Sampling (esantion)= a unit that we analyze/ people that are part of an experiment / the place

that we collect the data

2 types of samples:
- probability- we can generalize the data – a larger population e.g. election
- non-probability – we cannot
Probability sample- we have a sampling frame= list with all the individuals (anything) on the
studied population
Ways of producing a probability sample:
1. Simple random sampling
2. Systematic sampling
3. Stratified sampling
4. Multi-stage cluster sampling
1000 undergraduate full-time SS at TUB
1. We want to get 100 samples- we generate automatically
2. We add + 50 after -> 74+50
3. Female: -humanities 200 -> 20
-science 200 -> 20
Male –humanities 400-> 40 =100names (we use again simple random sampling to get
the names)
-science 200-> 20
4. cluster (humanities & science) -> we don’t go to every faculty, but at letters and psychology
faculties -> these are clusters
Non-probability sample- we cannot generalize to the entire population
1. Convenience sample
2. Purposive/ judgemental
3. Quota
4. Snowball

1. The variable does not matter that matter (gender, faculty)

2. You want to interview Ss who have music as a hobby- I don’t know who they are- I go to
the center of music and the ones that are there, I assume they like the music
3. It looks like stratified- I as a teacher know that we have 1000 Ss, but I don’t have the
names- it does not include all the names, some percentages are observed
4. Ask others to bring me other Ss who are Erasmus students
Experiment:
a) -independent variable – doesn’t change (heat)-> cause
b) -dependent variable – changes (colour)-> response
c) -causality – cause comes before effect -> time sequence
d) -laboratory experiment – bring people to the lab -> artificial environment- only one factor
we want to see
e) –field (subjects are not brought to the lab) /natural experiments (they just happen without
interfering them, you just watch the subjects)
f) –the experimental group* – in their natural environment -> communicative method
g) –the control group – traditional method
h) -placebo group – we make a change in the teaching method -> they know that something
is happening, there’s an experiment -> psychological effect -> hybrid method
i) –true (exp. Where the independent is manipulated by the researcher) vs. natural
experiments
j) Pre-test & post-test – exp (with picture), controlled(without)- we start with a pre-test(Qs),
post-test(the same Qs)
How pictures in text picture
Features:
1. Ethical issues- what about the experiment is about
2. We cannot have probability samples, we have a volunteer (Ss, higher educated people
than educated people volunteer)
3. If the pre/post-test are the same, the subject may change the responses just to please the
researcher
Ethical issues:
Theoretical research- bring up a new theory, perspective, smth that pushes knowledge further
Applied research-more pragmatic- new teaching method, a new way of analysis
1. Covert research: they enter the field pretending they are not researchers
2. Coercion of subjects: a captive audience
3. Invasion of privacy: in a questionnaire- trade-off – you have to judge what is important
and what not
4. Tempering with results: how you deal with the data in order to prove you point
5. Plagiarism: you don’t acknowledge the source of ideas, words
6. Right to privacy vs the public right to know: is useful to know
7. Confidentiality: we know who the respondent is, but we promise not to disclose his
identity
8. Anonymity: the researcher himself does not know the subject
9. Informed consent: I’ll use the respondent’s name
Indexes and scales:
-ways of measuring instruments that measures concepts that are complex
- Indexes give actual figures at the end.
-scales-> intensity
Independent variables: the work orientation index
- being successful in my line of work-> higher
- having lots of money(ind) ->
- being able to find steady work-> higher the desire the more person is orientated towards
work.
Scales: likert –SA, A, D, SD
Semantic differencial scale: features of behaviours, description using adjectives
Bogardus: 1-7