SECTION I

GRAMMAR
 Chapter 1: STYLE IN BUSINESS WRITING
A. PUNCTUATION
Punctuation, capitalization, number expression, abbreviation usage are all elements of style that
greatly affect the general readability of a written message. They are the tools that every writer
uses to guide the reader in quickly and correctly separating and interpreting the thoughts that
comprise and convey the complete message. Let us see how to use each of them.
1. The period or Full stop
Use it
- After a sentence, that makes a statement of fact, opinion, or belief that expresses a
command or a polite request.
- With abbreviations of courtesy titles, professional titles, seniority terms, academic degrees
and a-m and p-m, Mr., Mrs, Miss, Dr., etc., …
- With numbers
- After condensed statements which are often called an elliptical statement and are usually
a word or phrase used as an answer to a question.
2. The Question mark
Use it
 At the end of a sentence that asks a direct question;
 After a condensed question, which is frequently a word or phrase following a statement;
 In a series of brief questions related to the same subject and verb.
 ex: Would the best qualified person for this job be Marie? Bill? Jane?
 To enclose a statement that consists of the exact words spoken or written by someone
else
 To enclose the titles of articles, essays, short poems, lectures, report and chapters of
books
3. Exclamation point
Use it
- After a sentence, a phrase or a single word to indicate strong feeling or emotion.
ex: Congratulations! You deserve the promotion!
4. Comma
Use it
 Between independent clauses
 In a series
 Between coordinate adjectives
 After introductory words (consequently, accordingly, yes, no, however, therefore,
otherwise)
 After introductory phrases
 After introductory clauses
 To separate thousands from hundreds, millions from hundred thousands
ex: 11,256 employees; 91,356,200
 Between consecutive numbers
ex: In 1982, 12,357 members participated in the survey.
5. The Semi-colon
Use it
 Between independent clauses
 Before namely, that is or similar expression.
6. The Colon
Use it
 After a statement that introduces a series of items within a sentence or a list of
items displayed in separate lines.
 Between hours and minutes (when clock time is expressed in figures, use a colon to
separate hours from minutes.

7. The Dash
Use it
 Before all, these or a similar word that follows and summarizes a series at the
beginning of a sentence.
8. The Parentheses
Use them
 To set off references to illustrations, charts, diagrams, pages or chapters of
books and so on.
9. Underscores
 Underscore the title of books, magazines, newspapers, pamphlets, reports and
chapter of books.
 Underscore words referred to as words, words accompanied by definitions and
foreign expressions that are not part of the English language.
10. The Apostrophe
Use it
 To denote a letter or letters omitted.
 To denote possession.
11. The Inverted Commas
 Round direct speech.
 Round slang and words with a special technical meaning.
12. Hyphen
In many cases this is not regarded as very important in English and in such instances may
be inserted or omitted according to personal will.
 B. CAPITALIZATION
Capitalize
 First words of sentences – of direct quotations – of each item displayed in a list – of
complimentary closings.
 Title of persons before names – after names
 Title of literary and artistic works
 Periods of time and historical events
 Brand and trade names
 Place names
 Organizations names
 Words derived from proper nouns.

C. ABBREVIATION
Personal names, titles and related terms
Personal names: With the expression of saint, which is usually abbreviated (st); do not abbreviate
the name of a person.
In the names of government agencies, United States is often abbreviated (US); however, names
of countries should not be abbreviated when they appear by themselves in sentences.

Personal titles: Whether they appear with complete names or with last names only, abbreviate
these titles : Mr., Mrs., Miss and Dr.
Do not abbreviate the names of months or days of the week.

A.D and B.C.: A.D (representing Anno Domini and meaning “in the year of our Lord”) is written
before the year : A.D 1812
The abbreviation B.C. (“before Christ”) is written after the year : 3000 B.C.
Business Terms: Such commonly used business terms as those below are often abbreviated.
c.o.d or COD (Cash on Delivery) P.O (Post Office)
f.o.b or FOB (Free on Board) e.o.m or EOM (End of Month)
PR (Public Relations) CEO (Chief Executive Officer)

Chapter 2: PARTS OF SPEECH

The parts of speech are the eight classes into which words are divided in the basis of how they
are used in sentences, clauses and phrases.
Here are those eight classes and definitions: Noun – Pronoun – Adjective – Verb – Adverb –
Preposition – Conjunction – Interjection.
1. Adjective
 An adjective is a word used to modify a noun or a pronoun.
2. Adverb
 An adverb is a word that modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb.
 3. Conjunction
 A conjunction is a word that connects words, phrases or clauses in a sentence.
4. Interjection
 An interjection is a word used to express strong feeling or emotion. An
interjection has no grammatical relationship to the rest of the sentence.
5. Noun
 A noun is a word that names a person, place, animal, quality, object or thing of
any kind.
6. Preposition
 A preposition is a connecting word that shows the relationship between a
following noun or pronoun (the object of the preposition and some other word in
a sentence).
7. Pronoun
 A pronoun is a word that takes the place of a noun. The use of pronouns
eliminates the monotonous repetition of nouns.
8. Verb
 A verb is a word that expresses action or state of being. Every group of words
that is a sentence or a clause contains at least one verb.

Chapter 3 : THE VERB

DEFINITION
Verb is the most important class of the parts of speech.
o A verb is a word by means of which something is said about somebody or something.
o The verb, we may say, is the heart and life of a sentence; without a verb (expressed or understood)
there can be no sentence.

CATEGORIES OF VERBS
We distinguish four categories of verbs:
1. The auxiliary verbs: To BE and TO HAVE
2. The semi-auxiliary verbs: DO – NEED – LET
3. The modal or defective verbs: CAN – MAY – MUST- OUGHT TO – SHALL – WILL with their pasts
4. Ordinary verbs which are divided into two parts ( Regular and Irregular verbs)

Chapter 4 : THE VERB – VOICE

We can often put a statement in two different ways by using a word as the object, by using the
same word as the subject.
Ex: The tiger killed the man
The man was killed by the tiger.
 In the first sentence, the subject (the tiger) stands for the doer of the action and the verb
(killed) is said to be in the active voice.
In the second sentence, the subject is “the man” and the verb (was killed) is said to be in
the passive voice.
We know that only verbs used transitively can take an object, therefore only transitive
verbs can be used in the passive voice.

We use the passive voice:

 When the active subject is unknown or cannot easily be stated.

 When the subject is unmistakably clear from the context

 To avoid the too frequent use of the pronoun I, and so to avoid the appearance of egotism.
ex: As has already been said.

Active and passive nouns and adjectives:

It may be of some interest to notice here that some nouns and adjectives, also have what
may be called an active or a passive meaning. Thus:
Employer (active) >>> employee Contemptuous >>> contemptible

Chapter 5 : THE VERB – MOOD

The Mood:
Mood is the form of the verb which shows the manner in which the action is represented. It
consists of groups of tenses, each group having a certain similarity of meaning.
There are three chief moods, which we may describe briefly as follows:
i. Indicative, the mood of fact
ii. Imperative, the mood of command
iii. Subjunctive, the mood of uncertainty
There is also the Infinitive, which is hardly a mood at all but rather a collection of verb nouns and
verb adjectives. It comprises Infinitives, Gerunds and Participles.
The infinitive is a verb-noun; it expresses or names the action in a general way: to learn, to have
learnt. It names the action in an indefinite way, without reference to maintaining.
The participle is a verb-adjective: it is used as an epithet (ex: let sleeping dog lie). As a predicative
adjective.

The gerund is a verbal noun: It is used as:

1. Subject: seeing is believing; - 2. Object: stop talking.

Chapter 6 : VERB TENSES

The word tense is really a form of the Latin word "tempus" (time), and in grammar the
term tense is used to indicate certain inflexions of the verb, whose main purpose is to mark the
time at which the action takes, took or will take place.
Our lives, and time generally, may be divided into three parts: Present, Past and Future;
which are therefore the three main tenses in grammar.
These tenses have various subdivisions to indicate the continuousness and completeness,
as well as the time of the action.

THE SIMPLE PRESENT IS USED IN = Présent

THE PRESENT CONTINUOUS IS USED FOR = Présent Progressif
THE PRESENT PERFECT SIMPLE =- Passé Composé

THE PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS =

THE PAST SIMPLE- = Passé Simple
THE PAST CONTINUOUS TENSE = Imparfait
THE PAST PERFECT SIMPLE TENSE = Plus-que-parfait
THE PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE - ………………………………
THE FUTURE SIMPLE IS USED FOR = Futur Simple
THE FUTURE CONTINUOUS IS USED FOR = Futur Progressif
THE FUTURE PERFECT SIMPLE AND CONTINUOUS = ……………………………………..

Chapter 7 : CONDITIONAL SENTENCES

Thinking about future

When we are thinking about what we will do in the future, we often start with the words
“when” or “if”,
e-g: When I leave, I shall get a job.
If I pass my school certificate, I shall go into the sixth form.
Unlikely events in the future
f you had worked hard, you would have passed . The speaker here is thinking of a past event, and
imaging it to be different from what it really was.
(If + Past perfect) + Conditional perfect.

METHODOLOGY OF PUTTING
Chapter 8 :
SENTENCES INTO THE NEGATIVE FORM
To put a sentence into the negative form, look at the categories of the verb :
 If the verb of the sentence is An auxiliary (to be or to have) :
SUBJECT + (BE or HAVE) + NOT + Verb as given + COMPLEMENT
 If the verb of the sentence is a defective or a modal verb.
SUBJECT + DEFECTIVE VERB + NOT + VERB without to + complement
If the verb of the sentence is an ordinary verb look at its tense:
If the verb is in the Present tense, do this :
SUBJECT + Do /Does + NOT (or doesn’t)+ VERB (without to) + complement
If the verb is in the past tense:
SUBJECT + Did + NOT (or didn't) + VERB without to + complement

METHODOLOGY OF ASKING AND

Chapter 9 :
ANSWERING QUESTIONS IN ENGLISH
To ask a question in English, you need question words which are:
who, whose, what, which >>>>Subject
When >>>>>> Time
Why >>>>> Reason
Where >>>>>> Place
 How… etc >>>>> Manner

Chapter 10 : QUESTION TAGS

Definition:
A tag is a short phrase of two or three words the speaker adds to his
statements to ask for agreement or confirmation of what he is saying.
The tag is separated from the statement by a comma and the whole ends in a
question mark. In French, you only have the affirmative form
If sentence A is affirmative, tag B must be negative and answer C will be
affirmative, and vice versa.

Chapter 11 : COMPARISONS AND IRREGULAR

COMPARATIVES
A. COMPARATIVE OF EQUALITY
For short and long adjective, use: So/As + Adjective + as

B. COMPARATIVE OF SUPERIORITY
For a short adjective, use:
Adjective + er + than
For a long adjective, use:
More + adjective + than

C. COMPARATIVE OF INFERIORITY
For short and long adjectives, use:

Not as/not so + adjective + as or Less + adjective + than

D. PROGRESSIVE COMPARATIVE

For a short adjective, use: (Adj + er) and (adj + er)

For a long adjective, use:

More and more + adjective
.
NB: We use Less and less for regressive comparative. Ex: He is less and less strong
E. COMPARATIVE EXPRESSING A PARALLEL INCREASE OR DECREASE

For a short adjective, use: The + adjective + er

For a long adjective, use: The more + Adj…., the more + adj
 Chapter 12 THE USE OF THE GERUND
The gerund and not the infinitive should be used:
 After prepositions: without – instead of
After words which regularly take a preposition such as : avoid – enjoy – excuse –
finish – risk – stop.
After the adjectives busy and worth
After certain phrases such as: It's no good – it's no use – I can't help – would
you mind – look forward to.
 Gerund or the infinitive can be used after certain verbs such as: Begin – dislike – hate
– love – prefer.

Chapter 13 : THE USE OF FOR – SINCE – AGO

FOR
For is frequently used with the present perfect.
For is used when a particular length of time is mentioned.
For + an expression of time can be used with any time.

a. He studied at Oxford for four years

b. The Harmattan season will last for about a month
SINCE
Since is not followed by a length of time such as “three days”
Since is always used with the present perfect
Since is used when a particular point of time or date is mentioned.
AGO
Il y a/Il y avait: durée + ago, avec le prétérit.

Chapter 14 : MEASURES AND WEIGHTS

Measures of length - Measures of area - Measures of Capacity

Measures of weight - Cubic measures - Numbers, Dates and
Times
Dates
1st January 1975 = The first of January 1975 2 nd February 1975 = The second of February1975
We can also write and say : March 4th 1975 = March the fourth 1975
Times
a.m = ante meridiem = morning p.m = post meridiem = afternoon
What’s the time ? It’s twelve o’clock
 Chapter 15 : COUNTABLE NOUNS WITH A/AN and
SOME
- Countable nouns can be singular or plural : a dog = dogs ; child = children
- Before singular countable nouns. You can use a / an. Goodbye ! Have a nice evening.
- You cannot use singular countable nouns alone (without a /an : the, my. She never wears a
hat (not she never wears hat).
- We use a /an … to say what kind of thing or person something/ somebody is : A dog is an
animal – I’m an optimist.
- We say that somebody has a long nose / a nice face.
- Remember to use a/ an. When you say what somebody’s job is : Sandra is a nurse.
- You can use some with plural countable nouns. We use some in two ways

Chapter 16 : NOUNS - GENDER

All nouns denoting males are Masculine, those denoting females are Feminine, and they are
neuter.
Ways of forming the Feminine of Nouns.
Feminine of nouns are formed in three ways.
- By adding a syllable: lion, lioness; baroness
This is the most common way of forming the feminine.
- A few feminine are formed by adding other syllables : ine ( hero – ine); trix (executrix);
en (vix – en ) ; a ( signor – a); ster ( spin – ster).
- By prefixing a word and so forming a compound noun : hen–sparrow, she–goat, he-devil,
maid-servant, she-devil
- By using a different word
Masculine Feminine Masculine Feminine
Boy Girl Boar Sow
FORMATION OF VERBS
The feminine gender is denoted in three ways.
- By a suffix, e.g. actor …..actress
- By a word prefixed to another word, e. eg cock-sparrow, hen-sparrow
- By an entirely different word, e. g. druke = duck
NEUTER NOUNS: Names of things having no sex are classed as neuter
NOUNS – NUMBER In English there are two numbers, singular and plural.
NOUNS - CASE
A noun or a pronoun is sometimes the subject and sometimes the object of a verb. In order
to express these and other relations we make use of what is called case.
The definition of case that is usually given is: the case is the form of the noun or pronoun
which shows its relation to some other word in the sentence. Nouns have five cases: Nominative,
Vocative, Genitive, Dative and Accusative.

Chapter 17 : NOUNS OR NAME WORDS

A noun is the name of anything: London, man, courage.
NOUN - EQUIVALENTS.
Any word or group of words that does the work of a noun in a sentence must,
The following may be used as Noun – Equivalents:
- A pronoun : She was a vision of delight - An adjective : Sweets to sweet.
- A verb : This is a great find - An adverb : Very is an adverb of degree
- A Preposition : You have spelt until with two l’s -A Conjunction : But me no buts
- An Interjection: Alas is the word he used. - A Phrase : How to get home is the
difficulty
- A Clause : that she will pass more than likely.
 Chapter 18 : NOUNS - POSSESSIVE FORM
SINGULAR NOUNS – POSSESSIVE FORM
- Nouns not ending in S or the Sound of S
- Nouns Ending in S or the Sound of S.
- Compound Names:
- Names followed by Senority or Similar terms.
- Nouns followed by Appositives:
- Two or more nouns – to indicate separate ownership, write each noun in possessive form.
- Two or more nouns – : PLURAL NOUNS – POSSESSIVE FORM

NOTES ON
Chapter 19 :
THE FORMATION OF PLURAL
1- Some nouns ending in –f add –S:
2- Foreign words. Compound words:
3- Some nouns have one form only: sheep, deer, grouse, snipe-cod.
4- Some nouns are plural in form but singular in meaning: riches, alms, eaves-news, innings.
5- Some nouns have two forms in the plural with different meanings:
6- Some nouns change their meaning in the plural:
7- Some nouns have no singular:
8- Abstract nouns have strictly no plural: joy, industry-beauty.
9- Names of materials, or what we sometimes call material nouns, are not used in the plural:
Plurals of Proper Nouns: we may note the following plurals.
Singular Plural
Mr. Smith Messrs. Smith or the Mr. Smiths
Miss Smith The Misses Smith or the Miss Smiths
Mrs. Smith The Mrs. Smiths
Master Smith The Master Smiths

Pronunciation of the finals

When S follows one of the unvoiced letters f, k, p, s, t, th (in Goth), it is sounded as S : roofs –
looks – caps – cats – Goths; after any other consonant or after a vowel it is sounded as z : sofaz –
cobz – ladz.
Chapter 20 : PRONOUNS
- Pronouns substitute for nouns. Generally, a pronoun refers to a previously stated noun, called
an antecedent.
Pronouns are classified as:
1) – Personal pronouns
2) Possessive pronouns: They show ownership
3) Reflexive pronouns
4) Interrogative pronouns are used to ask question.
5) Demonstrative pronouns are used alone to substitute for specific nouns.
6) Common indefinite pronouns
7) Relative pronouns substitute for nouns already mentioned in the sentence and are used to
introduce adjective and noun to refer to people.
8) Distributive: each, either, neither.

Chapter 21 : DO AND MAKE

- These two verbs often depart from their fundamental meanings of “act” and “construct” in
idiomatic usage.
TO MAKE To DO
A noise A new dance
Your bed An exercise well / badly
Someone unhappy Your hair
A mistake Something wrong
A speech Business
A fire A favour
Friends
A lot of money
A journey
A mess
War/ peace
A good translation

Chapter 22 :INDIRECT or REPORTED SPEECH

Mary said, "I know the answer, but I won't tell you"
or "I know the answer, said Mary, but I won't tell you"
Story-tellers often use direct speech, because it makes a story lively and interesting,
rather like a play. But when we are not telling a story, we do not often use direct speech.
In indirect questions, there is no inversion of the verb, i-e: the order of words is not the
same as for an ordinary question. There is no question mark after an indirect question,
because the sentence as it's wrote is not a question at all. The verb "ask" is not followed by
that.
Indirect command
D: He said, go away! >>>>>>> I: He told me to go away
He said, don't be so silly! >>> He told me not to be so silly
INDIRECT SPEECH AND THE SEQUENCE OF TENSES
Story-tellers often use direct speech, because it makes a story live and interesting, rather
like a play. Here are the exact words which somebody has said, e-g:
a) Mary said, I know the answer, but I won't tell you
That is what we call indirect speech or reported speech
In English there are many important differences between direct speech and indirect speech,
and the 1st thing to do is to learn to say them properly.
b) After "as if" "as though" in a clause of comparison when the comparison is obviously untrue
Ex: He raced down the road as if he were being chased by a mad dog
c) After the verb "to wish" (where the wish is unfulfilled)
After "supposing …" (where the supposition or hypothesis in unlikely)
REPORTED SPEECH / STATEMENTS
I - TENSE CHANGES
Direct speech Reported speech
Present simple becomes Past simple
Past simple Past perfect simple
II – WORDS AND PHRASES
Here again the change is controlled by the meaning. The following list gives suggestions
but other forms may be more suitable in certain cases.
 SECTION II

VOCABULARY
 Chapter 1: ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES
Why do people work? To earn their living. While working, they produce goods and services.
- Goods are produced in farms like maize, milk or in factories like cars and papers.
- Services are provided by such things as schools, hospitals or shops.
The things produced by people are called products, economics is a science.
DIAGRAM ABOUT KINDS OF PRODUCTION

People produce

Goods Services
Branches of Production

Extractive or Primary Secondary or Manufacturing

Industry Tertiary Industry
Industry
 Engineering – Building
 Hunting – Fishing
 Gas ; electricity
 Farming – Mining
Weaving

Tertiary Industry

Intermediary Final
 Commerce  Teaching
 Banking – Trading  Medecine
 Insurance –  Defence – Acting
Commerce Transport –
Advertising
 Wharehousing
Trade

Home trade foreign trade

Retail Wholesale Export Import

 Chapter 2: COMMERCE AND TRADE
What is commerce?

Commerce, in its broadest sense is the wide and complex field of economic activity concerned with the
buying and selling of goods and their movement from producer to consumer. Commerce ; a complex notion
(concept) which comprises trade and auxiliaries. It also includes distribution ( the movement of goods),
marketing and industry.

Trade is the essential part of commerce, it includes only the buying and selling of goods.
Its main purpose is to make profit
The main branches of trade
 Home (or domestic trade, or local or internal) which is carried on inside a country
 Foreign (or overseas trade, or international or external) which is carried on with foreign
countries
The two categories of home trade
 Wholesale trade is the branch of home trade which concerns buying and selling
wares in large quantities, in bulk.
 Retail trade in which goods are sold in small quantities or by the price to the consumer.

The two categories of foreign trade

Import trade: the trader who imports goods from a foreign economy is an importer
 Import trade - Export trade:
 The fundamental aim of commerce
Is to make goods available in areas where they are not normally obtainable. The aim of the trader
is to make a profit.
Profit is a financial gain.
The Gross profit is the difference between the selling price and the buying price.
The net profit is the profit which remains to the trader after all his overhead expenses (trading
expenses) have been deducted from the gross profit.

Auxiliaries of Trade
AUXILIARIES refer to services, intangible things which facilitate trade.

TRANSPORT - A BANK - ADVERTISING ( advert = ad = a message to consumers

WAREHOUSING) - INSURANCE

Chapter 3: FORMS OF BUSINESS ORGANIZATION

The legal status of a business organization, in whatever field it operates, depends upon the way in
which it is owned. Bearing this in mind, business can be classified in six types:

1. A sole trader - 2.A partnership 3. Corporation 4 A joint-stock company

2. A co-operative retail society 6. A combination
 Chapter 4: COMPANY ORGANISATION
STAFF AND MANAGEMENT/THE PERSONNEL OF A FIRM

Each company has a structured framework that divides up the work and enables management
to plan, coordinate monitor and control operations. A diagram which gives a picture of the
organisation of the firm is called: the organisation flow, administrative chart.
Managers may be categorised according to their level of responsibility.
 The Management of the firm = cadre dirigeant
 Senior or "top managers" (cadre supérieur) devote most of their time to planning and long-
term policies and are not involved in every day tasks
 Middle managers (cadre moyen) organise and control systems and operations
 Junior managers or under-manager (cadre debutant ou jeune cadre) spend more of their
time in carrying out various tasks.
 The senior staff = cadres ; The middle executives = agents de maîtrise
 At the bottom of the company structure are the operatives (in the case of factory work):
ouvrier.
 Clerical workers (in offices and sales staff or shop)

When structuring a company, the concept of the "span of contribution" (les attributions, le
domaine de responsabilité) comes into play.

MANAGEMENT TRENDS

- Authoritarian management: This is widely used in USA, Germany and France. The
traditionally managed company where there is a one-man (or one-woman) decides who
takes all the decisions
- Participative management: The basic concept of this form of management is the
empowerment of the staff. Sell-managing teams are created
DEPARTMENTAL ORGANIZATION

Delegation of authority
It is easily seen that in a large organisation, there must be delegation of work and authority
so that some members of the firm are not carrying too heavy a work load. A dept manager is
responsible for the work of his dept, but he cannot oversee in detail every section of it himself;
certain areas of authority are delegated to assistant or junior managers.
Advantages of delegation
 Delegation not only ensures that managers are not overloaded with work
 Younger management potential is given an opportunity to train for management, to the
benefit of the company
 When anyone in the higher management level is absent, there is somebody able to
continue to organize the work until that person returns to the office.

THE FIRM AND ITS ENVIRONMENT

Société = Company (société anonyme) = Corporation (US).
Société mère = Company parent.
Quartier général ou siège social = Registered office; Head office ou headquaters.
Filiale = Subsidiary company;
une raison sociale = a corporate name.
 Chapter 5: GENERAL ORGANIZATION OF A FIRM
A diagram which gives a picture of the organisation of a firm is called the organization, flow,
administrative chart.

Board of Directors (headed by a chairman)

The department is the administrative unit of the big store in charge of each department:
DIFFERENT KINDS OF DEPARTMENTS IN A COMMERCIAL ENTERPRISE

 THE PROCUREMENTS/PURCHASING DEPARTMENT

Is headed by the purchasing manager (or chief buyer). He has a wide field of responsibility
and is assisted by purchasing agents. The work of the purchasing department is therefore usually
divided according to the type of supplies bought. The purchasing department's work may be
tabulated as follows:
 Maintaining records of equipment and supplies already in use
 Keeping files of suppliers' catalogues and pricelists
 Receiving purchase requisitions from other departments
 Placing orders with suppliers’ keeping a check on delivery the goods ordered
 Checking goods with the original order and the suppliers’ invoice for condition, quantity,
quality and price
 If the goods are satisfactory, passing the supplier's invoice to the accounts department for
payment
Thebuyer: "Chef de rayon" who chooses his supplies under him there may be
 Assistant-buyer
 Window-dresser "the person who dresses the shop windows (étalagiste)
 Shop assistant who attends to the customers
 Security staff using closed-circuit TV, he deals with shoplifters, as well as the sales staff there
are lift attendants, packing room staff, drivers and delivery men and many other workers.
Other departments or services in the purchases department

 The warehousing department, (Headed by the warehousing manager) is where the supplies
are stored and where customers’ orders are made up from stock here the firm stores. It
includes:
a) The incoming goods department, where the goods ordered are received,
checked and kept
b) The invoice department, where invoices are made out
c) The packing department, where the merchandise is packed before being
despatched
d) The delivery department which forwards goods by post, land, rail.

 The stock control department, where a record of stock in hand is kept.

The other departments of sales

 The home-sales dept, which directs the efforts of sales and sales women, travellers and
agents inside the country.
  The export dept for sales to foreign countries
 The after-sales dept, to which customers apply after the sale if something goes wrong with
their machine or appliance
 The advertising dept and the public relations dept
 The statistics dept where numerical data are systematically complied and analysed
 There is sometimes, a market research dept.
THE FINANCIAL DEPARTMENT
 which comprises:
The cash department which receives and paid out money
The book keeping department, where accounts are kept.
 Cashiers section - Petty cash - Company accounts section - Wages and salaries section
Fixed assets section: CONTROL ACCOUNTING
The invoice department can be included in this dept or in the purchases dept, because of its
connection with the warehouse.

THE GENERAL OFFICE DEPARTMENT

 which includes:
 The correspondence dept - The mail dept where the incoming and outgoing mail is stored
and distributed - The filing dept where letters and documents are according the system
chosen
 The legal department which deals with and settles all legal matters
 The personnel or staff department which includes all services dealing with the employees
(selection & training of the staff).

THE PERSONNEL DEPARTMENT

- Obtain information about

 Recruitment of staff the job
 Job evaluation and education - Collate the information
 Staff training and education - Write a description

* Introduction courses

Chapter 6 : CHANNELS OF DISTRIBUTION

Most goods reach the consumer through three well-defined channels:
 the producer's factory - the wholesaler's warehouse - the retailer's shop
OTHER MIDDLEMEN

a) COMMERCIAL AGENTS : - A Commssion agent - A Traveller : (same as a

commission agent) – A Canvasser : (same as a commission agent ) –

b) - A Representative : represents the mother firm in a given region.

c) - Sole agent has the exclusive right to sell certain manufactured articles (such as cars,
refrigerators, television sets) in a certain country or area.
d) - FORWARDING AGENT : SAGA, GETMA SDV, MAERSK : links exporter to

importer. He is entrusted with the customs facilities countries. When goods are transported
by sea, he is called a shipping agent;
 e) - AN EMPLOYMENT AGENCY : links job-seekers to employers.
f) - A TRAVEL AGENCY : takes travellers from one town/city to another.
g) - AN ESTATE AGENCY : links landlords to future tenants
h) - A CAR DEALER : links car makers to customers.
i) - A SECOND-HAND GOOD DEALER : collects and sells second-hand goods to the public.
j) - The BROKERr does not transact business in his own name nor for his own account, but
brings a buyer and a seller into contact. He is paid a percentage on the transactions: a
brokerage fee

l) - THE AUCTIONEER makes a business of selling goods or property at public or private

auction. He sets the bottom line and then asks the public gathered to bid (to make an offer).
Anyone who offers a sum of money for the article on sale is called a bidder.

Chapter 7: STOCKS AND SHARES

STOCK EXCHANGE It is an organized market where financial securities (different types of

shares are traded).; the two important terms to remember are :
- A bullish market (when prices are raising, marché en hausse)
- A bearish market ( when prices are falling, marché en baisse)
STOCK A stock is the amount of capital that a company possesses in terms of the value of the
shares that are held by its shareholders. The total amount is called company’s equity.
A SHARE is one of the equal parts into which the capital of a corporation or company is divided.
 Types of shares : We distinguish four main types /
- Ordinary shares, also known as “equities” earn an annual “dividend” -
- Preference shares The holders of preference shares have priority - Deferred shares, which do
not participate in company profits until the dividends on preference and ordinary shares been
paid. - Founders shares, which are held by the promoters.
Chapter 8: THE PRINCIPAL DOCUMENTS USED IN
THE BUYING AND SELLING OF GOODS
 Documents which help to sell goods easily are catalogues, prospectuses, price list or
circular current

 Documents send by customers to supplies are:

Reminders >> delivery notes or dispatch notes, advice notes, receipts
Assignment notes >> bills of loading

Invoices >> debit notes & credit notes, statements of account

 Documents used to facilitate customs formalities: consular invoices; Bill of Lading (B/L=
connaissement ; Documentary credit = payable par banquier contre document.
a) An order - A delivery note - An invoice A "pro forma" invoice - A consular
invoice
 A debit note - A credit note - Account sales and account purchase - A statement
of account
The advice note

Chapter 9 : THE SALE AND PURCHASE OF GOODS

What is a contract of sale?
It is a verbal or written agreement by which the seller transfers or agrees to transfer the
property in goods to the buyer for a money consideration called the price
On what terms may goods be bought and sold?
They may be bought and sold. - For cash - On credit - On extended credit
 THE USUAL FORMS OF DEFFERED PAYMENT
 Hire-purchase - Credit sale,
A DEPOSIT t is a sum paid as security for further payment.

Chapter 10 : PREMISES AND PROPERTY

Premises may be a piece of land and the house or buildings on it which are held in absolute
possession (freehold) or under a lease (leasehold). Commercial premises include the store, office,
warehouse, show-room, garage, etc… used by a trader to carry on his business.
 A lease A mortgage - Property - A licence - A patent - A trade-mark Good-will

Chapter 11 : FINANCE
MEANS OF EXCHANGE
Exchange is the transfer of goods from one person to another in return for some other
goods or for money.
In primitive times and civilizations, the only means of exchange was the cumbersome (unwieldy,
heavy) one known as barter. Nowadays, money is anything that is commonly accepted in
exchange for goods or services. Money is a Jack-of-all-trades (one who can set his hand to any
kind of work)
Money must serve as a medium of exchange, a means of valuation for other goods, and a
store of value. In order to perform these functions satisfactorily money should possess five
qualities. It ought to be:
 Durable - Portable – Divisible - Generally acceptable - Its value should be stable
PAPER MONEY

Paper money may have been first used because it was much lighter in weight than metallic
money and could be handled more conveniently, and it is easier to counterfeit (to forge = to make
in opposition, to promise).
Paper money is a sort of promissory note; the promise being made by a bank or
government to pay on demand . It has been considered as legal tender (i-e, no creditor can refuse
them if offered in payment of debts). They are now fiduciary notes or inconvertible notes (i-e, a
holder has not the right to go to the bank and demand gold to exchange).

Chapter 12: PAYMENTS : CASH AND CHEQUE

CASH
Is the legal tender of currency, of a country. It circulates in the form of coins or bank-notes which a
tradesman or other creditor is bound by law to accept a payment.
Cash payments may be made in currency or remitted through the Post Office or through a bank.
Term for cash payment
 Cash with order - Cash on delivery - Cash down - Prompt cash -
A cheque - Is a document by which a customer (the drawer) orders his bank (the drawee) to pay a stated
sum of money on demand (at sight, payable when presented) either to himself or to some other person
(the payee).
A giro cheque
Is a cheque drawn on the Post Office Giro. The different forms of cheque are:
 The Order cheque, - The Bearer cheque - The Blank cheque - The certified cheque,
 The crossed cheque - The open cheque, cheque without funds or (bounced/bouncing
cheque) - Travellers cheques - A credit transfer, A banker’s draft - A standing order,

Chapter 13 : BANKS AND BANKING

A GLIMPSE AT THE HISTORY OF BANKING
Banking institutions have grown up with the development of trade and industry.
The Pioneers were probably the Hindoos who wrote principles of credit;

MONEY
Definition is anything which is generally accepted by people in payment for goods and services,
and for debts.
Origin of money Before the introduction of money, barter was used for trade.
Barter is the exchange of one commodity for another.
The bank notes or paper money and coins form a currency and they are called legal
tender. They must be accepted in payment for goods, services, debts.
Characteristics of money : durable, divisible, portable, relatively scare, accepted by most
citizens.
Functions of money : medium of exchange (it saves times and effort in trade – store of
value (it can be stored to stored to be used later – measure of value (it is used to measure and
compare the value of goods and services) – a unit of account (we use it to keep a record of all
transactions – Standard of deferred payment (we use it to settle debts at a later date.
Value of money : the amount/quantity of goods and services that money can buy. It fluctuates
Cost of living : what it costs the average family for the necessities of life.
Standard of living : the goods, services which people can buy with their salaries.

BANKS
What is a bank?
It is an establishment for the custody, loan, exchange or issue of money.
Kinds of banks : According to their object, banks may be classified as follows: - Savings-
banks - Trustee savings-banks - National Giro bank: Trading banks or Commercial
banks - Investment banks - Merchant banks - Accepting houses -Issuing houses -
Central banks: In most countries, the trading banks are linked to a single central bank -
International banking - Discount houses - Finance house: Banker’s clearing house:
Three kinds of banking account: The current account or (cheque account) - The
deposit account. In a fixed deposit - Loan account - Savings account

Chapter 14 : PACKING AND PACKAGING

What is Packing? It refers to both the operations and the materials used in preparing goods for
transportation or storage.
Where are goods packed? They are packed in warehouses, factories or stores by experienced
or skilful packers.
What is Packaging? It refers to the way in which merchandise is presented for sale, that is the
aesthetic side of packing.
What is a container? It is a box, bottle, tin tube, envelope, bag or any similar thing designed to
hold a particular type of product.

Chapter 15 : ENGINEERING
Engineering : is the profession that puts power and materials to work for people. Engineers use
steel and concrete to construct buildings, dams, roads, bridges. They use metal to make hundreds
of products, they design structures and machines of all kinds, etc… We distinguish five main
branches of engineering which have been divided into more specialised fields :
Civil Engineering - Mechanical Engineering - Mining and Metallurgical Engineering
Chemical Engineering Electrical Engineering - Electronic Engineering :.
 SECTION III

ESSAY

WRITING
INSTITUT UNIVERSITAIRE DU GOLFE DE GUINEE / www.iug-elearning.com

Chapter 1: ESSAY WRITING

Definition: An essay is a short piece of writing in prose produced by a learner of a
language. The main objective of this exercise is the development of written skills the
learner is expected to express his/her thoughts, feelings, … accurately in the new
language he/she is learning.
THE STRUCTURE OF AN ESSAY
Except for letters and dialogues, a good essay is made up of three main parts : the
introduction, the body and conclusion.
1. The introduction
The opening paragraph should contain three fundamental elements :
o A suitable context for the topic;
o Presentation and explanation of the topic;
o The main idea which will help to develop the topic.
2. The body of the topic
o Every main idea announced at the end of the introduction should be
fully detailed;
o The different main idea should be developed in different paragraphs;
o The link between paragraphs must be made.
3. The conclusion
o In the closing paragraph of the essay, the student must sum up all the
ideas;
o When he feels it necessary, the student must give his own opinion about
the problem;
o It is possible to suggest a new debate at the end of the conclusion.
DIFFERENT TYPES OF ESSAY
There is a large variety of essay topics, but they generally fall into five categories:
Descriptive - Dialogue - Discussion – Factual - Narrative – and Letter writing.

Chapter 2: BUSINESS LETTER

STRUCTURE OF A TYPICAL BUSINESS LETTER
The form of a business letter is largely a matter of custom and convenience. It
should show clearly who wrote it, when, to whom it was written and why. It should
consist of six parts:
1. The heading (printed or engraved on the firm’s note-paper)
2. The inside address
3. The salutations
4. The body of the letter
5. The complimentary close
6. The signature
ENCLOSURES:

Cours : Intitulé du cours / Niveau : (BTS/HND/…)

Par : Nom de l’enseignant, grade/niveau/fonction
URL: https://www.iug-elearning.com/
INSTITUT UNIVERSITAIRE DU GOLFE DE GUINEE / www.iug-elearning.com

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

1 – CHARON, Jacqueline, - A. PARSONS, Joan & W. ROGERS, Elaine

Anglais commercial
Larousse – 17, Rue du Montparnasse Paris VIème

2 – DUBE, Jean-Michel et LAPAON, Jean-Marie

B.T.S Anglais
- Assistant Commercial
- Assistant de Direction
- Assistant de Gestion PME - PMI
- Assistant Secrétaire Bilingue

3 – HENDERSON GRETA, La Follette and VOILE R., Price

Business English Essentials
Seventh edition GLENCOE

4 - W. STANNARD, Allen
Living English Structure
A practice book for foreign students, Longman

5 – EASTWOOD, John and MACKIN, Ronald

A Basic English Grammar with exercises. Oxford, OUP, 1988

6 – QUIRK, Randolph and GREENBAUM, S.

A University Grammar of English. London, Longman 1973

7 – MURPHY, Raymond
English Grammar in use a self study reference and practice book for inter-
mediate students

8 – GREMY, A. and GAUDEMER, J. P., MUTCH, G. P.

L’Anglais dans les classes préparatoires
Collection André BALLANDRA, Inspecteur Général de l’Enseignement
National
Seconde Année de préparation aux Grandes Ecoles : I.U.T. – D.E.U.G.

9 – D. BEST, Wilfred
Living English Structure
Students’Companion ISBN 00 – 326220 – 0

10 – DJOKO. Albert
Les Techniques du Style en Langue : Française et Anglaise

Cours : Intitulé du cours / Niveau : (BTS/HND/…)

Par : Nom de l’enseignant, grade/niveau/fonction
URL: https://www.iug-elearning.com/