attempts to input
elsewhere will generate a warning 'beep' and a “Protected Cell” note at the bottom
of the screen. If this occurs, press [Esc] to resume.
Users who are familiar with Lotus 1-2-3 may be concerned by a “CIRC” or
Circular Calculation message which appears at the bottom of the screen. This is
harmless and may be ignored.
O2.3 Custom Menu Descriptions

The custom menus in CENTCOMP are up to three layers deep. The menus in
CENTDATA are nearly identical to those in CENTCOMP, but reduced in scope.
The menu trees for CENTDATA and CENTCOMP are shown in Figures O-1 and
O-2.
Menu options are selected either by moving the cursor to the item and pressing
[Enter] or by pressing the first letter of the option. Describing each menu selection:
HELP returns the cursor to the opening information screen located at cell A101.
MODE displays the operational options and asks the user to select A, B, C, D, or
E. If other characters are entered, including a blank, the program defaults to option
A. In CENTDATA, the MODE screen appears early in the program. This occurs
after viewing the opening information screen and pressing [Enter].
INPUT—DESIGN routes the user to the data input screen corresponding with the
MODE selected. All parameters for the original “Design” and “New” gas condi-
tions must be completed. The “Design” gas conditions are usually found on the
manufacturer's single section predicted or factory test curves. When comparing to a
field test point, the “New” gas conditions must be the same as the gas sample.

Fig. O-1 CENTDATA Menu Tree
Fig. O-2 CENTCOMP Menu Tree

If the gear option is not chosen, the program will assume there is no drive gear. The
“Design” and “New” speeds are also required.
CENTCOMP and CENTDATA will accept up to 9 performance curve data points.
The more points inputted, the better the curve resolution. The first point normally
represents surge, the left hand limit of the curve for a given speed. The last point
represents the “stonewall” or end-of-the-curve overload condition.
INPUT—FIELD must be completed when the user wishes to compare a field oper-
ating test point to the original design performance. Since accurate measurements
are difficult in the field, the program asks for estimated data “Tolerances.” It will
use the tolerances to calculate and show the test point's relative zone of possibility.
The “Flowmeter Element Design Basis” data is required gas condition and element
location information. It is used to calculate meter reading adjustments for differing
conditions.
INPUT—UNITS—DESIGN gives the user several units options for inputting the
“Design” data. The macro will automatically step through the options. The user
only has to enter each selection and press [Enter].
INPUT—UNITS—FIELD offers units options for inputting the “Field” data. Like
described above, the selection process is automated by a macro.
INPUT—UNITS—QUIT returns to the INPUT level of the menu.
INPUT—QUIT returns to the opening level of the menu.
FILE allows the user to save a CENTDATA file. When asked for a file name, the
user should input a unique subject name to avoid overwriting the master programs.
The FILE selection continues as a branch in the CENTCOMP menu tree.
FILE—SAVE stores the newly inputted or altered data from CENTCOMP.
FILE—RETRIEVE reads user data into CENTCOMP. These files were previ-
ously created either with the help of CENTDATA or directly from a CENTCOMP
FILE—SAVE command.
FILE—QUIT returns to the opening level of the CENTCOMP menu.
GRAPHS—VIEW—PRESSURE-FLOW displays a Pressure vs. Flow curve on
the screen for the “New” conditions. If field data was inputted, the graph will also
display a box which represents the calculated zone of possibility. Based on the
user's tolerances, the relative field operating point would lie somewhere inside the
box.
GRAPHS—VIEW—POWER-FLOW similarly displays the same information on
a Power vs. Flow curve.
GRAPHS—\VIEW—EFFIC.-FLOW similarly displays the same information for
a Polytropic Efficiency vs. Flow curve.
GRAPHS—VIEW—QUIT returns to the GRAPHS menu level.

GRAPHS—SAVE—PRESSURE-FLOW creates a user-named Pressure vs. Flow

graph file to be printed later when running Lotus Printgraph.
GRAPHS—SAVE—POWER-FLOW creates a user-named Power vs. Flow graph
file to be printed later when running Lotus Printgraph.
GRAPHS—SAVE—EFFIC.-FLOW creates a user-named Polytropic Efficiency
vs. Flow graph file to be printed later when running Lotus Printgraph.
GRAPHS—SAVE—QUIT returns to the GRAPHS level of the menu.
GRAPHS—UNITS permits the user to select alternate axis units to appear on the
viewed and saved graphs. The selection process is automated by a macro. The user
only has to input each selection code number and press [Enter].
GRAPHS—QUIT returns to the top level of the menu.
FILE—SAVE stores the data inputted or altered in CENTCOMP to a user-named
file for later retrieval.
FILE—RETRIEVE allows the user to select a data file and pull it into CENT-
COMP.
FILE—QUIT returns to the top level of the menu.
QUIT—YES ends CENTCOMP and clears the 1-2-3 worksheet.
QUIT—NO returns to the top level of the menu.
O2.4 Input Data

ALL DESIGN data spaces must be completed for the program output results to be
meaningful. Completing the FIELD data is an option reserved for when the user
wants to compare some actual compressor operating performance. When the
FIELD data is inputted, all spaces must be completed except for the optional “Toler-
ance” column.
Remember to press [Alt] [x] to restart the custom menu after inputting data.
Sample input data screens are shown in Figures O-3, O-4 and O-5 for Mode A
(fixed speed, fixed suction pressure, and variable discharge pressure).

Fig. O-3 Sample Input Screen—Mode Selection
Fig. O-4 Sample Input Screen—Mode A Design Data

Fig. O-5 Sample Input Screen—Field Data
O3.0 Program Output

Program output is available in the form of tables and graphs. Figures O-6, O-7,
O-8, O-9, and O-10 show sample output for a compressor which operates in Mode
A.
When there is a significant difference between the inputted gas characteristics, the
following warning note will appear at the bottom of the “Design vs. New Condi-
tions” report:
Note New condition calculations may be unreliable due to large gas property
deviations from the design.
This means the user should use the “New Conditions” values with discretion and
consult the compressor manufacturer for more accurate performance projections.
The user must know how to use the Lotus Printgraph program to get hard copies of
the graphs stored from the GRAPHS—SAVE commands. Refer to the Lotus 1-2-3
manual for assistance.

Fig. O-6 Sample Output—Design vs. New Conditions

Fig. O-7 Sample Output—Field Test Conditions

Fig. O-8 Sample Output—Pressure vs. Flow Graph
Fig. O-9 Sample Output—Power vs. Flow Graph

Fig. O-10 Sample Output—Efficiency vs. Flow Graph
O4.0 Assumptions, Limitations, and Inaccuracies

CENTCOMP contains several generalized assumptions which may cause minor
errors in the output values and curves. While these are normally not significant, the
user should be aware of them in case major discrepancies occur:
• Volume Reduction. Compressor performance relationships do not hold well
with major changes in gas properties. Overall curve shapes and surge points
may be affected. Check with the compressor manufacturer when this occurs.
• Balance Line Losses. These are figured into the overall compressor efficiency
for simplifying purposes. The error is typically inconsequential unless there is
an abnormal widening of balance drum clearances causing excessive flow.
• Bearing and Seal Losses. CENTCOMP assumes an extra 3% power to cover
mechanical losses in bearings and seals. This is an arbitrary, typical value
which may differ with the actual machine.
• Gear Losses. When a gear is indicated, another 2% is added to the power
calculations to cover the losses. Most gears operate at a 98% to a 98.5% effi-
ciency.
• Calculated Efficiency. When power is inputted from the “Design” curves,
CENTCOMP back calculates the overall polytropic efficiency. Since the manu-

facturer includes unspecified losses in the power values, the resulting efficien-
cies will be less precise than if they were directly inputted. When the user has
an option of inputting either power or polytropic efficiency “Design” curves,
the efficiency values should be used.
• Specific Heat Ratio Sensitivity. The gas specific heat ratio (K) is used as an
exponent in the program's calculations. The performance results are therefore
very sensitive to this value. The user must take care in assuring that it is accu-
rate, preferably to the third decimal place.
When the user elects the program's Field Test Data analysis, there are a few
concerns which will impact the resulting accuracy:
• Gas Analysis. Getting good field gas analyses frequently proves to be difficult.
The amount of every gas species must be accurately known to get accurate
molecular weights, specific heat ratios, and compressibilities. This is particu-
larly challenging in wet gas compressors which operate at or near the gas dew
points.
Another source of significant error is water (steam) in the gas which is not
measured by some chromatographs. One final problem is wet gas compressor
wash fluids. These confuse the gas analysis and the flow measurements and
should be temporarily turned off when running the test.
• Temperature Measurements. CENTCOMP calculates field polytropic effi-
ciencies from the inlet and discharge temperatures and pressures. A few
degrees error in temperature can often generate as much as 2% or 3% in effi-
ciency error. Therefore, it is best to use thermocouples in thermowells located
close to the compressor flanges. Reading line surface temperature with a
pyrometer several feet away may yield unacceptable data.
• Pressure Gages. The test gages should have the optimum range for the pres-
sure and be freshly calibrated before the test. Watch for velocity head errors if
the gage is measuring a low pressure in a high gas velocity location.
• Flowmeters. Each compressor section must have its own flowmeter. The flow
element should be checked to make sure its correct design data is inputted to
the program. Before a test, the flowmeter must also be zeroed and spanned for
accurate reading.
• Timing. Take the test data during a stable time in the process which represents
typical operation.

O5.0 Who to Call for Help

If there are problems, program errors, or questions contact:
Dale E. Hasselfeld
CTN 842-8523
PROFS Nickname — DHAS
Chevron Address:
SR2400/K-2124

Appendix P. Separator Vessel and Filter Design Guide
Abstract
This appendix gives guidelines for designing and selecting knockout pots and high
efficiency filters for compressor suction systems.
Contents Page
P1.0 Vertical Separator Vessels P-2

P2.0 Horizontal Separator Vessels P-13
P3.0 High Efficiency Filters P-17
Chevron Corporation P-1 February 1998

Appendix P Compressor Manual
P1.0 Vertical Separator Vessels
P1.1 Determining Vessel Length (Height)

Vessel dimensions are determined by the liquid and gas flowrates and densities
during normal maximum operating conditions. This includes potential upset condi-
tions that can jeopardize the downstream equipment.
Liquid Storage Capacity

Vessel length is determined by the requirements for accommodating vessel inter-
nals, in addition to the amount of liquid surge volume required to ensure sufficient
level control. The design basis must take into account the potential volume of liquid
that might “slug” into the vessel during a process upset. This amount is determined
by evaluating the upstream process for its potential to entrain liquids in the gas
stream in the event of logical operating scenarios, such as a pump or valve failure.
This is a judgment requiring careful operations/engineering review.
Surge Volume
Surge volume is defined as the liquid capacity below the maximum allowable liquid
level. The designer must factor into this vessel dimension any additional capacity
necessary to control potential liquid loading. Figure P-1 illustrates surge volume
and other design features of a basic vertical knockout drum.
For compressor suction knockout service, a minimum recommended fill time of
five minutes, based on maximum potential liquid loading, should be provided
between the high level alarm (LAH) and the automatic compressor shutdown
(LSH). This time period is based on the amount of time necessary for operating
personnel to respond to the high level, and should be adjusted to suit the operating
circumstances. Discussions with experienced operating personnel is recommended.
Liquid Drainage
Liquid drainage capacity must be addressed in a similar manner. Failure to
adequately size drain lines and level control valves for the above conditions can
result in uncontrollable high levels and consequential shutdowns. Part of this judg-
ment comes from understanding the location of the vessel and relative availability
of operating personnel during upset conditions. A two-inch outlet provision is
recommended as a minimum.
February 1998 P-2 Chevron Corporation

Compressor Manual Appendix P
Fig. P-1 Basic Vertical Knockout Drum Configuration

P1.2 Determining Vessel Diameter

The vessel diameter is dictated by the desired mass velocity through the vessel. The
recommended allowable mass velocity takes into account the terminal, or free
settling velocity of aerosol particles at predetermined operating conditions. A K
factor is used to modify the velocity calculation for such factors as extreme pres-
sures (high or vacuum), suspended solids content, reduced surface tension, entrain-
ment loading and viscosity. The value of K in the formula for calculating maximum
allowable velocity depends on the nature of the gas contaminants and whether mist
elimination devices are to be used. Optimum velocity factored by K value is calcu-
lated using the following Souders Brown equation:
0.5
V = K [ ( ρL – ρG ) ⁄ ρ G ]
where:
V = Optimum gas velocity, ft./sec.
K = Factor used for optimum liquid/gas separation
ρG = Gas Density
ρL = Liquid Density
Empirical data suggests that when sizing the minimum inside diameter of a basic
vertical gravity separator (no impingement device), the following K values should
be used:
K = 0.11 or less Gas streams containing high liquid
loading with no impingement device
K = 0.15 - 0.17 Gas streams containing low liquid
loading with no impingement device
These values were largely determined through experiments with a perforated plate
column where tray spacing and liquid seal depths were varied to observe the effect
on K value. The K value was observed to level off between 0.17 to 0.19 at a disen-
gaging space of 28 inches, suggesting a reasonable value for simple gravity separa-
tion without the aid of impingement devices.
These values are consistent with the Scrubber Services Classes 'A', 'B', and 'C' as
described in API Specification 11P - Specification for Packaged Reciprocating
Compressors for Oil and Gas Production Services, however, slightly more conserva-
tive. In the interest of maximizing compressor reliability, it is preferred to design on
the conservative side to provide a degree of process capacity contingency.
For further guidance regarding allowable mass velocities for system pressures
above and below 800 psi at given vapor/liquid densities, refer to Chevron Research
chart RE 690433-1. Charts RD 663794-1, and RD 663795-1 are also reference tools
for required vessel diameter as a function of gas rate and system properties.

Note Inside diameter of the annular support ring is the dimension to use in the
vessel area calculation when the vessel is equipped with a demister pad or vane
mist eliminator. This represents the velocity for the inlet surface area of the impinge-
ment device.
P1.3 Mist Elimination Internals

The reliability and service life of all compressors is directly related to the inlet gas
cleanliness. To ensure optimum knockout drum performance, mist elimination
devices are necessary to increase impingement surface area in the gas flow path.
Reciprocating compressors are most sensitive to gas quality. It is highly desirable to
reduce the amount of aerosol contaminants to the lowest practical concentration.
Liquid and solid aerosols entrained in the inlet gas are the prime contributors to
premature valve failure, cylinder wear and corrosion damage. Although centrifugal
compressors are more forgiving to entrained aerosols, they are still susceptible to
efficiency losses due to particle induced fouling, erosion, and corrosion.
There are several methods commonly used in compressor suction service, each one
capable of achieving a certain degree of removal efficiency. They are:
1. Vane mist eliminators
2. Wire mesh pads (demister pads)
3. High efficiency coalescer filters
4. Brownian diffusion mist eliminators
Figure P-2 illustrates the approximate capture efficiency for these impingement
devices for a given range of particle sizes.
Although most installations use only one mist elimination device, a combination of
two or more of the above devices will provide additional protection for almost all
services. Selecting the combination depends primarily on the nature and volume of
the liquids to be removed. Generally, as the viscosity of the liquid increases, the
larger the entrained droplet size. Similarly, as liquid surface tension decreases, so
does the droplet size.
Selecting a Mist Eliminator

Figure P-3 will be useful as a guide in selecting a satisfactory type of mist elimi-
nator or combination of devices best suited for the application. Figure P-4 illus-
trates the relative operating range for each media type. This represents the
approximate particle size and concentration of water aerosols under controlled test
conditions.
Vane Mist Eliminators

Vane Mist eliminators (sometimes referred as chevron design mist eliminators) are
best used when liquid loading is high and/or the liquid is viscous or has fouling
characteristics (such as paraffins, hydrates). They are not recommended for use as
the sole mist elimination device for compressor suction service due to their high

Fig. P-2 Approximate removal efficiency of conventional mist elimination devices for given
particle sizes. Note that the effectiveness of vane mist eliminators is marginal at
the point where woven mesh efficiency is near its peak.
Fig. P-3 Mist Eliminator Types

Wire Mesh Vane High Efficiency
Pad (Chevron) Media
Ultra Fine Droplets (< 5 micron) X
Fine Droplets (5-15 micron) X X
Coarse Droplets (> 15 micron) X X
High Liquid Loads X X
Fouling Contaminants X
Corrosive Service X X
Maximum Efficiency X
Widest Range of Materials X
Lowest Differential Pressure X
High Pressure X X

Fig. P-4 The approximate range of water aerosols entrained in air is plotted in this graph to illustrate the aerosol
concentration versus particle size and type of media effective to use for control. Note that as the aerosol
particle size declines, higher efficiency media is required to achieve efficient particle contact.
particle size cut-off point. The expected particle size cutoff (98% efficiency) is
about 15 micron, resulting in a considerable amount of aerosols carried through
with the gas.
The ability of the vane mist eliminator to handle large volumes of liquid at rela-
tively high vapor velocity is one of its key benefits. As long as the actual vapor
velocity is restricted to proper design K values, reasonable liquid scrubbing effi-
ciency is achieved with minimum pressure drop and fouling.
When determining a vessel diameter for vane mist eliminators, the actual velocity is
calculated using the same Souders Brown equation previously discussed in
Section P1.2, Determining Vessel Diameter. The recommended K values for vane
mist eliminators in vertical vessels are:
• Minimum K value = 0.12
• Maximum K value = 0.54
• K value 0.60 and above = Re-entrainment
A maximum K value of 0.54 is recommended for vertical vessels. This is approxi-
mately 120% of design rate to protect against carryover during upsets and unusual
operating conditions. A minimum K value of 0.12 is a turndown limitation to
prevent an insufficient velocity condition such that aerosols tend to flow around the
vanes in laminar gas flows, as opposed to impinging on the vane surfaces.

Another benefit of the vane mist eliminator is its stout physical structure. In corro-
sive services, a wire mesh pad can be relatively short lived compared to a vane mist
eliminator. In this circumstance, a combination of wire mesh and vanes can be of
further benefit. In either case, a conservative corrosion allowance is recommended
when separating corrosive liquid/gas vapors.
Combination Installations
Vane mist eliminators can be used in tandem with wire mesh pads to control the
amount of liquid pooling within the pad. Contacting the bulk of vapor entrained
liquids with vane mist eliminators prior to flowing to the wire mesh pad enhances
the pad's ability to quickly drain. This application also increases the effective oper-
ating range of the demister pad, particularly during unusual liquid loading
scenarios. Figure P-5 plots the liquid scrubbing performance of a vane mist elimi-
nator installed upstream of a woven wire mesh pad.
Fig. P-5 The point at which pressure drop indicates flooding is plotted for different rates of
liquid loading. The wide range of liquid handling capacity is attributed to the
installation of a vane mist eliminator in front of a demister pad to relieve the pad
of excessive liquid load.
In addition to the added removal capacity of vanes, another reason for enhanced
mesh pad performance in tandem configuration is the straightening of the gas flow
entering the pad. Swirling and lateral gas flow entry promotes pooling in the pad,
thus increasing the likelihood of pad flooding and re-entrainment.

Combination installations are well suited for minimizing mesh pad fouling and
corrosion. Fouling solids are effectively removed in the vane section and corrosive
liquids that pool in the mesh pad can be minimized.
The result of combination installations is reduced pad fouling and corrosion, as
well as enhanced removal efficiency over a wide range of loading. It is a good
retrofit alternative for systems that are operated beyond original design. Figure P-6
illustrates how a combination installation might look.
Wire Mesh Mist Eliminators

Generically known as demister pads, wire mesh has been used for decades as a
contacting media for coalescing liquid aerosols. First introduced as a woven wire
screen, the construction was relatively stiff and usually applied as a thin, single
layer. The technically superior design now predominantly used is a thick knitted
wire mesh pad.
Knitted mesh pads possess high void volume and contact surface area. The result is
high removal efficiencies for aerosols smaller in size than what can be removed by
vane mist eliminators. Figure P-2 and P-4 illustrate these efficiencies.
The variables that control void volume, area and density of the mesh are:
1. Wire size - typically .002" to 0.020" in diameter
2. Size of knitted loops
3. Amplitude of wire crimping for added surface area.
Pad density varies from 2 to 24 lb per cubic foot and can possess surface areas from
44 to 1200 square feet per cubic foot of mesh. Separation efficiency is governed by
the relation of wire diameter and density. As wire diameter decreases, density and
efficiency increase. Practical application requirements and cost narrow the range of
styles readily available, although a large array of styles and materials are still avail-
able.
As an example, a commonly used selection would consist of 0.011" diameter wire
mesh possessing a void volume of approximately 97%, have a density of 12
lb/cu.ft., and a surface area of approximately 110 sq. ft./cu. ft. The mesh is typically
available in thicknesses of 4", 6" or 12", or can be rolled into a much thicker pad
configuration for special applications.
Mesh pads can be made from almost any material that can be extruded or drawn. In
addition to carbon steel alloys, some examples of other available materials are:
• 300 and 400 Series Stainless Steel
• Titanium, Tantalum
• Copper, Aluminum
• Synthetics (Polypropylene, Teflon)
The material of choice depends on the known characteristics of the contaminants in
the gas. Representative samples of the gas for analysis are recommended prior to
making design changes or specifying a new purchase. Mesh pad manufacturers and

Fig. P-6 Combination Vane/Wire Mesh Knockout

CRTC materials specialists are excellent resources for consultation on material

choice.
Figure P-7 is a guide of K values for standard demister pad and vane styles offered
by Otto York Company. Special conditions which change this value are discussed in
the Section, “Effects of Pressure on K Value.” Similarly, other manufacturers
should offer recommended K values for their products.
Fig. P-7 K Values for Common Otto York Demisters

Style K Application
709 .35 Heavy duty, high efficiency design for heavy liquid loading
172 .35 Generic style, good efficiency and capacity
708 .35 Low density for fouling and high liquid loading
194 .28 Ultra high efficiency at reduced capacity
241 .28 Polypropylene, corrosion resistance, good efficiency
221 .28 Teflon design for extremely corrosive services
Vane Type 1 .35 Chevron style vanes for fouling applications
Vane Type 3 .40 Chevron style vanes for fouling, high liquid loadings and low pressure drop
Vane Type 4 .65 Vanes designed for horizontal flows with a potential for fouling, high liquid
load and/ or low pressure drop.
Considerations for Retrofits

Often, little can be done to reduce mass velocity or contaminant loading. When
changes must be made in an attempt to increase the removal efficiency without
penalizing the process, combinations of vanes and mesh pads are often the best
choice. Figure P-6 illustrates a knockout drum configuration suitable for high liquid
loading or viscous, fouling contaminants such as paraffins.
Effects of Pressure on K Value

A K factor of 0.35 will give a safe velocity for practically all applications where
operating pressure is reasonably close to atmospheric. Giving account to the previ-
ously mentioned factors that can influence K value, Figure P-8 gives recommended
K values at various pressures:
Vessel Outlet Nozzle Clearance

The distance between the outlet nozzle opening and top of the mist elimination
device is recommended to be a minimum of 12 inches, increasing in relation to the
diameter of the mist elimination device. The objective is to prevent channeling by
promoting equal velocities across the entire surface area of the mist elimination
device. Two policies are commonly used for determining the appropriate distance.
The rule of thumb is 12 inches minimum or half the diameter of the mist elimina-
tion device, whichever dimension is greater. Figure P-9 illustrates examples for
minimum nozzle outlet distance.

Fig. P-8 Effect of Pressure on K Value

PSIA K
7.5 .34
10.0 .35
20.0 .35
50.0 .34
100.0 .33
Over 100 Subtract .01 for every 100 psi above 100
Note Pressure derating is influenced by drainage, while vacuum derating is
influenced by pressure drop.
Fig. P-9 Minimum Recommended Clearance Between Outlet Nozzle and Top of Mist Elimi-
nation Device

P2.0 Horizontal Separator Vessels
P2.1 Determining Vessel Length

Vessel length is based on liquid holding volume and residence time. The length is
adjusted to achieve the necessary liquid holding volume to satisfy proper process
control. This is usually considered to be the minimum amount of time for liquid
surge. In general, the vessel length and diameter is sized to provide the required
vapor space (velocity) plus liquid retention volume.
Note It is a good idea to involve process design/control engineers when making
liquid volume determinations.
P2.2 Determining Vessel Diameter

The maximum allowable gas velocity determines the required vapor space area
above the highest liquid operating level. One method used to determine the required
vapor space uses a variation of Souders Brown equation. The method takes into
account particle settling velocity and horizontal gas velocity by ratioing them to the
distance each must travel per unit time.
The equation is expressed as:
Vh ⁄ Vs = ( L ⁄ t ) ( D ⁄ t ) = L ⁄ D
where:
Vh = horizontal gas velocity, ft/sec.
Vs = particle settling velocity, ft/sec.
t = time in seconds
L = length between inlet and outlet, ft
D = vessel diameter, ft
The equation is further modified to provide five feet for entrance and exit flow stabi-
lization. The allowable horizontal gas velocity is then expressed as:
V h = [ ( L – 5 ) ⁄ D ] [ K ] [ ( ρ L – ρ g ) ⁄ ρ g ] 0.5
Re-writing the equation into the form of the Souders Brown equation, it is
expressed as:
V h = K ( ( ρ L – ρ g ) ⁄ ρ g ) 0.5
h
where:
Kh = K ( L – 5 ) ⁄ D

SEPDES
When designing or modifying two- and three-phase separators, an easier alternative
to hand calculations would be to use SEPDES, a PC program for designing
liquid/gas separators for hydroprocessing units. Information for this program is
available through your local process engineer or through CRTC’s Process Engi-
neering Specialists.
Horizontal Knockout Vessels

The basic horizontal knockout pot shown in Figure P-10 can have internals config-
ured many different ways. As with vertical vessels, careful consideration must be
given to the nature of the fluids the impingement device is to deal with. Corrosives
and foulants play a significant role in the selection of the types of internals used.
Fig. P-10 Basic Horizontal Liquid / Gas Separator
The velocity limits described in Section P1.0 still apply, as they are meant to ensure
that the selected internals are operated within their efficiency range. As with all
other mist elimination applications, the inlet surface area of the mist elimination
device is used when determining the optimum velocity or K factor, not the cross-
sectional area of the vessel.
Figure P-11 illustrates an example of a horizontal vessel equipped with mesh pad
and liquid storage area. Figure P-12 illustrates several other alternative internal
configurations that, if designed within the criteria previously discussed, will
provide good protection from liquid carryover.

Fig. P-11 Horizontal Knockout Vessel (Example Configuration)
N O TES:
1. U pperand low ersupportgrids are

required forphysicalstrength.The
m esh pad and grid assem bly is tied
togetherusing "J"bolts and m ounted
on an annularsupportring.The
assem bly is secured to the annular
ring using tie w ires form ost
applications.B olting orotherelaborate
m ethods forsecuring the m esh pad
are usually unnecessary.
2. Inletsurface area ofthe m esh pad is

used as the basis fordeterm ining
optim um velocity or K factor.Typical
to allm esh pad m istelim inator
applications,a K factorof0.28 -0.35
is used depending on the type ofpad.

Fig. P-12 Variations of Horizontal Knockout Internals

P3.0 High Efficiency Filters

Liquid/Gas Coalescer Cartridge
Liquid/gas coalescer cartridges are similar to cartridge filters in appearance and
size. The media is designed for the gas flow inside to out, thus allowing the
coalesced liquids to “wick” down the special outer media wrap into a basin for
removal. This design is extremely effective due to the media pore structure of 0.3
micron absolute. Basically, this rating means that particles greater than 0.3 micron
in size cannot flow through the media.
The extremely small pore structure is due to the unique flow characteristics of sub-
micron particles. Liquid and gas particles 0.1 to 0.6 micron in size tend to flow
along the path taken by the gas, as opposed to impinging on pipe walls and drop-
ping out. The particles are not large enough to be removed by inertial impingement
and not small enough to be removed by Brownian motion. The 0.3 micron pore
media is designed to trap this unscrubbed portion of gas.
This design has proven to be highly successful in numerous refinery and producing
field applications. In most instances, installing a high efficiency coalescer is less
costly and more effective than making machinery modifications or adding addi-
tional knockout capability. It is recommended for use in such applications as
produced gas streams, refinery hydrogen recycle streams, gas recovery compression
and gas turbine fuel gas supply. Figure P-13 illustrates a high efficiency liquid/gas
coalescer.
Brownian Motion Media

Brownian motion media consists of a thick fiber mesh made from ultra-fine glass or
polypropylene fibers. The media is packed between reinforcing screens for strength
and can vary in thickness from one to several inches. Depending on the application
requirements, the fiber diameter, mesh density and thickness can be varied to
achieve very high removal efficiencies.
Configured into large “candles” or square columns, this design lends itself to high
volume, low velocity applications such as blowers. This design is best used for mist
elimination in highly corrosive services or applications where the gas is relatively
free of solids. It is not recommended for general compressor suction protection due
to its relative large size and difficult maintenance. Figure P-14 illustrates a
Brownian motion high efficiency mist eliminator.

Fig. P-13 Cartridge Design - High Efficiency Liquid/Gas Coalescer
Fig. P-14 Brownian Motion - High Efficiency Mist Eliminator

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COMPRESSOR MANUAL

Volume 1: Engineering Guidelines

CHEVRON RESEARCH AND TECHNOLOGY COMPANY

Manual sponsor: For information or help regarding this manual,

This material is transmitted subject to the Export Control Laws of the

February 1998 Chevron Corporation

Volumes I and II:

Chevron Corporation February 1998

CMP-MS-1876-L October 1996

February 1998 Chevron Corporation

Street: P.O. Box:

City: State: Zip:

Requesting Signature Date

Send this completed form to: Document Control, Room 50-4328

CRTC Consultants Card

Chevron Corporation February 1998

Page or Section Number Comments

Chevron Corporation February 1998

Volume 1 — Engineering Guidelines

List of Current Pages

50 Using This Manual 50-1

100 General Information 100-1

200 Centrifugal Compressors 200-1

300 Reciprocating Compressors 300-1

400 Rotary Compressors (Section not developed)

500 Process Fans and Blowers (Section not developed)

600 Inspection and Testing 600-1

700 Compressor Installation and Precommissioning 700-1

800 Maintenance and Troubleshooting 800-1

Chevron Corporation June 1993

Chevron Corporation 50-1 December 1996

Scope and Application

Part I—Engineering Guidelines

December 1996 50-2 Chevron Corporation

Other Company Manuals

Chevron Corporation 50-3 December 1996

Fig. 50-1 Compressor Manual Quick-Reference Guide

December 1996 50-4 Chevron Corporation

Fig. 50-2 Machinery Manuals Cross-Reference Chart (1 of 2)

Chevron Corporation 50-5 December 1996

Fig. 50-2 Machinery Manuals Cross-Reference Chart (2 of 2)

December 1996 50-6 Chevron Corporation

110 Introduction 100-3

Chevron Corporation 100-1 December 1996

140 Design Considerations 100-22

December 1996 100-2 Chevron Corporation

Chevron Corporation 100-3 December 1996

120 Compressor Categories

Fig. 100-1 Compressor Types

121 Dynamic Compressors

122 Positive Displacement Compressors

December 1996 100-4 Chevron Corporation

130 Thermodynamics of Compression

Chevron Corporation 100-5 December 1996

The following information provides a detailed tutorial on compression fundamen-

December 1996 100-6 Chevron Corporation

132 Perfect Gas Equation and Compressibility

Chevron Corporation 100-7 December 1996

December 1996 100-8 Chevron Corporation

Note also that Z values can be calculated using PPROP.

133 Gas Mixtures, Specific Gravity, and Humidity

Chevron Corporation 100-9 December 1996

Fig. 100-6 Sample Calculation of Gas Mixture Properties

December 1996 100-10 Chevron Corporation