Conducting Elite Interviews: Lessons Learned

From Malaysia

Contributors: Khairiah Salwa Mokhtar & Nur Hairani Abd Rahman

Pub. Date: 2020
Product: SAGE Research Methods Cases: Medicine and Health
Methods: Elite interviews, Key informant interviews, Qualitative interviewing
Disciplines: Public Health
Access Date: July 8, 2020
Academic Level: Postgraduate
Publishing Company: SAGE Publications Ltd
City: London
Online ISBN: 9781529743838
DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.4135/9781529743838
© 2020 SAGE Publications Ltd All Rights Reserved.
This PDF has been generated from SAGE Research Methods Cases.
SAGE SAGE Research Methods Cases:
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Abstract
The technique of elite interviewing offers rich information and generates unique data for qualitative research.
The subjects are primarily actors who are directly involved in the policy process and can provide reliable valid
data to the researcher. Methods for conducting elite interviews, however, are rarely taught in academia, nor
have researchers examined which specific challenges might arise from the application of elite interviews. The
focus of this case study is to discuss methodology challenges researchers may encounter when conducting
in-depth interviews based on the authors’ experience of conducting elite interviews. The study put forward
three main challenges that arise when conducting elite interviews: informants canceling the appointment at
the very last minute, informants requesting that the interview not be recorded, and rescheduling appointments
with other officers to replace the superiors as informants. These challenges were overcome by using
relevant solutions such as rescheduling the interview session and assuring the participant that their personal
information will be kept confidential. Another purpose of this case study is to share the experience of
conducting elite interviews in the Malaysian context.

Learning Outcomes
By the end of this case, students should be able to

• Describe the nature of qualitative research, specifically using the elite interview method
• Identify actions that should be followed and avoided when conducting elite interviews
• Prepare for and predict what may happen if interview elite informants come from diverse
backgrounds

Conducting qualitative research requires an in-depth understanding and interpretation of human values,
perceptions, and behavior (Voldness et al., 2014). Depending on the method used in the study, qualitative
research can provide comprehensive information about a particular issue. One such method is the elite
interview. Policy study practitioners commonly use elite interviews to gain detailed information, as such
interviews offer a rich, cost-effective technique for generating unique data to investigate the complexities of
a given policy (Dexter, 1970). The interview subjects may be any of the actors who are directly involved in
the political or policy process and who have the desired information (Beamer, 2002). This group of informants
can share and provide highly reliable and valid data (Morehouse, 1998; Reeher, 1996) for inferential
purposes because of their position in particular government agencies. They may have special insights into
the causal processes of politics and policy, which is why conducting interviews with such people allows
for in-depth explorations of specific policies and political issues. The resulting information offers not only a
richer description of political and policy processes (Beamer, 2002) but also an understanding of governmental
capability, strengths, and limitations.

Despite the common use of elite interviews to collect primary data, the skill is rarely taught in graduate

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school (Berry, 2002). More research is necessary on the benefits of using qualitative methods, and few
researchers have examined which specific challenges arise from their application in the Malaysian context.
This case study highlights which challenges researchers may encounter when conducting the important
research methodology of in-depth interviews and shares the experience of conducting elite interviews in the
Malaysian context. Our case study is based on an on-going study since 2015, in the area of tuberculosis
management in Malaysia. The study primarily uses elite interviews as the research methodology, supported
by literature reviews.

Elite Interview Definition

Elite interviews are widely used to collect data in the qualitative field (Berry, 2002). The concept of the elite
interview originated in the study of politics and policy-making (Dexter, 1970). Two key definitions of “elite”
have emerged from the literature. The first focuses on those who are in powerful positions, which generally
refers to those with senior political and executive roles (Boucher et al., 2013) or those who hold positions
of professional prestige (McDowell, 1998). David Richards (1996) has provided a useful definition of this
form of “elite” as individuals who hold, or have held, a privileged position in society. They are likely to have
more influence on political outcomes compared with general members of the public. Lewis Dexter (1970) has
noted that people can be elite interviewees if they are well-informed or influential about something. The elite
interview is typically regarded as a dialogue (Clark, 1997; Schoenberger, 1991), specifically a demanding
dialogue, because elites tend to be highly demanding conversation partners who prefer to articulate their
views without being asked closed questions (Aberbach & Rockman, 2002).

Project Overview and Context

Although numerous studies have been conducted on the elite interview, Christian Herzog and Christopher
Ali (2015) have noted a lack of methodological explanation and reflection in this field. One reason for this
situation includes the technical and sociological difficulties in explicitly undertaking cross-cultural studies,
which are exacerbated by two other factors: difficulty in acquiring funding for such studies and the lack
of a tradition of qualitative studies in comparative research, meaning that the necessary theoretical and
methodological base to support such a research tradition remains undeveloped. Kirsten Martinus and David
Hedgcock (2015) examined the difficulties researchers often face during the elite interview process by
comparing Japan and Australia. The authors found that linguistic, cultural, professional, and philosophical
factors contributed to limitations in conducting elite interviews. Mihail Petkov and Lambros Kaoullas (2015)
also examined the challenges involved in elite interviews in a paper whose primary goal was to promote a
model for conducting interviews that would reduce the noncooperative behavior of elite respondents. The
authors argued that elite informants often resist partaking in interviews because they perceive researchers as
being associated with unverifiable and unknown hostile actors.

One suggestion to reduce informants’ noncooperative behavior is to include an intermediary. Intermediaries

who engage frequently with the informant can help facilitate casual conversation between the researcher and

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the informant. Intermediaries can also create an atmosphere of trust around researchers by vouching for their
identity, good intentions, and academic credentials. Hope Nudzor (2013), who proposed the employment of
influential people or their close contacts to make introductions to informants, offers similar advice.

Robert Mikecz (2012) argues that gaining access to elites is difficult, but gaining their trust and building
rapport with them are even more so. These challenges are often compounded by cross-cultural barriers when
researchers conduct interviews in a foreign environment. Cross-cultural differences in verbal and nonverbal
communication, etiquette, beliefs, norms, and value systems can easily lead to misunderstandings. Overall,
the literature indicates that elite interviewing is a challenging task that requires researchers to be particularly
skilled and knowledgeable when handling interview sessions with elites.

Interviewing is one of the main methodologies to be used in social science research. Along with
questionnaires, observation, documentary study, and discourse analysis, we proposed that interviewing is
a key means of establishing informants’ perspectives in a particular social setting (Broadfoot, 2012). Yet,
we also were encouraged to utilize elite interviewing to gain fundamental or generic insight on topics that
are underexplored. Most commonly, researchers apply the interview method because they have uncovered
an area where practice and opinion have not been articulated in a systematic way (Bryman & Cassell,
2006). The intention of in-depth interviews, also known as face-to-face verbal exchanges (Fontana & Frey,
2000), between the researcher and the informant is to foster an understanding of the issues that are being
researched (Welch et al., 2002). The interviewer asks open-ended and/or discovery-oriented questions to
deeply explore the respondent’s feelings and perspectives on a subject, thus creating an opportunity to
acquire rich information from each respondent (Daniels & Cannice, 2004).

Elite interviews can assist in reconstructing an event or set of events and “can shed light on the hidden
elements of political action that are not clear from an analysis of political outcomes or other primary sources”
(Tansey, 2007, p. 767). Such interviews allow researchers to trace the policy-making process and any key
political events (Boucher et al., 2013) so that they can better understand the decision-making processes,
policy impacts, and people’s perceptions related to particular issues (Darbi & Hall, 2014). Elite interviews are
often used to target people who are directly involved in the political process (Dexter, 1970).

Elites in a particular institution are generally chosen at random and are then subjected to the same interview
protocols used for structured or semi-structured questions (Berry, 2002). “Elite” may refer to a group in society
who may be considered superior because of the power, talent, and privileges of its members (Hornby et al.,
1983). The term “elite” may be applied to a person or group who is well known, distinctive, or important (Moore
& Stokes, 2012). The term “elite” can also loosely be used to define those with particular expertise (Burnham
et al., 2004).

Interviewing elites can have enormous benefits: Because they wield power in a different societal, legal,
financial, political, or organizational setting, elites are well positioned to enhance the quantity and quality of
any data that are collected (Delaney & Eckstein, 2007; Marshall & Rossman, 2010). Martin Robson (2008)
argues that elites are most often good, knowledgeable communicators who appreciate research and have a

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wide locus of influence in the social, economic, and political realms. Besides that, the trend to obtain ethical
consideration for social science studies is growing. This trend is to demonstrate the collaboration between
science and nonscience researchers and the development of transdisciplinary studies. Several publication
journals have recently made it compulsory for submitted articles to have ethical clearance for the study.
This new development has also influenced and created awareness among researchers of the importance to
acquire ethical clearance prior to data collection.

Section Summary

• Four limitations may affect a swift process of conducting elite interview—linguistic, cultural,
professional, and philosophical.
• Cross-cultural differences in verbal and nonverbal communication, etiquette, beliefs, norms, and
value systems can easily lead to misunderstandings.

Research Design
The elite interview is part of a qualitative approach in which contextual analysis is necessary; this method
differs from the quantitative approach, which focuses on numerical analysis. We have considered several
aspects prior to conducting elite interviews, as follows.

Justify Methodological Choices

Research is conducted using various methodologies. For example, qualitative researchers may use
numerous methods, such as interviews and focus group discussions. Other types of qualitative methods
include ethnographic research, observation, and case study research. Due to the availability of different
research methods, we as researchers need to ensure that we understand the nature of the study we
are conducting by developing research problems, research questions, and research objectives, besides
designing a research framework. The elite interview approach is frequently used if the research focuses
on specific issues that are known or experienced only by a select group of people. For example, if we
wish to identify how decisions are made when new policies for a country are being formulated, we typically
assume that people who hold important government positions are suitable and relevant to be interviewed;
such figures might include the prime minister, other ministers, members of parliament, or resource-related
people who are in charge of specific issues. Another use of elite interviews is to identify key characteristics
of leadership in private organizations; in these cases, the chief executive officer (CEO) or general manager
of the particular organization is the key person to be identified as the key informant to be interviewed.
Conducting elite interviews with such people is thus preferable to using focus group studies or surveys (for
the quantitative approach) to obtain firsthand data or information. In such cases, we must justify why we
use specific methods in our studies by considering two important aspects that previous researchers have
recommended (population and sample size, as discussed later) as well as determining the aims of the study.
These aspects can be identified through a literature analysis.

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Population and Sample

Population and sample sizes are typically small when using the elite interview method. Sometimes the
number may be too limited, which will create constraints for obtaining informants; examples might include a
prime minister or the CEO of a company. To ensure that the data and information may be obtained, we must
identify which other important people may have the same relevant information as the top or main person has.

The number of informants who should be interviewed generally depends on the depth of our understanding
on the topic we are researching on. Numerous researchers in the literature have argued for different sampling
numbers to be interviewed and have discussed how to ensure the adequacy, reliability, and validity of any
data gained during the process.

The most important principle to adhere to in identifying the number of informants for in-depth interviews is to
make sure all parties that were involved in a process have a key informant as representative or sample to
be interviewed. The selected informant should be an individual who was directly or indirectly involved in the
process. Saturation point will occur once there is no new or additional information gathered. This is the point
where the in-depth interview stops. On other words, the number of informants for the interview is sufficient
once it reaches a saturation period.

Interview Data Collection

Data collection is typically conducted after all other considerations have been finalized. At this point, we must
carefully arrange the data collection process, especially when securing the date of the interview session with
informants. As noted earlier, informants may or may not accept the invitation to be interviewed. They may
have tight schedules that will not allow them to spend even 30 min for an interview. We must understand and
realize that key informants are normally high-ranked officers with busy work schedule. Making appointments
well ahead of time will help to avoid being rejected and thus offers us a better chance of securing interviews
with the key people of the study.

Interview Data Analysis

The analysis of data for elite interviews uses similar analytical methods as in conducting qualitative research.
The data and information we receive during the interviews can be analyzed through content analysis, thematic
analysis, or discourse analysis. The main purpose of data analysis is to identify any trends in the informants’
answers. Other important aspects that we must include are the objective of the study and the research
framework. We should be able to identify trends in our informants’ answers during the interviews; these trends
then provide a starting point for analyzing the whole data systematically.

Interview Data Reporting

Reporting data and information is one of the most important parts of a research process. As the collected data
will be read, analyzed, referred to, and criticized by other people, we must carefully report the most important

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and relevant information, based on the objectives of the study. All sources must be clearly quoted using the
preferred citation style (such as APA, MLA, Chicago, or Turabian) while maintaining the confidentiality of the
informants.

Section Summary

• Contextual analysis is necessary in a qualitative approach.

• Researchers should consider five pertinent points when conducting elite interviews: (a) Justification
for methodological choices—Why that particular method is chosen? (b) Population and
sample—Who are the population and sample of study? (c) Interview data collection—How will
data be collected? (d) Interview data analysis—How will data be analyzed? and (e) Interview data
reporting—How will data be reported?

Research Practicalities
Different researchers may use different steps to conduct an elite interview, but the procedures typically are
similar. In our case, we used the following steps in conducting our elite interviews.

Identify Informants

Our first step in conducting an elite interview is identifying and finalizing the list of informants. These
informants may come from various government agencies or departments or nongovernmental organizations
(NGOs). In choosing informants, we must clearly understand those who are directly or indirectly involved in
the case we are currently researching. In some cases, a small number of organizations are involved, and
the number of potential informants is consequently small. If, in contrast, the case or issue is significantly
influenced by many different agencies or sectors, then the list of potential informants will be longer (Mokhtar
& Haron, 2012).

Design a List of Questions

Before conducting an interview, we should be well versed in the topic (and the related issues or information)
we are researching. Preparing a list of questions related to the study before conducting the interview is also
important and has a number of advantages. First, we can develop a storyline for the session which will help
to organize the conversation between us and the informant. Second, informants may provide answers not
according to the sequence of questions we ask. Having a list of questions can help us put a mark at the
questions that the informant has already answered (if the question is listed to be asked later on). This means
we do not ask questions that the answers are already provided. Third, having a list of questions can help
us to remember information we need for the study, especially if we are not particularly skilled at conducting
interviews or have poor communication skills. Disorganized and unstructured interviews can yield low-quality
information and can allow inquiry to drift away from the primary research focus to the respondent’s stream-of-
consciousness thoughts and sometimes biased perceptions (Beamer, 2002).

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Approach the Informants

Approaching informants is the first step in presenting our research and the purpose of identifying them as key
personalities for the research. Several methods can be used to approach informants, including formal letters,
phone calls, email, and online video conferencing. When writing a letter or email to informants, we must
briefly explain the study, for example, by stating the purpose of the study, justification for selecting them as
informants, and type of information and material related to the study that we need. This stage also serves as a
starting point for making appointments with informants. Suggesting several dates and times to the informants
may normally boost our possibility of securing an interview. In the case of high-ranked government officers or
the elite, we normally should approach their “gatekeeper,” such as the secretary or personal assistant, before
we can officially approach the informant. This gatekeeper is usually referred to as the contact person and is
the intermediary between us and the informant.

Secure a Meeting Date

After the informant agrees to the request of being interviewed, we should secure a date that fits with the
informant’s schedule. We should ask for an appointment well in advance, keeping in mind the need for time
between appointments and allowing enough flexibility for appointments to be rescheduled. Informants usually
propose their preferred date and time, although some may follow the suggestion from the researcher. We
must bear in mind, however, that a change of date or time of the interview may occur due to the informants’
sudden change in their work schedule or urgent meeting that they must attend. In such cases, the informants
normally will suggest new date and time for the interview. In addition to confirming the date and time, we
should also verify the meeting place, which is typically the informant’s office. In some cases, the location
of the informant’s office is different from the location stated in the website. Thus, verification of the meeting
location is equally important to save time, energy, and cost while keeping our head focused on the study.

Prepare for the Actual Meeting

Before commencing the actual meeting or interview session with the informant, we should pretest the
interview instrument, which in this case is the semi-structured question. It is vital to identify any potential
problems and other factors such as unclear questions, questions with multiple interpretations, and keywords
that may serve as a basis for coding in subsequent analyses (Beamer, 2002). As the interviewer, we must also
have detailed knowledge about the informant (Peabody et al., 1990); because these interviewees are elite
members, acquiring information about them beforehand is easier than it would be for an “ordinary” person
(Costa & Kiss, 2011).

The techniques involved in preparing for an elite interview include extensively researching the background
of the people to be interviewed, finding ways to make them as comfortable as possible (Kezar, 2003),
and obtaining information that is not necessarily public knowledge. These steps will help us to conduct the
interview session in a more comfortable way, for example, by understanding how to address the informants
and being aware of their political leanings.

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Commencing the Interview Session

Before starting the interview session, we should first take a few points into consideration. First, the use
of academic jargon can put the informants off, thus biasing their responses and making interviews less
productive. Asking questions in the language of the respondent will avoid this problem (Beamer, 2002).
Second, we should use written release forms at the beginning of the interview to obtain permission from
respondents to use the information that is collected (Seidman, 1999). These forms are usually provided
or approved by an institutional review board (IRB). A verbal release may also be used, although such
agreements should be audio-recorded. Third, respondents should be informed before the interview
commences about whether their answers will be confidential or anonymously attributed. Without such
assurances, respondents may be less than candid in their answers (Beamer, 2002).

The most common strategy when conducting interviews is to move from general to more specific questions
(Dexter, 1970; Kingdon, 1989; Seidman, 1999). By asking broad questions at the outset, we offer the
informant the opportunity to volunteer perceptions and talk freely while reserving the ability to ask more
specific questions in reaction to initial responses. This strategy allows us to remain structured and focused
but will also give us some flexibility (Beamer, 2002). We should keep in mind that it is not the obligation of the
informant to be objective or to tell the truth. We may have a purpose in requesting interviews but may ignore
the fact that informants also have a purpose for the interviews: They have something they want to say (Berry,
2002).

The script should be flexible, and we should be familiar with the interview questions, keeping in mind the
sequence of the questions (Harvey, 2009) to avoid repetition or hesitation (Costa & Kiss, 2011). We should
also use a voice recorder so that each word that is stated in the interview can be recorded. Although voice
recording can provide an accurate record of the interview, the method can also inhibit respondents from being
candid (Beamer, 1999; Fenno, 1986). Interviews that are not recorded should be transcribed as soon as
possible to avoid memory loss, which can lead to interviewer bias.

Transcribing and Analyzing Data

After each interview session ends, we should transcribe the recorded conversation verbatim as soon as
possible. Taking this step will ensure that all interviews are on record and will prevent any loss of important
data. After the transcription process is complete, we can begin to analyze the raw data. Data are often
analyzed using the content analysis technique, which reduces the transcribed interview from the text into
summarized expressions about the subjects of interest to the researcher (Seidman, 2003). Software such as
Atlas.ti and NVivo can also be used to help us analyze the data. Researchers can decide how to process
the data, as some may be more comfortable with traditional methods of analysis, whereas others may prefer
to use computer analysis software. We should examine the interview data with healthy skepticism prior to
analysis, as many potential sources of data contamination exist (Beamer, 2002).

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Section Summary

• Prior to conducting elite interviews, we as researchers should identify informants, design a list of
questions, and approach the informants for meeting date, time, and venue.
• During the interviews, we should be physically and mentally ready for the interview with the question
list and working voice recorder (if allowed) or else take note of elites’ responses.
• After the interviews, we must transcribe the recorded conversation at our earliest convenience and
analyze the data.

Method in Action
A particular method may be used in any given research for a number of reasons, some of which may be due
to the necessity of using that particular method or because of our own experience. Although our case has
presented several challenges, we should not be discouraged from using or adopting a given method. Instead,
our experience helped us to formulate a set of guidelines for other researchers to refer to and to strategize
their research work, especially data collection process. These guidelines are helpful, specifically for those
who are conducting qualitative research using elite interviews for the first time.

Based on our research experience, the greatest challenge that we have faced is to obtain approval and
consent from the informants. Several informants whom we have met and interviewed are high-profile
individuals who occupy top positions in various government agencies or private companies. Although getting
approval and consent can be done through written agreement or verbal consensus, we often found that
it is difficult to get approval or consent from the elites due to confidential information they were going to
share with us such as equitable distribution, racial sentiments, or political leaders. In addition, a few of
them demonstrated certain unpleasing or unwelcoming attitudes which could have affected the interviews.
According to Biech (2012), a leader with aggressive and impatience attitude with fierce determination
is difficult to work with. However, being experienced researchers with elite interviews have helped us
tremendously in conducting and completing the interviews with such informants confidently and calmly.

Interestingly enough, not all informants whom we met were difficult to handle. There were informants who
showed pleasant attitudes and very generously shared the needed information with us, with gentle reminder
to use the information appropriately. It is important to quickly glance through the informants from top to bottom
to acquire some basic characters of the persons you are going to interview for the interviews to run smoothly.

The previous point brings to the fore that in face-to-face encounter with informants, it is crucial for the
researchers to explain about the study in detail. We also believe that it is important to highlight to the
informants that the shared information will only be used for the purpose of the study. We also mention that the
study findings will be presented to the Ministry of Higher Education Malaysia who provided the monetary grant
for the study. An official report will also be submitted to the ministry, which could be the basis for related policy
improvement formulation of new relevant policies. Our proposed guidelines presented in this case study could
assist in predicting what will happen, thus allowing us to plan for a backup option. Without the option, the

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whole data collection process will be delayed, thus affecting the progress of the research.

Section Summary

• Elite interview is not an easy tool for collecting data but can provide insightful information for the
study.
• Challenges in conducting elite interviews can be avoided by following the guidelines.

Practical Lessons Learned

Our research experiences have enabled us to identify several challenges in conducting elite interviews. Other
researchers may find our challenges to be similar with their experiences, whereas others may not have faced
the same problems.

Cancelling the Appointment at the Very Last Minute

The appointment date and time are usually confirmed prior to the meeting. Confirmation is normally given by
both parties (researcher and informant), but in some cases the informant may cancel the appointment at the
very last minute—sometimes even the time we have arrived at the informant’s office. We have encountered
this problem several times and only been informed by the informants’ assistant that their superior was unable
to proceed with the interview session due to various reasons. Among the frequent reasons were due to urgent
meetings and personal problems. At this point, we as researchers should understand that we are in a position
of requesting help from the informant. The informants (or more typically their assistants responding on their
behalf) generally apologized for the last-minute cancellation and tried to schedule a new date and time within
the same week or month. We usually accepted their request to reschedule the interview session. Most of the
time, the second time of interview session went well without any rescheduling of date and time. Our project
timeline is not affected so much because we are normally ahead of work schedule to accommodate such
incidences.

“Off the Record, Please …”

Conducting an elite interview is quite easy today in terms of recording the conversation, and the majority
of informants will be happy to agree to the communication being recorded. As mentioned earlier, we should
request permission from our informants to record the whole interview for data precision and accuracy. Some
informants may refuse the interview to be recorded, however, perhaps because of confidential matters they
plan to share. Other informants may feel uncomfortable being in the presence of a voice recorder, perhaps
because they are afraid of being recorded saying something they are not supposed to say. Even if they are
assured that they will not be named in the research, some are not convinced.

When encountering the same issue during our data collection, we tried our best in convincing the informants
that their names will not be disclosed in the project reports and publications. We also clarified that we will
provide a copy of the final report and any publication related to the research upon request as a proof that their
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names are not mentioned anywhere in the text. Fortunately, in academic research, it is unethical to name
our respondents or informants. Most journals usually will not allow any papers to reveal any information on
identification of the respondents or informants, and this will be screened by the editor of the journal or review
during the paper reviewing stage. We also have experienced informants declining our request to record the
conversation due to their concerns of sharing information which could possibly backfire them in the future.
Although the concerns were conveyed in a joke, we understand the situation they are in and convince them
that the information is mainly for the research purposes only. Most informants were convinced partly due to
our affiliation with two of the top universities in Malaysia. We also provided them with a copy of the official
letter from the Ministry of Education, Malaysia for the provision of fund and other important particulars for us
to carry out the study.

Setting Up Appointments With Other Officers

Prior to data collection activities, we normally have a confirmed list of informants whom we wish to interview.
The selection is based on a number of criteria including the informant’s position and job scope. When
informants are first approached and asked whether they can be interviewed, they may provide a few different
responses. In one scenario, informants will be pleased to agree to an interview session and will set a date,
time, and venue for the meeting. A second scenario is that they decline the interview and provide an excuse
for not being able to fulfill our request. A third scenario is that they are reluctant to accept the invitation to
be interviewed, but they assist us by suggesting other officers who can help answer the questions. Some
potential informants will suggest the correct person to be interviewed, but in other cases the person assigned
to be interviewed might lack sufficient knowledge about the issues the researcher is studying. This final
scenario can lead to ineffective information sharing between the informant and us.

We have also experienced cases in which the key informants would assign his or her subordinates to
represent them in the interviews. However, during the interview session, the subordinates were quite hesitant
to answer the questions due to confidentiality concerns. Besides, some of the assigned officers said that they
were not the right persons to answer the interview questions and would get back to us upon confirmation. In
some cases, we did not get any response although several follow-up efforts were made. What we did was to
set another appointment date with the key informants with justification being their involvement in the interview
was vital to complete the study.

Section Summary

• Common challenges that we have faced while conducting elite interviews include last-minute
appointment cancellation by informants for various reasons, refusal for the interview to be recorded,
and assigning other officers to replace the first that we approached.
• The ways we deal with the challenges are very crucial in making sure the interviews are carried out
smoothly.

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Conclusion
Conducting elite interviews helps us to gain rich data, as the method allows for in-depth explorations of
particular issues, such as, in this case, policy processes. Due to several challenges in conducting interviews,
we recommend that other researchers be prepared, informed, and (ideally) socially skilled if they intend to use
this type of qualitative method. We should take various aspects into consideration in facilitating the interview
process. Holding an interview with elite people is an exercise in endurance: They often test and try to defeat
their interviewers. Gaining access to such people is not easy, the time they may make interviewers wait
before and during the interview may not be by chance, and interviewers must be prepared for contingencies
the informants may create. Interview subjects must be given sufficient space to freely answer the interview
questions and discuss issues highlighted during the interviews.

Section Summary

• We encourage other researchers to use the elite interview if it is relevant and appropriate, taking into
account the nature of the study.
• Although there are difficulties inherent in conducting elite interviews, this method provides a useful
way to gain information.

Classroom Discussion Questions

Classroom Discussion Questions

1. How would you define an elite interview, and how is elite interview different from other types of
interview?
2. How can the elite interview method be applied in social science research?
3. What challenges exist in conducting elite interviews, and what strategies do you suggest for
addressing such challenges?
4. Based on the following scenarios, what is your stance, as a researcher, for each scenario, and how
will you solve each challenge?
5. The informant has rejected your invitation to be interviewed.
6. The informant has not allowed the interview or conversation to be recorded.
7. The informant has not replied to the invitation to be interviewed.
8. The officer who has been assigned to replace the informant is not in a position to provide relevant
information.
9. The informant periodically reminds the interviewer that the information he or she shares should not
be reported.
10. If you are planning to conduct in-depth interviews with elites, how would you start the interview?
What topics would you avoid during the interview? Why?

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Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The Authors declare that there is no conflict of interest.

Acknowledgment
The authors would like to thank the Ministry of Higher Education, Malaysia (MOHE) for providing the
Long-Term Research Grant Scheme entitled Enhancement of Relevant National Policies for Effective
TB Management: Lesson Drawing and Control (203.PJJAUH.67212003) and making the publication
of this work possible.

Further Reading
Boesten, J. (2014). When tintos break ice: Elite interviews in Colombia. Lasa Forum, XLV(2), 4–6.

Feldman, E. J. (2018). A practical guide to the conduct of field research in the social sciences.
Routledge.

Field, M. (2019). Conducting elite interviews to explore variations in attitudes to transparency among
members of the European Parliament. SAGE.

Kvale, S. (2008). Doing interviews. SAGE.

Mosley, L. (2013). Interview research in political science. Cornell University Press.

Petintseva, O., Faria, R., & Eski, Y. (2020). Interviewing elites, experts and the powerful in
criminology. Palgrave McMillan.

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