2-17 Super Elevation-Runoff 63

TABTE OF CONTENTS 2-18 Widening of Curves 65

2-19 Island 65
CHAPTER- 1 THE HIGHWAY AND ITS DEVELOPMENT 2-20 Types of lnterchange 68
2-21 Highway Intersection at Grade 72
1-1 Brief History of Roads I 2-22 Freeway Entrance and Exit 76
l-2 Early Laws that Regulates Roadway 2 2-23 Railroad- Highway Separation 78
l-3 Highways in the Philippines 3 2-24 Bicycle l-ane 78
14 Planning Difficulties 4
l-5 Highway Programming 6 CHAPTER- 3 SOIL
l-6 The Planner 8
l-7 Community Involvement 9 3-I Soil and its Origin 79
l-8 Highway Eeonorny 9
l-9 Computation and Survey ll 3-3 Characteristics of Soil il
1-10 Remote Sensing l3 3-4 Classification for Soils 84
1-l I Photogrammetic Mapping t3 3-5 Composition of Soil 89
1-12 Orthophotographs l5 3-6 Soil Reaction to Density 107
l-13 Colored Photographs 15 3-7 In-Piace Density and Unit Weight I02
1-14 Locatron ofthe Proposed Highway 16 3-8 R.elative Density 103
l-15 Location of Bridges T7
l-16 Highway Plans and Specifications t9 CHAPTER- 4 SOIL TEST AND SURVEY

CNAPTER-2 DNSIGNING THE HICHWAY 4-I Test for Farticle Size 106
4-Z Test to Evaluate the Effect of Moisture r07
2-l Consistency 23 4-3 Density Test of Soil 110
2-2 Definition of Terms 23 44 Laboratory Test for Soil Density 111
2-3 The Design Speed 27 4-5 Field Density Test of Soil in Place 113
24 Cross Section of Typical Highways 29 4-6 The Strength Test ll4
2-5 Road Shoulder 34 4-7 Soil Survey t20
'T-he
2-6 Cross Slope 42
2-7 Cut or Fill Slope 43 CHAPTER- 5 ROAD MATERIALS
2-8 Number of Lanes 46
2-9 Highway Median 46
5-1 Aggregates 123

2-10 The Grade Line 53

5:2 Aggreg:ile for Bituminous Pavernent 128

2-l I Vertical Curve Over Crest 55

5-3 Aggregate for Portland Cement Concrete
2-12 Right ofWay 56
Pavement 129

2-13 Stopping Sight Distance 57

5-4 Mineral Filler 132

2-14 T1rre Passing Siglrt Distance 59

5-5 Bituminous Material 133

2-15 Road Alignment 60

5-6 Bituminous Binders 135
5-7 Problems Associated with Bituminous Binders 139
2-16 Circular Curves 6l
 5-8 Bituminous Pavement 139 7-9 Construction of Fills and Embankment 241
5-9 Asphalt Concrete Pavement t4l 0 Sub-Grade Preparation
7-l 248
5-10 Bituminous Pavement Failure t4r 7-l I Compaction and Stabilization 248
I
5-l Macadam Asphalt Mat 142
5-12 Surface Treatnent 143 CHAPTER- 8 CONCRETE PAVEMENT
5-13 Aggregate for Bituminous Concrete 148
5-14 DPWH Standard Specifications on Prime Coat 8-l Portland Cement 253
Tack Coat and Seal Coat t54 8-Z Concrete Pavement Characteristics and 254
5-15 Geoplastic Fabrics t67 Behavior
8-3 Control of Cracks 257
CHAPTER{ DRAINAGE AND SLOPE PROTECTION 8-4 Transverse Expansion Joints 257
8-5 Longitudinal Joints 259
6-l Drainage t69 8-6 Construction Joint 260
6-2 Hydrology t7a 8-7 Reinforcement of Joints 261
64 Drainingthe Highway 172 8-8 The Sub-Grade and Sub-Base for Concrete
6-5 Manhole, lnlets and Catch Basin t75 Pavement 262
6-6 Channel t77 8-9 Concrete Proportions 263
6-7 Culvert t79 8-10 Concrete Mixture 265
6-8 Design of Underdrain 190 8-l I Polymer Concrete 267
6-9 Debris Control r92 8-12 Curing of Concrste Pavement 267
6-10 The Legal Aspect of Drainage 193 8-13 DPWH Specifications on Concrete Pavement 268
6-11 Roadway Design and Construotion for 8-14 Equipment 274
Unusual Soil Conditions 193 8-15 Preparation of Grade 276
6-12 Stabilizing the Unsupporred Slope r97 8-16 Flandling Measuring and Batching of Materials 278
6-13 Improving the Stability of Slope 201 8-17 Placing or Depositing of Concrete 280
6-14 Retaining Wall 204 8-18 Finat Consolidation and Finishing 285
6-15 Highway Bridges 2t5 8-19 Curing 291
8-20 Removal of Forms 293
CHAPTER- 7 CONSTRUCTING THE ROADBf,I) 8-21 Concreting bythe Slip Form Method 293
8-22 Tolerance and Pavement Thickness 296
7-I Soil as Sfucture 2t9
7-Z Types of Base Course 22A CHAPTER_ 9 ROAD MAINTENANCE
7-3 Treated Base Course 222
7-4 Grading and Maintenance of Untreated Surface 225 9-l Highway maintenance 299
7-5 PWH Standard Specifications on Aggregate 9-Z Maintenance management 303
Sub-Base Course 227 9-3 Rehabilitation 307
7-6 Clearing and Grubbing 23s 9-4 Evaluation and maintenance of concrete 313
7-7 Excavation 237 pavement
7-8 Free Haul - Overhaul (Item 107) 244 9-5 Highway and its environment 315
 9-6 Highwaybeautification 3t7
9-7 Environmental laws 318
9-8 Environmental elfects of highu'ays 319
9-9 Construction and relation to roadside 321
CHAPTER
development
9-10 Vegetation and the highways 321
9-11 Parking and rest areas 323

CHAPTER-I0 TRAFX'IC ENGINEERING

THE HIGHWAY AND ITS
l0-l
DEVELOPMENT
Road traffic signs 325
I0-2 Basic principle of road signs 328
l0-3 Warning (Danger) signs 329 1-1 Brief llistory of Roads
l0-4 lntersection signs 334
l0-5 Prescription sign 339 Early roads with hard surfaces were found in the land of
l0-6 Obligation signs 343 Mesopotamia. These roads were constructed as early as 3,500
l0-7 End of prescription signs 345 B"C. Another stone surface roads were also found in the Medi-
10-8 Direction signs 346 terranean island of Crete, similarly constructed as those in the
l0-9 Informatrve sign 349 Western Hemisphere by thc Mayans, Aztecs and the Incas of
10-10 Traffic signals 352 Central South America.
10-l I PavEment markings 360
10-12 Guidepost and markings 372 The early road systems were constructed primarily for the
10-13 Guardrail 377 following purposes:
10-14 Concrete barrier 379
10-15 Highway and urban street operations 382
l. For the movement of armies in their conquest and for de-
fense against invasion.
10-16 Traffic control 385 of
10-17 Freeway and expressway operation 386
7. For transport of food and trade goods between
neighboring tovms and cities.
10-18 Sreet lighting 388
10-19 Streetparking 390 The Romans, who discovered cement, expanded their vast
10-20 Highway capacity and level of service 391 empire through extensive road networks radiating in many di-
trciions from the capital city of Rome. Many of the roads built
by the Romans still exist even after 2,000 years.

Characteri.stically, Roman Roads were laid on three courses

L A layer of small broken stones.

2. Followed by layer of small stones mixed with mortar and
then compacted firmly.
3. Wearing course of massive stone blocks properly set and
bedded with cement lnortar.
 Elements of Roads and Highways
During the l7s century, under the rergn of Napoleon the
Great, France made a great stride on road buildings. Jerome
Tresaguet (1716-1796) the famous French Engineer introduced
new methods of construction and maintenance of stone roads.
He improved the crown" the drainage, and the grade of the road,
including the stone foundation by reducing the depth of broken
stones to 25 centimeters. Tresaguet made it possible fbr Napo-
leon to build the massive highways of France, He was accred-
ited the title "Father of modern road building.
Thirty years later, a Scottish Engineer born in Westminster
Abbey, Thomas Telford (1757-1834), president and founder of
the lnstitute of Civil Engineer, introduced.some improvements
in the construction methods of Jerome Tresaguet. The road
foundation course of Telford was made of stones having 3
inches minimum thickness. 5 inches breadth and 7 inches
height. Smaller stones were driven by mauls on top voids and
trued the surfaces by breaking the projecting points. Telfbrd
employed a flat sub-grade, providing slight crown using stones
of varying sizes.
England followed the ongoing highway development started
by France. The Macadam road concept named after John
Louden Mac Adam (1755-1836). another famous Scottish En-
gineer road builder and contemporary of Telford, was devel-
oped and widely accepted. The invention of road building
equipment enhances the development of roads in Europe. In
1858, Eli Blake invented the first stone crusher and at the same
period, a steam road roller weighing 30 tons was inlroduced in
France by its inventor, Aveling and Porter.
l-2 Early Laws that Regulates Roadway
The early Saxon Laws imposes three mandatory duties for
the people to perform, namely:
l.
To repair the roads and bridges.
2.
To repair the castles and the garrisons
3.
To aid repel invasions.
_l
The Highway and its Development
After the Norman Conquest of England, it was decreed that:
1. The king's Highway is sacred. Anybody who occupies
any portion thereof, by exceeding the boundaries of his
land, is considered to have encroached on the king him-
self. Roads are for public use. All persons who want to
use them may do so.
2. Properf owners adjoining the roads were required to
drain the road, clip any bordering hedges, and refrain
from plowing and planting trees, shrubs, or bushes closer
than the specified distange from the csnter of the road.
Itwas made clear that the govenment concept towards the:
use of roads inciudes upholding the right of the public to use
them without interference. Since the road is intended for the
benefit of the people, fur return, it becomes their duty to protect
and maintain the roadway.
1-3 Highways in the Philippines
In the early part of 1900, transportations in this country de-
pended largely on trails, waterways, railroad, earth roads and
partially graveled roads. Highway in the Philippines at that time
is nottring more than a dream to most Filipinos. The American
government initiated the development of roadways in the Phil-
ippines, connecting towns, cities and provinces. The popular
Macadam road type was introduced. It gained wide acceptance
because ofthe abundant supply ofstones and gravel.
After the Second World War, the new independent Philip-
pine govemmen! continued the rehabilitation and construction
of roads and bridges, through the reparations and war damages
paid by the Japanese government. Otler financial grants and
aids received from the U.S. government were used in the con-
struction and rehabilitation of roads and bridges.
Fifty years later, major highways and expressways were
constructed through the financial assistance and loans from
 Elenrents of Roads and Highways
foreign banks. Alongside with the industrialization program of
the governrnent, vehicles of various types and sizes started
flooding tle roadways. Recent Land rranspor[ation records re-
vealed that, more than 80,000 brand new -,rehicles were added to
their lists everv year. At an average of 5.00 meters road occu-
pancy by these vehicles, the DPWH must open 400 kilometers
new roads every year. This data did nr:t include
),et the roaclway
for second hand or surplus assembled cars. with this statistical
report, solution to traffic problems is nowhere insight. Traffic
problems are expected to worsen year after year.
The 1.ear 1960 to early part of 1980 rvas consitlered an
autornobile age. Cars were no longer regarded as luxury item
but a necessity in transporting people and;oods, a necessity for
survival, Government new concept of development is to get the
farmers of the mud. It was during this clecade that road con-
struction'ut
becornes a matter of priorit-v of the governrnent under
the slogan: " This nation is on Wheels,,.
1-4 Planning Dif{iculties
Devefoprn*nt and maintenance of'roads ancl highways is a
contmurng process alongside wrth the technological advance_
ntent. New equipment and management techniques revolution_
ized, the construction and maintenance mcthods. Advance
knowledge in the field of soils, highway materials, and designs
were adopted for reliability and economic considerations.
Engineers are conscious
ofthe need for roadways to be safe,
useful, and attractive. This needs include improvement of the
roadside, erosion control, and noise abatement. They are aware
of the fact that highways are vital to the country's development.
Unfortunately, highway planners are confronted with problems
categorized as follows:
l. Financial
2. Political and
,j. 'fechnical
The Highway and its Development
The present economic condition is related to the govern-
ment budgetary expenditures fbr payment of foreign clebt arnor-
tization amounting to billions of pesos a month. Appropriations
of funds for road cnnstructions and maintenance, meet severe
difliculties that sornetimes, highway development plans are
shelves temporarily for lack of funds.
Comprehensive road development plans that are carefully
studied by technical experts are twisted, or flexed down by po-
litical muscles, to suit political interests" Roads and highways
plan were either; deferred- arnended or realigned for political
reasons. As a consequence, different laws with conflicting pur-
poses and procedures impede or obstruct implementations caus-
ing delay or no action at all"
Politicians now control DPVIH projects as their source of,
political funds. Highway district engineer's qualification is
simply subservience to the politician. "Do wlrat I say or get out
of my district". Listing of projects given to the district engineer
has the corresponding name of favored contractors- the willing
victims giving SOP in cash adrances.
Rational Planning is no longer the objective process, based
on training, and expertise conceming the actual needs of the:
people, but is rather, a political decision. Not even the Secretarl'
of Public Works and Highways could say no because politics is
the power that controls appropriations, budget and appoint-
ments of the president's cabinet members.
As a consequence, public confidence tremendously eroded.
not only in the government's ability to abate these problems,
but also in the proficiency of the technical men to offer solu-
tions. Planners are now operating in a world of rapid change.
and uncertainty, in the political atmosphere where decisions by
magic, or oracles, carry more weight than those based on pro-
fessional training, expertise and experiences. Indeed, our pro-
fessionals more particularly the technical men, seems tc have
lost confidence in thyself, or eventhe solutions that they oftbr.
 Blements of Roads and Highways The Highway and its Development

1-5 Highway Programming Direct Effects of Highway Construction and its Use

There are three inseparable sets of irrputs involved in high- A" Quantifiable market value
way progr:unming, they are:
l. Cost of highways as to:
l. Ecnnomic - Deals with the questions of resources. a. Planning cost.
2. f inancial - The question of'who pays and who spends, b. Rrght of way appropriations.
horl much, and where? c. Constnrction costs.
3. Political and Administration - This invoires decision d. Maintenance costs.
making. e. Operating costs.

trn highway programming, projects are prioritized. Those 2. Cost benefits to highway users
that are most economically viable were selected, if they fit into
the financial capability and of course political criteria. Projects a. Vehicles operating costs (including congestion
that failed on either financial or political criteria are abandoned, cost) net income or decrease in costs of vehicle
modified for substitute, or an alternative but shall passed rigor- operation per year
ous tests. b. Travel savings time (commercial). Net increase
or decrease in travel time multiplied by the peso
Highway Prograrnming Approaches value of commercial time.
c. Motorist's safety (economic cost accident) Net
l. Financial resources are either short or long ranged im- change in expected number of accidents times
plementation by the agencies functions like construction, the average cost per accident per year.
operations, and maintenance.
2. Recognition of the legislative and administrative desire B. Non-Qu antifi able Non-Market Valu e
and constraint.
3. Tentative priorities based on economic analysis, critical l. Cost benefits to highway user:
situations, present and future expected level of traffic, and a. Motorists safety - Accident cost of pain suffering
claims based on political subdivisions. and deprivation.
4. Providing continuity of route system and coordination b. Comfort and conversion - Discomfort, inconven-
with other transportation mode. ience and strain of driving.
5" Selection of projects based on availability of labor and c. Aesthetic fiom driving viewpoint - Benefit of
materials, including climatic conditions. pleasing views and scenery from road.
6. 'wrth
Scheduling the project implementation in coordination
other agencies, acquiring right of way and making C. Quantifinble Non-Market Value
final plan and specifications.
7. Budgetary reserve to cover emergencies like floods and l. Cost benefits to highway users - Traveling savings time.
other natural disasters. (non-commercial) Minutes save per vehicle trip.
 Elements of Roads and Highways
1-6 The Planner
Before any project comes to reality, it has to undergo rigor-
ous and careful studies with participation of several line agen-
cies involved. Where proposals may be opposed or questioned
by other agencies, or in the political mill, the planner appoints
coordinators or catalysts, to work out in exchanging information
as to the needs, goals, and altemative solutions of those who are
affected, and to incorporate them into the planning and decision
making
Where planners act as coordjnators, catalysts or to work as
community advocates, should not be either partisan or advocate
to a particular soiution. Their role is:
L To provide technical and organizational support.
2. To receive mput or information on the needs and goals
affected persons group or agencies.
3. Incorporate the above for planning and making decision.
The planner's role must be of a clarifier, expediters, con-
ciliators and impartial negotiators. The myth of rationality must
be avoided because they might believe that as professionals,
they are uniquely super qualified to judge what is best for the
society in their field of expertise and competence. They must
accept that their personal values and goals are different from
other participants.
The Functions of the Planners are:
l. To prepare preliminary design, scoop of study and
the initial work program. Know the basic needs,
plan and objectives ofafilected persons.
2. Exploration of alternatives. Data gathering by contacting
the representatives of other agencies involved.
Detailed analysis. Prepare detailed plan for appropriate
community interaction.
Highways and its Development
4. Secure formal ratification fiom the local officials and
have the results documented lf nothing goes wrong, this
step is considered final.
Good ethics demand that planners should understand that
their role is to provide.knowledge and unbiased information. To
be partisan and emotionally involved, will only jeopardize their
credibility. 'Ihis might give them the feeling of personal defeat
and disillusionment with their profession, if the solutions that
they offered are only throqm into the trash can"
l-7 Community Involvement
In a democratic government, the public has the right to hear
and be heard. Much more to participate in public hearirry where
planning and decision making will be conducted before maior
of decisions are made.
It is a corrunon practice to call public hearing after all major
decisions were rnade and approved. Indeed, public hearing is no
more than information forum for the public to know what the
administration wants for them, rather than, what the people
wants from them. Public hearing should involved the public
from the start of planning to give them a chance to participate in
the discussions and involved thern in:
l. Solicit the cooperation and support of public ollicials,
non-goverrrment organizations, influential persons and
conservative group of the community.
2. Create special staffto carry out this function
3. Comrnunity leadership opportunity to participate continu-
ously rn the planning stage.
4. Organize and develop skilled persons to conduct group
meeting, workshops, hearing and other related activities.
1-8 Highway Bconomy
A Country who will not avail of loans or grant from foreign
 Elements of Roads and Highwnys
financing institutions will not fbel the great impact of their in-
frastructure projects, if dornestic income through taxes alone
will be depended on. Financing institution such as the World
Bank insists that projects to which they make grants or loans be
justified primarily on the economic basis. According to W.
Gillespe, professor of Civil Engineering at the Union College:
"A rninimum of expenses is of course, highly desirable; but the
road which is truly the cheapest is not the one which has cost
the least money, but the one which makes the mast profitable
returns in proportion to the amount expended upon it. "
There are many designs and administrative decjsions that
does not involve public policy, but these should be made by
selecting the alternative that is cheapest in the long run. Mean-
rng'. the result .from an econornic study tl.tat is reasonably inter-
preled musl prevuil.
The intent of expenditures for highways and public
transportations are enumerated as follows:
]. To
augment the country's level of economy.
2. To provide easy access to working place.
3. To facilitate public services; police, fire protection etc.
4. To facilitate medical care, schooling and delivery of re-
lated basic services.
5. To give landowner benefits to transportation and increase
property assessment.
Benefit to motor vehicle users through lower cost of op-
erations and maintenance.
7. Benefit in time saving.
8" Less road accident.
9 To give maximum comfort and ease of travel.
Most of the country's expenditures for highways and public
transport facilities are based on the principle of "Pay as you go,,
Meaning, road appropriations and expenditures depend on tax
collections.
t(,
The Highways and its l)evelopment
Legally, the appropriation and expenditures of taxes being
the people's contribution to the goverffnent must be prorated
proportionally to the different provinces municipalities and cit-
ies in terms of infrastructure projects and not just be concen-
trated in specific place. Under that principle, progress of the
country would be very slow considering the meager amount
each province will get, and the infiastructure it will accomplish.
l{ence, borrowing from foreign banks is the ultimate solutions
of the government to deliver impact infrastructure projects to
boost the economy and move quickly forward.
Arguments of those who Favors Borrowings are:
i. The need is immediate to have instant infrastructures.
2. No impact project will be seen because tJre "pay as you
go" fund is scattered through out the entire road system
where the situation is most critical.
3. Borrowings encourage investors because offast progrcss.
Counter Arguments of those Against Financing Infra-
structures through Borrowing:
l. Borrowing may impair the credit rating of governrnent
agencies obstructing other more important improvements.
2. If future income is committed to pay past improvements,
no more funds available to rnaintain the existing system.
3. With much ;rmount available temptation is there to over
build and recklessly spend extravagantly.
4. Interest of the loan is a big waste of public funds.
1-9 Computation and Survey
Early engineering approach to highway and transportation
problems were based on the results of their computations with
the aid of slide rule and replaced by calculator machine. This
method is time consuming and was totally discarded in the ad-
vent of computers and its appurtenances.
ll
 Elements of Roads and Highways The tlighways and its Development

Today, most of the agencies have their oun da[a processing With the aid of sophisticated computers and its appurte-
and reporting is done through cornputer networts. Engineering nances, engineering practice today is not as difificult as the time
approach to highway and transportation problems are done of slide rule era. Computers are less prone to computational er-
through computer output from the simple to cr:mplex matters. ror if correctly programmed. On the other hand, too much reli-
ance on this machine might be a trap for the uninformed to as-
Computers can do processing dota for many problems like: sume that the program inputs are absolutely correct. Deeper
analysis and professional attention to computer program is the
l. Projections and statistrcal studies of traffrc and transit key to accurate results that could be the basis for good deci-
passengers. sions.
2 Economic analysis.
3. Financial programming.
1-10 Remote Sensing
4. Geometric.
{ Bridges. Remote sensing is otherwise called Photogrammetry. It is
6. Pavement design and maintenance. the science and art of obtaining measurements by means of pho-
7" Pavement management.
tography. Photogrammetry is based on aerial photographs for
8. Scheduling for design and construction. engineers working data on:
9. Computation of earthworks and other quantrties both for
planning and payment of contractors. l. Locations.
2. Planning.
Con"rputers are provided with stereo plotter fbr map makrng 3. Geometric design.
and location identification. The computer base interactive
4. Right of way.
graphics could present problems into the screen, focused on
5. Traffic studies.
technical matters and management decisions making lata. 6. Drainage.
Various computer programs are abundantly available to solve 7. Soil classifications and identifications.
the repetitive highway and transportation problems.
8. Earthworkmeasurements
9. Material location.
The computer graphics display a motorist view of the high- 10. Pavement condition survev
way so that the engineer could make appropriate treatment of
certain portion as transition from cut to fills, route, location, 1-11 Photogrammetric Mapping
traffic, and transportation planning and accident analysis.
A vertical aerial photograph taken by a camera pointed al-
most straight downward is the most useful mapping for high-
The interactive graphics is used without computer, referred
way purposes. The area to be covered is photographed in paral-
to as environmental simulation^ A remote controlled television
camera passes through small scales physical module of the area
lel runs with the individual pictures lapped in the direction of
the flight (end lap) and between successive runs (side lap). For
or route. The passage is recorded in the tape and the playback
stereoscopic uses, the following must be considered:
will show impression similar to that of the walker on the road or
the vehicle driver. I End lap must be greater than one half the picture width

t2 l3
 Elements of Roads and I{ighways The Highways and its Development

specified not less than 55Yo nor more than 65%o in order 1. Profiles
that the center ofone picture is included in both adjacent 2. Cross sections
photograph. 3. Cut and fill earthwork quantities
2. Side lap should average at25o/o with less than 15. More 4. The motorist view of the road
than 3 5 o/o i s unacceptable.
3. For making map purposes, the variable includes the focal With photographs and computer record data, a separate map
length of the aerial camera, the desired combination of could be plotted easily like:
map scale and contour interval, and the ratio of map
scale to photograph scale. l The highways
2. The drainage
Instruments used in converting data from aerial photo- 3. Housing
graphs into maps are: 4. Land use and zoning
]. The Kelsh and Balplex
5. Property assessment
stereoscopic plotters
2. The wild autograph
'lhe Kern PG2 The ground field survey is done only as supplemental in
J-
completing the details of those that could not be produced in the
4. The Zeiss Stereoplanigraph
photographs.
Features that cannot be identified on the photographs are
located by grounci measurements foy important poinfs to be 1-12 Orthophotographs
included on the ground surveys are marked for easy identifica-
tion on the photograph. Accuracy ofthe ground control triangu- Orthophotographs is an aerial photograph corrected for
lation network is when scaled with the aerial photographs. The scale and trlt. When the center portiol are skillfully matched
third order triangulation is acceptable in rural areas, and the and copied, they appear to be a single photograph that shows far
second order triangulation for urban locations wherein the more detail than maps. The uncorrected or partially corrected
maximum errors in distance are I to 5000 and 1 to 10,000 re- photographs are combined to form a mosaic, considered better
spectively. An accurate angular triangulation measurement is for engineering accuracy and right ofway purposes.
easily obtained by the use of Modern Theodolites. The distance
measurement is carried out by an electronic distant measuring
1-13 Colored Photographs
device (EDM) that employ infra red light beams, microwave or
laser light.
Aerial colored photograph presents a more detailed and pre-
cise information on traffii and parking studies. It gives clear
The Photogrammetric technique coupled with digitizer, pro-
information of the geological conditions, land use, source of
I

duces digital terrain models. The horizontal and vertical posi-

materials, surfaces and sub-surface drainage. An oblique photo-
I
tions ofthe ground surface, and other photographic features are
graph is used for special studies particularly, where the ground
directly transferred from the matched aerial photograph to a
computer data bank. The information is recalled and the com- condition is almost flat or where cliffs are so steep that a black
and white photograph could not give sufficient details.
puter is programmed to develop showing the following:
I

14 l5
 Eleltrents of ldoads and Highways
l-14 Location of the Proposed Highway
Early roads started from trails. Movements of people and
the use of motor vehicles prompted road agencies to improve
road alignment minimizing sharp curves. Road width was stan-
dardized and grades were flattened.
New highway locations are trlended witJl curvature grades
and other roadway elements to offer; comfortable easy driving,
free flowing traffic arteries, comply with the rules on safety
standards.
To improve the highways, there should be tentative plan as
to the control, and minimum design speed, roadway cross sec-
tions, and maxlmum slope with the following considerations:
l. Rpliable cost cstimate.
2. Character and hourly distribution of traffic.
3. Economic and community benefit facLor.
4. Availability of funds.
Locstion surveys in the rural ureas are divided into 4 stages.
l. Reconnaissance survey of the entire area between
the terminal points.
2. Reconnaissance survey of all feasible routes.
3. Preliminary survey of the best route.
4. Location survey, staking of the right of way, the highway
and the structure for construction.
Activities
Under stage I Reconnaissqnce survey of the entire area
l. Stereoscopic examination of small scaled aerial photo-
graphs of the area supplemented by available maps.
2. Determination control of photography and land use.
3.
L.ocation of feasible routes based on photographs
maps.
Under stage II Reconnaissance survey offeasible route:
l6
I'he Ilighways and its Development
l. Stcreoscopic examination of largo-scale aerial photo-
graphs ofeach route.
2. Detennination of the detarled control of pirotography and
land use.
3. Preparation of route maps by Photogrammetric methods.
4. Location and comparison of feasible routes on photo-
graphs and maps"
5. Selection ofthe best routc"
Stage III Preliminary Survey af the hest rou(e.
1. Preparation of large scale t,:pographic maps ustng the
route photograph and Photogrammetric methods or prepa-
ration of, large scale topographic maps b-v'' ground survey
guided by best route location made on photr:graphs in the
second stage.
2. Design of the preliminary location
Stage - IV Locafion 'Swn,ey
Staking of the right of way and the highway and structures
for construction"
1-15 Location of Bridges
Highways and Bridges have but one purpose - To convey
traffic. The location and position of a bridge is subordinate to
the general alignrnent and grade. But sometimes, fuvorable
alignment has to be sacrificed, only to provide a right angle
crossing to small creek.
Lately however, the general policy for minor roads is to de-
termine the proper highway location, then provide the struc-
tures. A skewed bridge is comparatively more expensive than
the right angle bridge. The horizontal and vertical curvature
shape of large bridge presents serious design and construction
arrd
problem, but the finished product may result to a better road-
wav. Foundation design of piers and abutments has large effect
on costs, but cost is not alw'ays the determining factor in design.
 The Highways and its Development The Highways and its DeveloPment

The cost of a bridge and its full approach cornbined before

the crossing site should be determined. Bridge survey report
1-16 I{ighway Plans and Specifications
should be accompanied with accurate data on the waterway and
Plans and specifications are set of documents of instructions
the historical behavior of the water. The bridge survey data
and conditions under which highways and bridges are built. The
shall include the foundation conditions, stream characteristics,
plan contains engineering drawings of the prolect, whereas, the
and the adjacent structure on the stream more particularly, tleir specifications is a written instructions and conditions consid-
waterway opening.
ered as integral part ofthe contract between the contractor eutd
When the location of the bndge is approximately deter- highway agency classified as legal documents.
mined, the following requirements must be considered:
The complete detailed scheme for the road which are incor-
1. A complete data report and special survey of dre site. porated in the geometric designS are:
2. Prepare sketches and full scale map and profiles.
3 The survey report must contain accurate data of the wa- 1. Traffic
terway for all behavior of water. 2. Drainage
4. There must be a complete report on the foundation 3" Erosion control
condition and the stream characteristics. 4. Roadside development
5. A complete data of the adjacent structures particularly 5. Structure
the waterway opening. 6. Soils
6. If possible, skewed bridge should be avoided. 7. Pavement

Presentation of a Road Plan

l. The upper sheet is allocated for the plan, top view show-
ing the horizontal alignmenl, right of way takings, drain
age arrangement and other features.
2. The lower half is allotted to the profile where the original
elevation of the ground surface is plotted. The roadway
centerline and the vertical alignment or grade line for the
road is indicated.
3. The vertical scale of the profile is usually exaggeratedly
enlarged from five to ten times for precise detatl.
The profile and other details of the drainage, channels or
Source: HigthwcY Engineeing bv Calesbv ond Hicks connecting roads including ramps are also presented.
5. The estimated earthwork quantities for every 50 meters
station or other intervals are indicated along the bottom
of each sheet along with the estimated overhead. This
FIGURE 1-1 TYPICAL EXAMPLE OF SMALL BRIDGE LOCATION PROBLEM will serve the engineer and the contractor.

l6 l9
 Elements of Roatls and I'iip,,ilwavs I lr*. liighwars rln{l its ilevelopment
'tr'he rolr.lwav riross sections for every situation in the
rvhole pro";cr:t stretch is indicated on another sheet of the
plan.
Another shcet cf drayiings showing all structures and
roattrway appurtfin;rnces ls included.
The standard sizc of ther drawins sheet is 55 cm x 90 cm.

Ilartial list of suhicets c.overed by the standard drawing:

1. Fipe culr,,*rts.
7. tloncr*tc box cLriverts. .

{ 3. Guard r;ril au<J pil.riipet,

()
4. Curbs.
=
o
5. Cutlcrs.
+{- .
&. tr Curh:lnrc'turcs
3!;i .i; J '1 5 rdq:ri;rl[,s
v
lril
'n; l
3 f
t 8" Drainag* intct anil outlet structures of numerous types.
k: ut
z 9. Manholcs"
r:a
i* Io 10. Rip-rap and other devices used for bank protection.
r{
a I l. Fences and right of way.
F 12. Other survey rnarkers.
l:
qt ll.
tt o
z The Specifications
.; 5
A.
d!i
oJ Specifications writing is generally different and a delicate
; UJ rvork requiring lcnowledge of the law of contracts as well as
t
f, highway practices and experiences. Specifications that are care-
o
l! lessly written and loosely worded may result in the use of sub-
standard materials and poor workmanship. Mostly, it involves
extra cost to the owner or the contractor and sometimes landed
in court litigations. On the other hand, specifications that are
d too restrictive are very costly.
a
o
Flighway Specifications is Divided into Two:
l. Stondard Specifications applies to project implemented
by administration which treat the subject that repeatedly
clccurs in the agency work.

2A 7_i
 Elements of Roads and Highways

2. Special Provisions covers peculiar item of the project in

question that include additional modification to standard
CHAPTER
specifications. This includes copies of all documents re-
quired in securing cornpetitive bids and contracts. Speci-
fications are also subdivided into two:

a.) The general clause that deals with the bidding proce- DESIGNING THE
dures and award execution and control of work and
other legal matters.
HIGHWAY
b.) Specifuing detail regarding the materials, manner of
work execution and how pay quantities are to be 2-l Consistency
measured.
Consistency is the most important single rule in highway
design. That is, by making every element of the roadway con-
forms to the expectation of every driver.

Drivers expect the highway agency to provide them with:

l. Clear information and guidance tlrough a variety of road

slgns.
2. Avoiding abrupt changes in the traffic as well as the road
standards.

If these guides and directions could be planned properly to

convey one single message at a time, and if these directions will
be followed smoothly and easily without undue haste, or
changes in speed, lhen, the roadway facilities are considered
satisfactory. Experienced highway Engineers recommended that
highway signs and directions should be integrated as early as
the preliminary layout studies.

2-2 Definition of Terms

AASTHO is the American Association of State Highway
and Transportation Officials. ln 1914, the American Associa-
tion of State Highway Officials (ASSHO) was established as an
association of State Territorial and District of Coi.rmbia High-
way Department, and the Federal Highway Administration. The

L3
 Elements of Roads and Flighways
name was expanded in 1973, when the Departrnent of Transpor-
tation was integrated into the association renaming AASHO to
AASFilO, giving the officials of these agcncy the power to
govern its operation. Engineering activities, were implemented
by the standing committees with the task of preparing specifica-
tions manual and standards, representing the current trighway
engineering practice.
AASIIIO publications includes:
l. Transportation Materials Specifications and Tests.
2. Specifications for highway bridges
3. Geometric deign standards.
+. Numerous policy statements and guides.
AASHTO publications are authoritative" References are
made in these books and periodic manuals. 'lhe association also
publishes the AASHTO quafterly reports on current Highway
and Transportations sublect including trends in forecast and
legislation.
Roads and Highways is defined as strips of land that have
been cleared and further improved for tle movement of people
and goods.
Road. R.oad has somewhat broader application in usage
while generally used to describe a public thoroughfare. It can
also refer to railways.
Highway" The term was first used in England to describe a
public road built by digging ditches on both sides and heaping
up the earth in the middle creating a way higher than the adja-
cent land. Highway now connotes, a higher state of develop-
ment than road. but the words are almost interchangeable.
Expressway is a divided arterial highway for through traffic
wrth full or partial control or access and generally provided
with grade separation at major intersections.
Freeway is au expressway with/r Il control oJ" access"
Designing the Highway
Control of Access is a conditron where the rights of owners
or occupants of adjoining land or other persons access to light,
air or view in cormestion with a highway is fully or partially
controlled by public authority.
Full Control of Access - The authority to control access is
exercised to give preference to through traffic by providing ac-
cess connections to seiected public roads only. Crossing at
grade or direct private driveway connections is not permitted.
Partial Control of Access - The authority to control access
is exercised to give preference to through traffic. Although in
addition to access connestions with selected public roads, there
may be some crossings at grade and some private driveway
connections allowed.
Through Street or Through Highway - Every Highway
or portion thereof on which vehicular traffic is given preferen-
tial right of way, and at the entrance to which vehicular traffic
from intersecting highways is required by law to yreld right of
way to vehicles on such through highway in obedience to either
stop sign or yield signs erected thereon.
Parlanay is an arterial highway for non-conrmercial traffic,
with full or partial control of access usually located within a
park or ribbon park-like development.
Arterial Street is an arterial route that carries traffic to the
nearest access point or through traffic. It often serves as the
most advantageous routes for relatively long distance travel.
Most arterial streets are existing highways of considerable
length along which cross traffic is regulated by signals or stop
signs. In addition, arterials provide access to adjacent property
but often with restrictions on entry and exit points. Arterial
street is considered as a "make do" substitute for controlled
access facilities when traffic volume exceeds about 20,000 ve-
hicles per day.
 I
t

Elements of Roads and Highways Designing the HighwaY

Basic Considerations in Planning Arterial Roadways to residence, business, or other adjoining properties. It is also
defined as a road constructed and maintained by the local gov-
ernment.
l. Selection of the routes.
2. Studies of the traffic volume.
Highway Capacity is defined as the manimum number of
3. Origin and destination. vehicles that are reasonably erpected to pass a given point over
4. Accident experienced. a given period of time usually expressed as vehicles per hour.
5. Width should not be less than 15 meters.
6. Must carry at least one lane oftraffic in each direction. l. Under ideal conditions, one freeway lane can accommo-
7. Should be at least one kilomster in length. date about 2,000 passenger cars per hour.
8. Should skirt neighborhood areas rather than penetrate 2. Two-lane road can carry up to 1,000 passenger cars per
thern.
hour in each direction.
9. On gnd desrgn system streets, arterials are spaced at
about 600 to 900 meters apart.
There is an obvious relationship betwe€n vehicle speed and
10. Where accident hazard is not a factor, the minimum vol-
highway capacity. As the volume of traffrc approaches capacity,
ume to justifu arterial road is 300 vehicles per average
the average speed is markedly reduced.
hour during the day, and 450 vehicles hourly during peak
periods.
AADT or ADT refers to traffic volume or flow on a high-
way as measured by the number of vehicles passlng a partial
Sometimes, peak hour traffic volume on designated arterial station during a given interval of time. It is called 'Average
road exceeds the capacrty of two-way streets, and to increase Annual Daily Traffic" if the period is less t}an one year. Vol-
the arterial capaclty, the following solutions are enforced: ume may be stated on houdy "Observed Traffic Volume" or
estimated 30e hour volume commonly used for desrgn pur-
l. During peak hours, parking is prohibited on one or both poses. Some highway agencies use traffic volume for 5 minutes
sides ofthe street. interval to distinguish short peak movements of vehicles.
2. Parking is prohibited several meters away from each side
ofthe road intersections or corners.
3. fughtturn is allowed on red signals anytime with care.
2-3 The Design Speed
4. Left turns are eliminated on congested intersections.
There is no single sst of Geometric Standards that will ap-
5. The direction of traffic is reversed in the center lane to
ply to all highways. For every highway segment, decisions re-
provide more lanes in the direction of heavier traffic flow
g-di"g appropriate control for each of the many details or re-
quirements must be addressed individually or separately.
Collector Street form smaller mesh grid pattem where pas-
sengers are pick up from service streets and carried to the arte-
AASI{TO defined Design SPeed as:
rials. Large commercial enterprises or amusement facilities like
drive in theaters are mostly fronting arterial roads. "The speed determined for design and correlation of the
physicat feature of a highway that influence vehicles operation'
Local Road is defined as street or road primarily for access
27
26
 Elernents of Roads and Highwnys
It is the marimum'speed that can be maintamed over a specified
section of the highway when weather and traffc conditi.ons are
so favorable that the designfeatures af the highway govern.
Basic Design Features refers to the tightness and super ele-
vation ofcurves, the sight distance, and grade. The design speed
is
basically higher than the anticipated average speed.
AASI{TO recommend that:
"The design speed be set to the greatest degree possible, to
satisfy the needs of nearly all drivers bath today and throughout
the road anticipated life."
For economic reasons, the Geometric Features of certain
road sections are designed for speed from 30 to 50 kilometers
per hour. And yet, some motorists drive faster on straight road
Designing the Highway
obsolescence as well as the increased margin of operating
safety. The high speed road design must anticipate future gen-
eration high speed vehicles and advanced transportation sys-
tems that may operate on many of these road alignments.
Although the design speed of most highways is govemed by
construction costs, the concept of the relatively high speed de-
sign for freeways is Regardless of Cost. They are planned for a
nationwide high volume traffic and high speed network.
TABLE2.l MINIMU ECOMMENDEI' DESIGN SPEED
FACILITY RURAL Km/hr
Freeway 8G95 preferred 110-95 mountainous

alignment or less sharply curved sections. Under this situations,

Arterial 6495 but 48 in built 80- I l0
up areas
highway des4n adopted control by reducing the super elevation Collectors 48 km./hr. See Table 2-2
combined with easement curves, delineators, stripprng signs and Local 32-48km./hr. See Table 2-2
rumble strips, to alert motorists and inform them tha! they are
approaching sharp curves or blind curves.
TABLE 2.2 AASHTO MINIMUM DESIGN SPEEI)
Selection of the proper road design speed is one of tlre most KM./HR FOR RURAL COLLECTORS AND LOCAL ROADS
important decisions to make, because it sets the limit to curva- BASED ON CURRENT ADT
Class Tra
ture, sight distance, and other geometric figures. But because of
Collector 0-400 4W-750 750-2000 2000-4000 Over 4000
limited funds, there is a strong ternptation to reduce the design
Level 60 75 I> 75 90
speed. Such kind of decision is unwise, because the alignment Rolling 45 60 60 IJ 75
grade and siglrt distance after the roadway has been construct€d Mountainous 30 45 45 60 60
and paved along the landscape and rights of way, become more Local 0-50 50-250 250-400 Over 400
difficult and expensive to adjust or to correct. Levcl 45 45 60 75
Rolling 30 45 45 60
The AASHTO practice is to classify first the highway as Mountainous 30 30 30 45

Rural or Urban, then as Freeways, Arterials, Coliectors and Lo-

cal. Rural collectors and local facilities are classified as flat,
rolling, or mountainous. Although the design speed presently 2-4 Cross Section of Typical Highway
used is 80 lan. per hour, highway designers projected design
speed up ta 120 kilometers per hour to guarantee against future
The cross section of a typical highway has latitude of vari-
ables to consider such as:

28
 Elements of Roads and l{ighways Designing the Highway

The volume of traffic.
Character of the traffic.
Speed of the traffic.
Characteristics of motor vehicles and of the driver
Highway design usually adopted cross section that is uni-
form in thickness from end to end of the improvement. This is
acceptable on high volume traffic road facilities. For a low vol-
ume traffic facilities, modrfication of the features like the
shouldcrs width in rough areas are usually employed to reduce
costs. A cross section design generally offers the expected level
of service for safety and a recent study showed that:
fic roadways, although tlere are strong demand to increase it
further from 3.60 to 4.20 meters.
For Two Lane Rural Highways, a 7.20 meters wide sur-
face is required for safe clearance between commercial vehicles
and is recornmended for main highways.
For Collector Roadway, 6.00 meters wide surface is ac-
ceptable only for low volume trafFrc including few trucks trav-
eling thereon.
For Local Rural Roadway, the minimum surface width is
4.80 meters for a 30 km / hr. design speed.
For Urbair Roadway, the minimum design width is 3.60
meters although 3.00 meters is allowed where space is limited.

t. A 7.20 meters wide pavement has l8% less accidenl Where there are heavy meetings or overtaking between cars
compared wrth pavement narrower than 5.50 m. wide. and trucks, air disturbances sometimes cause side collision be-
A 7,2A meters wide pavement ha 4%o fetver accidents tween passing vehicles when sweryed within or out of their
than the 6.00 meters wide roadway. lanes. Motorists are requesting for wider lanes.
3. Accident records showed no difference between the 6.60
meters and the 7.20 meters wide pave.ment.
4. For the 6.00 m., 6.60 m. and,7.20 meters wide pavement Rounded
2:1 cut alope
with 2.70 to 3.00 m. wide shoulder, recorded accident in deep cut
decreases by 30% compared to 0 to .60 m. wide shoul-
der. And 20%o compared with a .90 to 1.20 meters wide
shoulder.

It appears that, the above difference in accident potentials

may not justifiz higher standard, particularly, when traffic vol-
ume is low. A driver's instinct when overtaking or allowing FIGURE 2-1 CROSS SECTION OF ryPICAL TWO LANE HIGHWAYS
other cars to overtake or meting oncoming vehicles is to look at
the surface width of the highway, and see the kind of surface
where to position his car.

Originally, the total surface width of the roadway was only

4.50 meters, but due to the increased number of vehicles using
the roadway, the width was adjusted to 4.80 to 5.40 meters.
Lately, the width of the road was standardized to 3.00 m. for
first class paved one lane highway, and now 3.60 meters wide
surface was adopted standard for freeways and other major traf- FTGURE 2-2 MULT|-LANE HTGHWAYS AND FREEWAYS (HALF SECTTON)

30 3l

t
 Elements of Roads and Highways Designing the Highway

100 3.25 13.00 3.25 1.00

2.50 Widening 2.54

0.15 0.20 0.20 0.15

L- t
I

!r...F-.?F
StoD lane
Vr. < 100 Km / hr. Four 3.50 m. Lanes - 2.50 m. Stop Lanes
stop ranJ

Shoulder Travelway Medran I Travelway Shouldel

Roadway 33.50

Yr. 12O Km / hr. or Vr < 100 km/hr. with 13 m. Median - 2.50 m. Stop Lanes

Vr. < 60 Km / hr. Four 3.00 m. Lanes - 250 Stop Lanes

Vr. > 100 Km / hr. 2.50 Stop Lanes

Vr. < 100 Km / hr. Two - 3.50 m. Lanes 2.00 m. Stop lenes

23.50

Vr < 100 Km / hr. 2.50 Stop Lanes

Vr. < 80 Km,/ hr. Two - 3.00 m. Laner 2.00 m. Stop lanes

22.O0

Vr. < 60 Km / hr. 2.50 Stop Lanes

FIGURE 2-4 UNDIVIDED HIGHWAYS

FIGURE 23 DIVIDEO HIGHWAYS

32 33

Lr-
 t

Elements of Roads and Highways Designing the Highway

2-5 Road Shoulder Policy on Geometric Design Recommended that:

Road shoulder or verge is defined as that portion of the l. Outside shoulder should be paved for at least 3.00 or
roadway between the edge of the traffic lane and the edge of the 3.60 meters wide if tnrck volume is more than 250 in the
ditch, gutter, curb or side slope. AASHTO requires that its us- design hour (ADT).
able pavement width shall be strong enough to support vehicles. 2. The recommended width of left (median) shoulder is
1.20 to 2.40 meters with at ldast 1.20 msters paved.
Importance of Road Shoulder 3. If there are 6 or more lanes, the median shoulder should
be 3.00 meters wide or 3.60 metbrs if truck volume in the
1. Road shoulder serves as a place for vehicles to stop when desrgn hour exceeds 250.
disabled or for some other purpc,ses. Road shoulder con- 4. For arterials with ADT less than 400 the usable shoulder
siderably reduces road accidents. width is fixed at 1.20 meters minimum, although 2.40
-l'he meters wide is much preferred.
2. road capacity is decreased and accident opporrunity
5. When the design hour volumeADT exceeds 400, the us-
increases if the shoulder is too narrow or omitted in the
able minimum shoulder width is 2"40 meters although
design.
3.60 meters is recommended.
3. Shoulder should be continuous along the full length of 6. For Urban Arterial Road, similar shoulder without curb
the roadway. It also adds structural strength to the road is suggested unless needed for proposed drainage.
pavement. 7. The width of median shoulder on four lanes divided arte-
4. Shouldlr increases the horizontal sight distance on rials is fixed at 90 centimeters as minimum.
curves. It reduces accident potential when vehicle stop 8. For six or more lanes, 2.40 to 3.00 meters shoulder width
during emergencies. is recommended.
9. For Rural Collectors Roadway, 60 centimeters wide
Most of the road shoulders in rural areas are unpaved graded shoulder is required for ADT's less than 400"
having a width of 60 to 120 centimeters wide either earth 10. For ADT's over 2000. 2.40 meters wide shoulder is rec-
filled or graveled surface that during rainy days, drivers are ommended.
hesitant to occupy. The Uniform Traffic Control Device
Manual provides that: TABLE 2.3 WIDTH OFROADWAY X'ORUNDIVIDED HTGHWAY
Total Trave Shoulder Width Roadway Width of Refcrence
" All inter-town or city highways shall provided with
be 14.00 m. 3.25 20.50 100-80-60-40
edge line and may be used on other classes of roads." 12.00 m. 3.25 18.50 60-40
7.00 m. 2.75 12.50 100-80-60-40
A continuous narrow white line strip at the edge of the 7.00 m. 2.00 I1.00 80-60-40
roadway that separates the shoulder, serves as guide to drivers 6.70 m. 2.7s 12.20 100-80-60-40
during bad weather and poor visibilrty conditions. The white
6.7C m. 2.00 10.70 80-60-40
6.00 m. 2.75 11.50 80-60-40
strips tend the driver to stay in the traffrc lane and the vehicles 6.00 m. 1.50 9.00 80-60-40
seldom infringe on the shoulder.

)4
35
 Designing the Highway
r\lements of Roads and Highways

ONLY WITH STOP . LANE

15 Widening Stop Lane 2.50 or2.25 or 2.00

0.50 nan

Travelway Stop Lane 2.50 m.

or2.25 or 2.00m. RoundinO 1.00

shoulder 3.25 m. or S
3.30 m. or 2.75 m. stope or Ditch
Stop Lanes 2.50 a( 2.25 ot 2.OO
Turfed

3.00
Wall
2.0O to 3.00

l/4 to 1/16
UNDER STRUCTURE

Natural Soil

1.20
WITH STOP LANE AND GUARDRAILS

f ravelway
lq 5%

Stop Lane 2.50. 2.25 or 2.00

I 0.75
7%

Concrete
Shoulder 3.25 , 3.00 or 2.75

0.75

Covered gutter ON STRUCTURE

Lane 2.50, 2.25 or 2.00

FIGURE 24 STRAIGHT ALTGNMENT SHOULDER DETATL WITH STOP

FIGURE 2{ STRAIGHT ALIGfTIMENT SHOULDER DETAIL LAilE AND GUARDRAIL
WITH STOP I.ANE
 Elements of Roads and Highways Designing the Highway

NO STOP LANE, FOOTPATH OR GUARDRAILS ( NO PEDESTRIAN ALLOWED)

UNDER STRUCTURE

Shoulder 2.00, 1.50 or 1-00

WITH STOP LANE USED AS CYCLE PATH AND FOOTPATH

ON STRUCTURE
Stop Lane / cycle path
2.5O or 2.25 ot 2.OO

UNDER STRUCTURE

A= 1.50 ifvr > 60Km/hr.

Stop Lane / cycle path 2.50, 2.25 ar 2.OO A= 1.25 if Vr S 60 Km /hr.

Stop Lane / cycle path / footpath Under Structure

2.5a, 2.25 ot 2.oO

0.50 if 1.00 shouldef

Shoulder 2.00.1.50 - 1

Stop Lane/ cycle path

?.50. 2.25 ot 2.OO
ON STRUCTURE

FIGURE 2-7 STRAIGHT ALIGNMENT SHOULDER DETAIL WITH STOP FIGURE 2€ NO STOP LANE, I,IO FOOTPATH, I{O GUARDRAILS
LANE USED AS CYCLE PATH AtlD FOOTPATH SHOULDER

38
39
 I

Elements of Roads and Highways Designing the Highway

FOOTPATH ONLY
I.IT{SIDE SHOULDER

Footpath 1.25

- 2.00 - 1.75 - 1.50

Paved stop if e<4% if e>4% S=e

if e<5% if e>5% S=e

STRUCTURE
2. OUTSIDE SHOULDER

WITH FOOTPATH ANO GUARDRAILS

Footpath
75 - .50 - or .50 if 1.00 shoulder

UNDER STRUCTURE

A = 1.50 if Vr > 60 km/ hr.

A = 1.25 if Vr.l 60 km/ hr.

Shouldcr 3.00 or 2.50

FIGURE 2€ SHOULDER DETAIL FOOTPATI{ ONLY FIGURE 2-10 ALIGIIIMENT ltrl CURVE SHOULDER OETATL
 Elements of Roads and Highways Designing the Highway

Considering the above recommendations, Width is defined
as "extendingfrom the edge of the surfacing to the point where
shoulder slope intersect the side slope. " The Urban colleclor
road usually has no shoulder, instead, parking lanes of 2.40 me'
ters or preferably 3.00 meters wide with gutters are specified.
2-6 The Cross Slope
These types of cross sections allow the inner lane to ac-
commodate high speed traffic because it is flatter than the outer
lanes.
On a very wide street, the parabolic crown surface makes
the centerline almost flat unless gutters are sufficiently deep
enough to convey water. A combination of uniform slope with
parabolic curve is used instead of ttre parabolic sections.

The cross slope is provided in all tangent sections of the

roadway. Slope usually falls in both directions from the ce,lrter- Slope 1% to 2%
line of the uro lane highway except where super elevation of
curyes directs all water towards the inside.
For high type pavemen! the crown or slope is often Iyo tD
2o/o. However, steqter slopes are strongly recommended be-
cause rain water, flow away more rapidly reducing the water
thickness on the road pavement. A cross slope in one direction
of multi lane hrghways makes driving comfortable, but with
heavy rainfall, the water depth increases on the roadwqy. FIGURE 2.12 HIGH TYPE PAVEMENT CROSS SLOP€ i

Center Line

FIGURE 2.13 PARABOLIC PAVEMENT SECTION

FIGURE 2.1 1 PAVED AND GRAVEL SHOULDER CROSS SLOPE

The paved shoulder cross slope ranges from3o/ota 6% although
4Yo is the most cornmon. For a gravel shoulder, 4%to 60/o slope
is satisfactory and 7o/o slope is effective drainage for turf (grass)
surfaces.
2-7 Cut or Fill Slope
Eadh fill of normal height is safe on a slope of I:2 ratios.
Meaning, the first number represents the horizontal distance
while the second number is the vertical distance.

42 43
 Elements of Roads and Highw*ys
Designing the Highway

2. The 2:1 slope is allowed to heights greater than 6.00 m.

3. Cut slope should not be steeper than 2:l ratio except on
solid rock or special kind of soil.

EARTHFILL OF NORMAL HEIGHT CUTS THROUGH ORDINARY UNDISTURBED

1: 2 RATIO EARTH 1:1 RATIO

FIGURE 2.14 FIGURE 2.15

Slope of cuts through an ordinary undisturbed earthfill re-

main in place with a ratio of 1:1 slope. On the otlrer hand, rock
cuts could be as steep as l:2 and sometimes 1:4 proven to be VISIBLE FLAT SLOPE
stable. Receirtly, slopes had been geirerally lowered for safer
operations and to facilitate plant growth. Plants reduced erosion
ROCK CUTS RATIO FROM 1:2 ro 1:4
and decreases maintenance costs.
FIGURE 2-16 ROCKCUT RATIO FROM 1:2 OR 1:4
Advantages of Flat Side or Back Slope

The AASHTO policy stipulated that where cut or fill slopes

l. With back slope of 3:l or even flatter, cars could be di-
intersect the original ground surface, cross section must be
rected to back into the road and will come to stop or con-
tinue down the slope with no risk of over turning. rounded to blend the slope with the natural ground surface.
2. Flat fill slopes are visible from the vehicles at full extent When the side slope requires e,nrbankrnent with suitable retain-
grirng the roadway safer appearance. tng urall, any of the following materials could be used depend-
rqg uponthe natural conditions.
3. With visible slope for being low and fla! vehicles could
be positioned or parked closer to the edge, and on two
lane roadway facilities parkmg would be farttrer from the
l. Fland placed stones. ,,./,
opposlng traffic. 2. Cerre,nt nrbbles masonry.
3. Concrete blocks.
Recommended Policy on Geometric Design
4. Conventional reinforced concrete.
5. T or counter forted designs.
1. The 6:l slope ratio could be adopted on embankment 6. Cribs assembled fromtimber.
than 1.20 meters high, and 4:l ratio on a higher fill.
less 7. Precast concrete.
8. Metal elements.
 Designing the HighwaY
Elements of Roads and HighwaYs

9. Tied back piling. 8. Medians with 6 to 18 meters wide allow drivers to cross
each roadway separately. A 4.20 to 6.60 meters median
10. Earth reinforced with metal or plastic bands'
width provides protection for turning vehicles'

2-8 Number of Lanes
The number of lanes in a segment of the highway is deter-
mined from tJre estimated traffic volume for the design year
(AADT) and highway lane capacity at expected level of service.
AASFilO policies accept a dually divided 16 lanes roadway
with four lanes in each direction for an inner freeway and four
more lanes in each direction on the outside. There are some in-
stances where a reversible lane is located at the center of free-
ways with unbalanced heavy traffic flow.
9. Curved median with 1.20 to 1.80 meters width serves as
partition - separation of opposite traffic control devices.
10. The width of a traversable median should be wide
enough to prevent vehicles running out of control from
reaching the opposite traffic.
I l. The 15 to 24 meters distance between landed edges is fa-
vored, but specific value is not-stipulated.
12. Cross slope of the median should not be greater than 6:1
butpreferably l0:1.

2-9 Highway Median 13. Dense planting ofrose hedges serves as safety crash bar-
riers.
Recently, median in various forms, becomes absolute re-
qurrement for highways because, it offers the following advan- For Narrow Median, there are four means of reducing cross
tages: median accidents:

l. It is an effective means of reducing headlight glares, con- 1. Provide detemng devices.

flicts, and accident between opposing streams of traffic.
2. The Median offers refuge between opposing traffic
stream ofcross traffic, and pedestrian could traverse each
strearn at separate maneuvers.
3. Median provides available space for left tum lanes.
4. It makes turning of vehicles smooth and safe operation.
5. Where space and cost permit, wide median is highly rec-
ommended. For rural sections of freeway, the 18 to 27
msters wide median is being adopted.
6. The Policy on Geometric Design states that, 3.00 to 9.00
meters median width is appropriate in suburban or moun-
tainous situations.
7. For rural and urban arterials, 18.00 meters median or
wider is preferred because it allows the use of independ-
ent profiles and at the same time minimizes cross over
accident.
2. Provide non-traversable energy absorbing barriers'
3. Provide non-traversable rigid barriers.
4. Provide G.M. barriers.
Deterring Devices. - Two sets of double strip painted on
the existing pavement, raised diagonal bars, low curbing and
shallow ditches.
Non-Traversable Energy Absorbing Devices. The line
chain link fence I meter high supported by steel post aug-
mented by cables at the bottom and midpoint. Non-traversable
rigid barriers are metal guard rail.
G.M. Barriers. A high non-mountain sloped face concrete
barriers called New Jersey. It is cast or extruded in place or pre-
cast in section and set in position by crane.

47
46

_t
 Elements of Roads and Highways Designing the Highway

Widening .20 Widening

h = .02 to.04

Vr. 120 km / hr. or eventually Vr. 100 km.l hr.

Vr. <1(X) kmlhr.

Turf or stabilization 5.60

Vr. < 100 km I hr.

.20
D

r-*t
5
___r---* ] ll T_l S' S

| 1.00 I
I |.-l
I stabilization 1.80 Turf oi stabilization Stabilization 1.80 |

Vr. > 80 km / hr.

Vr. 3 00 km I hr.

Vr. < 100 km I hr.

FIGURE 2.I7 MEDIATTI UNDER STRUCTURE
FIGURE 2-t8 STRAIGIIT ALIGNMENT MEDlAltl lltl CURREilT SECTION

49
48
 Elements of Roads and Highways Designing the Highway

--fi
V
O1
ol
dl
6,
J
ol

ov@
:-
^qo
Noo

9':
@aio

3*3
ooo r 09'e ol 00 e
I
I
€oY I
E

z
s
ul
=

Medlan > 3.00 meters

FIGURE 2.I9 MEDIAN ON STRUCTURES F]GURE 2.20 MEDIAfII APPROACH

50
5l
 1

Elements of Roads and Highways { Designing the llighway

BARRIER CURB

5 12.5

lN'ul,o
tll

I
.7
a=z.s/ I

ot
rut
zt
5l
zl
10 20
Stope 30:20
ol 10 ll \---t-r
FI
ffil
q,
'll? (
I
zl
'l I

repForls FIGURE 2- 22 MOUNTABLE CURB

I
I
I 2-10 The Grade Line
Grade line is defined as the longitudinal profile of the high-
way as a measure how the centerline of the highway rises and
fall.
FIGURE 2.2,I DECELERATION LANES A]iIO II{SERTION LAiIES
 Elements of Roads and Highways Designing the Highway

The grade line appears on a profile taken along the road

\o !c cil o
F]
d centerline. It is a series of straight lines connected by parabolic
vertical curves to which straight grades are tangent.
p oo

=9o\.o\o In laying the grade line, the designer must consider the fol-
o
E] lowing:
€ €C-F-\On
s 1. Where earthwork is minimal and consistently meeting
z Fl c{oo o\ sigtrt distances in relation to grade line, economy is one
(h
main consideration.
o
oo
90\€c-\o
2. In mountainous areas, fte grade line must be considered
I q) balanced excavation against embankrnents to get the
o
minimum overall cost.
\O
*o l&
t- C- F- ral
3. In flat are4 the grade line is set almost parallel to the
rr ground surface but sufficiently above the ground for
a tn
FI drainage purposes.
o "l =9a€ 4. Undesirable native soil should be provided with suffi-
4 z oo

O\€l"-\O cient covering.

trl
j ti & .2 5. Grade line elevations along the river or stream, is gov-
E
u) €F-\or
erned by the expected level of water flood.
a
x
E
xtsl r-\O\Or 2-11 Vertical Curve Over Crest
A q
Fl q)
E oo o
All vertical curves should not be shorter than the established
E nssS V)
minimum over crests. This is govemed by the sight distance
X &n
-d
requirements but sometimes a case of riding, may demand
!? Fl
6 Xg
E $cnco(a H,O longer curves than the sight distance.
o-
! 'tr9 Some designers prefer no vertical curye to be shorter than
a.l
F] 9?
q>
j \o \o 300 meters. AASHTO 5t'ggested that the minimum curve lengtb
tr u)
,R6
v5 varies with the design speed in meters distance equals to 8 times
ao
tr og the velocity in kilometers per hour.
B
frl rat >:()
r4
=o.
tuz " The vertical distance from the intersecfion ofthe straight
!f cf) <r grade line to the curve is equal to one eight ofthe product oJ-
d
I the algebraic dffirence in grades and the length of the curve in

xg E
$$38hpi U)
stations. This is called the maximum correction. TIte rate at
which the curve departs vertically from both tangent grade line

55
54
 Elements of Roads and Highways Designing the Highway

is proportional to the square of the horizontal distance from the 2-13 Stopping Sight Distance
end of the curve. The correction at any intermediate point is
obtained by: The stopping sight distance is defined as the longest dis-
tance that a driver could see the topof an object 15 centimeters
l. Multiplyrng the maximum correction by the square of the (6") above the road surface where the design height of the
horizontal distance between the near end of the curve and driver's eye abovc the pavement is 105 centimeters.
the point.
Z. Divide this product by the square of one half the length
ofthe curve.

2-12 Right of Way

Acquisition of land for the right of way is very costly.
Based on experience from the past, highway agency now con- 1.05 m. eye level
Object 15 cm.
sider it a good practice to acquire right of way wide enough to above the pavement
sufficiently provide for the ultimate expected development.
A successful freeway and expressway operations, closes the
roadway from direct access to adjoining property and some 1o- FIGURE 2-23 MEASURING STOPPING SIGHT DISTANCE
cal roads or streets. If local traffic and land use are to be
opened, it must be served by service roads originally planned as Stopping Distance is Made-up of Two Elements
part of the main freeway. Frontage road shall be permitted m
enter coruresfing cross streets only at a distance of at least 100 l. The distance traveled after the obstruction or object is
meters for rural road and 50 meters f,or urban conditions. seen and before the driver applies the brakes.
Z. The second distance is consumed while the driver applies
brakes for the vehicle to stop.
TABLE 2-5 MINIMTM RIGHT OF WAY WIDTHS FOR RI]RAL
AND URBAN F'RDEWAYS AT GRADE IN METER The distance covered could be expressed by the follow-
ing formula:
Number width RURAL URBAN
Rcstricted No Normal with Normal No
of Frontagc No Frontage d: tm/s
Lanes Road Road Frontace Rd. Frontacc Rd. F Rd
2 60 45 Breakingdistance: d : (m/s)2
4 68 53 4l 2 gmf
6 60 5l 89 53

8 83 68 59 96 60 d: (m/s)2
19.6 f
Source: A Policy on Geometric Design
Where : m,/s - Initial speed, in meter per second

56 57
 Elements of Roads and Highways Designing the Highway

t = Detection, recognition, decision and

2-14 The Passing Sight Distance
response initiation ( brake reaction time )
gm = Acceleration of gravity, 9.80 meters
The passing sight distance is the longest distance that a
per second squared
driver can see the top of an oncoming vehicle where the driver's
f= Coefficient of friction between the tire
eye level is 1.05 mgters above the pavement surface. The rela-
and pavement.
tionship between the passing sight distance, the algebraic dif-
ference in grades, and the length ofvertical curve is represented
The above formula assumes that the highway level is flat. If
by the following equations:
the car is traveling uphill, the braking distance is decreased, and
for downhill, braking distance is increased. 'lhe braking dis-
tance on slope is expressed by the following formula:
, L : 25 - 943 where S is greater than L
A
Braking distance (m) d = (.m/ s )2 L : AS2 where S is less than L
1e.8(f+g) 943 L is lurgth in meters
Where: g= Longitudinal slope of tlre roadway or
L:
a/o
length required ofvertical curve
Grade / 100 :
S specified sight distance
Uphill grade is positive ( + )
4= algebraic difference in grades expressed in perceirt
Downhill grade is negative ( - )

TABLE 2{ Ii'INIMUM STOPPING SIGHT DISTANCE WET ROAD

Dcsign Assumed Break Reaction inc Sicht Di

Specd Specd for Time Dstance Cocf. of Computed Rounded for
Km/ph Condition -
Sec. Mctcr Friction m€tcr Design (rn.)

30 30-32 2.5 22-24 0.40 3r.8-35.8 36-38

45 40-50 2.5 3l-33 0.35 53.4-58.8 60-60
60 55-60 2.5 4044 0.32 80.1-94.2 82-97
75 65-75 2.5 48-55 0.30 I12.8-138.3 112-142 FIGURE 2- 24 MEASURING PASSING SIGHT DISTANCE
90 80-90 2.5 57-66 0.29 r50.2-t90.2 I 57-195
100 85-95 2.5 6t-71 0.29 t65.0-217.2 165-2t7 The design of two lane highway of passing over crests is
105 90-100 2.5 &77 0.28 183.9-252.0 181.255
generally practical only cn flat grades because the longer verti-
110 90-ll0 2.5 67-83 0.28 200.1-283.0 202-285
120 95-120 2.5 71.88 0.27 222.3-324.9 225-330
cal curves are required to provide passing sight than stopping
sight distance.
Source: A Policy on Gcomctric Dcsign F = (m/s)i - Se
9.8 Rm

58
 Elements of Roads and Highways
Designing the Highway
Where: (m / s) : Meter per second invite accident. Similarly, designing circular curves of differem
Rm : Radius in mster radius from end to end or compounded curve is not a good prac-
Se = Super elevation (slope ratio) rise tice, unless suitable transitions between them are provided.
per second
To have a short tangent between two curves is also a poor
practice. A long flat curve is acceptable at all times. It is pieas-
The maximum coefficient of side friction on dry pavement
ing to look at, with less probability of future obsolescence.
as determlned by curve tests ranges between 0.4 and 0.5 value
Alignment should be provided with tangent because there are
with normal pavemsnt and smooth tires is about 0.35 at 75
drivers who hesitate to pass on curyes. A short curve appears
kilometers per hour.
like kinks. A long flat curve is preferred for small changis in
direction.
TABLE 2.7 AASHTO MIMMUM PASSING SIGI{T DISTAI{CE
FON DESIGN T}f TWO-I.ANE I{IGIfl$AYS
Minimum Passing 2-L6 Circular Curves
Ovcrtaking
Vehicle A vehicle traveling in curved road is subject to centrifugal
Km/hr. force. This force is balanced by equal and opposite forces de-
veloped through the super elevation and side frictions. How-
35 35 48 243 244
50 42
ever, neither the side friction on the super elevation, could
58 327 320
65 )) 70 ,i'11 overcome nor exceed the maximum control and limit on the
440
80 65 82 552 5s0
sharpness of the curves with a prescribed design speed. The
95 75 9l &2 u0 sharpness of a curve is dependent on its radius. Sharpness is
100 80 96 693 690 expressed in terms of the curve degrees, and the degrees of
110 86 l0:. 747 740 curve is inversely proportional with the radius.
t20 90 105 780 780
135 95 ll0 822 820 Formula: D = 5.729.58
Rrdi*
TABLE 2-8 AASHTO RECOMMENDED MAXIMUM
COEFFICIENT OF SIDE FRICTION
Radius = 5.129.58
D
Design Spced Km/hr. 48 ll3 129
Cocflicient of Friction .16 .10 .08 Where: D = degree of curve and the radius
Degree of curve SI : 0.328 D

2-15 Road Alignment
Road alignment should be consistent. An abrupt change
from flat to sharp curve and long tangents followed by sharp
curve should be avoided because it will onlv create hazard and
Solution using the above formula will give
following results:
The degree of curve is expressed either by the Arc defini-
tions or the Chord definitions.

60
6l
 Elements of Roads and Highways Designing the Highway

TABLE 2-9 DEGREE OF CT]RVES l. For design speed of 50 kilometers per hour, the normal
of Rndirs Meter Decree of Curvc Radius cross slope is l'- 21' or even flatter curves.
2. For a 120 kilometers per hour design speed road, the
00 30' 3A9r.7s 60 00' 291.06
nofmal cross slope is 0'- 15' or flatter curves without su-
lo 00' 1,146.38 100 00' t't4.63
per elevation.
20 00' 873.19 200 00' 87.32

ln each of this solution, the total side friction is less than

Arc Definitions - The degree of curve is the central angle 0.04 for an adverse cross slope of 0.02.
subtended by a 30 meters arc ofthe curve.
Chord Definitions - The degree of curve is the central an- 2-17 Super Elevation -,Runoff
gle subtended by 50 meters chord.
Curved sections of roadways are usually super elevated.
Radius = 50 Provisions for gradual changes from one point to the other
Sine % D should be considered. The centerline of each individual road-
way at profile grade is maintained while raising the outer edge
TABLE 2.10 SHARPEST PERMISSIBLE HORIZONTAL CT]RVES and lowering the inner edge to attain the desired super eleva-
FOR GIVEN DESIGN SPEED AND SI]PER ELEVATION
tion. It is done by raising-up the outside edge of the pavement
with relation to the centerline until the outer half of the cross
MaximumPermissible Degree of Curve D, or
Minimum Radius Design Speed
section is flat. Then, the outer edge is raised until the cross sec-
tion is straight. Finally, the e,lrtire cross section is rotated as a
Km/hr. 35 50 65 80 91 t13 121 whole until firll super elevation is reached.

Super Condition
Elev. for use .t7 .16 .15 .t4 .13 .12 .ll

0.04 Dcsirable for

down arterials D 45 19 l0 6 3.7s
Rm 39 92 175 291 466

0.10 Max for Rural D 58 25 13.25 8.25 5.25 3.5 2.25

highway and Rm 30 70 132 198 333 499 776
suburban frccway

Sourcc: A Policy on Gcometric Design Lane surface

The maximum allowed super elevation rate before was 0.12

but now it is 0.10 except on low volume gravel roads. The Pol-
icy on Geometric Design recommend that : FIGURE 2-25 SUPER ELEVATION OF CURVES

62
 Elements of Roads and Highways Designing the Highway

TABLE 2.1I SUGGESTED MII{IMI.]M LENGTII OF SIJPER 2-t8 Widening of Curves

ELEVATION RI]NOFF F'OR2-LANE A3.60 METERS LANE

A provision for a wider roadway is necessary on sharp

LENGTH OF RUNOFF FORDESIGN SPEED in Meter
curve for two lanes pavement under the following reasons:
Super clevation l. To force the drivers to shy away from the pavernent edge.
Rate Km./hr. 35 50 95 ll5 130 2. To increase the effective transverse vehicle width for non-
tracking of front and rear wheels.
.02 9.0 10.5 12.0 15.0 16.5 18.0 19.5
3. To give additional width due to the slanted position of the
.04 18.0 2r.0 25.5 28.5 33.0 36.0 39.0
front wheel to the roadway center line.
.06 28.5 33.0 37.5 43.5 48.0 54.0 60.0
4. For a7.20 msters wide roadway, an additional width of 30
.08 37 .5 43.5 5l .0 57 .0 @.5 72.0 79 5
centimeters is necessary on an'open curve highway.
.10 48.0 54.0 63.0 72.0 8r.0 90.0 99.0

Reverse circular curves are seldom used on modern high-

Sourcc: A Policy on Geometric Design
AASHTO recornmended the run off leirgth to vary both
with the super elwation rate and the design spee4 but with
minimum sst for appearance and comfort to riders. A roadway
that lies in a cut, where the grade line is nearly flat, may create
sag by lowering its inner edge. This may not drain surface wa-
ter.
It is advisable to make the super elevation by raising the
outer edge elevated tvrice ttre usual distance. Where the align-
ment is of tangent connected by a circular curve, super eleva-
tion is started on a tange,ft before tlrc curve is reached and full
super elwation is accomplished at a distance beyond the point
of curve. It is therefore recornmended that 600A ta 80% of the
runoffbe on a tangent.
For wider roadway, the length give,n on Table 2-9 should be
increased as follows:
Four lanes, individual value increased by 50%
Six lanes, individual value increased by 100%
ways, but reverse cuwes that are provided with proper
length easemsnts between them are acceptable. If no
easement curve is allotted, curves on opposite directions
should be separated by tangent several meters long.
There are roads with compound curves that change abruptly
from one sharpness to another. Where the radii of the com-
pound curves are Jifferent, sudden change confuse the drivers
and in turn they shift position within the lane and sometimes
veer out of it. For this reason, compound circular curve of dif-
ferent radii is considered as poor design.
AASFilO recommends that the radius of the flatter curve
for rural highways should never be more than 50olo greater than
that of the sharper one. For urban intersection, this easement
curve is considered which introduces the changes in radius
gradually. Super elevation changes along this transition section.
2-19 Island
An island is a defined area bstwesn traffic lanes for control
of vehicle movement and for pedestrian refuge. Within an inter-
section, median is considered an island. This definition makes
evident that an island is no single physical type.

65
 _
T

Elements of Roads and Highways Designing the Highway

It may range from an area delineated by barrier curb to a

pavement area marked by paint. On at-grade intersection in
which traffic is directed into definite paths by island is termed

Mlf
as Channelized Intersections.

Island is included in the design of intersections for the fol-

lowing purposes:
l. Separation of vehicular flows.
2. The angle between intersecting Prohibited turns may be
Separation of conflicts.
streams of traffic can be smooth prevented
3. Reduction in excessive pavement areas. and favorable
4. Reduction of traffic and indications of proper use of in-
tersections.

T
5 Arrangement to favor a promineirt turning movemerf.
6. Location of traffic control devices.

To confine vehicles in a definite location without proper

route for vehicles and pedestrian, everyone's action could not
be predicted by others and these are usually the main cause of
confrsion which lead to accidents.

By
streams
charurelization, the angle or route between intersecting
of traffic can be smooth and favorable. Drivers are
commanded to merge into moving traffic strearns at flat angle
and right speed being controlled over vehicles approaching an
A ItH'l

Speed of vehicles controlled

over approaching intersections
Funneling vehicles into narrowing
opening prevent oveftaking and
passing conflict area

intersection.

When cross traffic meets at flat angle, head on collision

cotrld be more serious. A right angle at 75'to 105" is most fa-
vorable glving the driver that opportunity to assess or calculate
the position and speed of oncoming vehicles. By channeliza-
r* -ll/-
tion, funneling is also effective in preventing overtaking and t(
passing in conflict areas. A well studied super elevation is an
II
tl
imporfant adjunct to channelization that regulates the vehicle
Ir
speed and: Refuge provided for turning Drivers commanded to merge
vehicles into moving trafftc streams.
1. Prohibited turns are prevented.

FIGURE 2- 26 GENERAL TYPES AND SHAPES OF AN ISLAND

 - Elements of Roads and Highways Designing the Highway

3. By channelization, refuge may be provided for turning or
crossing velucles and pedestrians.
4. The drivers has to face only one decision at a time,
hence, conflicts can be avoided.
5. It provides location for the traffic control devices like
signs, signals and refuge for pedestrians.
Under this type, weaving and merging movements are sepa-
rated. It also provide an opporfunity to speed adjustment clear
of the fieeway. When Freeway meets Freeway where traffic
movement is heavy, interchange is provided with directional
left tum in all four quadrants.

2-20 Types of Interchange

The tlpes and form of freeway intercharrge requires selec-
tion of the conformation that is best suited to a particular situa-
tion and demand. The functions of freeway interchanges are:
l. To provide separation befween two or more traffic arteries.
2 To facilitate the easy transfer of vehicles from one entry to
the olher or betwesn local roadway and the freeway"

The simplest and low cost form of interchange is the dia-

mond type. It is recornmended where the freeway crosses non-
freeway arterial. The cloverleaf type interchange is recom-
mended for fi'eeway and arterial intersections. Intersecting ar-
terjes are separated and free of intersections.
Y - Type lnterchanges

Objections to the Cloverleaf Interchange Design

l. It requires large area ofland.
2. At higher design speed, more time is consumed just to
traverse the longer loops.
3. Vehicles making left turn execute 270' iLdtrt. turn and
travel greater distance beooming very unpleasant and
hazardous due to the sharp curyes and steep grades.
4. Vehicles leaving the curve loop in one quadrant weave
those entering the adjacent loop from the through road-
way.

Alternative cloverleaf design with collector distributor road

is recommended for one or two through street if the cost of
FIGURE 2.27 TYPES OF FREEWAY INTERCHANGES
added land paving and structures can be justified.

tt9
6b
 Elements of Roads and Highways Designing the Highway

Directional Interchanges

Partial Cloverleal

Through freeway with rotary flyover

with roundabout
A Pollry on G.omctlic Dosign

FIGURE 2.28 TYPES OF FREEWAY INTERCHANGES FIGURE 2-29 CHANNELIZED INTERCT-.IANGES

'to 71
 I
I

Designing the Highway

Elements of Roads and HighwaYs
l. For right angle intersections with linle trafhc. fie use of
street sigh is more than sufficient.
2. For Y intersection or other related conformation where
vehicles meet at unfavorable angles may require chan-
nelization.
3. 'lhe flared design will involve the following:
a. Widening the entering trafEc lane to allow decelera-
tion of tbe car and clear of through traffic.
b. Widening the leaving lanes to provide acceleratiotr
and merging fiom the traffic streams.
4" Intersections must accornmodate large trucks. and the ra-
dius of all curves must be suffrcient enough to accom-
Four Level modate them.

A careful traffic count and projected future improvement

must precede the design of all critical sections. Based from the
dat.e gathered on trafftc count, the lane capacitl'could be deter-
mined including the ttumber of lanes to be constructed.

llll
Three Level
)f_* ____)[ _
Three Level Flared - T
Unchannelized - T

a)N
FIGURE 2-30 FULLY DIRECTIONAL INTERCHANGES
| \
Figure (a) Roadway at four levels is appropna]9
to**on ln
whgre land is very expensive'
level of roadways required to
I t rHREE LEG rNrERSEcrroNs
(b) an<l (c) rs more open design 3,

rneet control or grades and slight distance'

7-21 Highway Intersection at Grade

T- with Turning RoadwaY
highways except freeways have intersections
at grade'
All
connecting roads'
lntersection area is considered part of every
turning mov€ment oocur' FIGURE 2.31 INTERCHANGE AT GRADE
In this area'all crossing and
73
72
 Elements of Roads and HighwaYs Designing the Highway

Y - with Turning RoadwaYs

A
THREE LEG INTERSECTIONS

l\
AN*
-=N
ll
T' \ /
/F- .'
channerized-Y
Flared Type

FOUR LEG INTERSECTIONS

Four leg channelized type

intersections

tl
/\

-AN--
Four leg channelized type Rotary intersections M ulti-leg Intersections
intersections roundabout

FIGURE 2-32 INTERSECTIONS AT GRADE FIGURE 2-33 INTERSECTIONS AT GRADE

 Elements of Roads and l{ighways
Designing the Highway

2-22 Freeway Entrance and Lxit TABLE 2.12 SAMPLING OF MINIMUM FOR FREEWAY
ON AIID OFF TIIE RAMPS
The overall effectiveness of the individual freeway systems
is governed by the flow characteristics of vehicles, and the driv- On Ramp or OffRamp Design Speed Km/hr.
Freeway
er's behavior near on and offthe channel.
Speed 20 30 40
Km/hr. L = Length of Ramps in Meter

OnRamp
80 228 189 150 48 5l
95 350 321 273 177 5l
i, ll0 4't7 450 400 303 174
:

PARALLEL ENTRANCE Off Ramps

80 130 ll5 95 68
95 159 147 t29 tO2 72
110 185 170 153 129 102

Source: A Policy on Geometric Design

FIGURE 2- 34 DESIGN OF FREEWAY INTRANCES

,t' single lane on ramp vehicle flows into the outer continu-
mg freeway lane. The design is either a taper blending into the PARALLEL TYPE FREEWAY EXIT
through lane or an auxiliary lane parallel to the through lane. In
either case, sufficient length is required to allow the vehicles to
accelerate and merge into the ongolng vehicle stream at a speed
near that of the freeway.

Vehicles leaving the freeway need distance to accelerate

and clear of the flow of ongoing traffic. In situation where one
lane could not meet the traffrc demand, two lane exits is neces-
sary. In that situation, an auxiliary lane must be added to the TAPER TYPE FREEWAY EXIT
freeway at least 800 meters before the point of exit. Even with
one lane exit, an auxiliary lane is necessary for it reduces con-
fusion and congestions.
FIGURE 2-35 DESIGN OF FREEWAY EXIT

76
 Elements of Roads and HighwaYs
2-23 Railroad - Highway Separation
The main question asked on a railroad and highway separa-
tion is: 'Iilhere one is to go over- the railroad or the highway?
If the highway is to go over the railroad, the structure itself is
lighter *a *" highway load is much smaller than the railroad
loads. With regards to the vertical clearance height, the railroad
requires a minimum of 7.00 meters as against 4.80 meters clear
distance above the highwaY.
If the highway goes under the railroad, special provision is
required for the removal of rainwater that falls wrthrn the^op-
poiirrg area. If the ground water is high in the vicinity of the
Lror.ittg, the roadway must be sealed against leakage and be
made heavy enough to prevent from floating.
2-24 Bicycle Lane
Bicycle use is now becoming popular due to energy crises
and traific problems. It requires separate road for the riders that
is entirely separate from the vehicular traffic. The design speed
is 20 to 30 kilometers per hoor for flat section. The width is
2.00 meters minimum for a 2-way travel. The grade of the lane
is 57o maximum on short distances.
78
CTIAPTE
soIL
3-1 Soil and its Origin
From the earliest civilization up to the present time, soil is
the most important material that influenced mankind in his
struggle for survival. The material where man grows his food,
build his homes, roads, and ultimately his final destination.
The soil referred to in this study, is the materiat used to
build with, or on that acts in combination with other forces of
nature to make structures and land forms. The material classi-
fied under the field of Geotechnics.
Soil may be defined as the accumulation of unconsolidated
sediments and deposits of solid particles as a result of the
rntegration of rocks. On the other hand rocks may be defined as
natural aggregate of minerals connected by strong bonding of
attractive forces classified as consolidated materials.
Scientifically, most of the non-organic materials idelrtified
as soil has originated from rocks as the parent material. Rock
tlpes are classified into three major classes in accordance with
their own origln or method of formations:
l. Igneous rock.
2. Sedimentary rock.
3. Metamorphic rock
Igneous Rock is the result from the cooling and hardening
of molten rock called magma ttrat has originated from deep
within the earth. The rapid cooling of molten magma called lava
which was blown up by volcano solidifies into small crystal and
79
 Blements of Roads and Highways
possesses fine interlocking texture. The molten lavas that rap-
idly cooled on the earth surface are volcanic rock qpes called
basalts, rhyolites and andesites. The molten rocks that were
trapped deep below the surface of the earth, cooled slowly, and
the mineral components forms into large interlocking crystals
and coarse textured rocks classified as plutonic types of which,
granite is the most common.
Sedimentary Rocks are formed from accumulated deposits
of soil particles or remains of certain organisms that have hard-
en by pressrue or cemsnt€d by materials. Sedimentary rocks
include limestone and dolostone, shale, conglomerate and
breccia. Shales are formed from deposited clay and silt parti-
cles. Sandstone is predominantly quartz cernented together with
mostly silica, but sometimes with calcium carbonate of iron
compounds. Conglomerate and breccia are similar to sandstone.
Metamorphic Rocks are rocks resulted from metamorphism
due to changes in ternperature, pressure and plastic flow, chang-
ing the originai rock structure and mineral composition of the
rock. Under tlds processes, limestone is change to marble, sand-
stone to quartzite, shale to slate or phylite
The process of rock changing to soil and soil to rock and
alteration of rocks are continues and occurring simultaneously.
The process of changes or alterations takes place over a long
period of time, and there is no sst sequence wherein changes
occtu.
There are numerous t]?es of rocks to elrumerate, but tlre
construction industry and Engineer's concemed are not gsner-
ally afflueirt with the name of rocks but with their properties,
specially in-place properties such as hardness, strength, durabil-
ity, soundness and all other properties needed to build on or
built wittr.
Categories of Soil
Soil can be divided into two categories, namely:
Residual soil
Transported soil
Residual Soil or Sedimentary Soil is fomred from the
weathering of rocks or accumulation of organic materials re-
mained at the location of their origin. Weathenng plocess may
be attributed to ntechanical, chemical or solutictn weathering.
Mechanical weathering, refers to physical disintegration
due to effects of wind, rain, running water or tectonic forces
(earth quake).
Chemical and solution ieuthering, is deconrposition of
rock due to chemical reactions that occur as a result of exposure
to atmosphere, temperafure changes, reaction with water or
other materials. l,ikewise. climate, topograplry, d'einage and
vegetative cover have great rnfluences on the chemical or solu-
tion weathering process.
Transported Soils are frose rnaterials transported from
their place of origin. Transportation may result due to the ef-
fects of gravity, wind, water, glaciers of human activif.
3-2 Types of Soil
The major categories of soils are gravel, send, silt and clay.
Gravel and sand are universally known ts coarse grain soil be'
cause of their individual particles that are large enough to dis-
tinguish without magnification. On the other hand, silt and clay
are considered x fne grain soil because of their tiny particles.
Particles larger than gravel are commonly referred to as
cobbles or boulders. Thus, it is apparent that particles size alone
is the basis of classifying sand, gravel, cobbles and boulders.
On the other hand, fined grain soil is classified as either silt or
clay not on the basis of particle size but on the plasticity or non-
plasti city of the materials.
Over a var''lng range of moisture content, clay soil is plastic
and sticky. When dried, possesses strong resistance to crushing.
Silt soil has little or no plasticity and when dried has very little
8l
 '
f

Elements of Roads and llighways Soil

or no strength at all. If small amount of moist silt sample is l. Gravel 4. Siltgrain

shaken on the palm of the hand, water will appear on the sur- 2. Coarse sand 5. Clay
face of the sample but disappear when shaking stops. This phe- 3. Fine sand 6. Colloidal claY
nomenon is called dilatancy. Sand mixed wittr silt is classified
as silty sand, whereas, silt and clay mixture with mostly clay is Gravel consist of rock fragments more or less rounded by
called silty clay. water action or abrasion classified according to the following
types:

3-3 Characteristics of Soil a) Quartz is the hardest of common rock forming mineral'

Soil consists largely of minerals formed by disintegration or

deconiposition of rocks. Disintegration or decomposition into
soil may be caused by the action of water or other natural forces
like temperature change, or by plant or animal life.
Soil contains humus and organic acids resulted from decay
of vegetatron. All soils contain water, either free or absorbed in
varying contents. Soil in most cases, are blend or mixture of
particles of many sizes, shapes, and parsnt rock materials mak-
ing its behavior very difficultto predict.
b) IY'ell Rounded Pebbles and Boulders - those that under-
gone long period of wear that become almost quartz.
c) Slightly Worm Gravel is rough and angular including
other materials or rocks like granite, schist, basalt or
limestone.
Fine Sand has particles that are more angular than the
coarse and fine sand particles.
it
Coarse Sand is usually rounded like gravel with which is
found and generally contains the same materials.

It is very common to encounter five to ten or more distinct
types of soil along a kilometer of road. Change of soil types at
frequent intervals has become a rule rather than exemption. Be-
havior of soil mass could be determined based on the character-
istics of individual soil particles such as:
1. Grain size
2. Grain shape
3. Surface texture and electrical surface charges, resulted
from chemical composition and molecular structures.
Silt Sand is similar to fine sand with the same mineral com-
position. They are found as rock flour in glacial moraines" It
could be produced by chemical decay. Occasionally, silt con-
tains:
1. Pumice
2 Loess
3. Materials foreign to the associated sand.
The presence of silt in fine soil could be detected by its grit-
tiness when small amount is bitten between the teeth.

Regardless of the differences in grain sizes as classified, tlre Clay is plate like, scale like, or rod like in shape as a result
colrlrnon objective is to establish a basis for relating the particle of chemical weathering. Because of their smaller sizes, its per-
size to soil behavior. formance is influenced by moisture and surface chemistry'

The General Characteristic and Classification of soil parti- Colloidal clay is a finer clay particle that remains sus-

cles are enumerated as follows: pended in water and does not settle under the force of gravity'

82

Elements of Roads and Matenials
Coarse Grain Materials. F'or most purposes, coarse grain
materials are considered satisfactory construction material. On
the other hand, silty soil will create problerns in areas where the
ground has moisture movement due to capillary action. Soil that
contains clay would be troublesome, making the design and
construction more difficult. As a rule of thumb, soil with clay
should not be used clq:ser tn the roadway surfaces.
Irnpnrtant Graim Shape Characteristics
Soil
If like soils occur under like conditions of rnaterials" the
slope and weathering, the soil patterns or simiiar landfomrs, are
also developed. The surface dramage patterns and erosion char-
acteristics, together with the color of the goil, reflected the kinds
and nature of the soil. Ridges with parallel axis may also reflect
wind blown sand and silts.
The texture classification of soil depending on the grain size
distributron is classified irito three groups, namely: (a) sand (b)
silt and (c) clay.

l. Rounded particles exlracted from the stream that has un-

dergone wsar, are considered strong materials.
2. Flat and flaky particles that were not subjected to wear,
are weak and variable that is not suitable for various used.
3. Angular or roughly cubical shape particles produced from
crushing strong and tough rocks, increases the resistance
of soil mass to deformation when subjected to load, due
to individually interlocking grains.
4. Generally, the rounded particle has the tendency to roll
over each other when subjected to load.

3-4 Classification for Soils

Pedology is the science of soils. It is the basis for pedologi-

cal classification under the principle that: "like soil are devel-
oped on like slope when lilce materials are weathered in like
"fashion.
" Regardless of geograplucal locations where slopes
and climate are the same, the depth and nature of soil mantle, GRADE SIZE OF PARTICLES (MM

are also similar.

Coarse Sand -
2.00 0.25
Fine sand -
0.25 0.05
Under the pedological classifications, soils that were pro- Silty -
0.05 0.005
Smaller than 0.005
duced in like fashion from the same parent rock, is assumed to
possess siniilar engineering properties, that also requires similar
enginlering trcatment. The number of sample to be subjected
for sampling could be less than what is usually required. The
test results serves as check on pedological classification con-
trary to the other classification methods that rely mostly on FIGURE 3-1 TEXTURAL CLASSIFICATION FOR SUBGRADE $OIL
physical tests with little attention to pedological information. OF SAND AND SMALLHR SIZES

84
 Elements of Roads and Highways Soil

The posrtir:ns of every point inside the triangle represent the 2. Sutrdivision of Snnd and Gravel
sieve analysis of soil in particular grading. After determining
Symbols
the grain size ofthe sample, charts is read as follows;
w for well graded, fairly clean materials
l. Spaces vertically upward startrng from zero at the bottom GW fbr well graded gravel
represent clay percentage. SW for well graded sand
2. Spaces from left to right diagonally downward starting C coarse materials with clay binder in
with zero at the left, represents silt. combination GC and SC.
3. Spaces from right to left diagonally downward starting poorly graded fairly clean material in
with zero at the right, represents sand. combination GP and SP.
coarse materials containing silts or rock
Soil that is almost entirely a mixture of sand and silt are flour in combination GM and SM
classified as loams. Every soil containing clay of less thmr 20o/o,
is ctassified as loam with a prefix sandy or silty added to indi- 3. Fine grain soil (more than 50% passing No' 200 sieve)
cate which predominates. These will appear at the lower portion
of the chart

Soil containing 20 to 30 percent clay is called loam, with

the term clay added to indicate the higher clay content. The
name appears as loam classification in the chart. All other soil
is designated as clay with prefixes of sandy, or silty to indicate
the remainder of the materials. 4. Fine grain soil grouped according to its liquid limit
Symbols Identification
The Unified Soil Classification System, was introduced by
the U.S. Anny Corps and the Bureau of Reclamations. Letters For fine grain soil with liquid limit less
were used instead of numbers to designate the differerfi groups. than 50, low to medium compressibility
The mechanical analysis and the liquid and plastic limit tests in combination ML, CL and OL
are the primary classification toois. The principal symbols and For fine grain soil with liquid limit
soil designations are: greater than 50, high compressibility
in combination MH and OH
l. For coarse grain soil - more than 50% relained on soil
No. 200 sieves.
l\te lJnified Soil Classtfcation System recommended sev-
eral ways for quick identification of fine grain portions of the
soil, namely:
For gravel or gravely soil
l. The sample is mixed with water to have a puttyJike con-
For sand and sandy soil
sistency, then fonneci into pat and dried cornpletely

87
 Elerments of Roads and l{ighways Soil

2. If the pat is hroken by the fingers and the dry strength is hrgh,
3-5 Composition of Soil
plasticity of the sample rs considered high.
3. If dry strenglh of the sample is high, then, it exhibits clay and Soil deposit consists of solid particles and void spaces be-
colloid charactenstics
1y7esn particles, either partially or completely filled with water.
If the sampie is a pat of fine silty sand, it rvill easily break in
Void spaces not completely filled with water, are either filled
the finger.
with air or other gases. Therefore, soil deposits are composed of
5 Fine sand will cause the pat to feel gritty on the fingers.and
solid, liquid and gas
silts is smooth.
6. Dilatancy or reaction to shaking is another way of classifuing Engineers are interested to know the properties of soil de-
the soil mortar. About one cubic inch of soil is rnixed with posit, specially, the strength and compressibility because they
water and forrned into a pat of soft but ncrt sticky consistency. are necessary in determining the bearing capaclty and stabiltty
If the material is of fine sand, shaking and jotting ttre sample of the foundation. Strength and compressibility of the soil is
on the palm of the hand will bring water to the surface of the directly related to:
sample. Squeezing it between fingers causes the rnoisture to
disappear. Silts react less cornpletely but clay does not. l. Soil density weight per unit volume.
2. Water content of the soil.
3" Void ratio.
4. Degree of saturation.
TABLE }I COMMON SIEVE TYPES AND F1ESH OPENINGS

Sisve Size U.S. Standard Tyler Standard Uritish Standard Volume of

Weight of AIR Air = Va
Designation No Millimeter Millimeter Millimeter Air=0
Volume of
voids = Vv ll
tl Weight of o
4 4.7N E water * l rw E
WATER Volume of .?
8 2.362 .ol
o Mass of Water = Vw o
10 water = Mw
1.651
=
G t
20 0.833 o Weight of o
F solid Ws ,ffiIJ; Volume of F
40
Mass of
=
..:. '^;'.iiiTi
,.*. ,
(Soil) ,; Solid = Vs

60 o.u6 solid = Ms l,l'.,-u

r.;
iii,',,,,'it'iti ;i,ll
100 0.147
200 0.074
_'rld[3't*ffi
270 0"c)53 *'.;i-is$

400 0.038 3.2 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN VOLUME AND MASS WEIGHT

FIGURE

Source: A Policy on Geometric Design Relationship Between Mass Volume and Weight Volume

From Figure 3-2,the total weight of the soil volume is:

l{ lJ 89
 Elements of Roads and Highways Soil

Weight of the solid (Ws) + Weight of the water is equal to

t The specific gravity of most commonly occurring rock or
the Total weiglrt (Wt) or soil or soil materials is between 2.30 and 3.10.
* The specific gravity of soil solids lies within the range of
Ws +Ww : Wt 2.60 tD 2.75.

Similarly; for measurement of the mass'

The Unit Weight of Soil U could be Expressed as:
Ms + Mw: Total mass
Ms*Mw=Mt Wet unit weight Uwet = Wt ( p/ft3, LN*t )
Vt
Therefore, the total volume of the soil sample of the butk
includes the solid and liquid air or gas. The volume of water Dry unit weight Udry = ![s ( p/ft3, kN/-t)
and air is called-volume of vcids, Thus: Vt
For soil density:
The total volume (Vt) = volume of solid * volume of voids.
Wet destiny Dwet = ry[t_( kghf,gm/cm3 )
Vt: Vs+(Vw+Va) Vt
= Volume of solid + Volume of voids
Vt: Vs+Vv Dry density Ddry = Ms (kglm3, grlcm)
Vt
The relationship between the weight and volume of any
materials will be:
+l gm/cm3 = 62.4 polnds per cubic ft.
The weight of one cnt' of water = 980 dynes
W: VgUw The weight of one ft of water = 62-4lbs-

while Mass and Volume M: Vg Dw By definition, water content W is the ratio of tlre weight of
water in soil volume to the weight of soil solids, or of the mass
Where: of water in a soil to the mass of solids. Thus:

w- Weight of ttre material (solid, liquid or gas) W = Wwx 100% or Mwx 100%
V= Volume ocoupied bythe material. Ws Ms
G: Specific gravity of the material.
Uw= Unit weight of water at temperature stated
(in most soil work, Uw = 62.4 pounds/ft3 w o/o Water content in Percer(age
9.80 dynes/cm3;or 9.81 kN/m3 regardless Ww Weight of water
of temperature) Ws Weight of dry soil
M= Mass ofthe materials Mw Mass of water
Dw= Density of water (l gm/cm3 or L95 slugs/ft3) Ms Mass of solid
 Elements of Roads and l{ighways

The relationship of water content and the r,veight r:f dry soil Soil
to the total wet weight of the soil volume should be:
p o/o = Volume of voids x l00o/o
Wt = Ws +Ww Total Volume

Since: Ww : (wolo)Ws p%o : Vv x 100%

r00% Vt

By substitution: Wt = Ws + ( W% ) Ws And the relationship between void ratio and porosity is:
100%
By Factonng: P%
Wt = Ws O:IU*%J e = 100%
rc0% 1- p%'.
100%
ws= Wt
pYo: e
t.iE% 1+e
100%
100%
Simrlarll
Ms= Mt The degree of saturation S, indicates the portion of the void
t. q% spaces in a soil material that is filled with water. The degree of
rc0% saturation is expressed in percentage.

The weight of dry soil mass could be found easily with S7o=Vw x 100%
these equations when the weight of a large soil mass sample w
and the water content is known from a represertative sample.
Full saturation or 1007o saturation means that all voids are
The Void Ratio and Porosity in relation with the s,clid and filled with liquid.
void volume follows:
Since Vt = Vs * Vv and e = Vv
e : Volume ofvoids
vt:vs*evs = (l+e)
Vs
or;
Volume of solid

e: Vv Ys_= Vt
Vs
l+e
Example -1
The Void Ratio is expressed in decimal number, and the
One cubic foot of soil sample weighing 130 lbs. was taken
Porosity P is conventionally expressed in percentage. Thus:
from a test pit. The entire sample is thoroughly dried and fi-
nally weighted 120 lbs. Solve for the water content, wet unit
weight, and the dry unit weight.
92

93
 Elements of Roads and Highways Soil

x
q
F
.g
E EEE
.9
o
v, 5B
q
=lr
(0
(v)

.E
€N
x-x
6.=6
o
o
()P
-g
5?
q,E
tt I E BEE o :j
iltrl
G'
CD *
o@ CD
o EE
F ut
.E
E
@
c)
-xx
.=66
EEE
€ ON
:ro.9
o
o
,L
F*
Eg
E
trl xx 6 E.E 1
F q
.E
E
(o
odtx
EE9
ooE
EEf
(a) t@
EI
I
I N
x6 x- E$fl FIGURE }3
(\
|rt
6.=
EE .lt
g rEt
€ Et
.a c,) o Solution
(o x6 6.=x
!t
c 5gb
do c\l E FE6 6 -EE
=-.9 s : :
ar tt)
cr)
o
ttf
o Weight of water: Ww 130 - 120 l0 lbs.
ZY
<c
0> 1r)
x6 xx
o6
e
t!
o
:=g
I o-9 Weight of dry soil Ws : 120lbs.
rl(, N E EE sEL
la)
c')
o -c
.96 E!d
eE('
=a
6P EO EoO
o- Total volume of sample = 1.0 cu. ft.
*6 f
x
6 xx
6ad
J;ro
iEo ooc :'
IJ (\l E EE .D= E€
ze
o(,
trJ
tf,)
(t oo
!to gE
o
i€+ E
Wstunitweight Uwet :W:130: l30lbs/cu. ft.
;-
FAD
;) iX
.=G E9 *EE
9.9€ vt 1.0
{x (t EE gs3
L
9F -o
tft - Z.o o
.c !E3. Dry unit weight Uory = Ws =120 = l20lbs/cu.ft
a>
ut
.cl
XX
6G
EE
t!
ilz S€E Vt 1.0
o 8R x6 EE
E-
E Escr
.^€
(J E 6 oc,
I xxx
66G @o
cD )c
E6 .l=0
fo-
Watercontent wo/o = Ww x l00Yo = l0llbs. xI}}Yo
F EEE oQ,
-> Ws 120lbs.
(,
ootrt
lf,c.t- dF
66 sFeI
=E
EeE
('? rr-iP = 8.3%
AE Example -
arl
trl + fa; € Eto
oct
\b=
x0t
E
gB E
#Ei
8.gb
2
Fl o :9 E s Ha a.E 6
i
i6 Compute for the wet density, dry unit weighg void ratio,
!e
F.
.9
G

o e*** #: g! bo Eo
c9 E3E
E 3a
water content and the degree of saturation from a sample of
6
(t zzz Etz' .g
r E
I! E
$iEe moist soil with mass weight of 20 kg that occgpies a total vol-
E g€
o =
sg
E.g lo
I
EEfE
;.E 5 Pd
)(/)o
o
5aL ume of .008 cu. m. and .006 ou. m volume qf solid. The sample
is dried in oven and weighted 18 kg. The specific gravity of the
soil solid is 2.60.
 Elements of Roads and Highways Soil

Example - 3

A 200 cubic centimeters sample of wet soil has a mass of

300 grams when 100% saturated. The mass was 180 grams
wheridried. Determine the dry density, dry unit weight, water
content, void ratio, and specific gravity'

FIGURE 34
trd = 3oo gm
Solution Vt = 200

Wetdensity: Dwet =
H=ffi:2,500kg1m3
Dry unit : U&y = Ws:Msq FIGURE 3-5
Vt Vt
Solution
l8 kg. ( 9.81 kN/m3 ). = 22.072kN/m3
.008m3 Dry densitY: DdrY = Ms
Vt
Water content: w%o = Mrryx 100%
180 sm = 0.90 gm/cm3
Ms
200 gm

= 20 - 18 x 100%o = I1.l%o Dryunit weight: Udry = ( 0'90gm/cm')6fats4'1)

l8 gn/cm3
= 56.Zlbs/cu ft
Void ratio: e =Yv
Vs Water content: w % LMw) x 100%
Ms
= .008 - .006 : 0.33
.006 300 sq- 180 sm. X 100%
180 gm.
Degree of saturation: S% : Wqs : 1l.l x2.60 = 87o/o
e 0.33 66.60Vo

97
 Elements of Roads and Highways
Soil
Volume of water. Vw = Mw
gn* Solution

= 3-Q0gn.--l-8ggn = l2o cm3 l. Since sample is saturated, all voids are filled with water.
(1.0X1.0 gmlcm')
2. Void ratio: e = Vv = 0.40, but Vv and Vs are not known
120 cm3 is the value of voids because 100% sao.ration Vs so. it is assumed that Vs = l 0
means that, all voids are filled with water.
Therefore:
Vt: Vs*eVs
Voiume of soil solids:
: 1.0 + 0.40 (1.0) = 1.40
Vs = Vt-Vv
Vs : 200 cm'- l20cm'
Ws = VsgsUw
= 80 cm3

Voidratio: e: Vv =f20 = 1.5 : 1"0( 2 60 X 62.4Pcf ):162'24lbs

Vs 80 .Ww : :
VwUw (0.40)(62.4)
Specrfic gravity: gs : Mg_. = 80q
VsDw ( 80cm3X 1.Ogfi/cm3) = 24.96lbs.
= 2.25
Example - 4 From which:

Laboratory test result showed that the v-oid ratio of a satu- Wt = 1d/5 +Ww = 162.24 + 24.96
rated soil sample is 0.40. The specific gruvity of soil solid is
2.50. Find the wet unit weight of the soil and its water content. wr = 187.20lbs.
Thus:
Wet unit weight: I-Jwet = Wt = 187.2
vt 1.40

: 133.7 pcf

Water content: w
oh = Ww x 100%
Vs = 1.0 Ws
Assumed

= 24.96Ibs. x 100%
162.24lbs.

FIGURE 3-6 = 75o/o

98 99
 Soil
Elements of Roads and Highways
For soil above the water table but 10004 saturated. we have:
To relate a value given in grams per cubic centimeter (i.e.
density) to pound per cubic foot (i.e. unit weight), multiply by Usuh soil = Usat soil - Uw
62.4 gn/cm3 = 62.4lbs/ft3. Usub soil = Usatsoil- 62.4lbs./ft3

Submerged Soil Exarnple - 5

For under water condition, the soil solid is buoyed up by One cubic foot undisturbed soil from a test pit, weighs 100
pressrrs of the sugounding body of water. Therefore, the pounds net weight. The dry weiglrt of the sample is 80 lbs.
weight of srrbmerged suil, become lighter compared with the What will be the effective unit weight of the soil if it is sub-
soil al-.ove water" Thus, the effective soil weight becomes the merged below the ground water level when the specific gravity
mit '*'eight when weighed rmder water. The weight of water in is 2.601
the voids of soil is zero when submerged, because all voids
werc assumed to be filled with water, and the weight of the Solution
snlid is reduced bythe weight of water displaced.
U sub soil : YzlJwet = 1/z (100 pcO = 50 lb/ft3
Therefore. the submerged weight is equal to the soil weight Using the accurate formula, we have:
above the water minus the weight of water displaced. Thus,
Vs = Wf- : 80lbs.
Wsub = Vs gs Uw Vs gw Uw gs Uw 2.60(62.4)
-
= Vs Uw (gs - gw) (by faaoring)
: 80 : Agff
162.24
= Vs Uw (gs-l)
Vv: Vt-Vs
Since the unit weight is the total weight divided by the total
Volume, we have: = 1.0 -.49 = .5lff

Usub-soil = &us = Vs Uw (es -1) e=Vv =.51 = I.04

Vtotal Vs(l+e) Vs .49
Usub = ( gs - l) Uw = Q.6A-I\ rc2.4)
Usub soil = gg l Uw (l + e) (l + 1.04)
I *e
= 48.94lbs/cu. ft.
For easy computation, the submerged weight is % the wst
soil above the water table, except the soil containing significant or submerged weight: Wsub = Vs Uw (gs - l)
decomposed vegetation or organic materials.
= (.49X62.4>(260-1) : 48.921bs/cu. ft.
U sub soil = ll2 U wet soil (approximately)

t01
i00
 Elements of Roads and HighwaYs
or for the volume of one cubic foot:
Usub: Wsub : 48.92lbs./ft'
vt 1.0 ft3
3-6 Soit Reaction to DensitY
The property of soil that contains larger amount of fines,
are influenced by mixture railter than by any other factor. Soil
that is strong enough with supporting capability under one set
of moisture is changed. Records revealed that an increase of
l% moisture content on granular layers increase damages to
pavernent by a factor of 700. Definitely, ';oils that are used as
sub grade is subject to moisture changes.
Density of soil is its mass per unit volume' It is sometimes
expressed as "Wet Weight" or the total weight including wa-
ter. The air volume in the soil substantially decreases as soil
particles become dense when compacted. The most importarf
ionsideration in pavement work is, to decrease the moisture
(water) content ofthe coarse grain soil.
To decrease the moisture content, is to increase the density
to improve the physical properties of the soil. High cornpac-
tion of the sub-grade and base of the coarse grain materials is
an accepted practice. On the other hand, over compaction of
clay with high affinity of water, may result to big trouble
unless confined by superimposed load like the weight of an
over laying fill. This type of materials when compacted will
mix on water and expand resulting to road surface failure'
3-7 In-Place Density and Unit Weight
ln-place density, refers to the volumetric weiglrt expressed
in pound per cubic foot, or kilo Newton per cubic meter, or
*"gu gra-t per cubic meter of soil in the undisturbed condi-
tion or conipacted fill. The density of water is one rnega gram
per cubic miter (l mglrn3) or 1.000,000 gm/m'.
la2
Soil
For coarse grain soil, the higher the density or unit weight,
the stronger the sheer strength, and the lesser the tendency to
settlement by compression.
Determination of In Place Density or Unit Weight is made
on borrow pit soils to detennine the shrinkage volume or swell
result as the soil is transported and compacted at the fill loca-
tion. The standard practice is to test the in-place density of the
soil after dumprng cn site, to determine whether, compaction is
necessary.
The modern equipment used for making in place density
and unit weight test, is a nuclear apparatus. Through controlled
. use of n rclear materials, gamma iays (photons) are emitted into
the tested soil. The photons collide wilh electrons in the soil
materials. Some are being scattered and others were being ab-
sorbed. The quantity of, photons reaching a detection device
relates to the soil density to determine the water content of the
soil. A Newton etnitting device and detector is used.
3-8 Relative Densify
For granular soil, the sheer strengtl and resistance to com-
pression are related to the density of the soil. Higher strength
and resistance to compression are developed by the soil when it
is dense, or compact condition ftugh denstty), than when it is in
a loose condition (low density). ln a dense condition, the soil
void ratio is low and high on loose condition.
Relative densrty is expressed in percentage, thus:
Dro/o= emax-eo :100%o
emrx-emin.
Where:
e max - Void ratio of the soil in its loosest condition.
e min - Void ratio of the soil in its densest condition.
eo - Void ratio of the soil in its natural conditioned
or conditions in question.
103
 Elenrents of Roads and Highways Soil

so Vv 03 : 0..5
Vs .06

Dr%o= emax-90 xl00%

ernax*emin.

0.90 - 050 :80%

Loosestcondition Intermediatecondition Densestcondition
0.90 - 0.40
Void ratio =e rru Void ratio = eo Void ratio = e 66
Dry unit weight of soil:
FIGURE }7 RELATIVE CONDITION OF A GRANULAR SOIL
: Ws = ,10lbs = lll
Udry lbs/ft3
In temrs of dry unit weight, the relative riensity is: wt .09
Referring to table 3-4, the soil is dense.
l-l
Dr 9/" : Dul __Dq* x l00Yo
I -_l_
Do Dud
i TABLE }3 R.EPRESENTATTVE VALUES OF R.ET.ATTVE DENSITY
Wherc
Dcscriptive Relativc Typical Rangc of Unit Wei
Dul = Dry unit weight in its loosest condition. Condition Density % LbV cu. ft. KN/m3
Dud= Dry unit weight in its densest condition
Do = Dry unit weight in its natural condition or Loose Less than 35 Less than 90 Less than 14
condition in question. Medium Densc 35-65 90- ilo 14-17
Dense 65-85 ll0 - 130 17 -20
Example - 6 Very Dense More than 85 More than 130 More than 20

A of undisturbed fine sand .09 cubic foot, l0 lbs.

sample Source: Esscntials of Soil Mechanics and Foundation
dry weight with specific gravity (gs) of 2.60 was tested at the by David E. Mc Carthy
maximum density of 0.40 and minimum densrty with void ratio
of 0.90. Find the relative density of the undisturbed sample.

Solution

Vs : Ws = 101b. = .06 ft3

gs Uw (2.60)(62.4)

Vv =, Vt - Vs = .09 - .06 - .03ft3

104
105
 Soil Test and SurveY

CTIAPTER Under the Stoke's Law, "The rate of settlement of solid

through a given liquid or gas is proportional to the square of
the diameters of the solid." The AASHTO method as specified
is called Hydrometer Test AASHTO designation T-88.

SOIL TEST AI\D SURVEY Hydrometer Test

+l Test for Particle Size
Different soil has dif;lere,lrt charactenstics affecting the per-
formance of each individual soil by mois[re conteirt and den-
sity. There are sweral kinds of physrcal tests that have been
dweloped to measure soil performance issued and recom-
meirded by AASHTO and ASTM. (See Transportation Materi-
als Part I and II Tests or hferim Tests Methods by AASHTO).
The Sieve Analysis is the process being used to de0ermine
the particle sizes of gravel and fine aggregates. A sample of the
material is thoroughly dried and shake,n through series of sieves
rangrng from roarse to fine. The amount on each sieve is
weighed and recorded. The AASHTO standard sieve sizes for
soil aggregates are presented as follows:
1. Samplc of the material passing No.10 sieve is mixed
thoroughly with water and dispersing agent that dissipate
any electrolytic bonds in the sample that might cause
fl occulation and accelerate settlement.
2. After 12 hours, the miirture is agitated rnaking all parti-
cles suspended in water.
3. The mixture is then placed in a graduated flask, allowing
the solid to ssttle under the pull of gravity.
4. The bigger particles settle first, followed by the smaller
then the smallest one. The specific gravity of the liquid
decreases. The changes are recorded by special hydrome-
ter and read at prescribed intervals.
5. Change in specific gravlty is related to the grain size of
the material by Stoke's law'
6. Careful control of temperature and other possible variable
is strictly observed to obtain satisfactory test results'

Sieve No. ) l t/2 3t4 3/8

4-2 Test to Evaluate the Effect of Moisture
in Inches 4 l0 40 200
Consistency of the soil varies from semi solid to plastic
By Number tlren, to liquid if water contsnt is increased.
Opening in 50 37.5 25.0 r9.0 9.50 4.7 5 2.0 .425 .075
millimeter l. The Liquid Limit Test
Source: AASHTO Desien:tlon T-27,1v192 and ASTM Desig. E-l I
The AASHTO designafion T-89 onliquid limit signifies the
percentage of moisture at which the sample changes- by de-
Material finer than No. 200 sieve (.075 mm) is not feasible creasing the water from liquid to plastic state. When the sam-
in d*ermining the particle sizes. Insrtead, these are determined ple is wet than the liquid limi! a grooved sample of the soil in
by observing the rate at which the grain5 settle through liquid or will flow when lightly juned 25 times' On the other
gas. "hand,
"opif the sample is jarred at the liquid limit water separates

106 107
 Elements of Roads and Highways
the soil particles just wide enough to rerncrvs ttre soil
shearing strength. Several tests on each sample are required to
reach the moisture content wherein the groove in the sample is
required to close at exactly 25 blows.
2. The Plastic Limit Test
Soil Test and Survey
mass
Experienced road builders use the Plastic Index as one con-
trol in selecting the materials for under pavement. A common
base course materials specified, requires the plastic index not to
exceed 6 while others insist on not greater than 3. Soils with
high plasticity indices are much less acceptable for sub-grade in
base course.

AASHTA Designation I-90 signifies the percentage of

moisture wherein the sample changes with lowering w€firess
from plastic to semi-solid condition. At this stage, the soil mor-
tar starts to crumble when rolled into threads l/8" diameter"
Additional water will make the soil plastic, but sands are non-
plastic material that its non-plastic limit cannot be daermined.
3. The Plastic Index Text
4. The Shrinkage Test
Shrinkage test measures the changes in volume and weight
that occur as partly mixture of, soil and water (except sieve No.
40). Sample is dried from the near liquid limit to constant
weight of 110'C. The results are stated in terms of shrinkage
limit, volurnetric change, and lineal shrinkage.

AASHTO Dengnation T- 91 is defined as the numerical dif-
ference bstween its liquid limit and its plastic limit. It is also
referred to as the percentage of dry weight. ln some cornbina-
tion, it measures:
a) The fineness and shapes ofthe soilparncles.
b) The interplay of the attractive forces tending to hold the
clay mineral flakes together.
c) The thickness and velocity ofthe water film and,
d) The quantity and electrical charges ofttre cations.
For coarse grain soil or fine grain soil with few particles of
clay of colloidal size, small increase of water above the plastic
limit will cause particles separation, destroying the athactive
forces that provide shearing strength. It simply means that the
difference between the plastic limit and the liquid limit is small,
so that the plastic index is also small.
On the contrary, for a soil that is high in clay or colloids,
more water will be required before the attractive forces are
overcome, and the strength of the mass is destroyed. In this
case, the plasticity index is numerically high.
Higher value of shrinkage factor showed tlrat the soil will
give more trouble and problem. The volume of a certain soil
increases when it absorbs water. Soils that are suitable for sub-
grade and base course are those that oqpand very little when
moistened. And those that swell more are considered as poor
materials. A common soil specimen requires volume change
limit of lYo for base coarse materials.
5. Hand Feel Test
Experienced soil Engineer employ the "hand feel test" to
approximately predict the plasticity index of the soil. The test
may include
a) Thread toughness at moisture content approximating
tlre plastic limit.
b) The air-dried strength.
c) Dilatancy
Soil mortar possessing hrgh plastic index will produce tough
threads and high strength without dilatancy.

r08
109
 Elements of R'oads and HighwaYs
On the other hand, soils having low Plastic Index (PI) will
react in an opposite manner. Skilled soil technician could on tJre
basis of this iest predict the Plastic lndex with standard error of
about lToPercent.
clean sand with some rocks and certain other materials are
classified as non-plastic materials because they cannot be rolled
into threads as required in determining the plastic limit'
As a rule:
1. Non-plastic soils are excellent lvpe of road materials
when properly confined under wearing course'
2. A weli gr"AtA rock dust form hard durable surface when
wst and comPacted.
3. Clean sand displace easily under load and their use as fill
or base course create problems, but they may have other
desirable feature such as facilitating sub-surface drainage'
6. Sand Equivalent Test
AASHTO Designation T-176 is for field determination of
the presence of undesirable quantities of clay-like materials in
soil. Aggregate mixture is based on the volume, rather than on
weight. Thi sand equivale,lrt is the ratio between tlre height of
the-sand column (laboratory experiment tesQ and the combined
height of sand and expanded saturated clay expressed in per-
g" Higher values of sand equivalent indicate superior ma-
"*t
terials. The allowable moving avelage value from the Califomia
Specification is 21 for sub base, 3l for agglegate baseand- 4^5-
Sb for aggregates of various type asphalt condete and 76 for
concrete sand.
4-3 Density Test of Soil
TheDensityofsoilorweightpercubicfootvarieswiththe
peculiarities of the soil itself, the moisttlre conten! and the
compacted device plus the method of their use. The standard
ll0
Soil Test and Survey
weight ofsoil per cubic foot cannot be fixe4 but should be de-
termined in particular instance.
The Main Variables in the Soil Proper are:
l. Specrfc Gravity of the soil particles that may vary from
2.0 to 3 .3 that is normally between 2 .5 and 2.8 .
2. Particle Size distribution of the soil. Arnass composed of
entirely spheres of one size in the deirsest possible condi-
tion will contain 75To solid and 25Yo voids. The smaller
the sphere in the mass tlie higher the perce,lrtage of the
solid" hence, particle size distribution may greatly affect
densrty.
3 . Grain Shap" of Soil Particles . Sharp angular particles will
resist shifting from loose to a compacted state. Flalcy par-
ticles in soil will decrease its density because they are dif-
ficuhto compact.
4-4 Laboratory Test for Soil Densrty
Test for density may be divided into two:
l. Laboratory test to set $andard for density.
2. Field test to measure the density of soil in-placed on tlre
roadway.
Laboratory tests may be subdivided into three, according to
the basis of compaction procedures.
l. Statictest.
2. Dynamic or impacttest.
3. Tamping foot or kneading compactiontest.
Static Test is determining the marimum density of soil
sample in the laboratory. A sample of about 5000 grams of soil
containing a specified percentage of water is placed in a cylin-
der mold 6 inches &.ameter and 8 inches high.
lll
 Elements of Roads and Highways Soil Test and Survey
The sample is then compressed under a load of 2000 pounds
circle. About 25%. of the specimen is covered in each applica-
per square inch applied at the speed of 0.05 inch per minute.
tion. Compaction is through lsteadtng action in contrast with
When the maximum load is reached, it is held for a period of I
the static pressure or impact test .
minute and therl gfadually released from the known dry weight
of the soil. The mold diamet€r and the height dry densrty of the
sample are comprrted. Several samples are compressed to de- 4-5 Field Density Test of Soil in Place
lineate the peak of the moishre density. This peak value repre-
seirts the standard.
Field density test is the means of comparing the density
with the laboratory results. The comparison is performed on tlre
basis of relative cornpaction defined as follows:
Dynamic or Impaa fesf. Samples of soils each containing
a designated perce,ntage of water are conrpacted in layers into
molds of specified size. The sample is compacted by applying a
Relative Compac,tion = Drvwt. /cu ft. of soilinlMtwayStructure
Dry wt./ cu. ft. of soil sarnple at optimum moisture
number of blows from a free falling hammer of prescribed di- contsnt corpacted in standard mannel.
mension and weight with flat circular face. The peak of mois-
hrre densrty value represents the standard density. The Relative compaction is the only measure by which the ac-
AASHTO tests may be apptied on ttrat portion of the soil which ceptability of a complaed roadway strudurc is measured.
will pass No. 4 siwe or all that passes '/t" sieve.
Field Density and Moisture Content by Sampling
TABLE 4.I DETAIIS OF DYNAMIC COMPACTION TEST
The manners of determining relative compaction by sam-
N
**Modified phng are as follows:
AASHTO California
TestDaails AASI{TO Irpact
Standard
l. Obtain samples of the compacted materials to be tested at
Diameter of Mold (inches) 4to6 4to6 2.86
full depth.
Height of Sample (indreO 5 cut to 4.58 5 crr to 4.58 l0-12 2. Find the wet and dry weight of the sample, therL deter-
Number of Lifts 3 5 ) mine its moishrre content.
Blows per Lift 25 to 56 25 to 56 20 3. Det€rmine tlre volume of sample in the fill by finding the
Weight of }lammer lbs. 5.5 10 10 weight of materials requred to fill the space.
Diameter
Diameter of compacting 4. From the dry weight of the sample and the volume that it
Surfacr (inches)
Surface 2 2 2 occupies in the fill, find the dw weight per cubic foot.
Free fall tdistance (inches)
Free
Volume, rnet in cubic ft.
Volume,
t2 l8 18 5. Find the relative compaction of the soil in fill by dividing
1/30 or l/13.33 ll30 or1113.33 Varies its dry weight per cubic foot by the laboratory standard
densfy.
'AASIITO Designation T-99 ** AASIITO Designation T-180

There are four factors that affect the accuracy ofrneasuring

Tamping Foot or Kneading Compact Test. Tlrcmaterial is
relative density, they are:
fed into a rotating mold and compacted by several repetitive
loads applied through tamping shoe shaped like a sector of the
1. Change in the soil itself.

t12 l13
 Elements of Roads and Highways Soil Test and Survey

2. The sampling methods. Load of test specimen at 0.1 in piston penetratiol

3. The accuracy of laboratorytesting for standard density. CRB = Load carried by standard crushed rocks based
4. The accuracy of testing field density. on 0.1 inch piston penetration

4-6 The Strength Test

Soil tests to determine the strength of soil is classified into:

l. Test for load carrying capacify, rate, and arnount ofcon-

solidation in soils that zupport the foundation. (This is
applica,ble to bridge foundation).
STEP - 1 COMPACT BY STATIC STEP.2 GRAPHANDFIND
2. Test to measure the supporting power of disturbed soils as
PRESSURE OR BY IMPACT MAXIMUM DENSITY

compacted under standard procedures.

California Bearing Rrtio Method (CBR)

The Caffirnia Bearing Ratio Method (CBR) combines a

load deformation test performed in the laboratory with an em-
pirical desrgn chart to determine the thickness of pavement base
and other layers. The tests are briefly conducted as follows:
STEP .3 SOAK IN WATER STEP -4 APPLY LOAD

t. The disturbed soil samples at different moisture conteirt

are compacted in 3 layers by static loading or impact
hammer into a cylinder mold 6 inches diameter by 8 FIGURE 4.1 LABORATORY PROCEDURES IN FINDING CBR OF SOIL
inches high. The specime,n depth is about 5 inches. The
5.5 pounds hammer AASI{TO standard density test is The HVEEM Stabilometer Method
used in the rmpact method.
) The moishrre deirsrty curve is plotted. The sample with This method measures the horizontal pressure developed in
greatest dry dens4y is chosen. a short cylinder sample loaded vertically on its end.

3. The specirnen in the mold is immersed in water for four Stabilometer Operating Procedures :
days to allow saturation. Expansion of the specimen is re-
corded. l. Four different samples are prepared on a short cylinder
about 4 inches diameter by 2 % inches high of different
4. A small piston of 3 inches diamster is forced into the con-
known moisfure contents.
fined specimen. Load deformation data is recorded. The
California Bearing Ratio is computed as follows:
2. Compaction is done using tamping foot or kneading com-
pactor.
 Elements of Roads and llighways Soil Test and Survey

?,. Each compacted specimen inside the mold is compressed Stabilometer T'est
until water exudes from it and pass several electric cir-
cuits wired in parallel through the base plate of the exuda- After the expansion test, the specimen is enclosed in a flexi-
tion measuring devices. ble sleeve and placed inside the stabilometer. vertical pressure
is applied sl.rvly at speed of 0.05 inch per minute until it
,-i|lrar'. r.- ,t?l(fxmfF4|;!F e :rittli reaches 160 psi. The developed horizontal pressure is reduced
t
to 5 psi using the displacement pump. The tums of displace_
Head oftesting machine ment pump needed to bring the horizontal pressure to 100 psi
is
Follower for ap,plying determined. This displacement procedure ls intended to meas-
load to specimen
ure the penetration of the flexible cliaphragm into the intersec-
Neddle valve
ldanually operated
tion of the sample.
Air chamber
screw lype pump

Liguid under small initial pressure

Loading piston
Diaphragm
Cell pressure inlet Load cell leads
Plate of testing machine

Sample cap
FIGURE +2 DIAGRAM OF THE HVEEM STABILOMETER
Displacem ent transducer
Porous stone
Sample membrane

- Chamber
Clamps for
It
was found out after several tests that soils in underlying displacement
transducer
paveme,nts exceeded moisture under pressure of about 300 psi.
It appears that soaking did not produce a condition of certain Samplo be
fine grain materials. ln effec! the exudation pressure is a differ-
ent means in determining the moisture contents of the soil on
Vacuum Vaouum
the roadway. Moisture content in stabilometer test samples is inlet saturation
Displacement
transducer inlet
set to bracket the 300 psi. value on which design was based. inlet

Test for Expansion Pressure

FIGURE +3 SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF DYNAMIC MODULUS TESTS

After exudation test while sample is still in the mold, it is

tested for expansion pressrue. A perforated brass plate is placed The resistance value R of the soil is computed by the fol-
on the sample and covered with water for 16-20 hours. Expan- lowing formula:
sion during this period is prevEnted, and the pressrue that pre-
vents it is measured. As mentioned earlier, soils that expanded R:100- 100
due to the presence of water should be placed under sufficient 2.5Pv-l+l
weight of fill to prevent swelling. Ph

ll6
 Elements of Roads and HighwaYs Soil Test and Survey

Where: It was found that the modulus of asphalt concrete ranges

R = Resistance value from 100,000 to 1,000,000 psi, depending upon the tempera-
Pv: Vertical pressure (160 psi) ture. For cernent treated base, from 500,000 to 3,000,000 psi..
D = Turns displacement reading For aggregate base and sub base from 10,000 to 50,000 psi., and
(aPProx. from 2 to 5) for fine grain aggregate soil, 1,500 to 50,000 psi, depending
Ph : Horizontal pressure in psi at Pv of 160 psi upon the water conlent.
,** r;
Loading piston
Tri-Axial Design Method
Bearing plate
This method is used by some agencies for compression tests
(see AASHTO Designation T-234). In open system tri-axial Transducer yoke
Lead to recotder
test, lateral pressure is held constant releasing from the con-
tainer as increased load causes the sample to expand lalerally.
Lead to reoorder Displacement tran6ducet

Screw clamps
Reaction and displacement to fasten yoke to sample
continuously recorded

FIGURE &5 SCHFMATIC DIAGRAM OF DIAMETRICAL TEST

Constant supply of pressure

Nuclear Devices Test
One of 3 tie rods
lmpervious bearing plate

Recently, Nuclear Devices for determining in-place densi-

ties and moisture contents are used. The gauge readings are eas-
- Rubber membrane
ily converted to density and prevent moisture using calibration
PerVious disk
curves or microprocessors. The portable device is either the
Lucile cylinder transmission, or bac:< scatter tlpe.

The transmission type measures density and moisture con-

FIGURE 4'{ TRIAXIAL TEST
tent for any depth up to 25 centimeters. The back scatter device
is placed directly on top ofthe soil layer or slightly above it to
FIGURE +4 TRI-AXIAL TEST provide an air gap between the instrument and soil surface. It
measures density and moisture content to a depth of 3 to 4
Dynamic Modulus inches. Nuclear device overcomes construction delay where
samples could be taken while construction equipment is operat-
Re-compacted or undisturbed samples are tested to deter- ing. The Nuclear device travels over the fill at about 4.5 kilome-
mine the influence of temperature, degree of saturation, density, ters per hour and continuously recording the density and mois'
and age on the d)'namic response of pavement rnatorials' ture content"
 Elements of Roads and Highways Soil T"est and Survey

l. Identification of soil types from: geological and agricul-

Gamma photon delector tural soil maps, aerial photographs, and other sources.
lnstrum ent
2. lnvestigation of ground water conditions, exarnining ex-
Soil surface
istrng roadway cuts and other excavations.
Transinrtted photon Review of the design and construction procedures, and
Compton scattered Photon present condition ofroads that traverse the area.
4. Soil exploration along the right of way using auger boring
Gamma Photon and test pile. Sampling should be at fiequent intervals to
source
fix the boundaries ofeach soil types.
5. Test holes should extend to a significant depth below the
FIGURE 4.6 SCI.iEMATIC DIAGRAM OF NI"'CLEAR DEVICES sub-grade elevation with reconnmended minimum depth.
TRANSMISSION TYPE
6. Tlie location, nature of the ground, origin of parent mate-
rials, landform and agricultural soil name, should be re-
corded.
Gamma photon 7. Each soil layer is described according to thickness, fixhrre
Garn rna photon detector
so tfce structure, organic content, relation contents and cementa-
tion. The depth of seepage zones of fiee water table and
Soil surface
bedrocks are also recorded.
8. The soil profile along the roadway centerline showing lo-
Path of gamma photons cation or test hole range of soil profile characteristics for
(compton scattering)
each district soil gpe is plotted.

Frcu RE +7 scH EIriJf.pJl?i#f;N uc LEAR DEV| c Es Along with the first reconnaissance and preliminary location
survey. The highway agencies make a detailed study of the fol-
lowing data.
4-7 Soil Survey
l. The vertical and horizontal location ofthe proposed con-
The preliminary soil investigation is an integral part of struction.
highway reconnaissance and preliminary location survey. In 2. Location and evaluation of suitable borrow and construc-
fixing the position of the roadway, the following should be tion materials.
taken into accounts: 3. Need for the type of sub-grade or embankment founda-
tion treatnent and drainage"
Soil conditions. 4. fught of way. 4. Need for special excavation and dewatering techniques.
Directness of the route 5. Neighborhood disruption.
6. Environmental consideration
5. Development of detailed sub-surface investigations for
Topograph5'
specific structures.
The earlv phase of soil survey is the collection c'f infbrma-
6. lnvestigation of slope stabilrty in both outs and embark-
mem.
tion gathered from the following.
 Elements of Roads and llighways

Refraction Seismic Method CHAPTER

A geophysical method used for sub-surface exploration
cdled refraction seismic method relies on the principle that, the
speed of shock travelling through the earth surface varies, de- ROAD MATERIALS
pending upon the kind of materials. Shock waves travel through
light loose soils at approximately 180 meters per second, and
6,000 meter per second on dense and solid rock.
5-1 Aggregates

Aggregates intended for either Bituminous (asphalt) or Port-

If the earth's crust is of uniform material for some d"pth,
land cement concrete pavement, should be of good quality in
these time intervals are proportional to the distance from the
accordance with the requirements of AASHTO standard or Item
origin of explosion. If the surface layer is of harder denser ma-
-703 of the Department of Public Works and Highways specifi-
terial, the time interval to a distant point is shortsned. The shock
cations which generally provides that:
waves travel beneath the denser material along its upper mar-
gin, and then returned to the recording instrument.
"The aggregates shall consist ofhard durable particles or
The records frrr the time of wave travel against the shooting fragments of crusheri stone, crushed slag, or crushed rock or
natural gravel."
distance, the number and thickness of the different underlying
layers, including the depth to bedrock can be predicted. This Aggregates to be classified as good quality, must undergo
test is usefrrl in determining the depth of the rock but could be various test enumerated as follows:
deceivrng on roughly tilted stratified materials.
l. Test for strength.
The refraction method was developed for exploration of 2. Test for soundness.
underground conditions of roadway cuts. The shock wave is 3. Test for affinity and swell.
obtained by striking a 6 inches square steel plate wrth 4 kilo- 4. Test for shape and texture.
gmms sledged hammer. The test is done by applying direct cur- 5. Test for resistance to polishing.
rent to flow through the soil between two other supply elec- 6. Degradation test.
trodes placed immediately at the third points. The resistivity
changes where depth is produced, recording the results at vari- Test for strength
ous electrode spacmg.
The criterion for aggregate stength test is the Los Angeles
This method is somewhat reliable although sometimes it can Rattler Test (AASHTO T-96) briefly conducted as follows:
not be totally depended on regarding the information as to the
presence of solid rock. It is useful in area exploration when it is
1. Rattler test is done in a hollow cylinder closed at both
ends. The cylinder measures 70 centimeters inside diame-
used to find localized sand and gravel deposits.
ter by 50 centimeters long provided with steel shelf pro-
jectrng radially inward 3 % inches mounted with its axis
horizontally on stub shaft a:rd fastened at the ends.

t22 123

-L
 Elernents of Roads and Flig,hwars
The cylinder is rotated 500 revolutions at speed of 30 to
33 rounds per minute.
3. After testing, the sample is passed on to No.l2 sieve.
Those that passes through it
are sst aside, the amount of
loss is the difference between the original and final
weight expressed in percent.
The FFIWA recommended that aggregates for a dense
graded mixture shall have 50 or less coefficient of wear.
5. For open graded mixture, the requirernent is 40 or less.
However, percentage may be set in cases where excellent
asgregates are abundantly available.
Test for Soundness
of materials to deteriora-
Soundness refers to the resistance
tion from the effect of action like freezing and thawing. The
comrnon test for soundness is the application q'ith sodium or
magnesium sulfate. ( See AASFIIO T -104 ).
l. A sample of fine or coarse aggregate is dried, and then,
immersed in a saturated solution of sodium or magnesium
sulfate, followed by draining, and oven dryrng.
2. The application of liquid solutions will cause splitting,
crumbling, cracking or flaking of the particles surface.
The application is conducted in five immersion and dry-
ing cycles.
3. After washing and drying, aggregate samples are exerm-
ined carefirlly and sieve to determrne. the changes in the
particle sizes. The result is recorded as percentage loss.
4. Some road agencies do not require soundness test for ag-
gregate intended for asphalt pavement particularly in ar-
eas where temperature of the pavement does not fall be-
low freezing point.
Test for Affinify and Swell
Strong and durable pavement must have binder that adhere
or stick firmly to the aggregate particles. If the binder separates
t24
Road Materials
or strip's-off from the aggregate, the pavement will disintegrate
under traffrc.
Another reaction of the pavement is to pit when aggregates
are pulled-off caused by running wheels. In the event that
pavement mixture swells, the interlock and friction between the
particles are destroyed resulting to collapse of the pavement
stabiltty.
l. Hydrophilic is the term used when the aggregate has
greateraffinity for water than asphalt. Meaning, they like
water than asphalt in contrast to hydrophobic which
means fear, or against,water.
2. If an aggregate is hydrophilic, the chemical bond between
the aggregates and water is much stronger than those be-
tween aggregates and asphalt. On the contrary, if the ag-
gregate is hydrophobic, pinholes will develop on the as-
phalt and water penetrate the surf;ace until it reaches the
aggregates.
3. Such water aggregate interferences may develop at the
sharp edge of crushed particles and in due time, water
will destroy the aggregate and asphalt bond.
4. Sometimes, the stripped asphalt flushes to the surface of
the pavement making it slicky, and after stripping, fine
aggregates that are susceptible to swelling will expand
when moistened, then disrupt the pavement Structure.
5. The funmersion compression test (AASIilO T-165) indi-
rectly measure the tendency of aggregate to strip or swell
under the effects of water. The stripping problem of ag-
gregate has long been perennial problem, although, many
experienced engineers knows which of the aggregates be-
ing used will or will not be affected.
Shape and Texture of Aggregates
A relatively rounded smooth aggregate particles like natural
gravel is recommenJed for Portland cement concrete pavement
125
 Elements of Roads and Highways Road Materials

because the mixture is workable. Meaning, easily man-
aged and consolidated inside the forms.
2. The angular or cubical shape and rough surface texture
aggrcgate tras been proven excellent material for asphalt
pavement because it has stronger interlocking action and
well adherence of asphalt binder to the particles.
3. A thin or elongated piece of dirt is considered undesirable
material for either asphalt or concrste pavement.
4. The AASHTO Standard Specifications for asphalt pave-
ment aggregate has no specific stipulation as to the con-
trol ofthe shape or surface texhrre.
5. Likewise, the friction factor between the tire and the road
surface will increase substantially if silica sand is in-
cluded in the mixture.
Degradation Test
Some aggregates degrade in the presence of water. This is
measured tlrrough mechanical agitation in water under designa-
tion test T-210 of AASHTO.
l. About 2.5 kilograms of coarse aggregate that is retained
on No. 4 sieve are washed thoroughly and agitated for l0
minutes.

Test for Resistance to Polishing

Z. Sedimentation test like the sand equivalent test for soil is
done on the sample passing the 0.075 mm (no. 200) parti-
cles generated .The durability index result ranges from 0
One good cnterion for pavement desrgn is the high coeffi-
cient of friction between the tire and the road surface.
to 100, but the FHWA specifications set a minimum
valve of35.
A good asphalt or concrete road design is when "the rub- 3. For fine aggregate that passes the 4.75 mm (no.4) sieve,
ber tire is in direct contact with the aggregate and not with the test is the same as the above procedures except that the
binder" measured under the following considerations: sample size is only ll2 kilogram.
4. The sand equivalent test is performed after 10 minutes to
1. If in so short a time, the aggregate surface of the road be- establish durability Index of 35.
comes polished and sticky, the coefficient of friction be-
tween the road surface and the tire will be dangerously Particle Size
low.
2. The skid resistance has bearing relation with the polishing l. For dense graded pavement. - The particle size of ag-
of the agregate, prompting the road agency to consider gregate ranges from coarse to dust.
the skid resistance measurement on existing road to be in-
cluded and part of the road inventory.
2. For open graded pavement. - One or more layer of the
3. ofuniform size is used.
coarse rock
Aggregates produced from limestone are practically sus-
ceptible to polishing. On the other hand, if the parent 3. For sheet asphalt. - The mineral aggregate is a carefully
rocks are sandstone or fine grain igneous type, polishing graded sand and mineral dust.
is not severe.
4. Limestone coarse aggregate containing larger amount of For aggregates, the inherent variance in the materials, the
sand that are insoluble in diluted hydrochloric acid, are erosionin sampling and testing, the segregation in the sample
found to be resistance to polishing. and in handling aggregate of large volume will mean that -

t26
 Blements of Roads and llighways Road Materials

"the sieve analysis may nol be rhe true representative of the 2. Wren crushed aggregate is specified, not less than -50
material actually incorporated. " mass percent of the particles retained on the 4.75 mm
No. a) sieve shall have at least one fractured face.
5-2 Aggregate for Bituminous Pavement 3. The fraction passing the 0.75 mm (No.200) sieve should
not be greater than 213 of the fraction passing the 0.425
Generally" for bituminous or asphalt pavement, the aggre- mm (No.40) sieve.
gates constitute 88% to 96Yo by weight or more than 75o/o by
volume. AASFITO standard specifications provides that: 4. The fraction passing 0.425 mm (No.a0) sieve shall have a
liquid limit not greater than 35 and a plasticity index.
"The aggregates shall consist of hard, durable particles of range of 4 to 9 when tested by AASF{TO 'I-89 and T-90
respectively
fragments of stone or gravel and sand or other fine mineral
particles free from vegetable matter and lumps or balls of clay
and ctf such nature that it can be compacted readily to form a 5-3 Aggregate for Portland Cement Concrete
frm, slable layer. It shall conlbrm to the grading requirements Pavement
shown in tcrble 5-l when te,sted bv AASHTO T-l I and 27".
In order to obtain high quality concrete, road a,qencies liave
imposed almost without exception that all aggregates shall pass
appropriate tests for strength, soundness, wear or the combina-
TABI,E 5-1 GRADING REQUIREMENTS
tion ofthese three.
SIEVE DESIGNATION MASS PERCENT PASSING l. The presence of organic impurities in the aggregates in-
Standard Altemate Grading Grading Grading Grading
tended for concreting road pavement may cause slow or
u,s. std. A B c
non-hardening of the concrete. Under AASF{TO T-21
25 1u 100 100 100 100
standard test, the aggregate is treated with a mixture cf
t0 318 s0-85 60-100 sodium hydrochloride solution, and when the treated ag-
5 No.4 35-65 50-85 5s-100 70-100 gregate turns dark, organic materials are said to be pre-
2 No. 10 25-50 40-70 40-100 55-100 sent in the aggregate.
0.5 No.40 I 5-30 2545 20-50 30-70
0.075 N0.200 5-20 5-20 6-20 8-25
2. The strength of fine aggregate is measured by the com-
pression tests of sand-cement mortar.
J. Soundness offine aggregate is measured by the resistance
to deterioration under the action of Sodium or N4agne-
The following materials are classified under item 300 of the
sium Sulfate. The sodium sulfate test is five cycles. The
DPWH standard specifications.
maximum loss under AASHTO specification is l0%.
l. Coarse aggregate materials retained on 2.00 mm No.lO 4. For Coarse aggregate the requirement consists of crushed
sieve shall have a mass percent of wear by the Los Ange- stone, gravel, blast fumace, slag, or approved inert mate-
les Abrasion Test (AASHT T-96) of not more than 45 rials of similar characteristics or combination thercof
 Elements of Roads and Highways Road Materials

having hard, strong durable pieces free from adherent

coatrngs. a
bo

C) n +t tt
rnc)orr| fL
AASHTO Fine Aggregate grading By Weight
z rOO
a I
Percent passing trl
or
F c'. oo t--n c.l r) .ir
tsl
&
u) AA
.+ ,r,,4 a
318"
sieve 100 (J 60 c.l

No. 4 sieve 95- 100 z

o Roo '5
No. 16 sieve 45-80 U a.l :\ocoh
I a
q;) AhOO co
No. 50 sieve t0-30 dc\ o
tr G)
LJ
No. 100 sieve 2-10 trl a
F h {
c?)
ooXn
OT
F
rr)
tsl dcq
TABLE 5.2 MAXIMI]M AMOI]NT OF'DELETERIOUS MATERIALS &
I
PERMITTED IN COARSE AGGREGATES FOR CONCRETE I FJ
oSRn. '.=
AASHTO M-80
(a a
oo
9; dd: ftl t'l
o|.
/ a

Materials

Chert (2.40 speciflc gravity )

Pavements

3.0%
Bridge Deck u
h
oo
o
B
c.l
s; :f c)

oo
z
Coal and Lignite 0.5 a)
bt) c\l
oooo
r)o
o\ o
Clay Lumps 3.0 & o\ E9
I o
I(.) r.q
Materials Passing No. 200 sieve 1.0 o
trl o.l 5b4
bQo
e5 6
Sodium Sulfate Soundness 12
FI
Fl
6l
*z
6d
Magnesium Sulfate Fl k
18 o +R ou
6qr
3
.,. o X-
t?
ra N=
-'A
F-bhghe.., ?o.,; HEa
trl
Fl
The Department of Public Works and highways Standard tn
= Y€\
Specificatio"ns classi$ aggregate under item 703 and specifi- Fr
b6:
'aY,
calll'provides that: SSsV\l a\ r:=
zZzZziE
A:.;;A 7a
vc: o

$-s !€es€T:
*
l. Aggregate shall consist of hard, durable particles or frag- Ji'O
29,C
ments of crushed stone, crush slug or crushed or natural et--fui\i.
T,colT
lctO
<AZ
gravel. Material that breaks up when alternately wstted i+it
and dried shall be discarded.
 Elenrents of Roads and Highrvays
2. Coarse Aggregate is the matcrial rctained on the 2 00
rnm (No.l0) sieve and shall have a percentage of rvater
not more than 50 for sub-base and not more than 45 for
base and surface courses as detennined bv AASHTO des-
ignation test T-96.
3. Fine Aggregate is the material passing the No.l0 sieve
(2.00 mm) consisting of natural, cnrshed sand, and fine
mineral particles. The .fraction Ttcsssit'tg the t).075 rnm
(No.200) sieve should not be greater than 0.66 (.213) ot
the fraction passing the 0.425nun (No.40) sieve.
e, For Base Course, the fraction passing the 0.425 mm
No.a0) sieve shall have a liquid limit of not more than 25
and a plastic Index (Pl) not greater than 6. For sub-base
course. the liquid limit should not be greater than 35, and
Plastrc lndex not greater than 12.
5. For Surface Coarse the fraction passing the 0.425 mm
(No. 40 ) sieve shall have a liquid limit not more than 35
and Plasticity Index not less than 4 nor exceed 9.
5-4 Mineral filler
The strcngth of road pavement r.vill be increased if dust ad-
ditives which dense the graded mixture is added. It is called
mineral filler that redrrces the void contents in the mixture. This
dust additive is not the ordinary dust that is being found in our
floor or tables.
Dust additive is classified into:
l. Finel-v porvdered limestone
l. Slag
3. Hydrated Linre
4 Portland Cement
5. Trap rock dust
(t Flv ash
Road Materials
l-he DPWH Standard Specifications relative to mineral filler
states that:
"Mineral./iller shall consist off nely divided mineral matter
such cr"' rock dust, slag dust, hydrated lime, hydraulic cement,
fly ash or other suitahle rnineral matter. It shall be free from
organic impurities and at the time of use shall be sfficiently
dry to flow .freel1, and shal.l be es,yentially free from agglomera-
tions "
AASHTO M -17 provides that:
Percentagc passing try'weight shall bc as follows:
No. 30(0.66mm) sieve 50
No. 50(0 30rnm) sieve 95-100
No. 200(0"075mm) sieve 70-100
AASI{TO fiirtlier stipulates that all minerals other than hy-
drated lime or Portland cernent, the Plastic lndex (PI) value
shali be 4 or less.
5-5 Bituminous Material
Bituminous material or Asphalt in short, is a viscous liquid
used as binder for aggregates in road construction. At normal
temperature, asphalt is either slightly thicker than water or hard
but brittle material that breaks under a hammer blow when cold.
l. Bituminous material is in liquid form when mixed or
cornbined with aggregates. This liquid form may be pro-
duced either by heating the hard asphalt, by dissolving in
solvernt or by emulsi$'ing in water. However, there are bi-
tuminous liquid materials available and read-v for use.
2. The action of asphalt binder depends on its tvpe and the
aggregate it is combined rvith. The purpose of the asphalt
binder is to resist the abr;rsive force brousht about bi,
heaw traffic.
r

Elernents of Roads and Highways Road Materials

3. If road pavement is the open t1pe, consisting entirely of

TABLE 5-4 SUGGESTED SPRAYING AND MIXING TEMP. ('C )
coarse particles and asphalt, heavy binder is needed re-
FOR BITUMINOUS MATERIALS AND ROAD TARS T+
quiring rnore asphalts. On the other hand, if aggregates in
Type and Grade of Asphalt Surface the pavemert contain fine particles, cohesion will be de-
Temp. veloped by surface tension in the thin asphalt film sur-
Asphalt Cement
80-120 130 +
rounding the fine particles. Hence, less viscous asphalt is
AC-z.5 115-140
AC-5 120-145 80-120 140 + required.
AC-10 120-155 80-120 140 +
AC-20 130-165 80-120 145 +
AC-40 130-170 80-120 150 + 5-6 Bituminous Binders
AR-100t) 105-135 80-120 135 +
AR-2000 135-165 EO-120 140 + Asphalt cement is used as binder for almost atl high types of
AR-4000 135-165 80-120 145 +
bituminous pavement. Asphalt cerirent is a semi solid hyfuocar-
AR-8000 13t165 80-'t20 145 +
AR-16000 150-175 80-120 bon retained after fuel iurd lubricating oils are removed from
petroleum. The softest grade r.lsed for pavement is the 200-300
20G30O pen. 1 15-150 80-120 - 130+
penetration. The 60-70 penetrations is the hardest type.
12&150 120-155 80-120 - 130+
8$100 120-165 80-120 - 140+
60-70 1 30-1 70 80-120 - 145+ Penetration refers to the consistencies of asphalt cement as
4G50 130-175 80-'t2o - 150+ described under AASHTO-T49. It is the distance that a standard
Cutback Asphalt (RC,SC)
30 ( MC onV ) MC. 30+ needle penetrates a sample under known conditions of loading
70 20+ 50+ time and temperature. Recently, the procedure used in grading
250 4.O+ 75+ asphalt cement is the Viscosity Test rather than the Penetra-
800 55+ 95+
tion Test. (see AASFIIO M-226 Specification for Transporta-
3000 110 +
Emulsified Asphalt tion Materials).
RS-l, CRS-1 2S60
RS-2, CRS-2 5G80
MS-1, MS-z, CMS-2 10-70 $ 20-70 Cutback or Liquid Asphalt
i MS-2h, cMs-2h 10-70 $ 20-70
i ss-1 , css-1 10-70 $ 2S70 'l. Liquid asphalt is a petroleum product consisting of as-
ss-1h, css-1h 10-70 $ 20-70 phalt cement with a liquid distillate (diesel, kerosene or
Road Tars
1+55 15.55
gasoline). The less viscous asphalt contains diluents as lit-
RT1-2-3
RT$.6 2765 27€5 tle as l5%.
RT7€-9 6S.105 65-105 6t105 2. The use of cutback is being frowned for two reasons:
RT10-'11-12 8S.120 80-120 8G120
a. It is a usable fuel
Source: Asphalt tnstitute for Asphallic Materials AASHTO Guide Specs for Tars. b. It is an air pollutant.
+ oF=g/soc +32 Cutback or liquid asphalt is classified into:
$ Temp. of the emulsified asphalt in the pugmill mixture. Slow curing (SC) road soil
ii Rapid curing RC grades are not recommended for hot pugmill mking
Medium curing (MC) cutback asphalt
" Max. Temp. asphalt cement and cutback asphalt shall be below thal
at which fogging occurs. Rapid Curing (RC) cutback asphalt
 Elements of Roads and Highways Road Materials
I
Emulsified Asphalt The AASHTO classification of coal tars includes RT-l to
RT-12 and RCTB-s to RTCB-6.
Emulsified asphalt is a kind of mixture wherein the mtnute
globules of asphalt disperses in water. Asphalt contsnt ranges RT-l is suitable for application as Tack of Prime Cloat at
fram 55o/o-70% by weight. Emulsion could be applied or mixed normal temperature.
at norrnal temperature, because when the water content evapo-
rates, the asphalt remains. It has the following characteristics. The DPWH Specifications Classify Bituminous Tack
Under Item 302 which provides that:
l. Emulsifed asphalt is excellent with wet aggregate be-
cause the water medium carries the asphalt into a superior 1. Bituminous materials shall be either Rapid Curing Cut
contact with the particle surfaces. Back or Emulsified asphalt.
2. Emutrsi-fied asphalt is an altemate tc cutback asphalt for 2. Tack Coat shall be applied only to dry surfaces or slightly
energ-v and environmental objectives. It is an effective
moist. No Tack Coat shall be applied when the weather is
material in coating electropositive aggregate such as either foggy or rainy.
linu:stone but tend to strip from aggregates with high con- 3. Immediately prior to the application of Tack Coat, the
tent of silica for having strong elqctronegative sulface road surf,ace is lightly sprayed with water, but not to be
saturated.
charges.
4. The rate of application of either the Rapid Curing, Cut
3. T\e Cctionic Emulsictn is very effective on high siliceous Back or Emulsified asphalt is within the range of 0.2 to
agg,regates but may strip from high alkaline that carry 0.7 liter per square meter. Any excess of this specified
strong positive surface changes. quantity should be blotted by sand or removed.
4" Rejuvenating Agent is an emulsified petroleum resin
5. Tack Coat shall be sprayed only as far in advance on the
surface course as will permit it to dry in a tacky condi-
sprayed over the surface of an old asphalt road that
tion. Traffic shall be kept off the Tack Coat until after
changes to asphaltenes causing the binder to harden and
firlly dried.
cracks. The rejuvenating agent sprayed over the pavement
and softening the binder. Too much application however,
produces a slick pavement surface. Bitumen - Rubber Mixture

The bitumen rubber mixture for road pavement was experi-

Oxidized Asphalt and Road Tar
mented in Holland in the year 7929. It was adopted in the
United States in 1947 and later, in European countries' The as-
Oxidized asphalt is suitable only for roofing and similar ap-
sessments of the road states that:
plications. Highway used of oxidized asphalt is limited to water
proofing of structures and filling joints of concrete pavement.
l. Very little improvement gained as far as coefficient of
Road tar is a by-product of the distillation process of coal. friction on newly laid pavement but expect higher advan-
T'ars are produced from gashouse coal tar, cook oven tars and tages after six months. The analysis of the Bureau of Pub-
water gas tar. lic Roads states tlat:

t.r6 t37
 Elements of Roads and Highways Road Materials

"An appraisal of the real economic value of the addition of a. Test for demulsibility
rubber to asphalt must wait on further observation of the b. Test for settlement
behqvior of experimental pavements uhder the influence of age, Sieve test
weather and trffic". d. Cement mixing test
Particle charge and PH tests
2. According to the report, powdered rubber foams added to f. Miscibility and freezing test
bitumen has improved the stability of some but not all.

Epoxy Resin as Binders 5-7 Problems Associated with Bituminous

Binders
Epoxy binders are produced in a clear, dark, rigid and flexi-
ble form for application to either concrete or asphalt pavement. l. The thickness of asphatt film in the pavement, ranges
Hardening can be auained by mixing the resin and the catalyst from .005 to .010 mm. Test result showed that the thicker
hardener prior to application. The result is called thermosetting. the asphalt film, the lesser is the process of aging. Where
Meaning, it will not soften under the influence of heat or the pavement has lower percentage of voids, aging is also
action of solvent like water or petroleum products. The high relatively low.
cost of resin has restricted its use to bridge surfacing and other 2. Mixtures that are too dry, cracks and breaks easily.
special non-skid seal coating surface only. 3. Higher asphalt content and lower percentage of voids
may cause instability of the pavement.
Test for Bituminous Binders 4. Improper construction procedures can age asphait prema-
turely. One example is mixing asphalt with an overheated
l. Test of consistencv is subdivided into: aggregate.
5. Storing the mixed materials, or an extended period of
a. Kinematics Viscosity test AASFIIO T-202 mixing, the temperature produces substantial reduction of
b. Saybolt-Fural test AASFilO T-72 asphalt penetration.
c. Engler specific gravity test AASFITO T 54 6. Climatic conditions can seriously affect the behavior of
d. The float test AASFITO T-50 asphalt binders.
e. Penetration test AASF{TO T-49 7. Different brand or source has variability in behavior. The
f. Softening point test AASI-[[O T-53 viscosity of some asphalt varies with temperature from
that of the others.
2. Test for durability AASlffO T-52 8. An asphalt meeting a specified penetration requirement at
3. Test for solubility AASFrrO T-44 77'F but with hrgh viscosity temperature ratio will be-
4. Distillation test AASF{TO T-78 come hard and brittle at lower temperature.
5. Thin film oventest AASHTO T-179
6. Flashpoint AASFilO T-48%79 5-8 Bituminous Pavement
7. Test for homogeneity of petroleum asphalt AASHTO 102
8. Special test for Emulsion asphalt AASHTO T-59 The bituminous pavement is a combination of mineral ag-

138 t39
 Elements of R.oads and Higtrw*ys
Road Materials
gregate and binders. 'lhe mixture of rock material particles with
asphalt has created so many natnes to wrt: l. Viscous asphalt binder is heated to a fluid condition and
mixed with heated aggregates. The mixture is then laid
L Asphalt macadam 6. Asphalt sheet and compacted while still hot.
2 Asphaltic concrete 7. Road mix 2. Mixing liquid or emulsion asphalt with aggregates at
a
Mastic 8. Armor coat normal temperature is either by plant or road mixing.
4. National paving 9. Oil mat etc. The mixture is laid and compacted at normal tempera-
5. Plant mix ture before the solvent evaporates or the emulsion
breaks.
Although several names were afrxed to bituminous pave- 3. Spread and compact the clean crushed stones, sprayed
ment, yct, there is only ane thing to remember that, all bitumi- with heated or emulsified asphalt binder over it. Cover
nous roadways are nothing more than a mixture of mineral ag- the sprayed pavement with fine aggregate. This process
gre,gates and asphalt. Meaning, asphalt road is virtually o Bi- is referred to as the "penetrotion metltod."
tuminous Rosd
5-9 Asphalt Concrete Pavement
Qualities of Asphalt Road
The term Asphalt Concrete refers to a dense graded road
To consider an asphalt road in good service, it must posses surface made of hot mineral aggregates, mixed with hot asphalt
in its full life the following qualities: and laid at high ternperature of about 275'F to 300'F. Asphalt
concrete is the highest type of dense bituminous pavement suit-
l. The surface must be free from cracks or raveling due to able for the most heavily traveled roads. A prime coat is first
shrinkage and fatigue failure. applied over untreated and treated base before asphalt concrete
2. It mpst withstand weather condition, including the effect is laid. The purpose is to bind any loose particles of the base
of surface water, heat, cold and oxidation. and likewise act as bond between the base and the pavement to
3. It must be resistant to internal moisture such as water va- deter rising moisture from penetrating the pavement.
por. The thickness of compacted asphalt concrete ranges from 2
4. It must posses a tight or porous impermeabie surface as inches for lightly traveled road to 6 inches or more for roads
the case may be suitable to underlying base on sub-base. where traffic is considerably heavy.
5. It must be smooth riding and skid free surface.
5-10 Bituminous Pavement Failure
The success of an asphalt pavement lies or depends on the
construction qualrty of the sub-grade, and the base course. On Bituminous pavement failures are caused by excessive load.
the contrary, pavement failure would be considered as a fore- Heavy load creates deflection on the road surface, with insuffi-
gone conclusion. cient underlying strength. Repetitious application of excessive
load will roughen and crack the road pavement that ultimately
A satisfactory asphalt pavement could be attained under the result to complete failure of the roadway. Deflection on the road
following construction procedures : surface may be the effect of elastic deformation from the con-
solidation of the base and subsoil or from the combination of
140
t4l
 Elements of Roads and Highways
elastic and plastic def,ormation. Repeated healy wheel load on
highly resilient soil causes deflection leading to fatigue failure
of the asphalt surface. Alligator or map cracking of the surface
will be substantially evident. Elastic detbrmations in the sub-
grade penetrate to a depth of 6.00 meters although mostly to a
depth from the surface.
Tire load
--_-.,
Upheaval of
surface and base
1. Surface Failure 2. Base Failure 3. Basement Failure
FIGURE 5.1 PLASTIC DEFORMATION OF SURFACE BASE & SUBGRADE
5-11 Macadam Asphalt Mat
Bituminous macadam road has large amount of voids in the
lower part of the aggregate layers. The road strength originates
from the interlocking aggregates that hold the individual stone
together. Under this condition, a strong well drain base that will
not squeeze upward into the pavement voids is required.
The Bituminous Macadam base or surface is composed of
two or three layers of progressively smaller, clean, sharp angu-
lar stones bonded by asphalt. Each layer is compacted by rolling
then sprayed with asphalt. Usually, the surface course is sealed
by spraying a binder and blotted with fine crushed stones. The
binder at the time of spraying is fluid enough to penetrate and
coat the aggr egate particles.
142
Road Materials
Constructing the Macadam Asphalt Road
l. Spread tlre coarsest aggregate to the roadway. Compact
with either smooth wheeled roller or vibratory devices.
2. Smoothness of the surface is checked after compaction.
Low spots are corrected by removing, replacing and re-
compacting the stones until smooth surface is attained.
J. Apply asphalt by spreading the right amount of bitumen at
Tire load
specified temperature. The lower stone layer will not be
I
coated if the asphalt binder is too thick. On the other hand,
too fluid mixture will cause running of the binder down
the underlying layers.
4. In placing the keystone base course, sufficient amount of
smaller stone is mixed and spread on top to fill the inter-
locking voids, followed by compaction then spraying with
asphalt binder.
5. Sealing of the surface is applied to seal the paveme,nt
against moisture. These involve spreading of selected
binder, spraying and rolling of the cover aggregates.
6. During construction, the weather must be dry and warm. If
not it is better to used emulsified asphalt as binder.
7. Before the application of asphalt binder, coarse aggregate
is first chocked with smaller stone to seal the remaining
top voids, followed by spraying emulsified asphalt binder.
5-12 Surface Treatment
Road surface treatnent method is applied to upgrade un-
treated surface and to rejuvenate an existing pavement. The in-
verted penetration method is applied wherein the binder asphalt
is first prayed over a prepared surface then covered with fine
aggregates. This procedure is in contrast with the penetration
method wherein the spraying of asphalt binder is done after the
placement of the aggregates.
On the basis of pu{pose to be accomplished, surface treat-
ment is subdivided as follows:
143
 Elements of Roads and llighwaYs Road Materials

l. Dust palliatives to control dust. The lighter medium curing cutback oil is generally used for
2. Prime coat or tack coat treating the surface to provide prime coats. It is fluid enough to penetrate into the base course
new wearing coarse. Lut retain viscous asphalt in the purses of the treated surface.
3. Armor coats to provide protection for untreated surfaces. Surface to be applied with prime coat binder, should be uniform
4. Seal coats and retreads. without variations, properly shaped, moistened and rolled to
5. Sheet asphalts. have a plain uniform and solid surface-
6. Tack coats.
7. Slurry seals. Light tars grade RT-l to Rt-3 have been successfully used
8. Asphalt overlay. as prime coat. The amount of asphalt binder to be applied is
from 0.3 to 0.8 gallons per square meter surface area dependrng
Dust Palliative upon the tightness of the surf;ace to be primed.

Dust Palliative is a surface treatment or application of as-
phalt to control dust and fine sand along the highway.
l. The road surface is treated with the application of about
0.2 gallon per square meter of lighLt slow curing oil. The
material commonly used is the MC-70 but occasionally
the MC-30 or the MC-70. This oil penetrutes the surface
to about % nch and provides film that surrounds the par-
ticles and bind together.
2. Slow curing oil is usually selected because it remains soft
and last for quit longer period of time. Satisfactory result
was also noticed when slow setting emulsions diluted in a
mixture of 4 to 9 parts of water was used.
3. Cut-back or Emulsion asphalt is unsatisfactory material
for surface treatment as dust palliative. It becomes harder
asphalts producing brittle surface that easily cracks in a
short time followed by fast disintegration.
After the application of prime coa! vehicular traffic should
be detoured until after the surf;ace is no longer sticky. lf traffic
detour is not possible, a blotter ofcoarse sand shouldbe applied
on top of the prime coat.
Armor Coat
Armor coat is a surface treatment using a thin bituminous
binder covered by mineral aggregate applied to an earth, gravel
or water bound macadam surface or to stabilize the base'
Surface treatment applied in two or more lifts is referred to
as armor coats.
When fund is limited, ,umor coat is used as temporary pave-
ment and protection of the base materials.
l. For two-course treatment' the maximum size of cover ma-
terials for the first lift is to I inch.
o/o

4. Used crankcase motor oil is also considered as an effec- 2. For three treatments, the maximum size of aggregate
tive dust palliative. cover is l" tD l-Il4 inches.
3. The maximum size of aggregate for each subsequent lift
Purpose of the Prime Coat or Tack Coat. should be reduced.

l. To plug the capillary voids in the pavement in order to
Stop the upward movement of moisture.
2. ^fo improve adhesion between the base and surface course.
The surface treatnent, that follows the prime coat, could be
as thin as % inch, or as thick as one inch. The thinner type
$
0'40
sometimes called, one shot type consisting of about 0'20 to

144 145
 Elements of Roads and Highways
gallons per square meter of ailf, neavy liquid asphalt materials
covered with 5 to l0 kilograms of clean,ir""n"d stone, or
fine
screened gravel, or slag which are free of dust. Larger cover
materials with maximum size up to yz,, or 5/g,, will require 15 to
20 kilograms per squ:ue meter surface area.
Surface treafinent is applied on a clean, and dry surface, no
wrnd and in good weather condition. For healy traific highway,
surface treatnent only serve as pailiative for
it lack ,t
sustain the traffic load. "igth
Seal Coat and Retread
seal coat is the application of asphalt binder to a pavement
surface covered with aggregate. There is no specific distinction
given between surface treatment and sear coit. However,
seal
coat is intended for temporary surface treatment with averase
life duration of about I 0 years. seal coat is also intended to:
l. Provide an abrasion and water resistant surface.
2. To improve the skid resistance of bleeding bituminous
surface which had been polished under traffic.
3. To improve light reflection and no glare characteristics of
pavement surface.
4. To provide lane shoulder or other demarcations.
5. To alert drivers that unusual dangerous condition is near
ahead.
6.
Sometirnes the surface is sprayed with light coating of
ss-lh Emrrlsified asphalt or petroreum .rri'to rejuveiate
or improve its appearance. This treatment is sometimes
called, Black Seal or Color Coat.
Sheet asphalt.
sheet asphalt is a mixture of sand fillers and asphalt cement.
It is about I Yz" thick cover asphalt concrete or shL of portland
cement concrete having a characteristics of noiseless. easilv
cleaned surface extensively used as surface course on urban
streets.
146
Road Materials
The high binder content of 9%o ta lzyo by weight makes the
sheet asphalt very expensive as comp:ued wrth other service-
able types. When binder is excessively applied to what is being
required, the result is unstable slickly surf,ace which is danger-
ous when wet.
Cold Laid Asphalt
io
Cold laid asphalt is a mixture of coarse and fine aggregates
and liquid asphalt or emulsion. The mixrure can be prepared in
a central plant or field mixture. A content of 5o/o to l0% liquid
asphalt is required to permit ioating. This type of mixture is
acceptable for low volume roadway only.
Aeration before spreading maybe required for evaporation
of some solvent water, otherwise, the pavement might be over
lubricated and become unstable.
Slurry Seal
Slurry seal is a combination of sand, crushed stone, emulsi-
fied asphalt and water. It is an effective solution in filling
cracks and rejuvenating the surface of badly deteriorated sur-
face. The mixture contains a proportion of 1,350 kilograms fine
sand, 1,350 kg. rock dust and 140 gallons SS-l or SS-lh emul-
sified asphalt diluted with about 80 gallons of water on hear,y or
light mixer. The purpose of the operation is to fill all cracks to
produce coating of about 1/8 inch thick over the entire surface
area of the road. If the seal is excessively asphalted, there is a
danger that the road might be slicky under traffic.
Asphalt Overlay
Asphalt overlay is a layer of asphalt bound aggregate laid to
an existing pavement. The purpose is to level out distorted sur-
face or to cover cracks and joints of the pavement. If the pur-
pose is to strengthen the existing pavement, the choice is not
overlay but Asphalt Concrete tightly bonded to the old pave-
ment with Tack Coat.
l4l

Elements of R.oads and I{ighwnYs
A thin asphalt overlay is normall-1' specified to bridge deck
and other structures that require lighter load. Overlay thickness
could be from 50 mm to 150 mm (2"to 6").
5-13 Aggregate for Bituminous Concrete
Coarse aggregate retained on a 2.36 (No 8) sieve should be
either cmshed stone, crushed slag, crushed or normal gravel.
When cnrshed gravel is used, not less than 50 mass percent
of the particles retained on a 4.75 mm (No.4) sieve shall have at
least one fractured face. The coarse aggregate gradation when
corrrbined with other required aggregate fractions in proper pro-
portion, the resultant mixture shall meet the gradation required
under the composition of mixture for the specific tlpes speci-
fied,
Only one kind of aggregate shall be used on the project ex-
cept by direction of the Supervising Engineer
Fine Aggregates
Fine aegregates passing the 2.36 mm (No.8) sieve shall con-
sist of natural sand, stone screening or slag screenings or a
combination thereof. The resultant mixture of fine aggregates
when combined with other required aggregate should meet the
gradation requirements under the composition of mixture for
the specific type as specified.
Open Graded Asphalt Concrete Friction Coarse
Relatively, pure carbonate aggregates or any aggregates
known to be polishing should not be used as coarse aggregate.
In addition, the coarse aggregate fraction shall have at least 75
mass percent of particles by weiglrt, with at least two fractured
faces and 90 mass percent with one or more fractured faces ex-
cept that lightweight aggregates need not meet this require-
ments. The abrasion loss shall not exceed 40 mass percent.
148
R.oad Materials
Lightweight Aggregate
Lightweight aggregate, (except slag) could be manufactured
by the rotary kiln process if permiued by the special provisiotts
of the specifications.
The materials shall consist of angular fragments uniform in
density and reasonably free from flat, elongated or other delete-
rious substances. It shall also show an abrasion loss of less than
45 mass percent when tested in accordance with AASHTO T-
96. The mass per cubic meter shall not exceed 1080 kilograms
after testing through 5 cycles of the magnesium sulfate sound-
ness test. The loss shall not exceed 10 mass percent.
Aggregates for Bituminous Plant-Mix Surfacing
'The aggregate shbuld be uniformly graded from coarse to
fine. Target values for the intermediate sieve should be estab-
lished within the limits given on Table 5-5.
If the crushed gravel is used, not less than 50 mass percent
of the material retained on the 4.75 mm (No 4) sieve shall be
particles having at least one fractured face. That portion ofthe
composite material passing a 4.75 mm (No.4) sieve shall have a
sand equivalent of not less than 35 as determined by AASHTO
T-l'16 altemate method no.2. The aggregate shall be free of cla-v
balls and adherent films of clay of other matter that rvould pre-
vent thorough coating with the bituminous materials.
Aggregates for Hot-Plant-Mix Bituminous Pavement
Various aggregates fraction for the mixture should be sized,
graded, and combined in such proportions that the resulting
conrposite blend meets one of the gradrng requirements as pre-
scribed on Table 5-6.
Bed Course Materials
Bed Course materials for sideu'alks, paved rvatenvat's and
 Elements of Roads and Highways Road Materials

curbing shall consist of cinders, sand, slag, gravel. crushec,
stone or other approved materials having 37.5 mm (l'112")
square openings.
TABLE 5.5 RANGE OF GRADATION TARGET VALUES
Bed materials for slope protectron should be porous and ef-
fective draining materials consisting of sand, gravel, cinders,
slag, crush stone or other approved free draining materials. It
should be uniformly graded wherein 100 percent of the material
will pass through a sieve having 37.5 mm square openings.

Sieve Square Mesh TABLE 5-7 GRADATION REQUTREMtrNTS -COLD PLANT MIX
Designation AASHTO T-lland T-27 mineral filler BITUMINOUS PAVEMENT
(Mass percent passing square mesh sieve AASHTO T-27)
mm inches Range

25 I inch 100 Sieve Desisnati Bottom (binder) Wearing (surface)

i9 3/a 100 Std. mm Altemate US Std. Course Course
475 No.4 50-60
2.i6 No. 8 38-48 38 t-1t2' 100
0.075 No 200 3- | 25 1u 85-100
The minimum sand equivalent is 35 20 3/4'* 40-70 100
t2 1I)n l0-35 95-100
4.7 s No.4 4-16 l5-40
2.36 No.8 0-5 t0-2s
0.600 No. 30 4-13
TABLE 5-6 GRADATION RANGES-TTOT PLANT MIX
BITUMINOUS PAYEMNNTS 0.300 No. 50 0-5
(lVlass percent passing square sieves, AASHTO 11 and T-27)

Sieve GRADING
Designation TABLE 5-8 GRADATION REQUIREMENTS FOR COVER COAT
(Mass percent passing square mesh sieves, AASHTO T-27)
rnm In. A B c D E F G
Sievc Grading designation corresponding size No. from
3't (t v2.) 100
2s (1') 95-100 100 100 AAS TM
20 (314',) 75-95 95-100 95-100 100
mm In. No.5 No.6 No.7 No.8 No.9 No.l0
t2 (ll2') 68-86 68-86 95-100 100 ':o 100
38 l-7/2" 100
l0 (3/8") 54-15 56-78 56-78 74.92 95-100 95-100
25 l" 90-100 roo
4.75 (No.a) 3658 36-60 38-60 48-70 75-90 45-65 30-50
20 3/4" 90-100 100
2.36 (No.8) 25-45 27-47 2747 33-53 62-82 33-53 t-_tt t2 1/2u 0-10 9G100
1.18 (No. l6) 18-37 18-37 2240 38-58 l0 318' 0-l 5 85- 100 100 100
0.600 (No.30) l l-28 l1-28 l3-28 1 5-30 2242 4.75 No.4 0-15 8s-100 85-100
0.300 (No.50) 6-20 9-20 I l-28 1 l-28 l0-20 2.36 No.8 : 0-10
0.075 (No.200) o-e 0-8 4-8 4-9 2-10 3-8 z-s 4.75 No.200 U2 o-z o--2 o-2 n-') 0-10

r riI r-il
 Elements of Roads and Highways Road Materials

TABLE 5.9 GRADATION REQUIREMENTS FOR BITUIUINOUS TABLE 5-12 GRADING REQUIREMENTS FOR AGGREGATE
SURFACE TREATMENT AASHTO T-27
SALT STABILIZED BASE COURSE
Sieve Grading desigration with corresponding size number
Designation from AASHTO M-43 (ASTM D-448) modified Sieve Designation Mass percent passing square mesh sieves
mm In No.5 No.6 No.7 No.8 No.9 No.l0 mm Inches
Grading A Grading B
38 l-1/2" 100
25 1" 90-100 100 75 mm 3"
20 3 4" 2U25 90-100 100 50 mm 2" - 100
12 t!2', 0-10 20-55 9G100 lm 38 1-l/2" 70-100
l0 318' G5 0-15 40-70 85- 100 100 lo0 25 ln
4.75 No.4 - 0-5 0-15 10"30 85-100 85-l0O 100

1.7(, No.8 20 3/4" 70-100 50-80

0.150 No 100 10 3/g' 5G80 4U70
4.75 No.4 35-45 3G60
2.00 No. l0 25-50 2G50
0.425 No.40 I 5-30 lG30
TA BLE 5-10 GRADATION REQUIREMENTS FOR BITUMINOUS
PRESERVATTVE TREATMENT
0.075 No.200 7-15 7-1s

Sieve Designation Grading A Grading B

20 mm 3t4', 100
TABLE 5.13 GRADTNG REQUIREMENTS FOR AGGREGATES FOR
l0- 3/8" 100
EMTJLSIFIED ASPHALT TREAiED BASE
4.75 No.4 4s-80 45-80 (Mass perccnt passing squarc mesh sieves AASHTO llT-27
2.36 No.8 28-64 28-64
0.075 No. 200 0-12 0-12 Sieve Designation Grading Grading Grading
38 t-1t2' 100 100
25 ln 95-100 95-100
TABLE 5.T1 GRADING REQUIREMENT$AGGREGATES 20 314" 50-85 100
FOR SUBGRADE MODIFICATION 12 v2, 95-100
Sieve Dcsignation Mass Percent passing square mesh sieves - AASTIIO T-27 4.75 No.4 26-59 65-100
2.00 No. 10 o-s t7-48
75 mm -) 0.300 No.50 12-35
"18mm t-r/2" ':o 0.075 No.200 0-2 2-rc 3-12
25 mm 1' roo
4.75 No.4 30-70 40-8rJ
0.075 No. 200 0-15 0-20
 Elements of Roads and HighwaYs
5-14 DPWH Standard Specifications on
Prime Coat, Tack Coat and Seal Coat.
Item 301 Bituminous Prime Coat
Materials
Bituminous material is either Rapid Curing (RC) or medium
Curing (MC) Cutback asphalt, whichever specified. Prime coat
is applied only to dry or slightly moist surface. No prime coat
will be applied during foggy or rainy days.
Equipment
1. The liquid bituminous material sprayed by a pressure dis-
tributor with no less than 1000 liters capacity mounted on
pneumatlc tires of width and load produced on the road
surface not to exceed 1000 kilograrns per centimeter
width of the tire.
2. The tank must have heating devices able to heat complete
charge of bituminous liquid up to 180"C. The heating de-
vice has automatic control that overheating will not occur.
3. The flame should not touch the casing of the tank directly
containing the bituminous liquid. The liquid should be in-
sulated that when the tank is filled with bituminous liquid
at 180'C, the temperature will not drop to less than 20'C
per hour when the tank is not being heated.
4. A thermometer is fixed to the tank to measure the liquid
temperature continuously. The tank is furnished with cali-
brated dipstick to indicate its content. The pipes for filling
the tank shall be furnished an easily changeable filter.
5. The distribution has the capacity to vary the spray width
of the bituminous liquid in maximum steps of 100 mm to
a total width of 4 meters. The spraying bar must have
nozzles from which the liquid is sprayed in fan-shaped
over the road surface equally distributed over the total
spraving width.
l_54
Road Materials
6. The pump is furnished with an indicator showing the rate
of liquid flow. A thermometer is fixed to indicate the
temperature of the liquid immediately before it leaves the
spraying bar.
7. The distribution is fumished with a Tachometer indicat-
ing its forward speed visible from the drivers seat.
8. The distributor shall be designed where the deviation
from the prescribed rate of application does not exceed
l0% equipped with a device for hand spraying of the bi-
tuminous liquid.
Application of Bituminous Materials
l. The surface to be treated shall be cleaned with broom
including the removal of all dirt and other objectionable
materials before applymg Prime Coat.
Prior to the application of Prime Coat, the surface is
slightly sprayed with water but not saturated.
3. The rate of bituminous material application is within the
range of I to 2 liters per square meter.
4. Prime coat should be left undisturbed for a period of 24
hours, closed to traffic until it has penetrated and cured
sufficiently, so it will not be picked-up by the wheels of
passing vehicles.
5. The Prime Coat should not be in excess of the specified
amount. Any excess is blotted with sand or removed.
6. Area not accessible by the distributor is sprayed manually
using the device for hand spraying.
7. The surface ofthe road and trees adjacent to the areas be-
ing treated shall be protected to prevent their being spat-
tered or marred by asphalt.
Item- 302 Bituminous Tack Coats
The standard specification for Tack Coat is the same as that
of the Prime Coat. The difference will be enumerated as fol-
lows:
155
 Elements of Roads and HighwaYs
l. The manner of application is either by the Rapid Curing
Cutback or the Emulsified Asphalt within the range of 0.2
to 0.7 liter per square meter.
2. Tack coat is sprayed in advance on the surface course to
permit it to dry into a 'tacky" condition. The tack coat is
maintained until the next course is applied.
Road Materials
5. The aggregate shall have a mass percent of wear not ex-
ceeding 40 when rested by AASHTO T-96.
5. When crushed slag is used, it should be uniformed in den-
sity and qualrty. A density of not less than 960 kilograms
per square meter as determined by AASHTO T-96.

Item 303- Bituminous Seal Coat TABLE 5-15 GRAITING REQUIREMENTS

This item consists of an application of bituminous materials Mass

with or without the application of aggtegate to a bituminous Sieve Desigration Type- 2 3

surface course.
mm Inch Grading A Grading B
12 l/2 100
Materials Required: l0 3/8" 100 100 85-1000
4.75 No.4 85-100 85-100 l0-30
l. The approximate amount of materials required for Seal 2.36 No.8 50-100 lG40 0-10
Coat per square meter is provided on Table 5-14.
l.l8 No.16 0-10
0.300 No.50 0-5 1'
2. Bituminous material is the Asphalt Cement penetration 0.150 No. 100 0-10
grade 120-150 Rapid Curing or Medium curing Cutback
asphalt.
3. Cover aggregates for Type 2 Seal Coat consists ofsand or Construction Requirements
fine screening free from dirt or other organic matter.
1. Seal Coating should not be undertaken on foggy or rainy
4. The aggregate for Type-3 Seal Coat is crushed stone, day or when the surface to be treated is wet.
crushed slag or crushed gravel. Only one type of aggre- 2. Wet material Cover Coat, should not be used on the work
gate shall be used in a project unless other alternative and no Seal Coating work be continued at niglrt unless
tlpe is approved. provided with sufficient ligtting.
3. Seal Coating operation should not be started until the
TABLE 5-14 QUAI\TITY OF'MATERHLS FOR SEAL COAT bituminous surface is thoroughly compacted by traffic
and road roller.

Material Type-l Type- 2 Type- 3

4. Seal Coating should not be placed on newly constructed
or reconditioned road surface in less than ten days after
.85-l/50 the surface is laid and opened to traffic.
Bituminous Material L/m .20-.50 .50-1.00
5. Road surface to receive bituminous material should be
Cover Aggregate Kg.lrf None 5.00-10.00 8.00-14.00 cleaned of dirt, sand, dust and objectionable materials.
The cleaning should be effected by means of a rotary
power broom or power blower.

156
t57
 Elements of Roads and Highways Road Materials

Application Of Bituminous Materials even distribution then rolled with an approved power roller
weighing not less than 5 nor more than 6 tons to a uniform sur-
l. Bituminous material should be applied by means of pres- face.
sure distributor at the rate of approximately 0.9 to 1.8 li-
ters for Asphalt Cement and 1.5 to 3.0 liters for Cutback Item 304 - Bituminous Treatment
Asphalt per square meter of surface in a uniform, unbro-
ken spread over the section to be treated. This item consist of either single application of bituminous
2. The pressure distributor specifications including its material followed by a single spreading of aggregate (single
appurtenances are the same as that enumerated in item surface treatment) or two applications of bituminous material
301 Bituminous Prime Coats. Those that differ will be each followed by spreading of aggregate (double surface treat-
disapproved. menl)
3. Application ofbituminous material at the junction of
spreads should not exceed the specified quarrtity. Any ex- TABLE 5-16 QUANTITY OF MATERIALSAND SEQUENCE OF
cess should be removed from the surface by squeegee. OPRATIONS USING CUT-BACK OR CEMENT ASPHALT
4. [fnecessary to obtain properjunction ofspreads, a trip of
Manila paper approximately one meter wide and at least Aggregate Grading and Sequence Double
as long as the spray bar should be used at the beginning Operation S.T.
and end of each spread. The paper is removed immedi-
FIRST COURSE:
ately after use.
Applying Bituminous Materials, liter/ sq. m.
5. Any skipped areas or recognized deficiency should be Sprcad Aggrcgate:
corrected immediately by hand application of operated Grading B, kg. / sq. meter
pressure device. Grading A, kg. / sq. mcter
SECONDCOT'RSE
Spreading of Cover Aggregates Applying Bituminous Matcrials, liter / sq. mctcr 1.58
Spread Aggregato Grading B,kg. / sq. motor 10.88
L lmmediately after the application of asphalt, the cover
aggregate should be spread evenly over the surface at the Bituminous Material, litcr / sq. meter 1.36 2.94
rate of approximately 0.004 to 0.007 cubic meters per Aggrcgatc, kg. / sq. mctcr 13.@ 38.0
square meter.
2. Spreading of the Aggregate Cover is done through aggre-
gate spreader, to obtain an even and accurate distribution. Materials Requirements
The used of spreader board attached to the tailgate of the
tmck, should not be permiued. l. The approximate amount of materials per square meter
Tires of the aggregate truck should not be allowed to and sequence of operation for single and double surface
come in contact with the uncovered and newly applied treatment is provided in table 5-16.
asphalt. 2. The quantities given in the table are those aggregates
4. After spreading the cover aggregate, .the surface is broom having a bulk specific gravity of 2.65 as determined by
lightly with an approved push or drag broom to insure an AASHTO T-84 and T-85.

158 159
 Elements of Roads and HighwaYs Road Materials

3. The supervising engineer may adjust the amount of as- TABLE 5-18 AGGREGATE GRADINC REQUIREMENTS
phalt material per square meter if necessary, to fit into the
Mass Percent Fassins
prevailing condition. But the total amount of aggregate
per square meter after adjusting for specific gravity will Sieve Designation Grading Grading Grading
not be changed. mtrn Inch A B C

Bituminous Materials 25 ln 100

20 314" 90-100

Bituminous material for surface treatment is either slag or t2 t/2" 20-55 t00

crushed gravel. Only one type of aggregate should be used in

l0 318' 0-15 85-100 lm
the project unless alternate type is approved. The aggregate
4.75 No.4 0-5 10-30 85-100

shall have a mass percent of wear not exceeding 40 when tested

2.36 No.8 0-10 lG40
1.18 No. 16 0-5 0-10
under AASHTO T-96.
0.30 No. 50 0-5
When crushed gravel is used, not less than 50 mass percent
of the particles retained on the 4.75 mm (No 4) sieve shall have
at least one fractured face. When crushed slag is used, it must Construction Requirements
be of uniform qualrty and density of not less than 960 kg. Per
square meter (AASF[[O T-19) l. The contractor or supplier shall furnish the engineer cerf-i-
fied certificate in duplicate of the asphalt materials deliv-
TABLE s-1? QUANTITY OF MATERIALSAND SEQUENCE ered to the site.
OF OPERATIONS USING EMLTLSIFIED ASPIIALT 2. The contractor shall provide rveighing equipment on the
site to control the application of aggregate. It ntust have
Double an approved multiple beam twe scale with indicator and
S.T. other necessary dials protected by a weatherproof house
Aggregate Grading and Sequence Operations
with floor area not less than l0 sq. meters.
FIRST COI.JRSE; 3. A mechanical spreader is used for spreading ther aggre-
Apply Bituminous Matcrial, liter / sq. meter 1.58 gate, capable of spreading the aggregate uniformll' over
Sprcad Aggrcgate: Grading B, kg' / sq. m€ter 13.@ the full width of the area being treated, and shall irave a
control to regulate the feed gates, the feed roll, the auger
SECONDCOURSE: and truck hatch.
Apply Bituminous Matcrial, liter / sq. m.
Spread Aggregatc, Grading C, kg. / sq' m.
Application of Bituminous Material

Bituminous Matcrial, litcr / sq. mcter 1.58 1. The application of bituminous material is done onll' rvhen
Aggrcgate kg.i sq. mcter 13.60 the weather condition is dry and favorable. Spraving
should not be done unless the road temperature is above
20"C for at least one hour prior to the conrmencemcnt of
 Elements of Roads and Highways Road Materials

spraying operation and the temperature is not less than trtem 305 Bituminous Penetration Macadam
20oC during the spraying.
-
Pavement
Asphalt material is applied to the surface at least 24 hours
after it has been Prime-coated. This item consists of furnishing and placing one or more
courses ofgraded aggregate and one or more application ofbi-
The asphalt material should be applied on dry surface tuminous materials, followed by Seal Coat cover aggregate con-
whenever cutback or asphalt cement is used. The surface structed on a prepared base.
should be lightly wetted with water when emulsion as-
phalt is to be used.
rABLE s-re QuANrrr"""sffirxffiLs AND SEQUENCE
lhe recommended application temperature for asphalt
cement is within the range that produces a viscosity of l0 OF OPERATIONS
to 60 seconds savbolt fural. And for cutback Asphalt with
the range given in item Bituminous Material, the ideal of Bituminous Materials
Type ofAggregate and Sequence Asphalt Cement or
tcmperature is rvhen fogging occurs.
of Operations Rapid Curing (RC) Asphalt

Spreading the aggregates FIRST LAYER:

Spread Aggregale 314"
l. lmmedratell' after applying asphalt material, the dry ag- Coarse Aggregate, kg. / sq. m. on
gregate is uniformly and evenly distributed over the Choker Aggregate, kg.i sq. m. l0
treated surface by an approved mechanical aggregate Apply Bituminous Material, li1rlrl m2 5.5
spreader.
SECONDLAYER:
2. Truck delivering aggregate shall move backward in Spread Aggregate
spreading aggregate to prevent the tires and the mechani- Key Aggregate, kg./ sq. m. (112") l0
cal spreader from rolling directly over the newly sprayed Apply Bituminous material, literl mz 3.5
asphalt.
THIRDLAYER:
3. No portion of the sprayed surface shall remain uncovered Spread Aggregatc

for a period of more than 2 minutes. Immediately after Key Aggregate, kg./sq. m.
spreading the aggregate, treated surface is rolled with an Apply Bituminous material, literl m2
approved pneumatic tire roller. FOI.]RTHLAYER:
4. Asphalt materials that are exposed during rolling opera- Spread Aggregate

tion. should be covered r,vith additional aggregate and fur- CoverAggregate, kg./ sq. m.
tlier rolled until an even surface is attained. TOTAL QUANTITIES:
5. Traffrc should be prohibited from passing at speed in ex- Bituminous material, liter / sq. m.
cess of 40 km. per hour before the asphalt material com- Aggregate, kg. / sq. meter
pletelv set.

162
163
 Road Materials
Elements of Roads and Highways
3. The roller should be self-propelled steel wheel, vibratory
Material Requirements or pneumatic type. Its weight should be suffrcient enough
to compact the layer of the required conditions.
The amount of materials per square meter and sequence of
operations shall be as provided in table 5 - I 9.
TABLE 5-20 AGGREGATE GRADING REQUIREMENTS
Bituminous Material is either Asphalt Cement Rapid Cur-
ing Cutback Asphalt or Emulsion Asphalt whichever is speci- Sieve Designation Mass Percent
fied. mm Inch Grade A GradeB ! GradeC Grade D
Aggregate should be crushed stone. crushed slag or cntshed
gravel consisting of clean, tough, durable fragments, free from 62 2-l/2" 100

excess of flat, soft or clisintegrated pieces and free from stone 50 2n 9G100

coated u'ith dirt or other objectionable nutter. Natural gravel

38 l-ltz' 35-70
25 ln Gl5
may be used for cover material. 20 314* 100 90-100
Aggregate shall have a mass percent of wear not exceeding 12 712* 0-5 90-100 20-55 100
40 rvhen resred b-v AASHTO T-096. l0 3/8' 40-14 0-1 5 85- 100
4.75 No.4 0-1 5 0-l 5 10-30
*When crushed gravel is subjected to five cycles of the
236 No.8 )-u 0-10
Sodium Sulfate Soundness Test (AASHTO T-104), the 1.18 No.16 o-5
weighted loss shall not exceed 12 mass percent.
*When crushed slag is used, it shall be uniform density and
qualrty. A density not less than 1,120 kilograms per sq. m. as Base Preparation
determined by AASHTO T-19. Application of bituminous ma-
terial should be made only when the aggregate is dry and the l. Before spreading the aggregate, the base is properly
atmospheric temperature under the shade is l5"C or above and cleaned of all loose foieign materials. The existing base is
the weather is not foggy or rainy. swept until the embedded large aggregate is erposed or in
the case of previously constructed asphalt until the sur-
Equipment face is free from mud or other covering.

1. The equivalent to be used shall include,

2. Prime Coat is applied to the prepared untreated base, or in
case of previously constructed asphalt, or cement surface,
a) I:land or power operated brooms,
b) Shovel Tack Coat is applied.
c) Rakes. 3. During the application of asphalt materials, building pa-
d) Self powered bituminous material distributor per is laid over the end of the previous application where
hand or power operated spray pumps, broom- the new application will start on the building paper.
dragging equipment and self powered rollers.
4. The distributor should not be cleaned or discharged into
2. A sufficient number of stiff-fiber steel bristle push ditches, borrow pits or shoulder along the right of way.
brooms is included.

165
I
164
i

lii
 Elements of Roads and Highways
Item - 306 Bituminous Surface Course
Bituminous material is either Rapid Curing (RC) cutback,
Medium Curing (MC) Cut Back or Emulsified Asphalt which-
ever specified. The proportion of bituminous material on the
basis of total dry aggregate is from 4.5 to 7.0 mass percent
when cut back asphalt is used and from 6.0 to 10.0 mass percent
when emulsified asphalt is used.
During the mixing operation, one half to one 0.5 to L0 mass
percent of hydrated lime, dry aggregate basis is added to the
mixture. The lower percentage limit is applicable to aggregate
which predominantly calcareous.
l. The equipment includes bituminous distributor and heat-
ing equiprnent, scarifier, mixer, spreader, and finishing
compactlng cquipment.
2. Road rollcr should be Self Propelled Steel Wheel tandem
of 3 rvheel rollers weighing not less than 8 tons each and
a Pnc:urnatic Tire Rollers having a total compacting width
of not les than 1.52 mm (60 inches) and the gross mass
adjustable within the range of 3,540 to 6,360 kg./m. of
compaction width.
3. All tires of Pneumatic Roller is equally inflated exerting
equal unit pressure with mass of varying contact pressure
to suit project condition.
Base Preparation
Case I(NewAggregate)
When new aggregate is used for the road mix surface
course, the existing base is scarified lightly and bladed to a uni-
form grade and cross section as specified
Case - II ( Salvaged Aggregate)
1. When materials in the existing road surface are to be used
for mixing, the surface is scarified lightly and bladed to a
uniform grade and cross section. Tlie re-shaped surface is
t66
Road Materials
scarified to depth as defermined by the Engineer to leave
a foundation of undisturbed material parallel in profile
and cross section to the finished surface.
2. The loosened materials are bladed aside into windrow
side of the road, and {he undisturbed materials rolled, wa-
tered, and rolled as dirested.
5-15 Geoplastic Fabrics
The Geoplastic fabrics were introduced and experimented in
Europe in the year 1970. Thpy were used to reinforce soil of
pavement and to provide drainage and erosion control for high-
ways and railroads.
According to FF{WA report RD 80-021 enititled Evoluation
Test Methods and Use Criteria for Geotechnical Fabrics in
Highway application", the use of geoplastic fabric is considered
as excellent. The evaluation was supported by Koemer and
Welosh in "Construction and Geotechnical Engineering Use of
Synthetic Fabric" published in New York year 1980.
The Functions of Geoplastic Fabrics
L As Filter.It holds the soil in place while allowing water
to flow easily away by some form drainage.
2. As Drainage. Heavy geoplastic fabrics -provide channels
for carrying water away from the soil to the drain.
3. As Separator. The fabrics prevent different materials
from mixing together.
4. As Reinforcement.It adds mechanical strength to the soil
of pavement structure.
5. As Armor.It protects the soil from surface erosion or at-
tractive forces.
Materials
Euplastic fabrics are manufactured from polypropylene,
polyester, nylon, polyethylene and polyvinylidene chloride of
t6'1
 Elements of Roads and Highways
which changes in properties depends on the processes by which
the fabric is produced aside from the differences in chemical
composition. Most of these Geoplastic materials are made of
polypropylene and polyester.
Differences in Properties Includes:
1. Specific Gravity 5. Creep resistance
2. Strength 6. Resistance to ultra-violet light
3. Future stain and biological effect.
4. Modulus of elasticity.
Construction Methods are classified as either Woven or
Knified non-woven.
-l.or Woven Fabrics, the filaments are directed in two per-
pendicular directions and overlapped. For transportation use,
the pattern is simple uniform and rectangular constant pore size
distribution. The Monofilament Fabrics are woven from single
strands and the Multifilament Fabrics are made h'om yarns with
many fine strands. The Ribbon Filament Fabrics are made from
strands with widths several times their thickness.
Knitted Geoplastic FabricsKGF) is made of loops of fibers
corurected by straight segments. They could be stretched in ei-
ther direction without significant stresses to the fabrics. Knitted
Geoplastic Fabrics in tubes serve well as filters around drain tile
particularly for agricultural needs.
Non-Woven Geoplastics are neither woven or knitted. The
fibers or strand arrangements are held together under the fol-
lowing marmer:
l. Needle punching through the fabrics.
2. Heat bonding or melt bonding
3. Resin bonding wherein the fabric is impregnated with
resin wh^ich cements the fibers together.
4. Combination bonding is the combination of two or more
ofthe processes described to produce a particular charac-
teristics.
I68
CHAPTER
DRAINAGE AND SLOPE
PROTECTION
6-1 Drainage
Drainage is defined as the me:lns of collecting, transporting
and disposing of surface water originating in or near the right of
way, or flowing in stream crossings or bordering the right of
way.
ApproximatelS abofi 25Yo of roadway firnds are spent for
culverts, bridges and other drainage stmchrres. Bigger appro-
priations are also allotted for ditches, dikes, charmels and ero-
sion control structures of rural roads. Likewise, major capital
investnents are channeled to urban areas for storm drains and
other appurtenanoes plus the routine clearing of drainage facili-
ties.
Surface drainage is only one :unong the many problems to
be considered in establishing the location and construction of
roads. The most favorable location of a roadway as far as drain-
age is concerneS, is the division bstween large drainage areas.
All streams must flow away from the right of way to reduce the
drainage problem. Roadway location parallel with the large
streams should be avoided because it will cross every tnbutary
canal leading to the streams. Steep grades, and heavy cuts and
fill, should likewise be avoided for it will contribute to the
a problems of erosion.
Surface drainage problems follow three basic considerations:
l. Hydreulic design that deals with estimating the highest
rate of run-offto be handled.
 Elements of Roads and Highw*ys Drainage and Slope Protection

2. Hydraulic Design deals with the seiection of the kinds
and sizes of the drainage facilities that is most economical
to accommodate the estimated water flow.
3. Erosion Control is to ascertain the design will not create
erosion or other unacceptable en"ironmental conditions.
6-2 Hydrology
Hydrology is that branch of physical geography that deals
with water of the earth. The branch of hydrology that concern
highway engineers are:
l. The frequency and intensity of precipitation.
2. The frequencies that this precipitation brings the highest
run-offwhich are equal or exceeded critical values.
3. The distribution of precipitation throughout the seasons
that influences water behavior affecting the highway sur-
faces.
4. The prediction regarding future rainfalls or run-off from
gathered statistical approaches, formula, or simulated
msthods based on the laws of probability.
Concomitant thereof, any methods of predicting may be sub-
ject to substantial error. Therefore, design should make the best
possible use of existing methods, with full expectations of high
probability of error.
drainage pattern. Water passing the natural right of ways
is often intercepted by road cuts. The flow of several
streams are collected, to pass under the highway through
a single channel, diverting streams to canal or culverts
that differ in sizes and length urcluding the flow charac-
teristics from the previous one.
2. Construction operations may disturb the ground cover,
and loosen the soil creating muddy stream as a result of
erosion.
3. Erosions create debris that are carried downstream, and
deposited at points where the velocity slackens. Record
shows that, almost every drainage installations disturbed
the ecoiogical balance of nature.
4. Any changes in the land use may alter the historical run-
off or un-gauged rural water shed that could be disastrous
on wide scale basis.
Cardinal Rules on Drainage Design
l. As much as possible, any exisfing drainage system Wt-
terns and soil cover should not be disturbed.
2. Necessary changes in the drainage patterns should not in
any manner bring velocities that may create new erosion
problems.

Runoff is Predicted Based on the Following Methods: Non-observance of these simple rules have created many
l. Bythe Rational Methods. serious problems in the past, and worse, the people put their
2. By the Empirical Formula. blame on those who were not involve in making the highways
3. By the Unit Hydrograph. very unsightly.
4. By Statistical Approach.
5. By Simulation. 6-3 Drainage Economic Considerations
Relationship and Effect of Hydraulic and Construction The term economy in drainage system, simply mean; find-
ing the solution to a problem that is cheapest in the long run
l. Usually, highway construction disrupt existing natural under the followins conditions:

170 171
 Elements of Roads and Highways Drainage and Slope Protection

l. Determine the estimated initial investment cost.
2. Consider the maintenance cost or outlay.
3. Consider anticipated.loss and damage for each solution.
Under the foregoing considerations, arurual appropriation
for possible drainage or economic loss is equal to the estimated
losses from floods of various magnitudes, multiplied by the
probability that these floods will occur any tirne of the year.
For instance, if the drainage loss from any flood exceeding
the design flow is P200,000 and according to hydraulic compu-
tations such floods will occur once in every 5 ysars, then the
annual loss of flood damage is F200,000 divided by 5 years or
P40,000 per year.
Drarnage problem is varied" and there is no single sst of as-
sumption or rule to economic problem in drainage, considering
the uncertainty of flood frequency where the design is based. To
major highways with large volume of traffic, losses to motorists
and to the economy, is tremendously high, if the road will be
closed frequently, due to flood and washout.
road pavement under tlre influenc€ of the cross section slope or
super elwation in the pavement and shoulders. If the water flow
is controlled, then, the shoulder is in danger of erosion. How-
ever, t'he shoulder will have minimal erosion damage if it is al-
ready covered or protected by turfor grass.
1. Water flowng across tlre roadway down the road slope
must be thin enough in a sheet form like so that the ero-
sion on tlre shoulder will be minimized.
2. Unprotected slope could be badly washed out if irregular-
ity in the pavernerfi or shoulder accumulates water into
small streams. Another point of water accumulation that
endangers the shoulder is the low portion of sagged verti-
cal curves.
3. One way of preve,nting washout of the side slope is to re-
tain the water at the outer edge of the shoulder.
Turf slope not less than 0.12
Pavement slope approx. 0.04

For major highways, projections might proved that drainage

facilities should accommodate a 50 year flood, whereas, the
desrgn based on a 5 year flood is reasonable for a low volume Low fill slope 4:1 or 6:1
rural roads. approx. 1.5 m.
High till slope 2:1

Where drainage problem of any magnitude has allernative

solution, economic studies based on reasonable estimated costs Shoulder
Turf sloDe not less than 0.12
and possible dam4ges, represent the best approach. Flood fre- Paved slope approx. 0.04

quencies and some of the costs, must be thoroughly approxi-

mated and let catastrophic occurrences pervert our perspective
on cost risks.
4:1 slooe or flatter

G4 Draining the Highway

Rain water flows laterally or obliquely on the surface of the
FIGURE A1 TYPICAL HIGHWAY CROSS SECTIONS
 Elements of Roads and Highways Drainage and SloPe Protection

4. A crown ditch or intercepting channel mav be employed c = Runoffcoefficient expressing the ratio or
at the top of the cut slope. This will prevent erosion of the rate of runoffto the rate of rainfall
cut slope by surface runoff from the hillside above. I = lntensity of rainfatl in inches per hour for a
5. The surface should not be disturbed in any manner where duration equal to the time of concentration'
the natural ground is already covered with grass or other Ad = Drainage arca in hectares.
ground cover.
The channel or canal should be formed making the origi- On Freeways and urban strests, ttre inlets for gutters and
nal ground as its bed and a small dike of topsoil or im- median should pass the designed flood without clogging with
ported materials to serve as its bank. debris.
Scouring must be controlled. If possible, the water flow
must be limited to a safer amount by diverting the flow at TABLE 6-1 SUGGESTED VALUE OF COETFICIENT OF
RUNOFF C, FOR USE IN THE RATIONAL FORMULA
intervals. Water should be dropped down to the roadside
ditch b]'means of specially designed conduit or channels.
Type of Drainage Area Coefficiency of Runoff

Draining the Urban Street Concrcte or Bituminous Pavcment 0.8 - 0.9

Gravel Roadways, open 0.4 - 0.6
l. On city streets, rain waters is guided by the road slope to Bare Earth ( high value for stecp slope) 0.2 - 0.8
the gutters and along wrth them the curb and inlets de- Turf meadows 0.1 - 0.4
signed to limit the spread of water over the traffic lanes. Cultivated fields 0.2 - 0.4
2. AASFITO recommended that for a grade materials water Forcsted areas 0.1 - 0.2

should not encroach on the outer lane by more than 1.80

meters for a l0 years flood. A 50 years return penod is
proposed for depressed facilities. 6-5 Manhole, Inlets and Catch Basin
3. The decision for water storm inlets and connections for
Manhole, inlets and catch basins are classified under Itent
gutters and depressed median should be based on the
502 of the DPWtl,,standard specifications which includes con-
same periods. Main storm drain for freeways has to ac-
struction, reconstruction or adjustrnent of manholes inlsts and
commodate 50 to 100 years storm.
catch basin
4. For arterials, the return interval is 20 to 50 years. The wa-
ter flow estimate was based on the Rational Formula us-
ing the value of runoff coefhcient between 0 8 and 0.9 for
Material Requirements:
pavements; 0.4 and 0.6 for gravel, and 0.1 and 0.7 for
l. Comrgated Metal Units' Whsn bituminous coating is
specifiled, it shall conform to ASTM D-1187, Asphalt
grass.
Ease Emulsion as protective coating for metal'
RationalFormula: Q = clAd 2. Sewer and manhole made of bricks from clay or shale
must conform to AASIITO M-91 standard specifications'
Where:
Building bricks of solid masonry units made from clay or
Q: Quantlty of runoff in cubic foot per second shale must conformto AASIITO M-l14'

t74 t75
 Elements of Roads and Highways
3. Joint mortar mixture should be one part Portland cement
and two parts fine aggregate (gravel) plus hydrated lime
equal to 10% of the cemelrt by weight.
4. Frames, gratings, covers and ladder rungs, should be as-
sernbled before shipment and may be re-assembled read-
ily'in the same position when installed. lnaccuracy of
bearings must be corrected by machine. The frame, gat-
ing or cover to be used must constitute one pair.
Al1 casting should be uniformly coated wittr asphalt base
emulsion meeting the requirements sf ASTM D-l18?.
Stuctural concrete for the purpose must attain a minimum
28 days compreSsive stength to 20.68 Mpa (3000 psi). precast
unit must be cured and the water absorption of individual cores
must not exceed 7 percent.
Sufficient number of cylinders shall be cast from the con-
crete for each unit that will permit compression tests for 7. 14,
and 28 days. And to allow at least 3 cylinders for each tests. If
tlrc strength requirement is met at 7 or 14 day, the units will be
certified for use at 14 days from the date of casting. If the
strength is not met at 28 days, atl units made from that batch
will be rejected. Cracks in units, honeycombed or patched areas
in excess of 2,000 squ:lre millimeters, excessive water absorp-
tion and failure to meet strength requirements will be rejected.
Construction Requirements
l. Concrete conskuction must conform to the requiremeirts
for ltsm 4O5-Stuctureal Concrete. Metal frames should
be set in full moitar bed and pipe sections flushed on the
inside of the structure wall projected outside sufficiently
! for proper connection with the next pipe section.
i
2. Masonry shall fit neatly and tightly around the pipe.
3. When grade adjusftnent or existing structure is specified,
the frames, covers and gratings are removed and then re-
set to the specified elevation.
Drainage and Slope Protection
4. Upon completion, each structure should be cleaned of anv
accumulation of silts, debris, or foreign matters r:f, any
kind until final acceptance of the work.
Methods of Measurement
Standard manhole inlsts and catch basins be it new, or re-
constructed will be measured in unit. Any authorized additional
concrete, reinforcing bars, masonry or labor required, will be
measured and paid for under Item 404 and 405. Junction Box
structure is measured for paynent as a manhole.
The number of concrete covers, pairs of metal frames and
gratings, pairs of metal frames and covers, will be rneasurecl as
acceptably completed. Likewise, the number of existing man-
holes, inlets and catch basins will be nreasured as acccptabll'
completed.
6-6 Channel
The purpose in designing a charxrel is to determine the cross
section of the canal that will accommodate water flow smoothl,v
and cheapest to construct and maintain.
1. Side slope with a ratio of 2:l or even flatter is most ac-
ceptable, except on rock or other hard materials wfierr:
channels are lined. For unlined or unfinished channel sur-
face, the best cross section requires the least total excava-
tions.
2. The design of crown ditches, gutters, stream channels,
and culverts flowing partially or fully, are based on the
principles of flow in an open canal. For uniform flow, the
relationship is expressed in the Manning Formula:
Q= vA
= (ARz S1'z)
nx3
where:
Q= Quantitv of discharge in meter per second
 Elements of Roads and Highways Drainage and SloPe Protection

R_ Hydraulic radius in meter. This is the area of the Unless the possibility of erosion is eliminated within a rea-
flow across section divided by the wetted sonable lirnit, channel design is considered not a completq unit.
perimeter.
[= Area of the flow cross section in square meter 1. The actual velocity must be checked against the maxi-
mum values for unprotected earth.
s= Slope ofthe channel.
2. Where channel scouring is indicated, reduction of water
|rf = Manning roughness coefficient (see table 6-2)
velocity should be adopted to a safe level.
3. To'reduce the velocity is to reduce the flow of water by
T,ABLE 6.2 REPRESENTATTVE VALIINS OF ROUGHNESS diversion.
4. Where diversion is not possible, the channel is widened,
or lengthened. As an alternative, the slope of the channel
Types of Lining Value of n is decreased.
Ordinary eartl5 smooth gravel 0.02 5. Baffles, checks or drops are introduced to reduce slope in
Rough rubble or jagged rock 0.04 the channel.
Rough concrete 0.02
Bituminous lining 0.02
Smooth rubble 0.02 TABLE 6.3 MAXIMT]M SAFE VELOCITY WHNN CIIANNEL
EROSION IS TO BE PREVtrNTED
Well maintarned grass-depth of flow over 15 on. 0.04
Well maintained grass-depth of flow under 15 cm. 0.06 Allowable Velocity
Heavy grass 0,10 in ft. per second
Tlpes of Lining

Well establidhed grass on any good soil 6

The condition to various channel problems rest on the fol- Meadow type of blue or bermuda grass )
lowing distinctions: Bunch grasses, exposed between plants 2-4
Grains, stiff stemmed grasses that do
a) Water flowrng down a mild slope in an open canal is Bend over under slnllow flow 2-3
in Sub-critical flow.
b) Water flowing on steep slope is in Super critical flow. Earth without vegetation
Fine sand or silt, little or no claY t-2
Ordlnary firm loam 2-3
Sub-critical flow exists when the depth of water in the
Stiff clay, highly colloidal 4
channel is greater than the critical depth. 4
Coarse gravel
Clay and gravel 4
Super-critical flow exists when the depth is less than the 5
Soft shale
critical level.

The Critical depth occurs when the velocity head is one half
the average depth.
6-7 Culvert
The Average depth or Mean depth is the cross sectional area With the exception of storm drain, culvert urcludes all

of the flow divided by its width at the liquid surface. closed conduits with standard designs repeatedly used'
 Drainage and Slope Protection
Elements of Roads and Highways

l. Culvert is loaded vertically by the wheel load of vehicles;

the earth fill covering the culvert; and the horizontal pas-
sive or active earth pressure. The magnitude of these
loads are uncertain as they are influenced by:

a. Depth of the cover.

b. Nature and density of the overlapprng and adja-
cent soils.
c. Trench width and depth.
d. Deformation of the pipe under load.
e. Field construction procedures.
Materials : Corrrugated metal
2. The stress calculation for pipe culverts are based on the Plain or reinforced concrete
assumptions regarding the methods of under pipe support Asbestos cement
soil support at its sides and loading distribution over it. Vetrified clav or cast iron

Comrgated metal pipes are more flexible that could toler- FIGURE 6-2 CULVERT PIPE
ate greater deformations. The sides of the comrgated

mm]l
metal pipe deform laterally against the adjacent backfill
under vertical load and the horizontal earth pressure in-
creases the load carrying ability of the pipe.

4. Highway engineers rarely make struchrral design for

pipes and culvert because of the difficulties and uncer-
tainties involved. Instead, they used past experience and
records as guide, then develop standard plans to fit all
Single Double or multiple span
normal situations.
5. For concrete, vitrified clay and cast iron pipe, what is

nn
specified is the strength or class of pipe to be used in each
condition. For comrgated metal pipe, highway engineers
)
prescibe plate thickness for the different pipe size and r
I

the heights of fill. I

I
I
,J
ltis now the practice of relying much on the recommen-
dations of various manufacturers who prepared all the de- Single Double or muftiple span
sign data and computations etc.
7. Highway agency has standard drawing of various culvert
desrgn appropriate for the more cornmon heights and
widths of openings, heights of fill, including skew angles FIGURE G3 BOX CULVERT- REINFORCED CONCRETE

180 18t
 Elements of Roads and Highways Drainage and Slope Protection

10. The L qpe headwall create serious accident hazard, thus,

Installation of Culverts gutter inlet with grate cover is recommended.
I l. A wing type wall is recommended for large culverts. The
In order to safeguard the culvert and to prevent subsequent flared U and warped walls are used on special applica-
settlement in the roadway surface, standard procedures for cul- tions.
vert installations are given special attention particularly the
bedding (footing) and backfilling. Under Item 500 of the DPWH standard specifications, the
construction or reconstruction ofpipe culverts and storm drains
l. Culverts are installed in the original bed of strearn with are classified as Conduits.
their slope and flow line conforming to the natural chan-
nel or canal. The stream flow should not be disturbed to
minimize the tendency of erosicn.
ln mountainous or rolling terrain, departure from charurel
aliggrment, either upstream or downstream, may divert the
current flow to one side ofthe channel. This is dangerous
to create erosion and deposition on the opposite side.
.t Culverts on skewed channel are relatively longer and U . TYPE
costly. But channel changes and erosion protections are
provided with struclnres at one or both ends to reduce the
skews.
4. Inverted siphons should be avoided rvhenever the water
carrics sediments of debris.
5. Stagnant water trapped inside the culverts sag is highly
objectionable that must be avoided.
6. Most culverts start upstream with headwalls and termi-
nate doq'nstream with end wall. The headwalls direct the
WING TYPE FLARED TYPE
flow into the culvert proper, while the end walls provide
transition from the culvert back to the regular channel.
n
L Hydraulically, the headwalls and end walls functions
separately but both retain the embankment and protect it
from washout.
8. In most cases, cut-off wall is extended to the level of ex-
pected scour. Sometimes a paved apron or energy dissi-
pater is extended beyond the cut offwall.
The use of small pipe as end wall and sometimes head-
I

WARPED TYPE STEPPED U . TYPE

l
wall is being discouraged because they are hydraulically
inefficient as entrances. Instead, the pipe is extended be-
yond the toe of the embankrnent. FIGURE 6-4 TYPICAL HEADWALLS AND ENDWALLS FOR CULVERTS
 Slements of Roads and Highways Drainage and SloPe Protection

Conduits
2. The lower segment of the conduit pipe should be in contact
- Conduits are laid on bedding or footing that conform with with the shape throughout its full length.
the following standard specifications:
Class A
l. Conduit Bedding is classified into Class A, B and C. Note: Bc + 20 min.
Z. In laying culvert pipes, the reqrdrernent of class C bed- 1. For class B and C beddings, subgrades
ding is applied if no bedding class is specified. should be excavated or over excavated,
3. Class A bedding shall consist of a continuous concrete if necessary, a uniform foundation free
cradle conforming with the plan details. of protruding rocks may be provided 114 Bc
.1. Class B bedding is extended to a depth not less than 30% 1/4 D min.
of'the vertical butside diameter of the conduit pipe. 2. For class A or other unyielding foun'
5. The minimum thickness of the bedding materials bsneath dation pipe should be free frrim shocks
the pipe is 10 centimsters composed of sand passing a 9.5 if blasting is anticipated in the area.

mm sreve but not more than l07o passes 0.075 mm sieve. Class B
6. "trhe layer of bedding material is arranged and shaped to
Bc + 20 mrn
fit nr the conduit for at least 15% of its total height.
7. When a bell and spigot type is used, the recesses in the pBc
p max = 0.5
bottom trench are shaped to accommodate the bell. Compacted
L Ckiss C bedding should be extendeel to a depth not less 1/6 Bc min granular
material or
d
than llYa of its total height. compacted densely
9. For flexrble pipes, ttre bed is roughly shaped and a bed- granular compacted
ding bl;r:rket of sand is specified as follows: Granular foundation material Granular Foundation backfill

Pipe Cornrgation on Depth Minirnum Bedding Depth Depth of bedding

Class D Material below pipe
l0 mm 25mm D dmin
25 mm 50 mm .65 m and smaller 75 mm
50 mm 75 mm .75 to 1.50m. 10O mm
1.65 m. and larger 150 mm

For a large diameter structural plate pipes, the shaped bed

need not exceed the width of the bottorn plate. Flat subgrade Bc = outside diameter
H = bacKill cover above top of pipe
Laying tlre Conduit Pipe D = inside diameter
d = depth of bedding material
L lnstallation of conduit pipes should start at the down- below

stream end of the conduit line.

2. The lower segmelrt of th€ conduit pipe should be in con-
trast with the shape throughout its full length.
FIGURE 6.5 BEDDING CLASS AND LOAD FACTORS

18,1 185
 Elements of Roads and Highways Drainage and Slope Protection

clAss A 3. The bell or groove ends of rigid conduits and outside

ReinforcedA3 = 1.0% Lt = 4.8 circumferential laps of flexible conduits are placed with
Reinforced A3 = 0.4016 L1 = 3.4
longitudinal laps or seams at the side.
Plain Ll = 2.8
Bc + 20 min Bc + 20 min. 4. Paved or partially lined conduit pipes are laid with the
Densely
longitudinal centerline of the paved segment coincides
compacted lt9H y I r.lo with the flow line of water.
15 min
backftll 10 min 5. Elliptical and ellrytrcally reinforced conduits are placed
Plain or with tlre major axis within 5 degrees of a vertical plan
reinforced Compacted
granular
through the longitudinal axis of the conduit.
concrete 2000 psi
material
Concrete Arch Joining the Conduit Pipes
Class C
Oensely Lightly Lr = 1.5 Rigid conduit pipes are the bell and spigot type, tongue and
compactecl compacted groove, or other types that may be specified.
backfill backfill

Compacted Compacled 1. In joining conduit pipes, the ends are frrlly entered into
granular granular the inner surface evenly flushed. Joints are connected by:
material material
Granular Foundation Granular Foundation
a) Portland cement mortar or grout.
b) Rubber gaskets.
Depth of Bedding
c) Oakum and mortar or joint compound.
€H Material below oiDe d) Plastic sealing compound.
15 min
D dmin e) A combination of these qpes or any other :rs rnay
65 m. and smaller 75 mm be specified.
Loose .75to 1.5O m 100 mm
backfill
Lq5 m. and larger 15O mm
2. Joint mortar for concrete pipes consists of I part by vol-
Flat subgade
ume of Portland cement and 2 parts of approved sand
I
1. For class and C beddings sub- Legend with water necessary to obtain a refined consistency.
Bc = outside diameter
grades should be excavated or Mortar should be used immediately within 30 minutes af-
over excavated, if necessary a
H = backfill coyer obove top of pipe
D = insidediameter ter its preparation.
uniform foundation free of pro-
d = depth of bedding material J. Mortar joint is made with excess mortar to form a con-
truding rocks maybe provided A3 = area of transverse steel in the tinuous bead around the outside joint of the pipe and
2. For class A or other unyielding cradle or arch expressed in 016 of
smoothly finished on the side.
foundation, pipe should be free area of concrete at invert or crown
from shocks if blasting is anti- 4. Rubber gaskets are installed to form a flexible waterhght
cipated in the area. Source: American Corrcrete Pipe Ass. seal. When Portland cement mixture is used, the com-
pleted joints are protected against rapid drying by any
suitable covering materials.
FIGURE 6-6 BEDDING CLASS AND LOAD FACTOR 5. Flexible conduits are firmly joined by coupling bands.

186 187
 Elements of Roads and l{ighwnys
Backfilling
Backfilling follows after the laymg installation of conduit
pipes under the following specifications:
l. Materials for backfill should be fine, readily compacted
soil or granular material selected fiom approved sources.
It should be placed on each side of the conduit for the firll
trench width up to elevation of 30 cm. above the top of
the pipe
Backfill rnaterials should be free from stones ttrat wculd
be rstained on 50 mm sieve, nor chunks of highly plastic
clay and other objectionable matenals.
3. At least 95% of the grarrular backfill materials passes the
12.5 rntn sieve and not less than 95% of it are retained on
a4.75 mm sieve.
4. Oversized materjals if present should be removed.
5 On top of the trench, backfill materials are placed at or
near optimum moisture content and compacted in layers
not exceeding 15 cm. (compacted) on both sides up to 30
centimeters above the top of the conduit. Care should be
exercised to compact thorougNy the backfill under the
haunches of the conduit.
For that portion above the trench on each side of the con-
duit pipe, the width of backfill is equal to twice the di-
ameter of the conduit or 3.50 msters whichever is smaller.
7. After being bedded and backfilled, all conduits are pro-
tected by cover fill 1.00 meter high, before any heavy
equipment is permitted to cross during the construction of
the roadway"
Field Strutting
Whenever required by the plan and specifications, vertical
diameter of rounded flexible conduits is increased by 5 percent
Drainage and Slope Protection
through shop elongation or by means of jacks applied after the
entire line of conduit installed on the bedding but before back-
filling. The vertical elongation should be maintained by means
of sills and struts, or by horizontal ties used on paved invert
pipe.
Pipes and struts should be 30 centimeters in place until the
embankment is completed and compacted.
Methods of Measurement
Conduit pipe of different types and sizes whether new or
reinstalled will be measured by linear meter installed. Conduit
with sloped or skewed ends will be measured along the invert.
Every section will be measured according to the number of
units installed. Class B bedding (footing) materials placed and
approved will be measured in place by cubic meter.
When the Bid Schedule contains an estimated quantity for
furnishing and placi4g backfill materials and pipe culverts, the
quantity to be paid will be ttre number of cubic meter completed
in place and accepted, measured in final position between the
limits as follows:
1. Measursment include backfill materials up to the top of
the original ground line but will not include any materials
placed outside of vertical plane 45 cni. up outside and
parallel with the inside wall of the pipe at its widest hori-
zontal dimension.
2. The measurement will also include all backfill materials
above the original ground line adjacent to the pipe for a
height of 30 cm. above the top of the pipe and for a dis-
tance on each side of the pipe not greater than the widest
horizontal dimension of the pipe if the original ground
line is less than 30 centimsters.
3. The measuremertt includes the placing of backfill materi-
als in all trenches.
 Elements of Roads and Highways
6-8 Design of Underdrain
Underdrain is categorized under Item 501 of DPWH Stan-
dard Specifications, which provides that:
"This item shall consist of constructing underdrain, using
pipes and granular filter material underdrain pipe outlets
and blind drains using granular material in accordance
with the specifications and in reasonably close conformity
with the lines and grades shown on the plans or as estab-
lished by the engineer."
l. The pipe is used to carry away collected water. The size
and number of pipes and its locations of opening should
be studied carefirlly to prevent excessive entrance veloc-
rlv that will cause silting to the pipe.
2. Filter materials with which the trench is backfilled or the
opening in the filter, should be fine enough so that the ad-
jacent soil will not be washed-out into the drain.
3. The top of underdrain should be sealed with impervious
soil to prevent the entrance of surface water.
4. Intercepting drains must extend into the impervious zone.
5. The pipes are laid with the flow line at least 1.20 meters
below the finished grade and carefully bedded with gravel
or filter materials.
Materials
Materials should conform with the requirements specified as
follows:
L Zrnc coatd, (galvanized) comrgated iron or steel for cul-
verts and underdrain (AASFIIO M-36).
2. Extra strength and standard strength clay pipe and perfo-
rated clay pipe (AASHTO M-165)
3. Porous concrste (AASI{TO M-176
4. Perforated concrste (AASIfIO M-175)
190
Drainage and Slope Protection
5. Bituminous fiber non-pressure sewer drain and under
drainage pipe system (AASSHTO M-I77)
6. Asbestos cement perforated underdrain pipes (AASfilO
M-189
Granular Backfill Filter Materials
Granular backfill filter materials shall be permeable meeting
the requirements of AASHIO M-6 specifications except that
soundness tests will not be required and minor variations in
gradrng and content of deleterious substances may be approved
by the engineer. All materials are subject to inspection before
acceptance.
Construction Requirements
l. Pipe installation. Trenches are excavated to ttre dimen-
sions and grades required by the plan. A minimum of
l5cm. bedding layer of granular backfill materials are
placed and compacted at the bottom of the trench. Sub-
drainage pipe are embedded finnly on the bedding.
2. Perforated pipes are placed with the perforations down-
ward securely joined with appropriate fittings or bands.
3. Non-perforated pipes are laid with the bell end upgrade
with open joints wrapped with suitable material to permit
entry of water, or unwrapped as may be specified.
4. Upgrade end sections of all sub-drainage pipe installa-
tions are closed with suitable plWS to prevsnt entry of
soil materials.
5. After the pipe installation, granular backfill materials are
placed 30 centimsters above the top of the pipe and
should not be displaced by the covering of open joints.
6. The remainder of granular backfill are placed and com-
pacted at every aft€r 15 cm. layers up to the required
height. Any remaining portion of the trench above t}re
granular backfill shall be filled with either granular or
impervious material and thoroughly compacted.
l9l
 Elements of Roads and Highways
Underdrain Outlet
Trench for underdrain outlets are excavated to the depth and
width as planned. Pipes are laid in the trench with all ends
firmly joined and backfilled after inspection and approval of the
pipe installation.
Blind Drain
Trenches for blind drains are excavated to the width and
depth as shown on plans. The trench is then filled with granular
backfill material to the required depth. Any remaining upper
portions of the trench should be filled with either granular or
impervious material in accordance with the requirements for
excavations.
6-9 Debris Control
Flood waters usually carries objectionable objects like
brushes, banana trunks, tree branches etc. These floating debris
clogs culvert entrances and raise the headwater elevation over-
flowing the road and damaging adjoining properties. Culverts
should be designed to allow debris to pass A single large span
box culvert is preferred on streams carryrng large floating ob-
jects than the multispan culvert with the same area of openings.
Another alternative is to extend the curtain wall separating
the barrels of the multi span culverts upstream, with its top
slanting downward so that in time of flood, debris carried by
flood water will ride up on this wall or turn to pass easily
tluough the opening.
Another method proven effective is to install up stream de-
bris racks or wire, steel rail or piling. Some design provides trap
for the sand or gravel carried by the stream rather than having it
pass tlrough the stmcture. However, design of debris control
devices depards upon the kind of debris to be handled, the vol-
ume of floodwater and the site conditions.
192
Drainage and Slope Protection
6-10 The l,egal Aspect of Drainage
Flighway agency is legally responsible for any damage tcr
private property affected by the changes it makes in natura!
drainage pattem within the limit that water must flow.
Damage claim against the Department could be established if:
1. Wren as a result of the agency's project, the flow of sev-
eral streams or creeks were concentrated into a single
channel that resulted to erosion, silting or flooding ofpri-
vate properb/.
2. When due to poor design or inadequate rnaintenance> wa-
ter backed against highway or embankment resulted to
rnundation of land or property or caused irjury or death.
3. Liabilrty however, is limited to damages lr direct consc-
quences of the improvement. The agency would not be li-
able for damages if an unprecedented storm causes the
stream to overflow a newly constructed channel, provided
that this channel has the capacity equal to the natural vol-
ume of water flow.
4. Engrneering decisions if based on an accepted practice,
do not provide for a course ofaction. ln any case, the re-
sponsibility of the highway agency would be determineil
through negotiations or court litigations. 'fherefore, de-
sign of drainage system must satis$ the various require-
ments of the environmental laws and regulations.
6-ll Roadway Design and Construction for
Unusual Soil Conditions
Problems usually encountered in the design and construc-
tions of roadways are:
l. The stability of fill sand slope 4. Permafrost
2. T\e drainage 5. Elasticity and rutting
3. Capillarity and frost heave
193
 Elements.of Roads and Highways
Stability of Fills and Slope
There are instances where the materials in cut bank slips
down the roadway, or sometimes, a portion of high fill slides
outward carryrng portion of the roadway. This pattem of failure
is common in fills or cut slope of homogenous non-granular
materials.
1. Slides may happen during construction or at later date af-
ter the road is in service. It is advisable to risk some slid-
ing or adjustments of large slope than to flatten increasing
pay yardage.
2. If possible during the location surveys, areas that are
threatened by frequent slide, shc'uld be avoided. Minor
slope adjustment, slides, and ledge falls that occur during
construction should be removed to widen filI or to flatten
the slope.
3. Slides may be caused either by mudflows, slope adjust-
ment, or movement due to underground water or undercut
rock strata. Slides happened when an underlying inclined
surface of shale, soapstone, or the like is lubricated by
seepage water.
4. Slides mayte controlled by removing large portion of the
materials above the slippage surface, or by some drainage
devices that keeps water offthe surface of weakness.
5. Water must always be intercepted before it lubricates the
critical slip surface.
Original topography
F'IGURE
6.7 MAN MADE SLOPE OF NEW SHAPES
t94
Drainage and Slope Protection
Original fill sloPe
Slip surface
Surf,ace of
shear failure
Common Failure Slumping of Fill
FIGURE 6-8 COMMON FAILURE OF SLOPE
Capillarity
Capillarity is the tendency of water to seek its own level as
if in an open channel flows through the pores a:rd fine channels
of the soil. It is the force pulling free water through the voids of
the soil in all directions.
Capillary action is most common in permeable rnaterials
such as dirty gravel and soils composed mainly of fine sand"
silts or clayey silts. Capillary flow however, is less common in
impermeable materials like clay and colloidal soils.
L ln roadway construction, moisture has to be controllerl.
Over saturation of the soil in road structure reduces its
strength and the differential expansion of the soil due to
uncontrolled moisture may lead to serious problerns.
2. Moisture in the roadway is brought about by the changes
in weather, seasons or by capillary action of the water.
J. Water movement due to capillarity action take place in
any directions, and an upward movement may create un-
desirable conditions. If the surface of the soil is open,
evaporation of moisture is faster, and no damage may re-
sult, bug if the surface is covered with pavement or other
impervious blanket, capillary water may accumulate and
saturate the subsurface layers that usually resulted to
pavement failure.
l9_s
 Elements of R.oacis and tr{ighways Drainage and Slope Protection

4. Consistency of soil .zaries fiorn semi solid to plastic irquid

Highly plastic soils should not be placed closer to the

if moisture content is increased. The behavior of the ma- roadway surface where heavy loads are ex?ected. Early
terial used is directly correlated with changes and per- cracking of the pavement may happen due ro deforma-
centages of moisture content.
tions caused by tlie rebound of the soil.
5. Voids in soils are of the same order of magnitude as the a
L. When heary loads passitjs on a plastic soils, compression
particle sizes. Thus, the height of capillary rise would be and rebormci occurs to at least 6 meters below the surface.
greater in fine grain soils than in coarse grain soils. Like- B0% of tlre load is concentrated 90 cm. from the top of
wise, temperature piays an irnportant role in the capillary the surface. The design therefore, is to sum up the total
rise r:f water in soils. 'Ihe height of rise is gieater in low expected load and rebound in the pavement to be sure that
te.rnperature than in high tenaperaflire. it does not produce fat.igue and failure in the pavement.
- Deflection of the pavement surfbce as the wheel slowll'
TABLE 6-4 REPRXSENTATIVE IIXIGHTS OF
rolls past dre reference pornt is measured by a measuring
CAPILLARY RISE IN SOILS
device called Bankelman Bearn. A long slender bar slips
Apgoximate Capillary Hei ehts into the space between the dual tires of the truck wheels.
Soii Tlpe Centimeters Feet Deflection rate of travel shock wave is recorded.
Small grar,el 2to l0 0.1to 0.4
Coarse sand 15 0.5 6-12 Stabilizing the Unsuppofred Slope
Fine sand 30 to 100 Ito3
Silr 100 to 1000 3to30 An existing earth slope ihat have been stable can experience
Clay 1000 to 3000 30 to 90 significant movement called slope failure or landslide due to the
following physical changes :

TABLE 6.5 REPRESENTATIVE VALUES OF COMPRESSIVE

a. Changes in natural conditions
STRESSES RESIILTING FROM CAPILI"ARY T'ORCES b. Changes induced by man

Changes in natural conditions may be the result from:

200 to 2000 0.i to l0 to

l. Ocgurrence ofearthquake.
2000 to 6000
1"0
1.0 to 3.0
100
100 to 300
2. Subsidence ofunderground cavern.
3. Erosion.
4. Slope weakening due to the development of cracks or
shnnkage cracks that are followed by water urtrusions.
Elasticity and Rutting
5. Variations in the elevation of ground water or changes in
Elasticity is common in soils whose fines consist mainly of the slope subsurface flow that create new seepage forces.
flat and flaky particles. This kind of soil has rubberized charac- 6. Weakening of buried soil or rock seams due to ground
teristic that rebound under heavy loads. water flow or chemical leachine.

197
t96
 Drainage and Slope Protection
Blements of Roads and HighwaYs

Changes Induced by Man

Grr

a. Increased loading on a slope or near its crest.

b. Removal of earth below the toe of a slope.
c" Removal of materials from slope making it steeper.
d. Topographic modification like earth moving, exca-
vations, change in elevation from one areato another
which may create slope failure.
Landslide or other conditions caused by man-
Slope and Toe Failure typical
for possessing internal friction
Slide

Slide refers to the occurrence where the moving mass is de-

fined and separated from the underlying and adjacent earth by
plane, comprising a number of adjacent planes were seepage
result The seepage plane represent the continuous surface
where the maximum shear strength of the earth material has
been reached with the result that large displacement occurs.

Slide is classified into four:

Base Failure typical for clay slopes
l. Rotational slide. underdrain by deep, hard stratum.
2. Translational slide.
3. Block or wedge failure.
4. Flows and spread.
CofnAG-flto-
Ratioiral slide is associated with natural slopes and con-
structed embankment of homogeneous materials possessing
cohesion.

Translational slide is associated with slope of layered ma-

terials where the mechanism of slippage occurs along a weak
plane that possesses a downward dip and in cohesionless soil
slopes where seepage occurs.

Block or Wedge'failure refers to the displacement of an

intact rnass of soil due to the action ofan adiaccnt zone ofearth. FIGURE 6.9 RATIONAL SLIDE

l9l{ 199
 Elements of Roads and Highways Drainage and Slope Protection

Firm clay

Sofr clay with water

bearing silt and
sand layers
Ftrm ctayey

FIGURE 6-10 TRANSLATIO\AL SLIDE

Flows and Spread failure is the nrost complex type of soil

mass nlovement. Flow involves lateral rnoveJnent of soil having
a clnractcrrstic uf viscous fluid, although the actual consistency
of the moving mass may vary fiom very wet to dry.

Spread refers to the occurrence of rnulti-directiorral lateral

movement bv a fractured soil mass. Earthquake is a typical
Depositional area
causes of lat*rai spreads.

-t^

FIGURE 6-12 FLOWS AND SPREAD FAILURE

6-13 Improving the Stabitity of Slope

Slope areas that have experienced slides in the past should
be considered likely to undergo further movement if loading
condition changes.
FIGURE 6.1 1 BLOCK ANO WEDGE SLIDH

2{Xl 201
 Elements of Roads and Highways Drainage and SloPe Protection

Procedures adopted in the past which have been successful
in stabilizing slopes are enumerated as follows:
l. Corrective and preventive measures of reducing a mass or
loading have successfully prevented further slides.
2. Improving the shear strength of the earth in the failure
zone by constructing structural elements that will provide
resistance to movement.
3. Consider the characteristics of the soil in the slope like:
11. Pile Driving, sheet piling or retaining walls are utilized to
provide lateral support and increase resistance of slope
tending to stocks.
t2 Improvement and protective methods such as slope flat-
tening and drainage control are preferred for economical
reasons.

a) The thickness and depth of the materials involved in

sliding.
b) The ground water conditions.
c) The spaces available to undertake corrective changes.
d) The topographical conditions at the vicinity of the
slope and the tendency for changes such as the advert
a. Slope llattened or benched
of the seismic and vibratory loadings to occur.

4. Where area is available, flattening of the slop can be done

to reduce the weight of the mass that tends to slide.
5. If base failure is anticipated, placement of beam below
the toe of the slope will increase movement resistance.
6. lf the zone below the toe is susceptible to severe erosion,
protective rock fill blanket and riprap catr be installed at
the toe area.
7. To prevent infiltration, erosion and to reduce seepage b. Berm provided at toe
force, the stone subsurface water and intercept surface
water should be lowered.
8. If the soil is cohesionless, the shear strength of the slope
material can be improved ttrrough densification by using
explosives or vibroflotation or terra probe procedures.
For cohesive soils, shear strength could be improved by
consolidation and water content reduction through sur-
charging which may include wick drains, electro osmosis
and thermal drytng c. Protection against erosion provided at toe
10. Where the weak condition is critical to the stability of the
slope, grouting and injection methods could be utilized to
add cementing and bonding agent. FIGURE 6- 13 IMPROVING THE SLOPE STABILITY

202 203
I
I
I

Elernents of Roads and Highways Drainage and Slope Protection

Settlement and distortion of a retaining wall due to com-

pression of the foundation soil must be limited to a tolerable
value. The combined effect of soil and water pressure on the
1. Drive pile closest
to stope, then retaining wall causes over turning moments and sliding forces
2. Drive back piles greater than the condition where there is no water.
last to reduce
effects of driving To avoid the rise of water building up behind the retaining
on slope stability wall, a weep hole or collector drainage system or both ilre pro-
vided as part of the design construction. Weep holes should be
d. Provrde driven or cast in place piles at least 3 inches diameter provided with granular soil filter fab-
ric at the wall to prevent backfill erosion. The horizontal spac-
ing of weep holes ranges from 1.20 to 3.00 meters.
For taller walls, two or more rows of weep holes may be
provided with typical vertical spacing at l.50 msters.
Col,ector drahl
table perforated pipe
Lowered water
in gravelfilter
e. Lowering ground water table to reduce
pore pressure in the slope

Removed soil

Fill SloPe or
2:tltlm. plumb
.075 to .10 Weepl.bles

--f @ 1.50m. o.c.

: ' Ground line

FIGURE 6.14 IMPROVING THE SLOPE STABILITY

30x30x30
Gravel bacKill

6-14 Retaining Wall

The practical use of gravity retalning wall is controlled by
height limitations. Thus, the required wall cross section in-
]x+o.om
creases signlficantly with tall heights due to the effect of the
triangular soil pressure distributed behind the retaining wall.
Dry Rubble Cement Rubble
If the ground water level rises into the backfill behind a re-
taining wall because of either changrng ground water condition
or percolating water surface, the lateral pressure against the wall
is also changed. FIGURE 6-15 CROSS SECTION OF RUBBLE RETAINING WALL

204 205
 Elements of Roads and Highways
Drainage and Slope Protection

1n"

(a) Stralght Sectlons 0F-F-1

L- ls" -l
Used where tension valve of inter 1n"
lock is cellular construction
Piling ordered with required inter-
lock strength specified and type
of structure indicated
i-11R2"
b-F-r
L- i6"-J
Gravity wall Cantilever wall

FIGURE 6.16 REINFORCED CONCRETE RETAINING WALL

(b) Z Sec0ons

High ratio of beam strength to

weight means maximum eco-
nomy in steelsheet piling.
Used primarily in filled bulkheads
or other walls requiring high
beam strength.

(c) Archweb Sectlons

Designed for applications where

Weep Hoeg Gravgl or a combination of beam strength
3 to 4'y' spac€d
Ftter Fabdc and interlock tighness is required.
at 1.50 m. o.c. Used generally in light bulkheads
internally braced single wall
cofferdams, cut-ofi wall s.

FIGURE 7 DRAINAGE METJHODS TO PREVENT DEVELOPMENT OF

6-1
WATER PRESSURE BEHIND THE RETAINING WALL FIGURE 6-18 REPRESENTATIVE STEEL SHEETING SECTIONS

206
 Elements of Roads and Highways
A good retaining wall design must conform to the following
requirements:
l. The base and stem of the retaining wall must be capable
of resisting the internal shear and bending moments de-
veloping as a result of soil and other loading.
2. The wall must be safe against overturning.
3. The wall structure must be safe against sliding.
4. The bearing capacrty of the foundation material support-
ing the wall must not be exceeded.
Item 504 Rip Rap and Grouted Rip Rap
This item includes furnishing and placing of riprap with or
without grout; rvith or without filter backing. Stones for riprap
shall consist of rocks as nearly rectangular in section as is prac-
tical except that riprap of Class A may consist of round natural
stones. The stone shall be sound, tough, durable, dense, resis-
tance to the action of air and water and suitable in all respects
for the purpose intended.
Class of Stone for Ripraping
Class A - Stone ranging from 15 to 25 kg. with at least 50olo
of the stones weighing more than 20 kilograms.
Class B - Stone ranging from 30 to 70 kg. with at least 50%
of the stones weighing more than 50 kilograms.
Class C - Stones ranging from 60 to 10Q kg. with at least 50%
of the stones weighing more than 80 kilograms.
Class D - Stones weighing from 100 kg. to 200 kg. with at
least 50% of the stones weighing more than 150 kg
Where required, riprap shall be placed on a filtered layer to
prevent fine embankment materials from being washout through
the voids of the face stones.
208
Drainage and Slope Protection
Excavation and Placing
The bed for riprap is excavated dorvn the requir*d depth
properly compacted, trimmed and shaped. The riprap founda-
tio:r is dug below the depth of scour. The toe trench is filled
with stone of the same class as specified.
Stones placed below the water line are distributed properly
and those above the water level are placed by hand or individu-
ally laid by machine with close broken joints firmly bedded into
the slope against the adjoining stones
Each stone is laid with its longest axis perpendicular to the
slope in close contact with adjacent stone. The riprap is thor-
oughly rammed into place and the finished stone are laid to an
even tight surface. lntersections between stones are filled rvrth
small broken fragments firrnly rammed into place"
Grouting
When grouted riprap is specified, stones are placed by hand
or individually laid by machine. Spaces between stones are then
filled with cement mortar sufficient enough to completely fill
all the voids exceptthe face surface ofthe stones left exposed.
Cement groufijs placed starting from the bottom to the top
of the surface and then swept with stiff broom. After grouting,
the surface is cured like structural concrete for a period of at
least 3 days after the installation.
Mrsonry stone is categorized under ltem 505 of the DPWH
standard ipecifications. This item consists of stone masonrf in
minor structures, in headwalls for culverts and raaining walls at
the toes of the slope.
Material Requirements
1. The stone should be clean, hard and durable. Adobe stone
shall not be used unless specified.
209
 Elements of Roads and Highways
the backing by 30 centimeters minimum.
Z. When the wall thickness is 45 cm. or less, the header
should extend entirely from the front to the back face.
3. Backings are built chiefly of large stones. The individual
stones of backing and hearting are well bonded with the
face wall and with each ottter.
4. All openings and interstices in the backing are filled
ccmpletely with cement mortar or with spall surrounded
completely with mortar.
Pointing and Coping
Cement mor[ar for joints on top of masonry surface are
crowned slightly at the center to provide drainage. If coping is
required, it should be indicated in the plan.
Where coping is not required, the top of the wall is finished
witlr stone wide enough to cover the top of the wall from 45 cm.
to 100 cm. in length and of random heighs of 15 cm. Stone is
laid where the top course is an integral part of the wall. The
tops of the top course stone are pitched to line in both vertical
and horizontal plane.
Weeping Holes
All walls and abutrnents should be provided with weep
holes placed at the lowest point where free outlets for water can
be obtained and spaced not more thart2 meters center distance.
Cleaning and Curing
Immediately after laying and while the mortar is still fresh,
all face stones should be thoroughly cleaned of mortar stains
and should be kept clean until the work is complded.
If weather is hot or dry, the masonry should be protected
from the sun and kep wet for a period of at least 3 days after
the completion.
212
Drainage and Slope Protection
Item 506 Hand Laid Rock Emtrankment
Material Requirements
Stones for hand laid rock embankment must be sound and
durable furnished in a well balance range of sizes meeting the
requirements as follows:
I All stones should be more than 0.015 cubic meter in vol-
ume and not less than 75 percent of the total volume
should consist of stones at 0.03 cubic meters in volume.
Stones obtained from excavation performed under the
contract may be used.
Adobe stone should not be used unless otherwise speci-
fied in the plan.
Construction Requirements.
Excavation shall be sufficient enough to expose the
foundation bed. Stones are laid flat securely placed with
their broken joint lined.
2. The larger stone should be generally located in the lower
portion of the structlrre and voiCs eliminated to possible
extent.
3. Spall smaller than the minimum stone size are used to
check the larger stones solidly in position to fill voids be-
tween the major stones laid in the embankment.
4. The exposed face of the rock mass should be uniform
without projections of more than 15 cm. beyond the neat
lines indicated on plans.
5. Backfill adjacent to the hand laid rock embankment
should be filled entirely with acceptable materials coming
from the excavation iterns and compacted.
Itern 5-7 Sheet Piles
This item consists of furnishing dividing and cutting off of
sheet piling covered by the specifications:
713

Elements of Roads and HighwaYs
Material Requirements
l. Timber sheet pile may consist of any species that will
satisfactorily stand driving It is sawn or hewn with
square corners free from worn holes, loose knots, wind
rhuk.., decay or unsound portions or other defects that
might impair its strength or tightness.
Z. Concrete Sheet Piles. Concrete reinforcement and marru-
facture of concrete sheet piles should conform to the re-
quirements of ltem 400 - Piling.
3. SGaI STeelt-Pites sFould be of the type, weight and sec-
tion modulus indicated on the plans or special provisions
and conform to the requirements of item 400- piling.
Item 509 Gabion
Gabion is a wire mish supplied in various width and length
that is in multiple of 2,3,or 4 times its width. The height is equal
to 1.2 or 1.3 the horizontal width equal to 100 centimeters with
a tolerance limit of 3%o. The wire mesh is made of galvanized
steel or plastic having a minimum size of 3.05 mm diameter. Its
tensile strength should be in the range of 423.7- 686 Mpa
60,000 - 85,000 psi.
For galvanized wire mesh, the minimum zinc coating should
be 22.7 gru*r per 0.0929 mt 10.t0 o/sq. ft) of uncoated wire
surface as determined by tests conducted in accordance with
AASFNO T-65.
Rocks used in
gabions are hard, durable rock pieces that
will not deteriorate when submerged in water or exposed to se-
vere weather conditions. Rock pieces should be uniformly
graded generally in sizes ranging from 10 to 20 centimeters.
FiU"O gaUiont thull have a minimum density of 1,400 kg/nt'
and voids distributed evenly. The rock shall meet the require-
ments of AASHTO M-63 except that the sodium sulfate sound-
ness loss should not exceed 99/o after 5 cycles.
')1,4
Drainage and Slope Protection
Construction Requirements
l. The wire mesh is twisted to form hexagonal opening of
uniform sizes. The maximum linear dimension of the
mesh opening shall not exceed 11 mm and the area of the
mesh opening do not exceed 51.65 square msters.
2. The mesh should be non-raveling which means the ability
to resist pulling apart at any ofthe trvists or connection
when a single wire strand in a section is cut.
3. That the Gabions sides, ends, lid and diaphragms can be
assembled at the construction site into rectangular baskets
of the specified sizes. It should be of single unit constnrc-
tion. The base, lids" ends and sides should be either
woven into a single unit or one edge of those members
connected to the base section of the gabion.
4. That Gabions could be divided equally by diaphragms of
the same gauge as the body of the gabions into cells the
length of which does not exceed the horizontal width.
All perimeters of the edges of the mess forming the ga-
bion should be securely seivedge so that by q'tng the sel-
vedges the joints shouid have at least the same strength as
the body ofthe mesh.
The tie and connection wire should be supplied in suffi-
6.
cient quantity to securely fasten all edges of the gabion
and diaphragms and to provide for four cross corurecting
wire in each cell whose height is l./3 or Yzthe width of
the gabion and 8 connecting wires in each cell whose
height equals the width of the gabion.
6-15 Highway Bridges
HighwaV bridges are of two types:
1. Those that carry vehicular traffic and pedestrians over a
large stream.
2. Those that separate traffic movements as interchanges
and street pedestrians over or under crossings.
2lt
 Elements of Roads and ftrighways Drainage and Slope protection

tlydraulic Problerns Highway Bridges, Designed to Resist Loads Brought by:

l. There must be available strearn record that provides the l. The weight of the structure itself called'dead load.
usual method of estimating water discharges under the 2. The weight and dynamic effect of moving load called
bridge. "Live Load".
3. The centrifugal forces developed by moving vehicles on
2. ,A,nalysis of the channel relationship as to: curved structure.
a. Peakflow 4. The wind load and the stresses brought about by:
b. Water way opening a. e. Rib shortening
c. Water surface elevation at the structure and up- b. f. Erection
stream and flow velocity.
flurrent+rsssus
_t, The degree of confiaction of the flowing water in the d. h. Earttquake
channel approach.
Bridge Types
+. Final structure proportions and required channel modifi-
cations based on the studies. A bridge consists of substructure of abutments and piers that
5. Etfect of bridge opening and approaches that might cause supports superstrusture that carry the roadway between sup-
flood to adjacent properties. This is associated with hy- ports. Bridge fype includes: slab, girder, truss, arch and cable
drauhc aspects ofbridge design. stayed. Each suspension bridge has a distinctive form of struc-
ture, the selection of the kind of bridge to be installed depends
6. Econondc, legal and social implications where coopera- on the length of individual span as follows:
tive planning with all affected groups and agencies is
necessary. 1. Short span up to 18 meters which either:
ry
Where the bridge is to rest on eroding streambed scouring a.) Reinforced concrete rigid frame with slab deck.
is the primary concern. The problem of the designer is, if b.) T-Beam or box girders reinforced concrste.
the design is over safe, it is over design, meaning, the c.) Steel plate girders with reinforced concrete deck.
foundation becomes very costly. But if scouring is under 2. Bridge of large span
estimated, the foundation might be undermined which a.) Girder type rigid frames of reinforced concrete.
might result to total destruction of the entire bridge. b.) T-Beam or box girder reinforced concrste.
c.) Steel plate girders with reinforced concrete deck
8. Recent findings showed that the latest scours is when the 3. Span that exceeds 90 meters long steel trusses, arches of
pier has less resistance to flow. Meaning, that the piers steel or reinforced concrete.
are aligned with the flow rvith the smallest cross section 4. Span that exceed 150 meters are generally made of steel
that is best where scouring is a problem. Test results fru- trusses, cable-stayed or suspension bridge.
ther showed that, scouring increases wilh depth of flow
and becomes a problem in streams with high ratio be- For designing purposes, AASHTO has adopted standard
t$,een flood and normal flow vehicles as representative loadings :

2 to 2r7
 Elements of Roads and Highways

CHAPTBR I
Not less than 9.0O meterE At least 18.30 m. greater than appmach pavement

Face of wall or pier

CONSTRUCTING THE
Face of lltwAll Face of rail
ROADBED
7-l Soil as Structure
Early road constructions have concentrated mainiy on the
Roadway.60 m. min. road surface pavement. Little attention was given to the sub-
ureater than approach way grade, the base materials, and the manner of construction more
but not le6s than 7.30 m.
particularly, tlre placing and compacting of the pavement foun-
dation. As a result, too many road failures past and present were
TUNNET ANO BRIDGES
recorded with an endless maintenance and rehabilitation activi-
UNDERPASSES
ties.
Because of these very expensive undertakings, hrghway
agencies were prompted to undertake advance researches and
F IG uRE& 1 e R Ec oMM. - H o R rzo NTAL c LEARAN c E studies on the properties of sub-grade and soil performance un-
"R Xrrffiinr^AtD
der severe conditions. After a long study of the unending road
For design pu{poses AASFfIO adopted standard vehicles failures, road agencies have established a more detailed proce-
that produce a representative loadings. HS 20-40 designation is dure regarding the kind of materials to be used on a particular
a truck semi-trailer combination havrng a total weight of 36 condition, type and behavior of the soil where the road is to be
tons. Trucks and other heavy equipment that contribute to the constructed.
larger live loads has variety of total werght, axle loads and axle
Roadway has three major structural parts, namely:
spacing. The number 40 indicates the year in which the loading
standard was adopted. For minor highways, the standard vehi- l. Tlie Sub-grade or Sub-base
cles are trucks weighing 20 tons(H-20) 15 tons (H-15) and l0 2. The Base Courso
tons (FI-I0) 3. The Pavement
'The Sub-grade or Sub-Base is the earth beneath the road,
properly arranged and graded, compacted and stabilized. It is
defined as the "Supporting structure on which the pavement
surface and its special under-courses rest. "

In a cut section ofa road, the sub-grade is the original soil

218
219
 Elernents of Roads and Highways
lying below the layers designated as the base and sub base ma-
terials. On fill road sections, sub-grade consists of the imported
materials taken from nearby roadway cuts or fiom borrow pit.
The Base Course is the materials laid on top of the sub-
grade consisting of crushed stone or gravel, sometimes mixed
with asphalt binders.
The Pavement is the material laid o'zer the base coarse con-
sisting of Asphalt Concrete or Portland Cement Concrete.
FIGURE 7.1 ROADWAY STRUCTURE LONGITUDINAL SECTION
7-2 Types of Base Course
Base course is classified into trruo t)?es:
l. The granular base course or untreated soil mixture.
2. Treated base course.
The granular base course is a road surface ofuntreated soil
mixture described as gravel road.
Gravel road consist largely of stone pebbles or crushed rock
particles combined with either; clay, lime, iron oxide or other
fine materials sufficient enough to serve as binder of the coarse
particles.
220
L
Constructing the Roadbed
Construction and Maintenance Requirements of
Untreated Gravel Road Surface
l. That, the road must be stable to support the super im-
posed loads without detrimental deformation. It must be
resistant against various traffic activities and could with-
stand the abrasive action of traffrc.
2 It must shed the large portion of rain that falls on the sur-
face because water penetrating the sub grade might soften
it and loosen the surface stability.
It must be free frorn large rocks or stones over one inch in
diameter so that it could be regularly maintained by btad-
ing or dragging.
4. Gravel road must possess capillarity properties sufficient
enough to replace the moisture lost through the surface
evaporation. The road must maintain the desired damp
condition that is required to bind the particles together.
5. On dry weather, the moisture film on the clay particles
should bind the entire mass together, and in wet weather,
the first rain that fall on the surface, should expand the
clay and close the pores to prevent water from entering
and softening the materials.
6. An excessive amount of highly expansive clay materials
should be avoided because clay will swell and unseat the
coarser materials when wet and ultimately will weaken
the stability ofthe road.
7. Gravel road must be low cost. Funds for low traffic road
is very limited that most of the time overlooked in the list
ofappropriation priorities except on election period.
8. Use local materials. Meaning, those materials that could
be found nearby the project must be utilized.
If the gravel surface road is to be maintained for several
years without bituminous or asphalt surface treatment or other
impervious surfacing, AASHTO standard specifications re-
quires maximum liquid limit of 35 and a Plastic lndex of 4 to 9
and a maximumS%o passing the No. 200 sieve.
221
 El3lents Roads and.Highways Constructing the Roadbed
3!
TABLE 7-1 GRADING REQTIIREMENTS FOR SOIL AGGREGATE l. The mixing procedure is either by plant or field mixing.
MATERHLS (AASHTO Designation M-f47)
z. If mixing is processed in the plant, the aggregate is heated
Percentage by Weight Passing Square Mesh Sieve to specified temperature and mixed with either; Asphalt
Cemen! Cutback asphalt or Emulsion asphalt.
Sieve Dcsig Grading Grading Grading Grading Grading Grading
J- The qualrty of asphalt is classified as either for stabilizing
mm Inch A BC DEF or for waterproofing purposes only.
150 2u 100 100 4. If the purpose is for stability, mixhrres are measured in
25 I' - 75-95 100 100 100 100 the laboratory by the Marshall or FWEEM Stabilometer
l0 318" 30-6s 4U75 50-85 6G100 procedures. The weigirt of asphalt in percentage would
4.75 No.4 25-55 300-60 35-65 50-85 55-lm 70-100 probablyintherange of 5Yoto1o .

2.00 No. l0 15-40 204,5 25-50 40-70 4G100 55-100 5. If the purpose is for waterproofing only, 2o/o to 3yo of the
0.425 No.40 80-20 lt30 15-30 2545 2G50 30-70 asphalt binder is added.
0 075 No.200 2-8 5-20 5-15 5-20 5-20 8-25 6. If Emulsion asphalt is used, enough water is included in
Suitable for Surface Courses the mixture to allow compaction at near optimum mois-
Suitable for Basc and Sub-bases ture content.

Sand and Asphalt Base Course

7-3 Treated Base Course
To stabilize the base coarse. it is sometimes treated with
either Asphalt, Lime, Portland Cement or other materials as
binders mixed with the aggregate base course. Treated base
course is adopted if in the study or analysis of the highway
agency, a better road can be produced at a minimal over all cos!
or when a politician order the lughway office to construct the
road with or without study because it was a commitment durtng
the campaign period.
Asphalt or bituminous treatment is employed to waterproof
and bind the granular aggregate to the sand and clay. Thus, the
primary function of the asphalt in a treated aggregate, is water-
proofing. Asphalt treated base allows a thinner over all depth of
the pat'ement.
Different types of asphalt are used to bind the natural mate-
rials like untreated granular base and granular aggregate with
sands and even clay. The type ofasphalt binders for base course
depends on several factors enumerated as follows:
The sand and asphalt base course is composed of either,
loose beach sand, dune pit or river sand cemented wittr asphalt
materials. In the early road construction, sand and clay rnixture
is not only used as road surfaces but also for base courses. But
lately, the Cutback asphalt, Emulsified asphalt or Tars have
been introduced as substitute for the clay binders to produce
quallty base courses for roads and highways.
Sand for rmxing asphalt should be clean and strong, because
the surface properties and grain shape must have the qualrty to
resist displacement under load. If in the eveirt that quality of
available sand is not satisfactory, it may be blended with sharp
angular particles like crushed aggtegate, stone or screened slag,
stone dust, loess, cement or other non-cohesive minerals to pro-
duce an stable mixture. The test could be by the Hubbard Field,
Marshall and Hveem Stabilometer procedures.
Asphalt binders with the grade of asphalt cerneNil for hot
plant mixing should be:

222 223
 Elements of Roads and Highways
a.) Medium viscosity, rapid or medium curing asphalts.
b.) Slow setting emulsified asphalt or
c.) Tars of grade RT-6 to RT-10.
The content of asphalt binder is in percent by weight rang-
ing from 4oA tn l0%. Compaction is done using either pneu-
matic tired or smooth wheeled roller. In case the surface is tight
and non-friable, sealing could be disregarded.
Fine Grain Asphalt Base
An asphalt stabilized base and sub-grade constructed with
fine grained has- a controlled Plastic lndex of 6 to l0 respec-
tively. Aggregates with Plasticity lndex up to 30 are processed
with lime. Those with up to 50o/o passing the No. 200 sieve and
Plastic lndex up to 18 can be stabilized even without pre-
treatrnent.
Soil and Base Course Stabilized with Cement
The use of Portland cement in stabilizing soils and aggre-
War-l in 1914.
gates was initially practiced after World
1. Cement stabilization by mixing natural materials and
Portland cement compacted at optimum moisture content
and cured to hydrate the cement is considerably strong
and stable base. It is less susceptible to deformation
caused by moisture and temperature changes.
2. Comparatively, this is less rigid than the Portland cement
concrete because its modulus of elasticity ranges from
100,000 for clay soils with little cement up to 1,000,000
for the strong mixture. Its compressive strength ranges
from 300 psi to 600 psi with flexural strength of about
20o/o of the compressive value.
3. Portland cement concrgte modulus of elasticity ranges
from 3 million to 6 million with compressive strength of
about 3,000 to 5,000 psi.
224
Constructing the R oadbed
The stabilized cement mixture is called "Soil Cemenl" pro-
duced by using abundant native local materials subdivided rnto
three types:
1. Sandy and gravelly soils contarning less than 25o/o sllt
and clay.
2. Sand with lesser amount of fines like beach sand, glacial
and windblown sand.
3. Silty and Clayey Soils.
Materials having plasticity index greater than 30 is rarely
used, unless lime is added. Materials with high PH or sulfate
content are not advisable for use. The cement content fbr stabi"
lized mixture ranges from 5o/o to l4Yo by volume of 3o/oto l6oh
by weight of dry aggregates. Sandy and gravelly soils required
less amount of cement, unlike the silt-v and clayey soils that
needs higher percentage of cement.
The dry densities of cement stabilize mixture compacted b1'
AASI{|O standard methods, ranges from 135 lb per cubic fbot
for a well graded gravel down to 85 lb. per cubic foot for silty
or clayey soils, the recommended field density is about 95olo.
The qualitS' of aggregate cement mixture is measured by its
abilrty to resist abrasion and disintegration. Other methods of
testing for stabilize cement content is the Unconfined and Tri-
axial Compression and Flexure Tests.
z-+ Grading and Maintenance of Untreated
Surface
The cross slope of untreated surface gravel road must be
sufficient enough to drain water to prevent potholes and soften-
ing of the roadway, thus;
1. If the road materials are sufficiently stable and water
tight, one inch per slope is considered satisfactory al-
though 3/8 ta Yz" peer foot slope is prefi:rred.
225
 Elements of Roads and HighwaYs Constructing the Roadbed

2. Ifthe road is steep grade, substantial cross slope is needed 5. Compaction is effectively done by using pneumatic tired
to direct the water into the roadside. or steel wheeled rollers. Where surface is tight and non-
variable, sealing may be omitted.
Untreated surface road is seldom constructed in less than 20
ce.ntimeters loose depth. When compacted,'will be compressed 7-5 DPWH Standard Specifications on
to about 15 centimeters thick. Road development sometimes
Aggregate Sub-Base Course
adopted the stage construction methods which means, step by
step improvement of the roadway, depending upon the avail-
The Department of Public Works and Highways classified
ability of funds and dernand of increased traffic. The sequence
the aggregate sub-base course as Item 200 which consists of
of improvement could be as follows:
furnishing, placing and compacting aggregate sub-base course
First: It might be an earth road surface. on a prepared sub-grade.
Second: Untreated gravel road.
Third: Application of asphalt over the gravel. Item - 200 Material Requirements
Fourth: The use of stone type pavement with gravel as part
of the base cotuse. That, aggregates for sub-base shall consist ofhard, durable
particles of fragments or crushed stone, crushed slag or crushed
Maintenance of gravel road surface is a routine activity spe- or natural gravel and filler or natural crushed sand or other
cially in maintaining the smoothness of the surface under the firrnly divided mineral matter.
following procedures: The composite material should be free of vegetable matter'
and lumps or balls of clay that could be compacted readily to
l. By cutting off a thin layer of the road surface using road form a firm stable base.
grader distributing the scraped layer uniformly over the
roadway surface. The cut is deep enough to remove the TABLE 7-2 GRADING REQTTREMENTS FOR ITEM 200
comrgations ofthe road surface.
2. The blading sequence is once or twice a year or some-
times monthly, depending upon the finances, traffic and
equipment availability. After blading, the road is com-
pacted by road roller to maintain the cross section slope
and th: crown of the roadway.
J. The most effective routine maintenance is done immedi-
ately after rainfall where the surface is soft for the blade
to drag.
Losses of materials caused by grading and traffic wear Conditions
generally ranges from Yr" to 1 inch of the thickness per
year allhough it varies due to traffic volume, rainfall, l. The fraction passing the 0.75 mm (200) sieve should not
wind intensity, frequency and maintenance practice or be greater than 0.666 (213) of the fraction passing the
habit. 0.425 mm No. 40 sieve.

226 227
 Elements of Roads and Highwa5,s Constructing the Roadbed

2. The fraction passing the 0.425 mm (No. 40) sieve should 4. The materials passing the 20 mm (3/4") sieve shall have a
have a liquid limit not greater than 35 and Plastic Index soaked CBR value of not less than 80%.
not more than 12 as determined by AASHTO T-89 and T-
90 respectively. Item- 202 Material Requirements
3. The coarse portion retained on a 3.0 mm (N0. l0) sieve
shall have a mass percent of wear not to exceed 50 by the l. The portion passing the 0.075 mm (No. 200) sieve shall
Los Angeles Abrasion Tests as determined by AASHTO not be greater than 0.66 (Zl3) of the portion passing the
T-193. The CBR value should be obtained at a madmum 0.425 mm (No. 40) sieve.
dry densit) as determined by AASHTO T-180 Method D 2. The portion passing the A.425 mm (No. 40) sieve shall
have a liquid limit n(lt more than 25 and Plastic lndex not
more than 6.
Tfeml[Ot lfaterial Req u irements 3. The coarse aggregate retained on 2.0 mm (No.lO) sieve
shall have a mass percent of wear not more than 45 by
TABLE 7-3 GRADTNG REQUIREMENTS FOR rTEM-201 L.A. abrasion tests, and not less than 50 rnass percent
shall have at least one fractured face.
Sieve Mass Percent 4. The material passing the 20 mm (3/4") sieve shall have a
Standard Altemate US Standard Grading minimrrm soaked CBR value of 80%.
B
50 2u
TABLE 7- 4 ITUNI 2(T CRUSTfID AGGREGATE BASE COURSES
38 1-l12
z> 1u 60-85
Mass Percent
20 3/4" oo-as Standard Altemate US Standard Grading
7/2' 35-65
12
mm lnch B
4;t5 No.4 20-50 30-35
0.425 No.40 s-20 8-25 38 t-t/2'
0.075 No.200 o-12 2-t4 25 I' 100
20 3/4* 60-85
t2 712', 60-90
4.'t5 No.4 30-35 35-65
Conditions 0.425 No.40 8-25 l0-30
0.075 No.200 2-14 5-1 5

That the fraction passing the 0.075 mm (No. 200) sieve

shall have a mass percent of wear not to exceed 50.
The fraction passir4l the 0.425 mm (No. 40) sieve shall
have a liquid limit not greater than 25 and Plastic Index
not greater than 6.
The coarse portion retained on a 2.0 mm (No. 40) sieve
shall have a mass percent of wear not to exceed 50.
Item* 203 Lime Stabilized Road Mix Base Course
This item consists of foundation for a surface course com-
posed of soil aggregate, lime and water proportion mixed on
site and constructed on a prepared sub-grade or sub-base.

228 '229
 Elements of Roads and Highways Constructing the Roadbed

Material Requirements 4. The equipment to be used includes: scariSer, pulverizer,

mixer, spreader, hauler, water truck, compactor and fin-
1. Soil aggregates refers to the combination of gravel, sand, ishing machine, including slurry line distributor equip-
silt and clay, or other approved cornbination of materials ment.
free of vegetable or other objectionable matter that might 5. Distributor equipment should include: pressure gauge,
be encountered in the construction site or obtained from volume measuring devices or a calibrated tank. It should
"be equipped with power unit for ttre pump and full circu-
other approved sources.
2. The intent of the specification is to utilize soil existing on lation spray bars adjustable laterally and vertically and
the roadbed if the quality is satisfactory according to the also agitator to prevent settrng of solid lime.
specifications and minimizing cost.
3 " On the contrary, if the material quality is poor or defi- Preparation of the Soil Aggregate
cient, aggregate must be obtained wholly or partially from
an approved outside sources. Case - I For New Soil Aggregate
TABLE 7-5 GRADING REOTIREMENTS FOR ITEM.2O3
l. The existing roadbed is scarified lightly and bladed to a
uniform grade according to the plan, then rolled, watered
Mass Percent Pas and rolled.
Standard Alternate US Standard Gradrng 2. All depressions appearing on the surface are filled, and
mnl Inch B the weak portion of the roadbed is strengthened with new
soil aggregate.
50 2" 100
4.75 No.4 55-100
3. Allow one day for measuring, sampling and testing of the
sample for approval of the qualrty and gradation before
2.ffi No. l0 45-100
0.425 No.40 25-80 spreading the windrow for application of the hydrated
0.075 No.200 I l-35 lime.
4. If soil aggregate moisture exceeds two mass percent of
th" dry aggregate, apply aeration by harrowing the soil
aggregate until the moisture content is reduced to 2o/o or
Conditions: less.
5. Finally, spread the aggregate smoothly and uniformly
l. That, the Plastic Index of Item 203 should not be less than over half the road or other convenient width of the sur-
4 or more thar 10. The aggregate mass percent of wear face ready for the application of hydrated lime.
should not exceed 50.
2. Hydrated lime must conform to the requirements of Item Case - 2 Salvage Soil Aggregate
701- Construction Lime. The amount of lime added to
soil aggregate should be from 2to 12 mass percent of the l. When materials in the site are to be used for mixing, the
dry soil. surface should be scarified lightly and bladed to a uni-
3. Lime should not be applied during windy, rainy or with form grade conforming to the cross section of the plan.
impending bad weather.

.:1J I
230
 Blements of Roads and Highways
2. The reshaped surface is scarified again to depth required
leaving a foundation of undisturbed material parallel rvith
the profile and cross section.
3. The loosened materials are bladed into a windrow at the
srde of the roadway. The undisturbed materia-ls are then
rolled, watered and rolled.
Application of Lime
Application of lime shall follow correct procedures enumer-
atod as follows:
l. The hydrated lime is uniformly spreaded at specified per-
cent using either the dry or slurry (wet) methods.
2. The hme is distributed in successive applications at the
arnount and intervals as prescribed.
3. The rnixing equiprnent follows immediateiy behind the
distributor after each application to partially mix the lime
n'lth the soil aggregate.
4 lt is applied only to specific areas as can be mixed into
the soil aggregate during the day of application.
5. Dry upplication is either by spotting bags of lime in equal
pre-determined transverse and longitudinal intervals or by
applying in bulk lime from equipped self-loading trucks.
6. If lfune slurry (wet) is employed, the typical slurry ratio is
1,000 kilograms lime to 2 cubic meters water. The achtal
mixing proportion depends upon the percent of lime
specified, the tlpe of soil and its moisture condition.
7. To prevent run-off and consequent non-uniformity of
lime distribution, the slurry is mixed imrnediately after
each spreading pass.
Mixing
lvlixing procedures are enumerated as follows:
L After the last lime application and partial mixing, the en-
tire rnass of rnixture is withdrawn on the road surface and
:3?
Constructing the Roadbed
then mixed by blading the mixture from side to side of
the road, or by manipulation producing equivalent results
until the whole rnass has uniform color. The mixture
should be free from lean spots or balls of unmixed parti-
cles.
2. Should the mixture show an excess of deficiency or un-
even distribution of lime, the condition must be corrected
by adding soil aggregate or lime then remixed.
3. tf the mixture contains excessive amount of water or
volatile matter, as may be encountered in slurry opera-
tion, it should be bladed, aerated or manipulated until the
moisture and volatile content becomes satisfactory.
4. Whether mi*ing is completed or not, all loosened materi-
als are bladed into a windrow at the end of each day work
and retained as such until operations resumed.
Spreading Compacting and Finishing
The methods of spreading, compacting and finishing are
enumerated as follows.
l. The materials are spreaded by self-propelled pneumatic
tired blade grader or mechanical spreader of approved
type. Cutting into the underlying course should be
avoided.
2. After spreading, the surface is leveled to the road center-
line, then to the outer edges of the road overlapping the
shoulder.
3. Each pass should terminate at least 90 centimeters in ad-
vance or to the rear ofthe end ofthe preceding pass.
4. During the time of compaction, the surface is dragged or
bladed as necessary to fill and remove incipient corruga-
tion or other surface irregularities.
5. Rolling must continue until after the surface is in uniform
texture satisfactorily compacted.
233
 Elements of Roads and Highways
6. Rolling should be stopped whenever there is an excessive
pulverizing of the aggregate or displacement of the mix-
ture.
Protection, Curing and Maintenance
After stabilizing the base course by lime, it is protected
against rapid drying for a period of at least 5 days by either of
the following curing methods:
l. A thorough and continuous moist condition should be
maintained by sprinkling water.
2. The surface must be covered with 50 mm layer of earth or
sand and maintained in moist condition.
3. The surface is applied wittr asphalt mernbrane of the type
and quantity approved bythe Highway agency.
Item 204 Portland Cement Stabilized Road Mix
Base Course
This item consist of a foundation for surface course com-
posed of soil aggregate, Portland cement and water, proper pro-
portions of road-mixed placed on a prepared sub-grade or sub-
base.
Proportioning Mixture
l. The amount of cement added to the aggregate shall be 6
to 10 mass percentofthe dry aggregate.
2. Construction requirement and procedures is the same as
that of Item-203 wherein the world lime is deieted and
replaced with Portland cement.
Item 205 Asphalt Stabilized Road Mixed Base Course
Materials. Asphalt materials should be Anionic or Cationic
Emulsion asphalt of the slow setting type.
234
Constructing the Roadbed
Mixture Proportion. The amounl of asphalt material to be
added to the aggregate should be from 4 to 7 mass
percent ofthe dry aggregate.
Item 206 Portland Cement Treated Plant Mix
Base Course
A) Travel Plant Mixing Method: The salvage or new ag-
gregate is pulverized until at least 80 mass percent of all the
materials other than stone or gravel passes a 4.75 mm (No. 4)
sieve. Any material retained on a 50 mm (2") sieve and other
unsuitable materials are removed.
Procedure:
l. Aggregates to be treated, is placed in uniform windrow
spreaded to a uniform thickness to the required depth.
2. Portland cement of proper quantity is applied uniformly
in a trench on top of the windrows or spreaded uniformly
over the aggregates.
3. Mixing is done by rnachine for thorough and uniform
blended mixture.
4. When this method is used, a maximum time of 2 hours is
allowed for wet mixing, letdown and finishing.
B) Central Plant Mixing Method. The plant is equipped
with feeding and metering devices that will introduce the ce-
ment aggregate and water into the mixer in quantities specified.
Mixrng continue until after a uniform mixture is attained.
C) Spreading, Compacting and Finishing. Not more than
60 minutes should elapse from the start of mixrng to compac-
tion of the laid mixture. After spreading, the mixture is com-
pacted and finished in accordance with the procedures as enu-
merated for lime stabilized road mix base course ltern 2'3.
7-6 Clearing and Grubbing
235
 Elements of Roads and l{ighw*ys
Constructing the Roadbed
Clearing and Grubbing is categorized uneler ltem-100 of the
DPWH standard specifications. It consists of clearing, grub-
2. Lump Sum Basis. No measurement of area will be made
for this item.
bing, removrrg and disposing of all vegetable matter and debris
except those objects that are designated to remain in place or
3. Individual Unit Basis (selective clearing). The diameter
of trees will be measured at a height of 1.4 meters above
are to be removed in consonance with other provisions of the
the ground. Trees less than 15 cm. diameter will not be
specifications. It also includes preservation from injury or de-
measured for payment.
facement of all objects designated to remain.
The unit basis will be designated and measured in accor-
dance with the following schedule of sizes:
Specifications for Clearing and Grubbing provides that:
Diameter at heigtrt 1.4 meters - Pay item designated.
1. All surface objects and all trees, stumps, roots and other Over 15 cm. to 90 cm - Small
protruding obstructions, not designated to remain should
Over 90 cm. -Large
be cleared and/or grubbed including the mowing required
as follows:
7-7 Excavati0n
a) Removal of undisturbed stumps and roots and
non-perishable solid objects with a minimum Excavation is the process of loosening and removing earth
depth of 90 centimeters below sub-grade or slope or rock from its original position in a cut and transporting it to a
of embankrnents will not be required. fill or to waste deposit.
b) Outside the grading limits of cut and embank-
ment areas, stumps and non perishable solid ob- Roadway excavation is classified into:
jects should be cut off not more than 15 cm"
above the ground line or below low water level.
L Unclassified excavation

c) In areas to be rounded at the top of cut slope, 2. Rock excavation

stumps should be cut off flush with or below the

3. Common excavation

surface ofthe final 5lope line.

d) Grubbing of pits, channel changes and ditches
will be required only to the depth necessary by
the proposed excavation with such areas.
e) Buming should be under constant care of compe-
tent watchman that the surrounding vegetation,
adjacent property, or anything designated to re-
main on the right of way will not be jeopardized.
Methods of Measurement
l. Area Basis - by hectare and fractions thereof acceptably
cleared and prubbed.
I
4. Muck excavation
5. Borrowexcavation
UnclassiJied Excavation is the excavation and disposal of
all materials regardless of its nature, or not classified and rn-
cluded in the Bill of Quantities under other pay iterns.
Rock Excavation consists of igneous, sedimentary and
metamorphic rocks that cannot be excavated without blasting or
the use ofrippers and all boulders or other dstached stones each
having a volume of I cubic meter.
Common Excavations are those that are not included in the
Bill of Quotations under rock excavation or other pay items.
Muck Excavations consist of the removal and disoosal of

236
237
 Elements of Roads and HighwaYs
deposits of saturated or unsaturated mixtures of soils and or-
ganic matter not suitable for foundation matenals regardless of
moisture contents.
Borrow Excavation is the excavation and utilization of ap-
proved materials for the construction of embankment or for
other portions of the work obtained from approved sources in
accordance with the following requirements:
l. Borrow Case -I: Materials obtained from sources desig-
nated on the plans or in the special provisions.
2. Borrow Case - 2: Materials obtained from sources pro-
vided by the contractor.
Construction Requirements
l. When there is evidence of discrepancies between the ac-
tual elevations and that shown on the plans, a pre-
construction survey with reference to the datum plane
' used in the approved plan is undertaken by the contractor
or agency to serve as basis for the computation of the ac-
tual volume excavated.
2. All excavations should be finished to smooth and uniform
surface. As much as possible, no materials shall be turned
to waste. Materials outside the limits of slope should not
be disturbed by the excavation operations. Excavations
should be done only after the clearing and grubbing in the
area.
3. Top soil encountered in excavation and on areas where
embankment is to be placed should be removed to the
depth as the Engineer may determine and should be trans-
ported and deposited in storage pile designated area sepa-
rated from other excavated materials for later use.
The Use of Excavated Materials
All
suitable materials removed from the excavation area are
used in the formation of:
238
Constructing the Roadbed
l. Embankment 4. Slope
2. Sub grade 5. Bedding
3. Shoulders 6. Backfillforstructures
Allunsuitable materials that could not be properly com-
pacted in embankment must be disposed of without delay for it
might be included in the work when the engineer turn his back
for a cup of coffee. Borrow materials should not be placed until
after the fill accessible roadway excavation has been placed in
the fill.
Pre-Watering and Pre-splitting
Excavation areas and borrow pits may be pre-watered be-
fore excavation. When pre-watering is adopted, the areas to be
excavated shall be moistened to the frrll depth from the surface
to the bottom of the excavation. The water must be controlled
so that excavated materials will contain the acceptable moisture
content to permit compaction to the desired density.
Pre-watering has to be supplemented where necessary by
truck watering unit to insure ttrat the enrbankmert materials
contains the proper moisture at the time of compaction.
Pre-Splitting is drilling and blasting procedure that may be
employed to control over break and to give a uniform face to
the back slope or rock cuts. Pre-Splitting is performed by:
l. Drilling holes at uniform intervals along the slope line.
2. Loading and stemming the holes with appropriate explo-
. sives and stemming materials.
3. Detonating the holes simultaneously.
If the pre-splitting is under contract, prior to drilling opera-
tions, the contractor shall:
l. Furnish the engineer a plan outlining ttre position of all
drill holes, depth of drilling type and explosive to be
used, loading pattern and sequence of firing.
239
 Elements of Roads and Highways
2. The drilling and blasting plan is for record purposes only,
and will not absolve the contractor of his responsibility
for using proper drilling and blasting procedures.
3. Controlled blasting must begin with a short test section of
length to be approved by the engineer.
4. The test section shall be pre-splitted production drilled
and blasted. Sufficient materials sample to be taken for
ttre engineer to determine if the contractor's method is
satisfactory.
5. The holes are charged with explosives of the size, kind,
strength, and spacing suitable for the formation being pre-
splitted, and with stemming material which passes a 3
inches standard sieve which has the qualities for proper
confinement of the explosives.
6. The finished pre-split slope should be reasonably uniform
and free of loose rocks. Variance from the true plane of
the excavated back-slope should not exceed 30 centime-
ters. Localized irregularities or surface variations that do
not constitute safety hazard or impairment to drainage
courses or facilities will be permiued.
7. The maximum offset of 60 centimeters will be permitted
for construction working bench at the bottom of each lift
for use in drilling the next lower pre-splitting pattem.
8. The engineer may order discontinuance of ttre pre-
splitting when the materials encountered are unsuitable
for pre-splitting
7-8 Free Haul - Overhaul (Item 107)
Free haul distance is the specified distance wherein an ex-
cavated material will be hauled without additional cost. The free
haul distance is 600 meters unless otherwise specified in the
contract.
The overhaul is an authorized hauling in excess of the free
haul distance. For example, if the hauling distance of materials
is 800 meters, considering that the free haul is 600 meters, t}ren
the excess 200 meters is considered the overhaul.
240
Constructing the Roadbed
Methods of Measurement
The overhaul distance for material obtained and placed
within the rnadway limits will be measured along the centerline
of the roadway. No allowance will be made for transverse of
lateral movement to or from the c.enterline except materials
moved to or from designated areas outside the roadway limits.
If the contractor chooses to haul materials frorn other route
which is longer than the designated source, pa)ment will be
based on the overhaul distance measured along the route desig-
naled by the engineer. Payment will be made based on the
number of cubic meters overhaul materials multiplied by the
overhaul distance in kilometers.
7-9 Construction of Fills and Embankment
An stable embarkment is atfained by spreading the materi-
als into a thin layer then compacted at a moisture content closer
to optimum. These layered process of compaction produces uni-
fo.*rty and higher density of the material and moisture corrtent.
On the other hand, filhng materials which are just durnped in
thick layers even if compacted will have a varyrng density and
moisture contents from one spot to another. This will result to
differential settlement or swell between the adjacent areas of the
embankment.
The AASHTO-ARBA Joint Commiuee on Compaclion of
Earthwork proposed the following amendment to the original
AASFIIO density requirements to wit:
1. Granular aggregates or those with only slight degree of
plasticity, should be compactedto 95%-100%
2. Fine grained aggregate possessing a low degree of
plasticity is compacted to approximately 100% at a
moisture content near laboratory optimum.
3. Densities for asgregate possessing moderate to high plas-
ticity should not be so high as to lead to subsequent srvel-
241
 Elements of Roads and Highways
Constructing the Roadbed
ling. Compacting procedures should not exceed the as_
The problems encountered in the control of embanlanent
gregate shear strength
construction are:
4. Clay soil should not be over. compacted beyond about
90Yo to avoid post construction swelling.
I. Difliculties in maintaining uniform moisture content. This
is due to:
Embankment Control
a) Variable wetness of the soil.
Basically, there are two procedures employed
b) Problems in evenly distributing and mixing in
to assure w-ater.
specifi ed embankment density.
c) Evaporation or rainfall during compaction.
2. Some soil may not easily assimilate watei unless wefiing
L To specify the expected value to the minimum acceptable
agent is employed, Sometimes soil type cannot be segre_
amount of relative compaction and to ascertain from the gated dunng construction unless brought to laboratory.
fill density tests that the specified value is obtained. J. Materials re hauled from different sources and segrega_
2. To specify tJre manner and methods of constructing the tion of the same type is difficult in the actual work.
embankment particularly the layer thickness, moisture
control and the number of passes by a roller of specified
type and weight.
Construction Requirements and Equipment

Field control is a matter of ascertaining and defining the a) Density test requirements
specific procedures to be done. what is important is the manner
b) Moisture control
c) Compaction equipment like:
and methods that will yield the expected result.

1. Tamping Roller varies from light unit test weight 6,000 to

10,000 lbs. for an 8ft width. For giant fully loaded roller,
TABLE 7-6 RECOMMENDED MINTMUM REQUTREMENTS
75,000lbs for a l0 ft. width.
Mrnimum Relative Density Requirements* +
2. Grid Rollers is effective in breaking down clods and soft
of Soils
Class rock.
AASHTO M-I45 3. gPneumatic Tire Roller with rubber tires, weighing g tons
or more. 200 tons for airport.
A-1, A-3 4. Smooth Tired Roller of two or three-wheeled type used to
A-2-4, A-2-5 compact bases and bituminous surface.
A-2-6, A-2-7
A-4, A-5, A-6, A-7
5. Wbratory Compactor is effective in compactrng stones of
Macadam road.
Source: AASHTO M-57-64 6. Hauling and Spreading equipment.
r Compaction at 95% of T-99 optimum content.
** Usc of these materials rcquircs spccial design and construction. Embankment on Swampy Areas
+ AASHTO Desig. M-146 basement soil compacted doil.
Conventional construction of roadways in swampy area is

242
243
 Elements of R.oads and flighways
not advisable because record shows that muck turd plate provide
unstable support for fills causing failure of highways and rail-
roads. Construction of roadway through swampy area requires
either of the following methods:
l" Removal and replacement of unsuitable materials.
2. Displacement under the followrng methods:
a) Surcharging method
b) Vertical sand drain
c) Fabric reinforcement
Affit reduetion
Removal and Replacement Method is applicable where
the unstable material is shallow or thin. Unstable materials are
removed to the level of the underlying materials before fillmg.
Displacement Method. Imported materials are carefully
placed along the advancing slope allowed to flow under the
dense muck to displace it. Sometrmes a trench almost equal to
the width of the embankment may 6e blasted out and backfilled
at once with stable materials. The blast pushes part of the muck
out of the trench and the other portion is liquified for easy dis-
placement.
Where muck is deeper or thick, the under-fill method of dis-
placement is applied. The trench is bladted and a large volume
of the fillmaterial is dropped to settle into the peak.
,,,,:
The Relief Method is also employed after the fill materials
are dumped in place. Relief ditches are blasted along the side of
the fill to displace the underlying muck.
Surcharging Method is applied on low fill over shallow
muck up to 30 or 40 centimeters depth. Where top of the muck
is soft, displacement through careful filling is done. The fill is
then built-up in compacted layers to its elevation allowing set-
tlement to its final grade. Surcharge of un-compacted fill mate-
rial is laid to add weight and accelerate the flow of water from
244
Constructing the Roadbed
the muck speeding up :onsolidation. care should be exercised
not to exceed the shearing strength of the muck otherwise, dis-
placement of the muck and settlernent of the fill may take place.
After a period of consolidation, the surcharge material is ,e-
moved and rq:laced with base course and temporary pavement.
The Vertical Sand Drain Method provides rapid consoli-
dation of deep layer muck. sand drains are vertical columns of
sand that penetrate the muck almost to solid materials. Across
this top is a horizontal blanket extending through the side slope
of the fill. u'der the pressure induced by fill and surcharg", .ob
surface water flows up the clrain and out of the fill. Rapid con-
solidation of the muck follor,i's.
The Fabric Reinforcement Method is covering the muck
with permeable fabrics.
Weight Reduction Method is installing a block of styro-
foam over the muck to reduce the weight of the fill.
DPWH Specifications on Embankment (Item-104)
Embankrnent shall be constructed of suitable materials de-
fined as:
l. Suitoble Materials are materials acceptable that could be
compacted in accordance with the contract as specified.
Selected Borrow for topping. Soils graded particles that
passes a 75 mm (3") sieve square openings and not more
than 15 mass percent will pass the 0.075 mm (No. 200)
sieve. The material shall have a Plastic lndex not more
than 6 and liquid limit not more than 30.
2. Unstabile Materials are materials other than suitable ma-
terials such as:
a) Materials containing detrimental quantities of
organic substances like grass, roots and sewage.
245
 Elements of Roads and Highways
b) Highly organic soils like peat and muck.
c) Soils with liquid limit exceeding 80 and or plas-
tic index exceeding 55.
d) Soils with natural water content exceeding
I00yo
e) Soils with very low natural density of 800
kg./^t or lower.
Methods of Construction
l. Where embankment lower than 120 centimeters below
the sub-grade is to be made, all s,rds and vegetable mat-
ters are removed from the surface" The cleared surface
should be totally broken-up by plowing, scariffing or
steeprng to a minimum depth of 15 centimeters. Sods not
required for removal should be disc harrowed or scarified
befbre thc construction of embankment.
Z. Roadway embankment on earth materials are placed in
horizontal layers not exceeding 20 centimeters loose vol-
ume than compacted as specified before the next layer is
placed.
3. When excavated materials contains more than 25 mass
percent of rock larger than 15 centimeters in greatest di-
ameter and cannot be placed in layers of the thickness
prescribed without crushing, pulverizing or further break-
ing down into pieces, such materials may be placed on the
embankment in layers not exceeding in thickness the ap-
proximate average size ofthe larger rocks bul not greater
than 60 centimeters.
4. Lifts of materials containing more than 25 mass percent
of rock larger than 15 centimeters in greatest dimension
should not be constructed above an elevation of 30 centi-
msters below the finished sub-grade. The balance of em-
bankrnent should be composed of suitable matenal placed
in layers not exceeding 20 centimeters in loose thickness
and compacted as specified for embankment.
246
Constructing the Roadbed
5. Hauling and leveling equipment should be routed and dis-
tributed over each layer of the fill to make use of compac-
tion efforts affording and to minirnize rutting and uneven
compaction.
Compaction
The contractor shall carry out full-scale compaction trials on
areas not less thanl0 meters wide and 50 meters long. Compac-
tion trials with the main types of fill materials to e used in the
work should be completed before any work with the corre-
sponding rnaterials is allowed to start.
Throughout the period of compaction, the contractor should
adherg to the compaction procedures found during the compac-
tion trials for each type of materials, comp4ction equiprnent
employed, and each degree of compaction specified.
Protection of Roadbed During Construction.
During the construction of roadway, the roadbed should be
rvell maintained and drained at all times. slide ditches or gutters
emptying from cuts to embankrnent or otherwise should be con-
structed to avoid damages to embankment by erosion.
Rounding and Warping Slope
Rounding. Except solid rocks, the top and bottom of all
slopes including the slopes of drainage, ditches, are rounded as
planned. A layer ofearth overlapping rock is rounded above as
was done in earth slope.
Warping. Adjusfinent in slopes are made to avoid injury to
standurg trees or marring of weather head rock or to harmonize
with, existing landscape features adjusting to thd gradual slope.
At the intersections of cuts and fills, slope are adjusted and
warped to flow into each other or into the nafural ground sur-
face without noticeable break.
),47
 Elements of Roads and Highways Constructing the Roadbed

7-10 Sub-Grade Preparation vertical structures, roads or other structures it is important to

know if the in place materials possesses the following proper-
Sub-grade preparation is categorized under ltem 105 ofthe ties:
DPW standard specifications. The sub-grade is prepared for the
support of overlying structural layers extended to the full width
1. That, the soil must have adequate strength.
of the roadway.
2. The soil must be relatively incompressible to avoid insig-
nifi cant funrre settlement.

Material Requirements
3. The soil must be stable against volume change as water
content or other factors varv.
l. Except when the sub-grade is in rock cut, all materials be-
4. The soil must be durable and save against deterioration.

low the sub-grade is leveled to a depth of 15 centimeters

5. The soil must possess proper permeability.

or more as specified to meet the requirernents of selected

These desirable features could be achieved with compacted
borrow toppings
2. Prior to start of the sub-grade preparation, all culverts
fill of selected types of soil properly placed and arranged.
Highly desirable characteristics such as strengtlr, low com-
cross drains, conduits and the like including the backfill,
pressibility and stability is associated with high densrty values
ditches. drains and drainage outlets are thoroughly com-
as a result of using good materials and proper compactron.
pacted. Any work on the preparation of the sub-grade
should not be allowed to start unless approved by the su- Any type of soil may be used for structural fill provided that
pervising engineer. it does not contain organic or foreign materials that will decom-
pose or otherwise undergo changes after it is placed.
Sub-Grade Level Tolerance The water content in the soil fill has substantial effect on its
stabilrty and rn the process of compaction. Fine grain silt, and
The finished compacted surface ofthe sub-grade shall con- clay soil, or granular soil containing fine materials are affected
form to the allowable tolerance specified as follows: by vibrations due to its water contelrt. Soil that is too dry is dif-
l. Permitted variance from design +20mm ficult to compact and those that are too wet are difficult to
2. Levelof service -30mm , spread and compacted.

3" Permitted surface irregularities
measursd by 3 meters straight edge
4. Permitted variance from design
cross-fall of camber
5. Permitted variance from design
longitudinal grade over 25 m. long
7-11 Compaction and Stabilization
Whether the soil is used as foundation material to support
Generally, compacted silt is stable. It is capable of develop-
+ 30mm ing fairly good strength and has litfle tendency for volume
change. But silt soil is difficult to compact if wet or if work is
0.5% performed on rainy period.
Compacted clay has very low permeability, an advantage
+ O.lyo
where movement of water needs to be restricted, but clay soils
cannot be compacted properiy when wst. If the height of the fill
is reasonably high, marginal materials to be placed under water
should consist of coarsc granular materials. Fine grain soil
should be avoided.

a40
Ln0
249
 Elements of Roads and Highways Constructing the Roadbed

The thic}ness of the initial fill should be greater than the
normal fill in order to create a working pad capable of support-
ing equipment used for the subsequent placement and compac-
tion of the fill.
Equipment for Compaction
This natural frequency refers to the value at which the soil
particles tendto oscillate in unison giving maximum effect to
the repeated impact imposed by the compactor instead of hav-
ing a random oscillation of particles that would create damping
effect. Thus, shaking the particles into a more compacted ar-
rangement.

l. The Pneumatic or nrbber tired rollers.

The Smooth Drum Roller has limited depth of compaction'
2. The drum type roller with projecting feet or logs called This is not suited for compacting earthfill due to the size of the
the sheep's foot roller.
drum and the large soil contact. This $pe can be utilized for
3. Vibratory compaciors.
compacing limited thickness such as granular base course on
4. Smooth <kum rolErs,
highways and the like.
'Ihe hteumatic Tire Roller can be used effectively on all The smooth drum roller can be used on earth moving pro-
types of soils. It compacts by kneading available as self- jects to seal the surface of the fill at the end of each workday
propelled unit or as towed units. Load sizes vary from 20 tons providing smooth surface for the water to rapidly run-off fiom
to 200 tons of which, 50 tons is commonly used. the work area.

Light rollers of 20 tons type can compact 6 inches thick
layer with few passes. The 40 to 50 tons roller can compact 12
inches thick layer with 3 to 4 passes. The heavy 200 tons type
was proven to compact layers up to 18 inches thick with limited
number of passes.
Tlre Sheep's Foot Roller is limited to cohesive soils. Its
pressure varies from 700 lN/m'? 6 4,200ld\f/m'?.
The Vibratory Compadar is the most effective compactor
on non-cohesive soils available as:
1. Vibrating drumtype.
2. Vibrating pnzumatic tire.
3. Vibratfug plate equipment.
On some vibratory compactors, the vibrating frequency can
be varied by operation. The frequency riurges between 1500 and
2,500 cycles per minute that is within the natural frequencies of
most soil.
Compaction Equipment and Density Control Strips
Compaction equipment should be capable of obtaining
compaction requirements without detrimentally affecting the
compacted materials. The compacting unit may be of any type,
provided that they are capable of compacting each lift of mate-
rial as specified and meet the minimum requirements.
Minimum Requirements for Road Roller
l. Pneumatic Tire Roller must have smooth thread tires of
equal size that will provide uniform compacting pressure
for the full width of the roller and capable of exerting
ground pressure ofat least 550 kN ( psi).
2. Sheepfoot Tamping as grid roller should be capable of
exerting a force of 45 Newton per millimeter (250 psi) of
length of roller.
3. Vibratory Steel Wheel Roller must have a minimum
mass of 6 tons. The compactor is equipped with ampli-
tude and frequencY controls.

250 251
 Elements of Roads and llighways

4. Steel Wheel Roller. Other than vibrato{, should be capa-

ble of exerting a force not less than 45 Newton per milli
meter of width of the compression roll or rolls. CHAPTER

TABLE 7.7 SOIL COMPACTION CIHRACTERISTICS

AND RECOMMENDED COMPACTION EQTIIPMENT
CONCRETE PAVEMENT
Gcneral Soil uninei soit Compaction :ndcd Compaction
Description Classification Charactcristics Equipmcnt 8-1 Portland Cement
Sand & sand Sa, SP, Gw Good Vibratory down roller Portland cement is a combination of limestone, marl or
Gravel mixturc CP Vibratory rubbcr tire or
other calcareous materials and clay, shale, or like argillaceous
(no silt or clay) pneumatic tire cquipment
substances.
Sand or SAnd Sm,GM Good Vibratory down roller
The different types of Portland cement specified by
Gravel with
AASFITO are the following:
Vibratory rubber tirc,
Clay Vibratory sheep's foot
1. Type 1 or 1A (Air entraining). This type of cement is for
silt ML Good !o Poor Pneumatic Tire
general concrete construction when the specified proper-
Vibratory rubbcr tirc, ties ofthe other four types are not required.
Vibratory shecp's fmt
2. Type II or IIA (Air entraining) This type is for general
MH Fair to Poor Pneumatic tire,
concrete construction exposed to moderate action or
Vibratory rubber tirc where moderate heat of hydration is required.
Vibratory sheep's foot
sheep foot typc
3. Type III or IIIA (Air entraining) This type is for high
strength concrete.
Clay CL Good to Fair Pncumatic tirc, shccp's
foot, vibr8tory sheep's
4. Type IV is for low heat of hydration.
foot and rubber tire. 5. Type V for high sulfate resistance
CH Fair to Poor -do-
Generally, Portland cement constitute the following chemi-
cals:
Organic Soil OI,OH,PT Not recommended for
strrrctural carthfill
l. Tricalcium Silicate (C3S)
2. Dicalcium Silicate (C2S)
3. TricalciumAluminate (C3A)
4. Tetracalcium Alumina Ferrite (C4AF)

252 253
 Elements of R.oads and Highways Concrete Pavement

TABLE 8-I COMPOSITION AND STRENGTH CHARACTERISTICS Concrete Pavement Design Assumes the Following
OF VARIOUS TYPES OF PORTLAND CEMENT Considerations:
Comp. Strength Normal
Cornpound Portland Cement Concrete
L That, the pavernent slab was designed as plain concrete
Types ofCement Compor.rnd Percent Percent beams.
r7283 2, That, transverse cracks on the concrete pavement cannot
C3S C2S C3A CAAF day days days months be avoided. The designer however, presumes that pave-
ment cracks could be controlled, by providing reinforce-
I - Normal 50 24 lt 8 100 100 100 100
ments to the slab joints with the following assumptions.
II - Modit'ied 4233 5 l3 75 85 90 100
III - High Early 60139 8 190 120 110 100
IV - Low Heat 26 50 5 t2 55 55 75 t00 a) With reinforeemen! cracks on the slab will be
V - Sulfate Resistant 40404 9 r)) lJ 75 100 conlined to a weakened plain joints spaced at
4.50 to 6.00 msters distance.
b) Vertical offsetting across the narrow cracks will
be prevented by aggregate interlock, or by dowel
8-2 Concrete Pavement Characteristics bars.
and Behavior c) Wrth simply reinforced slab, cracks will only ap-
pear at weakened plane joints spaced at 12 ta 20
The behavior of concrete pavement that is exposed to load- meters intervals. Hair cracks to be hetd tigldy by
ing and environmental effect entirely depends upon the quallty the steel between joints.
of concrete, the underlying sub grade, and the base course. ' d) With continuous reinforcemen! transverse joints
Generally, concrete is strong in resisting compression load act- are omitted. Hair cracks are checked by the steel
ing on it, but considerably weak in resisting tensile stresses. and developed at close intervals.
Thus, concrete pavement actrng as a berrm, resting on a weak e) Faulting is countered by aggregatn interlock and
sub-grade and base courses, is also weak in carrying heavy load steel bars.
associated with impact forces. The reaction and movement of
the sub-grade supporting the slab, affects the stability of the That longitudinal cracks on the pavement slab more than
concrete pavement. one lane wide is inevitable.
4. Pavement slab is supported by foun<iation that deflects
Concrete like other materials also expand and contract due when loaded but recover when the load is removed, as-
to temperature changes. It expands when wet and contracts suming that the foundation materials are elastic or like a
when dried. After pouring, concrete shrinks as the mortar hard- dense liquid.
ens and the cement hydrates. Concrete pavement changes in
length with time of day for being exposed to different elements Definition of Terms
of weather changes. A curl tendency is very likely due to the
effect of daily and seasonal temperature and moisture differ- Deterioration. Deterioration of concrete pavement is due to
ences between the top and bottom of the slab. stress brought about by load, moisture and temperature.

254 255
 Elements of Roads and Highways
Distress of Concrete is generally grouped intcr the follow-
ing categories:
a) Distortion
b) Cracking
c) Disintegration
Distortion is a vertical displacement of concrete slab at the
joints or cracks. Distortion is due to failure or weakness of con-
crete joints.
Faulting. For faulting to occur, there must be free water on
top of the base corrse and pavement deflection across the joint
due to hearry axle loads. Faulting is the result of'pumping
tremendous force or load that develop urder pavement.
Causes offaulting are:
a) Loss ofslab support
b) Erosion of sub base
Cracking can take many forms in concrete pavement that
could be the result from; applied load, temperqture or moisture
changes.
The most common type of cracks are:
a) Corner craclcs associated with excessive corner deflection
b) Transverse craclcs associated with mixture or temperature
stresses, or poor construction methods.
Disintegration appears in the form of durability cracking,
scaling or spalling, as the result of mix design or construction
related problems like:
a) Durability Crachng. Results from freeze-thaw action.
b) Scaling. A network of shallow fine hairline cracks which
extend through the upper surface ofthe concrete. This is
the result from deicing salts, improper construction,
freeze-thaw cycle, or steel reinforcement too closed to the
surface.
2\6
Concrete Pavement
c) Spalling is the breaking or chipping of the joint edges. It
is the result from excessive stresses at joint, weak con-
crete, poorly designed or constructed joints
Changes in Temperature and Moisture Content create
slab curling, flexure stresses and overall lengthening and short-
ening of the slabs. The tendency of the slab to ,shorten is due to
temperature drop or drying that create tensile stresses" On the
other hand, the tendency to lengthen is due to temperature rise
or increased in moisture that creates compression stresses.
8-3 Control of Cracks
Load transfer anci joint alignment is sometimes dependent
solely on aggregate interlockrng. If the joint opening is consid-
erably small from .03 to .04 inch, the projecting aggregate is
considered tightly keyed, and w'hen the edge of one slab de-
flects due to load. the adjoining edge will also be forced down.
If the coarse aggregates are weak, as when the joints open
so wide, the aggregate interlocked is considered ineffective as a
means of load transfer. Although some ageniies employed de-
signs based on aggregate interlocked, others adopted the use of
steel dowels as load transfer devices at the pavement joints.
Dowels can be painted, greased or coated with asphalt for
almost one half of their length to break the bond with concrete,
allowing the dowels to slip within one of the abutting slab ends.
Skewed fiansverse contraction joint in plain concrete pavement
is being adopted. Joints are slanted 60 centimeters in each 3.60
meters lance from the normal position. The offset places the
inside of a double tire of a truck just forward of the joint and at
the same time the outside wheels are just behind the joint.
8-4 Transverse Expansion Joints
Expansron Joints provide space allowance for the lengthen-
251
 Elements of Roads and Highways Concrete Pavement

ing of slab due to expansion. Because of the so many buckling
upward of concrete pavement, Engineers have come up with a
conclusion that these blowups serves as conclusive evidence
that expansion joint is necessary,
Since year 1940, the provision for expansion joint at inter-
val of 30 meters or less was almost universally practiced in load
building. The reason for providing expansion joint is to prevent
blowups by relieving direct compressive stresses before reach-
ing the stage of unmanageable level.

Based on the shrdies of more than 5,000 blowup samples, it

TABLE 8-2 RTCOMMENDED DTMENSTONS OF DOWELS FOR was found out that blowups occurred mostly in mid afternoon at
CONCRETE PAVEMENT JOINTS
a temperature above 90"F during a peiod preceded by varying
Pavement Dowel Diameter Dowel Length Dowel Spacing amount of precipitatrons.
Thickness cm. mm meter mgter

15.0 20 .45 .30 8'5 Longitudinal Joints

17.5 25 .45 .30
20.0 25 .45 .30 Longitudmal joints are provided between adjacent traffic
2.2.5 32 .45 .30 lanes. It is considered as hinges to provide edge support, but
25.0 32 .45 .30 allows rotation between the slabs" By this joint, flexural stresses
27.5 32 .30
.45
that might cause irregular cracks along the length of the road
30.0 .45 .30
are relieved or neutralized. Longitudinal joints cannot be con-
sidered as a major problem under the followrng assumpttons:
Source : AASHTO lnterior Guide & Proposed Revision 1980

1. Thatthere is no big load transfer across it.

(a) Contraction Joint (c) Longitudinal Joint 2. That, the expansion and contraction movement developed
across the pavement width is very small small.
T-
T
J Longltudhd Jcllt
Sawed or forrmed Load transfer if specified Deformed tie oar
groove

Formed groove

+ 114min
;+1.-W

(b) Expansion Joint (d) Construction Joint

F|GURE 8-1 BASIC TYPE OF CONCRETE PAVEMENT JOINTS FIGIJRE 8.2 LONGITUDINALJOINT LOAD TRANSFER

258 2-i9
 Elements of Roads and Highways Concrete Pavement

3. When lanes are constructed at different time using side
forms, the joints are provided with key way in the first
slab to accept load transfer.
4. For longitudinal joint, deformed tie bars are used because
the purpose is to hold the slabs tightly together, rather to
allow the joints to open and close.
5. The diameter and spacing of tie bars are based on the
force needed to pull the narrow pavement slab over the
sub-grade to the jornt.
6. The length of tie bar is determined from the ernbedment
irrside the concrete necessary to develop the strength of
the bar.
ving and air blown asphalt sometimes mixed with mineral filler,
rubber asphalt, and various rubber compounds. They are poured
hot and stiff, then cooled, others are placed cold. There are
some pre-formed sealant made of strips of extruded neoprene
compressed for insertion into the groove joints, the sealant will
expand and fill the space completely.
8-7 Reinforcement of Joints
Steel reinforcement for ooncrete pavement joints are speci-
fied in the design to prevent the widening of cracks produeed by
shrinkage or thermal contraction.

TABLE E.3 RECOIVIM"*'O BARS FOR LONGITUDINAL The rernforcement holds the fractured faces in rigid contact
'''
JOINTS IN CONCRETE PAVEMENT 3.60I}I. LANE WIDTH preserving the aggregate interlock and the intrusion of dirt or
water. These reinforcing bars however, is not intended to resist
Type & Working Pavement lD" Bar Diameter 5/8" Bar Diameter
Grade Stress Thickness Length Maximum Lcngfh Maximum
flexural stress being produced by loads or curling.
Steel psi cm. meter Spacine m. m. S
The reinforcing steel bars are mounted in one layer along
Grade 40 30,000 l5 .60 1.20 .75 1.20 the middepth of the slab. The formula used in designing this
Billet or 20 .60 1.00 .t) r.20 reinforcement for conirete slab joint is:
Axle Steel 25 .60 .80 ,75 1.20

As= Lfw
2S

8-6 Construction Joint where:

If will be interrupted for quite some time

concrete pouring
As= Area ofstqel cross section per foot ofslab.
I_
L_ Length of slab between joints in feet.
that cold joirat will be inevitable, the practice is to provide a f-
r- Coefficient of friction between the slab and the
transverse construction joints. Deformed tie bars are used to
sub-grade called the coefficient of sub-grade
hold the joint tightly closed together. However, if the construc-
resistance ranging from I to 2 with 1.5 recom-
tion joint replaces a contraction joint, the use of dowels is the
mended by AASHTO Interim Guide.
alternative.
S_ Working stress in the reinforcing steel in pounds
per sq. in. AASHTO Interim Guide suggested
Construction joints and cracks should be cleaned and sealed
working stress from 30,000 to 45,000 psi depending
to prevent infiltration of rvater to the sub-grade and to keep dirt
upon the type and grade of steel.
out of the joints. Materials fbr such purpose includes harder pa-

260 201

Elements of Roads and Highways
Weldpd wire fabrics are also used as reinforcement for con-
crete pavement made from cold drawn steel wires having the
foll<lwin g properties :
Minimum allowed tensile strensth 80,000 psi
Yield strength 70,000
Reinforcing bars of billet, rail or axle
steel yield strength among them from 40,000 to 75,000
8-8 The Sub-Grade and Sub-Base for Concrete
Pavement . and edges.
The construction standard for sub-grade and embankment
are precise and almost typical for ali pavement types. Under the
concrete pa'vement literature, the under coulse of selected mate-
rial is always irnposed upon between the sub-grade or embank-
ment and the concrete slab.
The AASHTO Interim Guides, recommend that the sub-
base must be extended from 30 to 60 centimeters outside the
pavement cd,ge to serve as an edge support. For +"he heaviest
traveled facilities, a treated cement asphalt sub-base is recom-
mended because it increases the fatisue life and reduces ioint
failure.
lhe wide acceptance of stabilizing the sub-base with Port-
land cement concrete pavernent is due to the investigation result
of pumping of concrete slab.
Pumping is the ejection of water and sub-grade soil through
the joints and cracks along the edges of the concrete pavement.
A repeated depression ofpavementjoints by heavy axle load is
tJre activating factor in pumping.
With the presence of water on the sub-grade and churning it
with the soil, activates the fluid forming slurry that expel to the
surface. A continued punrping by heavy axle load will flush the
soil frorn beneath the pavement to the effected locations. Fail-
ure of the joint v,,ill be noticed followed by transverse cracking
2{i2
Concrete Pavement
or breaking of comers. One crack will invite more chances for
pumping action, joint failures and by cracking that will be pro-
gressive.
Pumping is minimal, where *,he sub grade had been con-
structed resistant to erosion by cement or bituminous treatnent,
or when the pavement slab is underlain by proper$ graded
granular materials.
Despite the continued studies, researches and experimental
development made, there is no assurance for an ffictive means
of excludintg free water from the under pavement joints, craclcs
So far, the use of under-courses with drainage provision is
being considered as the solution to prevent pumping.
8-9 Concrete Proportions
The fundamental rule to obtain good concrete is the proper
selection of cemerfi aggregate and water thus:
l. Type I or II cement is specified for concrste pavement.
2. Water for concrete must be clean, free from acids, alkali
and oil. Water that is suited for drinking purposes is ac-
ceptable for mixing cement except water containing large
amount of sulfate.
3. [f concrete is to be strong, sound and durable, the aggre-
gate must have similar properties.
4. The mineral aggregate of concrete is about 75%o of the
volume or about 80% of the weight of normal pavement.
5. The maximum size of coarse aggregate is 2 inches. How-
ever, the use of larger aggregates according to some ex-
perienced highway engineers increases its length and du-
rability. This precept is supported'by reasons that, with
larger aggregate, less water is needed thereby, increasing
the ratio of cement to water. Under the cement water ratio
principle, concrete is stronger when water content is less.
263
 Elements of Roads and Highways
Admixture
Adrnixture is a substance added in mixing to change the
characteristic of concrete mixture. There are varieties of admix-
tures available like, lhe air-entraining admixture, which is very
comrnon. Others, like water reducer, retarder, accelerator, poz-
zolan and plasticizer are also used.
Air Entrainment
Air entrainmsnt is the entrapment of air in the concrete mix-
ture in the form of evenly distributed small bubbles It is used to
increase the concrete resistance to surface scaling caused by
deicing with calcium or sodium chloride. Another working ad-
vantage of air entrainment is improving its workability and re-
duces bleeding in fresh concrete.
The efrectiveness of air entrainmerrt is to increase the con-
crete durability that is influenced by:
l. Percentage of air present in the mixture.
2. Grading of aggregates.
3. Size and distribution of air bubbles.
Air entrainmerf in concrete may the attained by using Air
Entraining Portland Cement or by Air Entraining Admirture
added to each batch of concrete while mixins.
Cement and Water Ratio
As mentioned earlier, the strength and other desirable prop-
erties of concrete mixture varies depending upon the ratio of
concrete to mixing water. A non air-entrained concrete with a
water cement ratio by weight of 5 gallons of water per bag of
cr:ment may have a compressive strength of about 5,300 psi in
28 days. On the other hand, a mixture of concrete with 7 gallons
of water per bag of cement has developed strength of 3.700 psi
only for 28days.
264
Concrete Pavement
Durability therefore, is dependent on the water-cement ratio
that should be properly controlled to obtain richness of the
paste. AASHTO Guide Specifications for highway construction
established the maxirnum water cement ratio at 6 gallons per
bag of cement on normal conditions and 5 % gallons per bag of
cement for severe atmospheric conditions.
8-10 Concrete Mixture
Considering the high cost of cernent, the objectwe in mixing
concrete is to use more aggregates and as lrttle cemenl as possi-
ble, while maintaining the workability necessary for a success-
ful pouring and consolidation.
For structural concrete poured in inaccessible small areas
around reinforcing bars, it is necessary to over-fill the voids or
spaces around the aggregate and reinfbrcement using a foee
flowing cement in water paste forrn. On tlrc conttary, pavement
where the slab is open and thin with an access to manipulate
from the surface, a drier mixture can be poured inside the form
with ease and success. Thus, a higher percentage of aggregate
and a less fluid cement-water paste can be used.
On how to reduce the amount of cement-water paste and the
cost of the mixture u'e have to:
l. Allow the larger size of aggregate that can be accorffno-
dated in the pavement slab.
2. Ascertain the aggregate is uniformly graded from coarse
to fine.
3. Avail of the biggest quantrty of coarse aggregate consis-
tent with proper workability.
4. Adopt the lowest slump consistent with the proper pour-
ing and finishing.
For concrete pavement, the specified value of slump is 1-2
or 2-3 inches. The slump test (AASHTO T-l l9) is the old tradi-
265
 Elements of Roads and Highways Concrete Pavement

tional and most widely used method in determining the consis- Concrete mixture is determined by the trial batch method,
tency of concrete. A truncated cone of metal sheet 12 inches until after the desired mixhrre is obtained as final proportion for
high with the base and top diameters 8 inches and 4 inches re- the succeeding mixture.
spectively is filled in 3 layers with fresh concrete. Each layer is
rodded 25 times. Then the cone is lifted off vertically, allowing 8-11 Polymer Concrete
the concrete to subside. The slump is the height in inches that
the top of the specimen falls. Polymer Concrete could be used alone or in combination
with Portland cement to bind aggregates together producing
concrete.

Polymer mirture is classified into thefollowing:

1. Polymer-Impregnated Concrete (PIC) is a portland

cement concrete impregnated with monomer after curing
2. Polymer Concrete (PC) is a rnixhre of polymer binder
and aggregate.
a
Polymer Cement Concrete (PCC) is a pre-mixture of
cement paste and aggregate wherein a monomer is mixed
before curing.

Polymer possesses a higher strength concrete, but due to its

20 cm.
FIGURE 8.3 SLUMP TEST
Another way of testing the consistency of concrete is by the
Kelly Ball method (see ASTM C-360). The apparatus is a metal
cylinder 15 centirneters diameter and 12 centimeters high with
hemisphere bottom shaped weighing 14 kilograms. A graduated
handle rising from the top of ball passes through a metal frame
that is 30 cm. apart. The ball is placed on the surface of the
fresh concrete. Its penetration is measured by comparing its po-
sition with that of the frame.
The advantage of Kelly Ball method is that reading could be
taken immediately on the concrete being poured on the road-
way. On the contrary, the slump test requires more time but
could be conducted only on selected samples"
prohibitive cos! its use is being limited to bridge deck or repair
of spalled joints.
8-12 Curing of Concrete Pavement
Newly placed concrste pavement needs curing. Curing may
be accomplished by several methods but basically; all the meth-
ods could be categoized into two:
l. Those that keep the surface constantly wet or cover it with
water absorbent material that is re-wetted from time to
time.
2. Those that pavement evaporated from the water already in
the concrete which is retained is sufficient enough for
hydration.
The chemical action between cement and water produces

266 267
 Elements of Roads anC Highways
Concrete Pavernent

strength of concrete. If the concrete dries rut quickly, hydration

It shall be free from injurious amounts of organic impuri-
and strength process will stop, but when moisture becomes ties.
available during hydration, strength gain will continue.
2. Fine aggregates from different sources of supply should
Rapid dryrng of fresh concrete will result to surface crazing not be mixed or stored in the same pile nor used alter-
or cracking. Under extrerne hot weather or dry winds, severe nately.
cracking will eventually occur. The shortest period of curing for
3. Fine aggregates should not contain more than 3 mass per-
normal concrete is 5 days according to AASFITO recommenda-
cent of materials passing the 0.075 mm (No. 200 sieve)
tion.
by washing nor more than one mass percent each of clay
lumps or shale.
8-13 DPWH Specilicafions on Concrete
4. The use of beach sand will not be allowed without the ap-
Pavement
proval of the supervising engineer.
Concrete pavemant is categorized under item 3l I of DPWI{ 5. Ifthe fine aggregate is subjected to 5 cycles or the sodium
standard specifications, which provides that. sulfate soundness test, the weighed loss should not exceed
10 mass percent.
This item shall consist of Portland cement Concrete pave-
ment with or wrthout reinforcement, constructed on the pre- If fine aggregrte is subjected to test for organic impurities
pared base in accordance with the plans and specifications. and a color darker than the standard is produced, it should
be rejected. However, when tested for the effect of or-
Material Requirernents: ganic impurities of strength or mortar by AASHTO T-7I,
the fine aggregate may be used if the relative strength at 7
Portland cement shall conform to the applicable require- and 28 days is not less than 95 mass percent.
ments of Item 0-700, hydraulic cement. Only fpe I Portland
cement should be used. Different brands or the sarne brands TABLE 8-4 GRADING REQUIREMENTS FOR FTNE AGGREGATES
from different mills shall not be mixed nor shall they be used
alternately unless approved by fhe supervisrng engineer. Sieve Designation Mass Percent
Cement that for any reasons become partially hardened, or 10.0 mm 3/8" 100
which contains lumps or caked cement including those salvaged 4.75 mm No.4 95-100
from discarded or used bags, should not be used. 1.18 mm No. 16 45-80
0.30 mm No. 50 5-30
Fine Aggregates: 0.15 mm No. 100 0-10

1. Fine aggregate shall consist ofnatural sand, stone screen-

ing or other inert materials with similar characteristics or Coarse Aggregate
combination thereof, having hard strong and durable par-
ticles. 1. Coarse aggregate shall consist of crushed stone, gravel,
blast furnace, slag, or other approved inert materials of

268
269
 Elements'of Roads and Highways Concrete Pavement

Similar character or combinations thereof, having hard, Reinforcing Steel

strong durable pieces free fr.om any adherent coatings.
2. Coarse aggregate should contain not more than one mass The Specifications states that: dowels and tie bars to be
percent of material passing the 0.075 mm (No. 200) sieve used in concrete pavement shall conform to the requiremants of
nor more than 0.25 mass percent of clay lumps, not more AASFIIO M-31 or M-42 except that rail steel shall not be used
than 3.5 mass percent of soft fragments. for tie bars to be bended and re-straightened during construc-
J. Ifthe coarse aggregate was subjected to 5 cycle ofthe so- tion. Specifications further provides that:
dium sulfate soundness test, the lost weight should not
exceed 12 mass percent. It should have a mass percent of l. Tie bars shall be deformed bars.
wear not exceeding 40 when tested by AASHTO T-96. 2. Dowels shall be plain round bars delivered to the site with
4. If slag is used, its density should not be less than I 120 kg on€ half of each dowel length painted with one coat of
Per cubic meter. The gradation of the coarse aggregate approved lead or tar paint.
should conform to table 8-5. Only one grading specifica- 3. The sleeves of dowels shall be metal of approved design
tion should be used from anv one source. to cover 50 mm plus or minus 5 mm of the dowels, with a
closed end, with a suitable stop to hold the end of the
sleeve at least 25 mm from the end of the dowel.
TABLE 8-5 GRADING REQUIREMENTS FOR
COARSE AGGREGA1IE
4. Sleeve shall be of such design that they do not collapse
during construction.
Mass Percent
Sieve Designation Grading Grading Grading Joint Fillers
mm lnch A B c
75.0 3" 100 Joint fillers should be mixed asphalt and mineral or rubber
63.0 2-tt2 90-100 100 roo filler. The pre-formed joint fillers are punched to adrnit the
50.0 2" 90-100 90-100 dowels. Filler for each joint should be furnished in a single
37.5 l-l/2" 25-60 35-70 place for the full depth and width of the joint.
25.0 lu 0-15 35-70
20.0 3/4" o-io
Storage of Cement and Aggregate
12 l/2* 0-5 0-5 ro-lo
4.75 No.4 0-5
The storage house for cement should be waterproof with
raised floor from the ground to protect the cemerf from rain or
dampness.

Water L The provisions for storage should be ample enough and

Water to be used in concrete mixing or curing or other des-
ignated applications should be clean and free from oil, salt,
acid, alkali, grass or other substances injurious to be finished
product. Drinking water if used needs to be tested.
the shipment of cement as received is separately stored in
such a manner as to allow the earliest deliveries to be
used first and to provide easy access for identification and
inspection of each shipment.

271
270
 Blements of Roads and Highways
2. Storage house must have the capacity to accommodate
suffrcient quantity of cement to allow sampling at least 12
days before the cement is used.
3. To secure uniformity of concrete mixture, the coarse ag-
gregates are separated into two or more sizes. Different
sizes of aggregates are stored in separate bins or in sepa-
rate stockpiles sufficiently remote from each other to pre-
vent the materials at the edge on the piles from becoming
intermixed.
Proportioning, Consistency and Strength of Concrete
Prepare a design mixture based on the absolute volume
method as specified in the American Concrete Institute (ACI)
standard "Recommended Practice for selecting Proportion for
normal and heavyweight concrete".
l. The intent of this specification is to require approximately
9.0 bags of cement per cubic meter of concrete based on a
40kg. Weight per bag of cement. However, leaner or
richer mixhrre may be used in order to meet the minimum
strength requirements.
2. The engineer will determine from{he laboratory tests The
materials to be used, the cement content and the propor-
tions of aggregate and water that will produce a wdrkable
concrete having a slump of between 40 and 70 mm (1112"
to 3") if not vibrated, or between 10 to 40 mm if vibrated
and flexural strength of not less than 3 8 Mpa (550 psi)
when tested by the third-point method or 4.5 Mpa (650
psi) when tested by the mid-point method or a compres-
sive strength of 24.1 Mpa (3,500 psi) when tested at four-
teen days.
3. The designer should consider the use of lean concrete
(econo-concrete) mixture using local materials or specifi-
cally modified convsntional concrste mixture in base
course and in the lower course of compoeite, monolithio
272
Concrete Pavement
concrete pavements using a minimum of 75 rnm of con-
verrtional concrete as the surface course.
Quality Control of Concrete
For quality control of concrete in general, the DPWH speci-
fi cations provides that :
"The contractor shall be responsiblefor the quality con-
trol of all materials during the handling, blending mix-
ing and placement operations. The contractor shall fur-
nish the engineer a Quality Control PIan detailing the
production control procedures and the type and fre-
quency of sampling and testing to insure that the con-
crete produced complies with the specifcafions. The su-
pervising Engineer shall be provided free access to re-
cent plant production recards, and if requested infctrmu-
tional copies of design, materials certifcations and sam-
pling and resting reports."
Required Qualification of Workmen
Concrete Butcher - The person performing the batching or
mrxing operation capable of accurately conducting aggregate
surface moisture determinations and establishing correct scale
weight for concrete materials.
Concrete Technician - The person responsible for concrete
production control and sampling and testing for quality control
proficient in concrete technology having a sound knowledge of
the specifications as they relate to concrete production. He shall
be:
L Capable of conducting test on eoncrete and concrete ma-
terials in accordance with the specifications.
2. Capable of adjusting concrete mix designs for improving
workability emd specification compliance and preparing
trial mix design.
273
 Elements of Roads and Highways
3. He shall be qualified to act as the concrete batcher in the
absence ofthe batcher.
8-14 Equipment
The equipment and tools necessary for handhng materials
and performing all phase of the work shall be approved by the
supervising Engineer as to design, capaclty and mechanical
conditron. The equipment should be at the job site sufficiently
ahead of the start of construction operations to be examined
thoroughly and approved by the Engineer.
A. Batching Plant Equipment
L The batching plant should include bins, weighing hoppers
and scales for the fine aggregate and for each size of
coarse aggregate. The weighing hopper shall be properly
sealed and vented to preclude dusting operations.
2. The batching plant should be equipped with a suitable
non-resealable batch counter, which will correctly indi-
cate the number of batches and proportioned.
3. Bins with adequate separate compartrnents for fine aggre-
gate and for each size of coarse aggregate should be pro-
vided in the batching plant.
4. Scales for weighing aggregates and cement should be of
either tlre beam type or the spring less-dial type. They
should be accurate within one half percent throughout the
range ofuse.
5. Poises should be designed to be locked in any position
and to prevent unauthorized change. Scales shall be in-
spected and sealed as often as the Engineer may deem
nscessary to assure their continued accuracy.
6. The batching plant should be equipped with automatic
weighing devices of an approved type 1o proportion ag-
gregates and bulk cement.
274
Concrete Pavement
B. Mixers
Concrete may be mixed at the construction site, or at a cen-
tral plant or wholly or in part in truck mixers under the follow-
ing conditions:
l. Each mixer shall have a manufacturer's plate attached in
a prominent place showing the capacity of the drum in
terms of volume of mixed concrete and the speed of rota-
tion of the mixing drum or blades.
2. Mixers at site of constructioz - Mixing should be done in
an approved mixer capable of combining the aggregates,
c"-*t and water into a thoroughly mixed and uniform
mass within the specified mixing and dischargirrg and dis-
tributing the mixture without segregation on the prepared
grade.
3. The mixer shall be equipped with approved timing de-
vices, which will automatically lock the discharge lever
when the drum has been charged and released at the end
of the mixing period. In case of timing device failure, the
mixer may be used for the balance of the day while it is
being repaired, provided that each batch is mixed in 90
seconds.
4. Truck mixers to be used for mixing and hauling concrste
NA Truck Agitators used for hauling central mixed con-
crete shall conform to the requirements of AASFIIO M-
r57.
5. Non-Agitator Trucla. Bodies of non-agitating hauling
equipment for concrete shall be smooth, mortar-tight
metal containers capable of discharging the concrete at a
satisfactory controlled rate without segregation.
C. Paving and Finishing EquiPment
The concrete should be placed and set with an approved
paver designed to spread, consolidate, screed and float finish
the freshly placed concrete in one complete pass of the machine
in a manner that a minimum of hand finishing will be necessary
215
 Elements of Roads and Flighways
to provide a dense and homogeneous pavement. The finishing
machine should be equipped with at least two oscillating tlpe of
transverse screed.
Vibrator should operate at 8,300 to 9,600 frequency of im-
pulse per minute under load at a maximum spacing of 60 centi-
meters.
D. Concrete Saw
Cr:ncrete saw should be rvater-cooled diamond edge saw
blade or an abrasive wheel conforming to the required dimen-
sions and rate ofspeed.
E. Forms
l. Forms should be made of an approved steel section with a
depth equal to the thickness of the pavement at the edge.
The base of the form should be of sufficient width to pro-
vide necessary stability in all directions.
2 The flange braces must extend outward of the base not
less than 2/3 of the height of form.
3. All forms should be rigidly supported on bed during the
entire operation of placing and finishing the concrete. It
should be provided with adequate devices to secure its
setting so that when in place, they will withstand without
visible spring or settlement the impact and vibration of
consolidating and finishing of the concrete pavement.
8-15 Preparation of Grade
After the base or sub grade have been placed and compacted
to the required density, the areas that will support the paving
machine and the grade on which the pavement is to be con-
structed should be trimmed to the proper elevation by means of
a properly designed machine extending the work at least 60
centimeters beyond each edge of the proposed concrete pave-
ment.
276
Concrete Pavement
If loss of densitv results from the trimming operatrons, i1
should tre restored by additional compaction before concrete is
placed. If any traffic is allowed to use the prepared sub-grade or
the surface. it should tre checked and corrected immediately
ahead of the placing ol' concrete. The sub-grade or base should
be unifonnly moistened when the concrete is placed.
Setting of Forms
l. Base Suppnrl -The foundation under the forms should be
hard and true to gracle, so that the form when set wili be
fitmly in contact with its whole iength at the specified
grade. Any roadbed, which is below the established
grade, should be filled with approved gramrlar materials
to grade in lifts of three centimeters or less, and thor-
oughly re-rolled or tarnped. hnperfections or variations
above the grade should be corrected by tamping or by
cutting as necessary.
2" Grading ond alignment- Form shall be set suffrciently
advance from the point where the concrete is being
placed. After setting to correct grade, the base is thor-
oughly tamped, mechanically or by hand, at both edge of
the form base inside and outside. The forms should not
deviate from the true line by more than one centimeter at
any pornt.
3. Grading and Alignment - T"he alignment and grade ele-
vation of the forms should be checked and corrections be
made irnmediately before the placing of concrete. Prior to
the placing of concrete, the crown and elevation are veri-
fied by holding an approved template in a vertical posi-
tion moving backward and forward on the forms.
Conditioning the Sub grade or Base Course
l. When the side forms have been security set to grade, the
base-course should be brought to proper cross section.
High areas are trirnmed to proper clevation and low areas
')"7
l
 Elements of Roads and Highways
are filled and properly compacted. The finished grade
should be maintained rn a smooth and compacted condi-
tion until the concrete is placed.
2. Unless waterproof base course material is specified, it
should be uniformly moistened when the concrete is
placed. If it subsequently becomes too dry, the sub-grade
or base course is sprinkled with water, but the method of
sprinkling should not form mud or pools of water.
8-16 tlandling, Measuring and Batching of
Materials
The batching plant and equivalent layout must provide a
srnooth flow of continuous supply and transport of materials to
the work. Stockpiles are built up in layers of not rnore than one
meter in tldckness with each layer completely in place before
beginnrng the next that should not be allowed to "cone" down
over the nexl lower layer.
All washed aggregates and aggregate produced or hand,led
by hydraulic methods are stockpiled or brnned for draining at
least trvelve hours before being batched.
The mixer should be charged without loss of cement and
batched material should be weighed for each material required
within a tolerance of one percent for cement and two percent for
aggregates. Water may be measured by volume or by weight
and the accuracy of measuring water shall be within a range of
not more than one percent error.
Mixing Concrete
The concrete may be mixed at the site, in a central plant or by
truck mixers of approved type and capacitl'. Mixing time will
be measured from the time when all the materials except water
are already inside the drum.
l. Ready mix concrete shall be mixed and delirered in ac-
278
Concrete Pavement
cordance with AASHTO M-157 requlremenrs, except
that the minimum required revolutions at the mixing
speed for transit mixed concrete may be reduced to not
less than that recommended by the mixer manufbcturer.
The number of revolutions recommended by the mixer
manufacturer should be indicated on a serial plate at_
tached to the mixer
2. When n,ixing is done at the site or in a central mixing
plant, the mixing time should not be less than 50 secondi
nor more than 90 seconds, unless mixing performance
tests provide adequate mixing of the concrete in a shorter
tune period. Mixing time ends when the discharge chute
of the mixer opens. The contents of the rndividuil mixer
drum shall be removed completely before a succeedins
batch is loaded thereln
3. The volurne of concrete mix per batch should not exceed
the mixers nominal capacity in cubic meter, as indicated
on the manufacturers standard rating plate attached on
the mixer except that an overload up to l0 o% above the
mixers normal capacity may be permitted provided that
concrete test data"for strength, segregation and uniform
consistency are satisfied and no spoilage of concrete
should take place.
4. The batches shall be charged into the drum with a por_
tion of the mixing water enter in advance of the cement
and aggregates. The flow of water should be uniform that
all water shall be inside the drum by the end of the first
l5 seconds of the mixing period.
5. The throat of the drum shall be kept free of concrete ac_
cumulatjon that may restrict the free flow of materials
into the drum.
6. Mixed concrete from the central mixing plant shall be
transported in truck mixers, truck agitators, or non_
agitating trucks. The time elapsed from the time water is
added to the mix until the concrete is deposited in place
)79
 Elements of Roads and Highways
at the site shall not exceed 45 minutes when the concrete
is hauled in non-agitating trucks, nor 90 minutes when
hauled in truck mixers or truck agitators. except that in
hot rveather or under other conditions contributing to
quick hardening of concrete, the maximum allowable
time may be reduced by the supervising Engineer.
7. Re-tempering concrete by adding water or by any other
means shall not be permitted, except that when concrete
is delivered in truck mixers, additional water may be
added to the batch materials and additional mixing is per-
form increasing the slump to meet the requirements if
permitted by the Engineer, provided that all these opera-
tions are performed within 45 minutes after the initial
mixing operations and the water cement ration is not ex-
ceeded.
Limitation of Mixing
No concrete should be mixed, placed or finished, when
natural light is insufficient, unless an adequate and approved
artificial liglrting system is operated.
8-17 Placing or Depositing of Concrete
Concrete is in such a manner requiring minimal
deposited
re*handling. Unless truck mixers or non-agitating hauling
equipment are equipped with a means to discharge concrete
rvithout segregation of the materials, the concrete should be
unloaded inside the form in a manner to prevent segregation of
the particles.
L Placing of concrete between transverse joints without the
use of intermediate bulkheads. Necessary hand spreading
shall be done with shovels, not rakes. Workers are not
allowed to walk on.
2 Where concrete is to be placed adjoining a previously
280
Concrete Pavernent
constructed lane, and mechanical equipment will be oper-
ated upon the existing lane, that previously constructed
lane must have attained the strength for 14 day concrete'
If finishing equipment is carried on the existing lane pav-
ing in adjoining lanes may be permitted only after 3 days'
3. Vibrators shoultl not be allowed to come in contact with a
joint assembly, grade or side form. In no case it be oper-
ated longerthan 15 seconds in any one location'
4. Concrete should be deposited as near as possible to the
expansion and contraction joints wilhout disturbing them,
but should not be dumped from the discharge bucket or
hopper into a joint assembly unless the hopper is well
centered on the joint assemblY.
Concrete Joint
Concrete Joints are constructed according to the type' di-
mensions and at the locations as indicated on plans or special
provisions.
All joints should be protected from the intrusion of injurious
foreign materials until after sealed.
Concrete pavement ioints are classifed into:
l. Longitudinaljoint
2. Transverse joint
3. Transverse construction joint
4. Transverse construction joint
5. Loadtransfer device
Longitudinal Joint
l. Deformed steel bars or special length, size, spacing and
materials are placed perpendicular to the longitudinal
joints. Tie bar should not be painted or coated with as-
phalt or otier materials or enclosed in tubes or sleeves'
281
 Elements of Roads and l{igtrways Concrete Pavement

2. Except those made of rail steel, tie bars maybe bent at The tool or device remain in place at least until the con-
right angles against the form of the first lane constructed crete has attained its initial set, and to be removed with-
and straightened into final position before the concrete of out disturbing the adjacent concrete.
the adjacent lane is placed.
3. The longitudinal joints are sawed before the end of the
3. Sawed Contraction Joint is made by sawing groove in the
surface of the pavement. Sawing is done as soon as the
curing period or shortly thereafter and before any equip_
concrete hardened sufficiently to permit sawing wilhout
ment or vehicles are allowed on the pavement. The
excessive ravelling, and the time is usually within 24
sawed area should be thoroughly cleaned and if required
hours.
the joint should be filled immediately with sealer.

4. Longitudinal pavement insert type joints should be a) Joints are sewed before uncontrolled shrinkage
formed by placing a continuous st ip a plastic material cracking takes place.
which will react adversely with the chemical constituent b) If necessary, the sawing operations should be car-
ofthe concrete" ried on during the day or night regardless of
weather conditions.
Transverse Expansion Joint c) The sawing of any joint is omiued if crack occurs
at or near the joint location prior to the time of
l. The expansion joint filler should be continuous from sawing.
form to form shaped to the sub-grade and to the key_way d) Sawing should be discontinued when crack de-
along the form. velops ahead of the saw. In general, all joints
2. Pre-formed joint filler should be furnished in lengths should be sawed in sequence.
equal to the pavement width or equal to the width of tt. e) If extreme condition exists making it impractical
lane. to prevent erratic cracking by early sawing, the
3. Finished joint should not deviate more then 6 mm from a contraction joint groove is formed prior to the ini-
straight line. If joint fiflers are assembled in sections. tial setting of concrete.
there should be no offsets between adjacent units.
4. No plugs of concrete should be permitted anywhere Transverse Contraction Joint
within the expansion space.
l. Transverse contractionjoint is provided when there is art
Transverse Contraction Joint interruption of more than 30 minutes in the concreting
operations.
The transverse contraction joint is classified into: 2. No Transverse joint should be located within 1.50 meters
of an expansion joint, contraction join! plane or weak-
l. Transverse Strip Contraction Joint is installing as parting ness.
strip to be left in place as specified. 3. If sufficient concrete has been mixed at the right time of
intemrption to form a slab of al least 1.50 meters long the
2. Formed Groove is installed by depressing an approved excess concrete from the last preceding joint should be
tool or device into the plastic concrete. removed and disposed of as directed

282 283
 Elements of Roads and Highwtys Concrete Pavement

Load Transfer Device

Load transfer device is provided along the longitudinal cen-
terline of the pavement either by tongue and groove concrete or
by steel dowels under the following considerations:
When dowel is used, it should be held in position parallel
to the surface and centerline of the slab by a metal device
that is left embedded in the pavement.
2. The portion of each dowel painted with one coat of lead
or tar should be thoroughly c<lated with an approved bi-
tuminous materials or an approved lubricalt, to prevent
the concrete from binding to the portion of the dowel.
J. 'lhe sleeves for dowel should be rnetal, design to cover
50 mm plus or minus 5 mm of the dowels with a water
tight closed end with a suitable stop to hold the end of
the sleeves at least 25 mm from the end of the dor,vel.
ln lieu of using dowel assemblies at contraction joints,
dowels may be place in the fulI thickness of the pave-
ment by a mechanical device approved by the Engineer.
8-1S Final Consolidation and Finishing
The sequence of operations after placing the concrete at
grade is the strike-off or consolidation, floating and removal of
laitance, straight edging, and final surf,ace finishing.
L Addition of water to the surface of concrete in order to
assist in finishing operations should not be permitted.
However, if the application of water to the surface is al-
lowed, it should be applied as fog by means of approved
sprayer equiprnent.
z. The concrete placed adjacent to joints shall be com-
pacted and firmly set wilhout voids or segregation under
and around the load transfer devices, joint assembly
units, and other features designed to extend into the
pavement.
Concrete, adjacent to joints, should be mechanically vi-
brated. The finishing machine is brought forward operat-
ing in a manner to avoid damages or misalignment of
joints.

4. If the unintemrpted operation of finishing machine over

TABLE 8-6 RECOMMENDED DIMENSION OF'DOWEL beyond the joints causes segregation of concrete, and
FOR CONCRETE PAVEMENT misalignment of the joints, the finishing machine should
be stopped when the front screed is approximately 20
Pavement Thickness Dowel Diameter Dowel Length Dowel Spacing
centimeters from the joint.
Centimeters mm Centimeters Centimeters

15.0 20 45 30 5. The front screed should be lifted and set directly on top
t7.5 25 45 30 of the joint and the forward motion of the finishing ma-
20.0 25 45 30 chine is resumed. When the second screed is closed
22.5 32 45 30 enough to permit the excess mortar in front of it to flow
25.0 32 45 30 over the joint, it should be lifted and carried over the
27.5 32 45 30 joint
30.0 32 45 30

Source: AASHTO Interim Guide and proposed revision 1980 6. Thereafter, the finishing machine may be run over the
joint without lifting the screeds, provided ttrat there is no

284 285
 Elements of Roads and Highways
segregated concrete immediately between the joint and
the screed or on top of the joint.
Finishing Machine
Non-Wbratory method - The concrete is distributed and
It is struck off and screened by an ap-
spread as soon as placed.
proved frnishing machine. The machine goes over each area of
pavement as many times and at such intervals as necessary to
give the proper compaction and leave a uniform texture surface.
l. Excessive machine operation over a given area should
be avoided. The top of the forms should be kept clean
by an effective device attached to the machine and the
travel of the machines on forms should be maintained
true to grade without wobbling or otlrer vibration tend-
rng to affect the precision finish.
2. During the first pass of the finishing machine, a uni-
form ridge of concrete should be maintained ahead of
the front screed in its entire lensth.
Floating
3. If uniform and satisfactory density of the concrete is
not obtained by the vibratory method at joints along the
forms of the structures, and throughout the pavement,
the contractor will be required to furnish equipment and
method that will produce pavement conforming to the
specifications.
Hand Finishing
Hand finishing methods may be used under the following
conditions:
l. In the event of mechanical equipment breakdown hand
methods may be used to finish the concrete already de-
posited on the grade or form.
286
Concrete Pavement
2. In a narrow width or areas of irregular dimensions
where operations of the mechanical equipment are im-
practical, hand methods may be used.
3. Concrete as soon as placed is struck off and screeded by
an approved portable screeder. The screed should be at
least 60 cm. longer than the maximum width of the slab
to be struck off.
4. Consolidation should be attained by the use of suitable
vibrator or other approved equipment.
5. On finishing operations, the screed is moved fonrard
on the forms with a combined longitudinal and trans-
versal shearing motion.
6. Movement is always in the direction where the work is
progressing and manipulated that neither end is raised
from the side forms during the striking off process. If
necessary, this should be repeated until the surface is of
uniform textures, true to grade and across section, free
ofporous areas.
1. After the concrete has been struck off and consolidated,
it is further smoothened, trued and consolidated by
means of a longitudinal float, either by hand or by me-
chanical method.
2. The hand operated longitudinal float should not be less
than 3.60 meters long and 15 centimeters wide properly
stiffened to prevent flexibility and warping.
3. The longitudinal float is operated from a footbridge
resting on the side forms and spanning but not torrching
the concrete. Working with a sawing motion while held
in a floating position parallel to the road centerline, and
moving gradually from one side of the pavement to the
other side.
287
 Elements of Roads and Highways
4. The movement ahead along the centerline of the pave-
ment should be in successive advances of not more than
one half length of the float. Any excess water or soupy
material is wasted over the side forms on each pass.
5. The track from where the mechanical float operates
should be accurately adjusted to the required crown and
float also accurately adjusted and coordinated with the
transverse finishing machine so that small amount of
mortar is carried ahead of the float at all times.
6. The float should pass over each area of pavement at
least two times. Excessive operations over a certain
area should not be permitted. Any excess water or
soupy material should be wasted over the side forms on
each pass.
Straight Edge Testing and Surface Correction
l. After the floating work and excess water removed,
while the concrete is still in plastic condition, the sur-
face ofthe concrete is tested for correctness by a 3.00
meters long straiglrt edge bar.
2. The straight edge bar is held in contact with the surface
in successive positions parallel to the road centerline
' and the whole area gone over from one side of the slab
to the other as necessary.
3. Advances along the road should be in successive stages
of not more than one half the length of the straight edge
bar. Any depression found or noticed should be filled
immediately with freshly mixed concrete, consolidated
and finished.
4. The surface across the joints must strictly meet the
requirements for smootluress. The Straight Edge testing
should continue until the entire surface is found to be
free from humps and noticeable departures from the
straight edge bars.
288
Concrete Pavernent
Final Finish
l. If the surface texture is broom-fnished, it should be ap-
plied when the water sheen has practically disappeared.
The broom should be drawn from the center to the edge
of the pavement with adjacent strokes slightly overlap-
Ping.
Z. "fhe brooming operation is executed by producing uni-
form appearance of comrgations produced in the sur-
f;ace not more than I 5 ryn dePth.
3. Brooming should be completed before the concrete is in
such condition that the surface will be unduly rough-
ened by the operations. The finished surface should be
free from rough and porous areas, irregularities, and
depressions, resulting from the improper handling of
the broom.
4. If the surface texture is belt finished, after straight edg-
ing and the water sheen has practically disappeared, and
just before the concrete becomes non plastic, the sur-
face is belted with a 2-ply canvas belt not less than 20
cm. wide and at least 100 cm. longer than the pavement
wi&h.
5. Hand belt must have suitable handles to permit a con-
trolled uniform manipulation. The belt is operated with
short strokes transverse to the centerline with a rapid
advance parallel to the centerline.
6. If the surface texture is drag fnished, use a drag, which
consists of a seamless strip of damp burlap, or cotton
fabric, which will produce a uniform gritty texture after
dragging it longitudinally along the full width of the
pavement.
7. For pavemcnt 5 meters or more in width, fhe drag is
mounted on a bridge, which travel on the forms' The
burlap or fabric 1.00 meter wide is in contact wrth the
289
 Elements of Roads and Highways
full width of the pavement surface while dragging.
8. The drag shall consist of not less than 2 layers of burlap
with the bottom layer approximately 15 centimeter
wider than the layer. It should be maintained with a re-
sultant surface uniform in appearance free from grooves
over 1.5 mm. Drags should be maintained clean and
free from encrusted mortar.
Regardless of tlre methods used in final finishing work, the
hardened surface pavement must have 0.25 coefficients of fric-
tion or more. Completed pavement found to have coefficient of
friction less than 0.25 should be grounded or scored by the con-
tra;tor at his expense to provide the required coefficient of fric-
tion.
Edging at Forms and Joints
1. After the final finished, but before the concrete has taken
its initial set, the pavement edges along its side of the
slab and all joints, transverse construction joints, and
emergency construction joints, shouid be worked with
an approved tool and rounded to the radius required.
2. Any tool marks appearing on the slab, adjacent to the
joints should be eliminated by brooming the surface. But
in so doing, the rounded slab corner should not be dis-
turbed. All concrete on top of the joint fillers should be
removed completely.
3. All joints are tested with a straight edge and corrected if
one edge of the joint is higher than the other before the
concrete completely set.
Surface Test
l. The pavement surface is tested with a 3-meter straight
edge or other specified device. Areas showing high spots
290
Concrete Pavement
of more than 3 mm but not exceeding 12 mm in 3.00 me-
ters spar is marked and immediately ground down with
an approved grinding tool to an elevation where the area
or spot will not show surface deviations in excess of 3
mm when tested with the 3 meters straight edge.
2. Where the departure ftom correct cross section exceeds
12 mm, the pavement should be removed and replaced
by the contractor at his expense.
3. Any area or section that was removed should not be less
than 1.5 meters in length and not less than the full wrdth
of the lane involved.
4. When it is necessary to remove and replace a section of
the pavement, any remaining portion ofthe slab adjacent
to the joints that is less than 1.5 meters in length should
be removed and replaced.
8-19 Curing
Immediately after the finishing operations and the concrete
has sufficiently set, the entire surface of the newly placed con-
crete is cured in accordance with either one of the following
methods:
1. The use of cotton or burlap mats.
2. The use of waterproof paper.
3. Straw curing.
4. By impervious membrane method.
5. By use of white polyethylene sheet.
Cotton or Burlap Mats. The pavement surface is entirely
covered with mats thoroughly saturated with water. The mat is
placed and weighed to remain in intimate contact with the
pavement and maintained fully wet in its position for 72 hours
unless otherwise specifi ed.
291
 Elements of Roads and Highways
Waterproof Paper. The top and sides of the pavement is
covered entirely with waterproof paper. The units are lapped at
least 45 centimeters placed and weighed dorvn to remain in in-
timate contact with the surface cover. Joints are securely sewed
or cemented together not to open up or separate during the cur-
ing period. The cover should be maintained in place for 72
hours after the concrete has been placed. The surface of the
pavement is thoroughly wetted prior to the placing of the paper.
Straw Curing. When straw is used for curing, the pave*
ment rs cured initially with burlap or cotton mats until after the
final set of concrete or in any case 12 hours after placing the
concrete. As soon as the mat is removed the surface and the
sioes of the pavement is thoroughly wetted and covered with al
least 20 cm. straw or hay measured after saturation of water to
last for 72 hours.
Impervious Membrane Method - The entire surface of the
pavement is sprayed uniformly with white-pigmented curing
compound, immediately after the finishing of the surface and
before the setting of concrete has taken place. The curing com-
pound is not applied during rainy days. The spraying equipment
is equipped with a wind guard and the time and of use, the
compound is thoroughly mixed with the pigment uniformly dis-
persed throughout the vehicle.
During the Application, the compound is stirred continu-
ously by an effective, mechanical means. Hand spraying of odd
widths or shapes and concrete surface exposed by the removal
of forns will be permitted.
'lhe curing compound should have that property to harden
within 30 minutes after application Should the film be dam-
aged from €ury cause within 72 hours curing period, the dam-
aged portion shall be repaired immediately with additional
compound.
White Polyethylene Sheet. The top surface and sides of
the pavement is entirely covered with white polyethylene sheet.
292
Concrete Pavement
The units are lapped to at least 45 centimeters placing the sheet
rveighed down to remain in contact with the surfbce covered.
The slieeting shouid extend beyond the edges ofthe slab at least
twice the thickness of the pavement. The covering sirould be
maintained in place for 72 hours after the concrete has been
placed.
8-20 Rernoval of Forms
Fonns for concrete pavement should remain in place undis-
turbed within 24 hours after pouring. The removal could be
done as follows:
l. Crorvbars are used in removing fonns, pulling out nails
and pins but care should be exercised not to break the
pavement edges.
2. In case a portion of thc concrete slab is spelled off. it
should be repaired irrunediately ivith fresh mortar mix-
ture of 1.2.
3. Major honevcombed area ilill be considered as defec-
tive rvork, to be removed and replaced.
Protectiorr of pavernent
Concrete pavement and its appurtenances should be pro-
tected against public traffic. and traffic caused b), the workers
Protection of the pavement includes the posting of watchmen to
direct traffic and the posting and maintenance of warning signs.
lights, pavement bridges or crossovers, etc. Anv damage to the
pavement prior to the final acceptance of the rvork shall be re-
paired or replaced depending upon the extent ofthe damaged.
8-21 Concreting by the Stip-Form Method
lf the contract calls for the construction of concrete pave-
nrent r,vithout r"rsing a fixed fbrm. the follon'ing shall applv
.l9 r
 Elements of Roads and HighwaYs
The grade. After the grade or base have been placed and
compacted to the required density, the areas to support the pav-
ing machine is cut to proper elevation by means of properly de-
srgn machine. The base on where the paventent is to be con-
structed is brought-up to proper profile.
If tl-re density of the base is disturbed by the grading opera-
tion, it should be corrected by additional compaction before the
pouring of concrete. The grade or base should be prepared suf'-
hci"ntiy advance of the concrete pouring. If any traffic is al-
lowed io ,rr. the prepared grade, it should be checked and cor-
rected immediately before the placing of concrete'
Placing of concrete. Concrete is deposited inside the form
using an approved Slip-Form Paver designed to spread, con-
solidatc. screed and float finish the freshly placed concrete ln
one complete p;lss of the machine. in such a manner that niini-
mum hand finish is obtained, yet provide a dense and homoge-
neous pavement in conformity with the specifications'
The machine vibrates the concrete fuIl width and depth of
the strip being placed. Vibration is accompanied by a vibrating
tubes or arms working in the concrete or with vibrating screed
or pan operating on the surface ofthe concrete'
The sliding forms are rigidly held together laterally to pre-
vent it from spreading. The forms are trailing behind the paver
for a distance that no appreciable slumping of the concrete will
occur and that necessary final finishing can be accomplished
while the concrete is still within the forms Any edge slump of
the pavement exclusive of edge rounding in excess of 6 mm is
corrected before the concrete hardens.
The concrete is held at a uniform consistency, having a
slunrp not more than 40 mm. The Slip F-orm I'aver is operated
nearly as possible to a c.ontinuous forward movement with all
operations from mixing, delivering and spreading concrets are
rrlell coordinated to provide uniform progress wrth stopping and
Concrete Pavement
starting of the paver held to minimum. If for any reason, it is
necessary to stop the forward movement of the paver machine-
the vibratory and tamping elements are also put to stop immedi-
ately. No tractive force is applied to the machine, ex-ept those
that are also controlled from the machine.
Protection Against Rain
To protect the concrete pavement against rain, the contrac_
tor is required to have available at all times materials for protec-
tion consisting of standard metal forms or plunks having nomi-
nal thickness of not less than 50 mm and a nominal width of nor
less than the thickness of the pavement at its edge for the pro-
tection of the pavement edges and covering miterial ,,r"h *.
burlap or cotton mats, curing paper or plastii sheeting materials
for the protection r:f the pavement in case of rain.
Acceptance of Concrete
The strength level of concrete will be considered satisfac-
tory if the average of all sets of 3 consecutive strength test re_
sults equal or exceed the specified strength fc and no individ-
ual strength test result is deficient by more thm l5o/o of the
specified fc.
Concrete which does not satisfy the above criteria, may be
rejected unless the contractor could provide evidence, by mlans
of a core tests thai the quality of concrete represented by the
failed test result is acceptable in place.
At least 3 representative cores are taken from each member
of concrete area in place that is considered deficient. core loca-
tions should be determined by the supervising engineer so that.
there rvill be least impain,ent of the strength of itructure. The
obtaining and testing of drilled cores shall be in accordance
witlr AASHTO T -24 requirements.
Concrete in thr: area represented bv the core rvill be consi_
 Concrete Pavement
Elements of Roads and Highways
normal lot length, it shoulo be included in the previous
dered adequate ifthe average strength of'the cores is equal to at
lot.
least 85olo of fc and if no sinsle core is less than '15o/o of the
specified strength. 4. Other areas like intersections, entrances, crossovers,
ramps> etc.,will be grouped together to form a lot. Each
If the strengih of controlled specimen does not meet the re- lot will be divided into 5 equal segments and one core
quirements, and it is not feasible or not advisable to obtain will be obtained from each segment in accordance with
cores from the structure due to structural considerations, pay- AASHTO T-24 reouirements.
ment of the concrete will be made at an adjusted price due to
strength deficiency of concrete specimen as specified. Pavement Thickness

It is the intent of this specifications to set pavement into a

Deficiency Strength of Percent of Contract uniform thickness as planned for the average of each lot as de-
Concrete Specimens in percent Price allowed fined.

Less than 5 100 ln calculating the average thicliness of the pavement. in-
5 to less than 10 80 dividual measurement in excess of the specified thickness
l0 to less than 15 70 by more than 5 mm, and measurements less than the
15 to less than 20 60 specified thickness by more than 25 mm, should not be
included in tire average thickness.
20 to less than25 50
2,5 or more 0
When the average thickness of the lot is deficient, the
contract unit price will be adjusted to the thickness in ac-
cordance with the paragraph below re Adjustment for
thiclmess.
8-22 Talerance and Pavement Thickness
Individual area within the segnrcnt found to be deficient
Thickness of the pavement will be determined by measur- in thickness by rnore than 25 mm rvill be evaluated by the
ing the core from the completed pavement in accordance with supervising engineer, and if in his judgment the deficient
AASHTO T-l 48 requirements. areas warrant removal, it must be removed and replaced
by the contractor at his expense.
i. The cornpleted pavement will be accepted on a lot basis.
A lot is considered 1000 linear meters of pavement slab 4. When the measurement of an\. core is less than the speci-
rvhen a single traffrc lane is poured or 500 linear meters fied thickness bv more than 25 mm, the actual thickness
rvhen two lanes are poured concurrently. for pavement in the area u,ill be determined by taking ad-
ditional cores at no less than 5 meters interval parallel to
2. The last unit in each slab constitute a lot in itself when its the centerline in such direction from the affected location
length is at least I .2 of the nominal lot length. until a core is found in each direction which is not defi-
cient in thickness bv tnore than 25 mm.
3. tf the lerrgth of the last unit rs shorter than 112 of the nor-

2el
2()(\
 Elements of Roads and Highways

Adjustment for Thickness CHAPTER

When the average thickness of a pavement per lot is defi-
cient, payment for the lot will be adjusted as follows:

Deficiency in the Percent ofcontract

ROAD MAINTENANCE
average thickness price lot
per lot (mm) 9-l Highway Maintenance
0-5 i00% paynnent Highway mainte,lrance begins just after the construction,
6-10 95 ,""onttrortion or rehabilitation of the roadway facilities. As
I t-15 85 defined by AASHTO; "Maintenance is the preservation 1n-d
t6-20 70 keeping if each type of roadway, roadside, structures and fa-
2t-25 50 ciifie; a; nearly as possible in its original condition as con'
More than 25 Remove and replace structed or as subsequently improved the operation of highway
safe transpor-
facilities and services to provide satisfactory and
tation."
Methods of Measurement
Objectives of Highway Maintenance
The area to be paid under this item is the area in square me-
ter of the concrete pavement placed and accepted in the com- 1. Highway programs and activities are measured by the
pleted pavement. The length is measured horizontally along the amount of expenditures for construction of new facilities
centerline of each roadway or ramp. Curb and gutter will be and reconstruction of existing structure with the aim of
included in the area of concrete pavement measured. keeprng up withthe traffic demand.
2. Maintenance has its own role: by giving priority to local,
Opening to Traffic rural and urban facilities particularly the paving and reha-
bilitation after the construction has been completed'
The project engineer will decide when the pavement may be 3. Maintenance is focused on the do betterment proiects' It
opened to traffic. The road will not be opened to traffic until includes grading and paving for short alignment changes,
after test specimens molded and cured in accordance with to correct steep grades or sharp curves, re-surfacing and
AASHTO T-23 have attained the minimum strength require- mulching, planting, flood and erosion control'
ments. If such tests are not conducted prior to the specified age
of the concrete, the pavement will not be opened to traffic until Relationship b etw een D esign, C on stru ction and Maintenan ce
after 14 days from the time concrete was placed. Before open-
ing to traffic, the pavement should be cleaned and joints com- 1. Poor preparation of the base, insufficient slab thickness
pletely sealed. and poor mixture ratio will only result to the very expen-
sive road repair. lndeed, management absorbed the end
result of design and construction inefEciency'

798 299
1'l /
Elements of Roads and Highways
2. Poor drainage design will mean ernsion or deposition of
materials that requires costly clean up operations.
3. Sharp ditches and steep slopes require costly manual la-
bor maintenance as compared to flat ditches and slopes
that allow equipment to work at a lower cost.
4. Narrow road lanes usually forced large and heavy vehi-
cles to travel with one set of wheels near the edge or off
the pavement, giving the maintenance personnel serious
problems in the care of pavement edges and the shoulder.
5. High maintenance cost is the result of poor design or con-
struction methods. This is the main problem that causes
numerous demolitions and unending reconstruction ac_
tivities being undertaken by the highway people.
Maintenance calls for pen'tiic and irnmediate correclion of
unlbvorable conditions. It
involves making the facilities as near
the newly constructed or reconstrusted conditions as possible.
The utilization of manpower is what makes the mainte'ance
very costly. cost could be reduced substantially, if rnaintenance
operations are done by the use of equipment. Unforfunately,
rnstead of using modem equipment as a product of modern
technology, Highway Managernent retum to the use of primi_
tive tools the like of traditional pick, shovels, hoe, sclthe, axe
or machete.
One particular example is the Community Employment De-
velopment Program (CEDP) with main objective girrlrrg e*-
ployment to the people of the rural "f amount
areas. Large of
money were spent for the purchase of traditional primitive tools
and for manpower payroll disbursing seve'al miliions for noth-
ing except for political gimmicks.
The projects were summarily sacrificed when 50% of the
appropriation was spent for labor payroll without accomplish-
ment.
Maintenance is Categorized into:
l. Road Surface maintenance
300
Road Maintenance
2. Shoulder and approach maintenance
3. Bridge mai.rtenance
4. Traffic services.
Road Surface Maintenance
Unlike construction involving high volume of work, main-
tenance operation, deals with small amount of work at separate
locations. Road maintenance requires speed performance to
cause the least possible disruption and danger to traffic. Main-
tenance operations requires:
1. For Gravel Roads, blading and periodic re-shaping or
resurfacing is a routine periodic maintenance activity.
2. Ror Surface Treotment of low q/pe bituminous pave-
ment, maintenance could be patching, seal coating,
remixing and relayrng.
3. For Slick Asphalt Surface, roughening, burmng or non-
skid seal is required.
4. For Concrete Road, maintenance could be removal and
replacement or filling of damaged areas. Sometimes joint
sealing or mud-jacking or under-sealing is relatively
common maintenance work.
Maintenance of Shoulder and Approach
Maintenance of the shoulder and approaches of the highway
is governed by the surface characteristics in the area.
1. Sod shoulders should be removed and periodically bladed
down to the roadway elevation to avoid entrapment of
water in the traveled way.
2. Grass prevents shoulder erosion. If necessary, fertilized,
re-seeded, or treated to keep them in good conditions.
3. Gravel and earth shoulder should be maintained by blad-
ing under favorable weather conditions.
4. Rutting or setting of the shoulder should be corrected at
once by reconstruction or re-surfacing.
301
 Elements of Roads and Highways

Maintenance of Roadside 4. Re-surfacing of rough or slicky deck surface.

The type and kind of roadside maintenance depends upon
the following conditions
:
l. If the roadside is full of grass, mowing closer to the
shoulder is the answer. If necessary, grass at the roadside
be fertilized or treated with lime. ln some areas, re-
seeding may be required.
2. If the roadside has dry grass considered as fire hazard,
burning or plowing is the solution.
3. If bushes cover the back-slope, trimrmng is necessary to
maintain clearance and sight distance.
The Ingenious Machine usedfor Roadside Maintenance
5. Correct serious scour around the pier and abutments.
6. Most bridges maintenance is considered specialized work.
Traveling crews exclusively for bridges work alone is a
function of the maintenance operations.
7. Concrete bridge decks normally deteriorate due to deicing
salts. The problem starts when the salt penetrates and cor-
rodes the reinforcing steel that spall-off the overlaying
concrste.
8. Correction is to remove the concrete, clean the steel and
apply new material such as polymer ccncrete.
9. Sometimes seal-out or overlay of asphalt materials are
used as protective covering.
1 0. Check the bridge deck deterioration by:

a Mechanical sod cutter a) Applying waterproof membranes

b. Cornbined seed and fertilizer spreader. b) Applying latex modified concrete.
c. Power mowers. c) Impregnating the deck with polymers.
d. Portable grass cutter d) Passing electric currentthrough reinforcing steel.
e. Bushmower
f. Bush chopper
I l. If decks are dismantled, an epoxy coated reinforcing steel
may be used.
Drainage Maintenance
Traflic Service
l. Cleaning of ditches, culvert, drop inlets and catch basins
to accommodate free flow of water. Maintenance operations of highway includes the traffic ser-
2. Removal of sediments, branches and other debris gath- vices like:
ered attrash racks, culvert and structure entrances.
l. Stripping is a continuing functions
3. Repair of eroded channels and dikes.
2. Repair of road signs.
4. Riprap and bank protection to prevent recrurence. J. Maintenance of strest and highway light and signals.
(sometime the functions of the local government)
Bridge Maintenance 4. Coping up with emergencies. Personnel on patrol to keep
l. For steel bridge structure, the routine maintenance calls the road open, and rescue stranded vehicles.
for cleaning by sandblasting, flame, or other means of re-
painting. 9-2 Maintenance Management
2. Cleaning and re-sealing of deck joints that are extruded or
filled with dirt. Before, maintenance is regarded as secondary functions of
3. Repair of drainage handrails. the Highway agency. The personnel of the maintenance sections

302 J tr--t
 Elements of Roads and Highways Road Maintenance

often felt that they are regarded as secondary class employees 2. Two mowers working side by side accomplish less than
of the Highway agency. Indeed, the spoil system exist wherein when they work separately. Conversation time eats most
the maintenance positions are used to pay political favors or of the working time.
buy patronage support.
Today, maintenance and its management are considered the
3. Not less thzur one and one half of two hours a day is spent
unproductively for the preparatory operation and travel of
most intricate and ever changing highway technology. Mainte-
the mower to the job site.
nance is now regarded as one of the most important part of the
Highway agency considering the appropriations and expendi-
There is no specific number of mowing the road shoulder
tures involved for maintenance program.
per year but normally, from one to four times depending upon
Continuous studies have been going on focused on the best the physical condition of the shoulder. Grass by nature grows
mariagement, time utilization, productirity, methods and man- faster during rainy days than on summer time.
agement on maintenance.

Studies showed ttre need for improvement on the following

Requirements for Maintenance Management
field.
l. To stabilize the standard level of maintenance by setting
l. Education in management technique for maintenance performance standards for workers crew and maintenance
engrneers and foreman including its field personnel. units" This requires Methods Time Measurement (MTM)
2. More detailed and careful plarming and scheduling of expected output for particular operations that are pre-
work and establishing standards for the level of mainte- determined.
nance. 2. To develop an accurate monitoring and fair reportrng sys-
3. Major improvernent of maintenance tools and equipment tem and to compare actual work with the expected pro-
4. Providing a better and efficient communications. duction.
5. Establishing lines of authority and responsibilities. 3. To develop a management system that will give efficient
6. For the maintenance orgaruzation to succeed, staffrng work scheduling assignment.
with permanent trained and dedicated personnel is the 4. To develop effective procedures, methods and machinery
solution. or organization to carry out individual maintena:rce op-
7. Effective management system requires efficient, accurate erations.
and fair budgeting and reporting procedures. But how to
implernent these, is next to impossible, because it is dif- Effective maintenance management could be achieved by
ficult to overcome varied administration, and behavioral gaining the enthusiastic support of the personnel by educating
problems. them with the new methods plus acknowledgment of their ef-
One example is the studies made on roadside morving which forts through personal recognition and by financial reward for
shows that: there is a saying that we cannot live by love alone.

1. The use of better equipment could accomplish mowing The roadway to the development in maintenanr:e is still
from 3 to 6 times as much area compared to the use of far. While others have already gonefar advanced, v'e are just
poor and antiquated tools. about to begin.

:r04 i05
 Elements of Roads and Highways

(9
z-'i
g E€ r Effective maintenance personnel activities are rneasured
under the following criteria.

619o i. Personnel who are devoted to the maintenance work are

tr^l gFE not those who just kill the time and collect their salaries.
$ F€ 5
9pl H c.i
c.
IJJ 2. Personnel responsibility for keeping the roadrvay open to
'ta €I
E o traffic moving under all conditions.
s6 3l .9 :o
oc o
3.
F5 631
(Jt> o P3*. ig.
og
Personnel rescue operation in assisting stranded motorists
during bad weather, heavy rain, removal of fallen trees,
<f
ztr lul<
EF
PO
l!z
tlJ
ItrltJ
-
;se
EE e
=b
de
o= 4.
flood, erosion etc.
Maintenance personnel are exposed to accidents, hazards
?R o {'g F y= during their maintenance or rehabilitation work.
;<r)
Eil
Ytr.
-
tg Maintenance personnel deserves to be recognized and re-
to
;z t! P Eg P$ warded accordingly, unfortunately, these dedicated people are
t< F
a 5s
6.9
sometimes victims of neglect especially in the promotion and
Ex UI
o ul
t increase ofsalaries.
s>
5< IL
tr
E
o
o
Er#gEg$ ==
g6
-cri o On some instances, Highway agency is legally held respon-
7f' =
U? sible for injury to person or damages to property resulted from
o
3= 3
o P
poor highway maintenance. Unfortunately, employees and su-
Eg
)r-
.E
E
pervisors are even charged in court, condemned and crucified
<!- o by the media people prior the hearing of the case.
lfi - 9
lrJ
9-3 Rehabilitation
i?
=
zo.
urP Pg uEu
z E€ E g F; 9E frg P
9HErg'*8.s*u'F
Pavement rehabilitation is an activity primarily to provide
EI
F
z uJ f 5 E E E;i 5 F d 3 d s
good riding and skid resistance or to improve the structural ef-
fectiveness of the pavement.
? C'
- oi aj s .rj <o r.* "i ot,P S
=
i
IL
c:)
o
2.9
E,- g" T

{s
The FIIWA defined rehabilitation as:

F] 65P PE " Resurfocing, restoration and rehabilitation work, restor-

/ :E*rBt
liEssB* * ing to the original tofn usable condition without addition to
E the original capacity. "
E
ga=E E
-clic'i$
EE
rri
;3
€ According to AASHTO, the primary objectives of pavement
rehabilitations are:

306
 Elements of Roads and Highways Road Maintenance

L To improve the smoothness of the road surface. Reconstruction refers tp the removal of existing pavement
2. To extend the pavement life. and replacing them with a new pavement and under course.
3. To improve the skid resistance of the road. Overlays could be either by Portland cement or Asphalt
4. To construct the sections with poor foundations. concrete laid on arr existing pavement.
5. To improve the drainage facilities.
Recycling means the repeated use of existing materials
working on asphalt rnaterials, portland cement or lime.
The efficiency of the highrvay system could be rated by:
Generally, recycling contribute to the stabilization of cost
l. Sufficiency ratings. conservation due to inadequate material resources and reduction
2 Accident data. of energy requirements.
3 Skrd tests.
4. Maintenance report. Pavement Recycling is Categorize into:
-5 Public comments and suggestions.
l. The trpe of matcnals to be used.
Resurfacing 2. The prooedure to be employed.
3. The structural benefit to be gained.
Resurfacing is the addition of pavement layer over the exist-
rng roadway or bridge deck surface to provide additional capac- The Recycling Procedures could be as follows
ity. The additional re-surface pavement should not be less than
20 mm in thickness. 1. Surface Recycling consists of reworking about the top
surface of asphalt pavement. It is applied for the treatment of
Restoration and Rehabilitation ravelling, u'heel truck rutting, flushing and corrugations. The
work includes the use of heater-planer, heater-scarifier, cold
Restoration and rehabilitation work includes :
planers and cold milling. The disadvantages of their use are the
presence ofnoise, heat and air pollution.
l. Replacement of defective joints. 2. In place Surface and Base Recycling. This procedure
2. Repair of spalled joints. involves pulverizing all existing pavement, followed by reshap-
3. Substantial pavement work. ing and compacting. Before relaying, the materials are upgraded
4. Reworking or strengthening of sub-base. with lime, portland cement or chemicals. This method is used
5. Recycling existing materials to improve their structural for both asphalt and portland cement concrete pavement. One
inlcgrity. advantage of this method is the ability to increase the load car-
6. Adding under drains. rvlng capacrty of the pavement without major changes in the
7. lmproving shoulders grade.
8. Removing and replacing deteriorated materials.
3. Central Plant Recycling is the removal of materials
Pavement Maintenance refers to actions that are correc- from the roadway, crushing them, mixing in the plant then laid
tive or preventive. and compacted with conventional equipnrent.

i08 3u9
 Elements of Roads and Highways Road Maintenance

Both asphalt and Portland cement concrete are reprocessed B. In-Place Recycling
to make aggregate materials for stabilization of the base course.
The recycled materials when used as base courss is blended Advantages:
with additives lrithout heat such as Portland cement, Lime or l. Significant structural improvements.
Cutback or Emulsified asphalt. For surfacing, it is heated and 2" Treats all types and degrees of pavement distress.
then blended with new asphalt cement or recycling agents and 3. Reflection cracking can be eliminated.
sometimes with new aggregates. 4. Frost susceptibility may be improved.
5. Improved riding quahty.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Recycling Categories
Disadvantages:
A. Surface Recycling
1. Quality control not as good as from the central plant.
2. Traffic disruption.
Advantages: 3. Pulverizing equipment repair requirement.
4. Higher in cost.
L It reduces reflection cracking.
2. Promotes bond between the old pavement and the thrn C. Central Plant Recycling
overlay.
Provides transition between the new overlay and the ex- Advantages:
isting gutter, bridge, pavement, etc., that is resistant to l. Significant structural improvement.
raveling (eliminates feathering). 2. Good quality control
4. Reduces localized roughness. 3. Treats all types and degree of pavement distress.
5. Treats variety of types of pavement distress such as ravel- 4. Reflection cracking can be eliminated.
ing, flushing, corrugations, rutting, oxidizing pavement 5. Improved skid resistance.
faulting at a reasonable cost. 6. Geometrics can be more easily altered.
6. Improved skid resistance. 7. Better control if additional binder ar aggregate is used.
7. Minimum disruption to traffic. 8. Improved riding quality

Disadvantages Disadvantages:
l. traffic disruption
Increased
L Limited structural improvement. 2. May have air quality problems at plant site.
2. The heater-scarifuer and heater planing has limited effec-
tiveness on rough pavement without multiple passes of Maintenance and Rehabilitation programs are based on dif-
equipment. ferent types ofcollected data that includes:
3. Limited repair of severely flushed or unstable pavements.
4. Some air qualrty problems. 1. Surface roughness
5. Vegetation closer to roadway may be damaged. 2. Surface distress
6. Mixture with maximum size aggregate greater than I inch 3. Surface deflection
cannot be treated with some equipment. 4. Surface friction or skid resistance

310 3ll
 Elements of Roads and Highways
Definition of Terms
Surface Roughness is defined as the irregularities in the
pavernent surfbce that adversely affect the riding qualrty
Surface Distress is defined as any indication of unfavorable
pavement performance or signs of impending failure, or any
unsatisfactory performance is a sort of failure.
Any type of distress that may be observed includes any one
of thc following:
a.) Fracture associated with load and non-load cracking.
b.) Distortion is a permanent deformation of faulting.
c.) Disintegration such as spalling, ravelling and other failure
of the pavement.
For each Distress I'ype, the corresponding damage, severity
and locations are specified. All data are gathered and indicated
in the survey form as a guide.
In cass cf Surface Deflection, measurement of the changes
in pavement surface level between the loaded and unloaded
segment is the basis for rehabilitation design strategies. TLre
design strategy is to determine the structural adequacy or the
ability of the pavement to resist traffic load without developing
undesirable distress.
Distress observations could be of static deflection, steady
state of deflection or by the impact load response as determined
by the Dynaflect and Falling Weight Deflection respectively.
Surface Friction is determined from gathered data identi$-
ing a pavement section having low coefficient of friction. There
are equipment available to determine the skid number. It is
measured using a locked wheel trailer (ASTM Method E-274)
or by the Yaw Mode trailer where the wheels are skewed in ac-
cordance n'ith the direction of travel.
-l l,
Road Maintenance
9-4 Bvaluation and Maintenance of
Concrete Pavement
Maintenance decisions are based on pavement condition
data gathered from project to project basis. From these gathered
data, it is determined which project calls for maintenance or
rehabilitation including the decisions required to correct pave-
ment deficiencies. Decisions however, are made on a yearly
basis.
Considering the increasing length of the roadways, the man-
agement on the basis of field observations alone is becoming
difficult hence the objective method of evaluation was intro-
duced:
L Those projects that need immediate maintenance or
rehabilitations are listed on the priority projects.
2. .The type and kind of maintenance or rehabilitation re-
quired is specifred.
3. What strategy of maintenance or rehabilitation would be
adopted now and in the future to minimize life cycle costs
or maxirnized the net benefits.
Maintenance of Concrete Pavement
As mentioned earlier, maintenance of the roadway of any
type is a routine activity. Maintenance of good concrete road
could be arsued as follows:
t. Sealing cracks of transverse and longitudinal construction
and expansion joints is one recommendation where main-
tenance Engineers could not agree on one question
whether sealing the narrow cracks is effective or not.
The practice however, is to clean properly wide cracks or
spalled joints then applied with sealing materials to pre-
vent the intrusion of extraneous material. and to block the
downward penetration of surface water.
3t3
 Elements of Roads and Highways
For small and scattered broken surface on good concrete
pavement, patching with concrete is economical. On af-
fected portion old concrete is removed by vertical straight
line cut parallel and perpendicular to the roadway center-
line. For corner repair, the angle from the roadway center-
line should be greater than 30o but less than 60'.
3. Sections that are removed should have a minimum area of
20 square meters. If the sub-grade appears to be weak,
and doubtful to carry heavy axial load, replace it with
suitable materials and compact properly. The new con-
crete slab should be as thick as the original pavement.
4. Good practice demand that extra trrickness adjoining the
old concrete be provided extending the patch under the
old pavement to width and depth of l0 centimeters.
5. Additional cement is necessary 1o produce high early
strength concrete or an accelerator such as calcium chlo-
rrde is used for patching if early use of the pavement is
desired. The ideal time to make repair of concrete pave-
ment road is in the evening.
6. Pavement surface with spall from freezing and thawing or
salt action are levelled with asphalt mixture or surface
treatment. Another method is to patch with concrete
bonded to the old concrete with a cement-water or epoxy.
7. Spalled joint can be repaired with cement grout contain-
ing epoxy mixed with catalyst.
Mud Jacking
Mud Jacking is a maintenance method adopted to restore the
sub-grade support under pumping pavement and to level uneven
slabs. The liquid filler is injected under the slab through drilled
holes. The mud or slurry, filled all the voids that if continuously
injected applying hydraulic pressure will force the slab upward.
Slurry for mud jacking consists of a mixture of fine grain ag-
gtegate, portland cement and water or iul addition of small
amount of asphalt. A mixture of one part cement, and three to
four parts of ground limestone, could be used as slurry for mud
jacking.
314
Road Maintenance
The mixture must pass through the pump without gumming.
It must flow readily under the pavement to the smallest voids.
The mixture must harden rapidly wrthout excessive shrinkage
and not becoming hard and brittle.
Take note that the spacing of the holes through the concrete
should be planned carefully when the slab is to be lifted by
pumping slurry into several holes. Frequent movement of the
nozzle is necessary so that the lifting will be in small increment.
Under-Sealing
Under-sealing is an alternative for mud jacking. Heated as-
phalt sometimes is used. The advantage of under sealing is the
formation of asphalt as seal against the penetration of surf,ace
water into the sub-grade.
9-5 Highway and its Environment
Early roads were patterned after the railroad of the same
period. The principle behind the construction of early road is to
construct the cheapest roadrvay that would serve traffic under
all conditions of weather without regards to its environment.
Roadside development was not included in the program.
Shoulders and right of way are narrow or non-existing at all.
Side slopes were too steep; drainage and ditches, channels and
structures were designed to protect the roadbed without regard
to erosion outside the roadway limit.
These crude practices in road building have brought un-
sightly conditions and high maintenance cost until such time
that design standards were gradually modified and improved.
The later development and improvement of roadway has incor-
porated the following features:
l. Pleasing views and surroundings were developed sacrific-
ing a little costs or distances to enhance driving pleasure.
315
 Elements of Roads and Highways Road Maintenance

7. Long sweeping horizontal curves are acceptable than safer highways. The roadside development is under the care of
short curve connected by long tangents. the Highway agency, although there re adjacent propert-v home-
3. Choppy or broken back grade line were not only flattened owners who sometimes contribute to the beautification of their
but smoothened. surroundings including the roadside itself for aesthetic consid-
In rough areas, the depth of cuts and filI heights were eration that they themselves enjoyed.
lowered to reduce scare and slope erosion to a minimum
level.
5. Retaining walls are sometimes helpful and improve the
9-6 High\ryay Beautification
attractiveness of the roadway.
Highway beautification is a broad term that includes activi-
6. Modern highway now provides wide roadbeds, shallow
ties like:
wide gutter and ditches, flat back slope and cuts, and flat
side slope on fill.
7. Top ofthe cut banks and toes offills are rounded to blend
l. Landscaping and roadside development within the rights
of way.
rvith the original ground.
2. Improvement of strips and land adjacent to the highway
for restoration, preservation and enhancement of natural
These features of the roadway give safer roadbed and a
beauty.
pleasing approach. Erosion occurs more slowly or prevented on
flafter slopes. The result is less expense for cleaning gutters and
3. Acquisition and development of publicly owned and con-
trolled rest area- recreation areas and sanitary areas in-
ditches. Mowing could be done using power equiprnent that
cluding other facilities.
substantially reduces maintenance costs.
Factors that Contribute to Beautification
Wider right of way has become a necessity in roadside de-
velopment for the following reasons:
1. Good location

l. It allows blending of the road into the natural landscape. 2. Good design

Z. [t provides space to plant screening in front of unsightly 3. Construction

and objectionable areas and other undesirable objects.
4. Maintenance

3. It isolated the highway visually from its surroundings and

freeing the roadside ofhazards.
Roadside is the entire right of way except the travelled way.
In planning roadside development, planners were conscious of
the cost maintenance including the cost of morving, trimming
and cleaning. Roadside development is sometimes referred to as
roadside beautification made after the road construction is com-
pleted. Roadside development without question provides a more
pleasing environment for travelers, less maintenance cost and
Outdoor Advertising
The control and removal of outdoor advertising had long
been controversial in the beautification of highways. A court
ruling on these aspects states that:
"The concept of public welfure, for the purpose of which the
legislative may exercise police power, is broad and exclusive,
and the value it represents is spiritual and aesthetic as well os
physical and monetary. "

3i6 317
 Elements of Roads and Highways
For public interest, the government should extend full assis-
tance to the control and use of the areas adjacent to the highway
by regulating the erection and maintenance of outdoor advertis-
ing signs, display or other devices within a reasonable distance
from the edge of the right of way but still visible from the nrain
traveled way.
9-7 Environmental Laws
The government had passed enough laws to protect the en-
vironment. The Environmental Laws has the following intent:
1. The govemment recognizes the impact of man's activities
in relation to all components of the natural environment
more particularly:
a) The influence of population growth
b) The high density urbanization
c) Industrial expansion
d) Resource exploration
e) The expandingtechnological advances
f) Restoration and maintenance of environmental
qualrty to the welfare and development of man.
2. The present generation must fulfill the responsibility as
trustees of the environment for the succeeding genera-
tions.
3. To assure all Filipino people of a safe, healthful, produc-
tive and aesthetically and culturally pleasing surround-
ings.
4. To provide the widest beneficial use of the environment
without degradation and risk to health or other undesir-
able consequences.
5. To preserve some important historic, cultural and natural
aspect of our natural heritage and whenever possible an
environment which uphold diversity and variety of indi-
vidual choice.
318
Road Maintenance
6. To maintain balanced distribution of population and use
of resources that will give high standard of living and
wide sharing of life's amenities.
7. To irnpart that all person has the responsibility to contrib-
ute to the preservation and enhancement of the environ-
ment.
9-8 Environmental Effect of Highways
The main objections of community complaint on snviron-
mental effects oftransportations are as follows:
l. Air and noise problem
2. Traffic induced vibration
3. Accidents
4. Armoyance caused by water pollution, dust and dirt.
Air Pollution Control
Air pollution be it from fixed or mobile sources is the main
concern in most urban areas. Air pollution is tlre result of pro-
gress. It comes from discharges into the air of non-reactive pol-
lutants including carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, sulfates,
dust smoke and lead. The highway pollution problems are of
two dimensions. They are:
1. Area wide effects of preliminary reactive pollutants.
2. High concentration of non-reactive pollutants at points or
corridors along or near highways.
Motor vehicles are mainly the contributor to both forms of
pollutants estimated at 70%o carbon dioxide, 50% hydrocarbon,
and 30%' of nitric oxide. The area condition is acceptably worst
when temperature inversions trap pollutants near the ground
surface when there is little wind or no wind at all. Concentra-
tion becomes extremely high atrecting human life and even
some vegetation are killed, stunted or the foliage is bumed.
319
 Elements of Roads and Highways
Various approaches to reduce area pollutants were planned
and employed including future approaches such as:
l. By Land Use Control. One example is the limitation and
control of industrial-commercial development where their
construction and land use would contribute to pollution.
2. To Lower the Emission. This is by lowering the emission
of pollutant from existing machineries.
7_ Modiftcation of the fixed existing fociliries such as sub-
stituting low sulfur coal to reduce the release of sulfur di-
oxide.
Lowering pollution coming .from motor vehicles that
falls under the following categories:
a) Reducing the output of pollutants by rnaking
them fuel efficient and controlling pollutant out-
put.
b) Limiting vehicle travei by shifting travelers to
other mode using electric current.
c) Cuttrng fuel consumption and pollutant output by
improving traffrc flow.
d) A set of standard to be met by new vehicles.
Noise Control
Noise is defined as unwanted sound. Noise is measured in
decibels with a common unit dBA. This single unit combine
sound intensities from all frequencies above 100 per second and
strongly react in the human ear.
Sound at ldBA level could be hardly detected by human
ears, but an increase of l0 on the decibel scale means tenfold
increase in intensity. In a quite residential area at nighg the am-
bient noise is measured from 32 to 43 dBA. The urban residen-
tial district at daytime limit is aboul4l to 53 dBA. In industrial
areas tlre range is 48 tn 66 dBA, and in downtor,r.n commercial
areas with heavy traffrc is 62 to 73 dBA.
320
Road Maintenanee
In terms of conversation or communication, these sound
level means that at 65 dBA a conversation is difficult at a dis-
tance of i.00 meter and at 75 dBA an ear has to be plugged by
a finger in order to hear a telephone conversation.
Transportation noises are complexn studies showed that:
1. Complaints are focused on interference with speech. TV
viewing or sleep related to increase ofsound above anrbi-
ent noise level.
2. Increase up to 9 dBA , complaints would be widespread
and there would be community reactions.
3. Highway noises near residences at peak noise of about 70
dBA bring f'ew cornplaints, at 75 dBA, complaints are
likely and 80 dBA will invite letter of petition and protest.
9-9 Construction in Relation to Roadside
Del'elopment
At the time of grading operations, topsoil should be pre-
served for future landscaping. Likewise, trees outside the dis-
tance limit from the travelled way, should be protected from
damages caused by man and equipment. Removing of soil or
fills from along the right of way called side borrow should be
avoided, and borrow fills out of sight from the roadway is pref-
erable.
Objects of interest like rocks, outcrops in cut slope or trees
at toes of fill should be preserved for pleasant view. Rugged
slope in borrow areas and along roadside are dressed to encour-
age the retum of native plants and shrubs.
9-10 Vegetation and the Flighways
Ground cover is defined as low growing herbaceous or
woody plants more than one meter at maturity. Both low shrubs
and vines are included
321
 Elements of Roads.and Highways
Ground cover is an alternative to grass in controlling ero-
sion by wind and water. It also serves as insulation that reduces
sloughing caused by freezing and thawing. Mat forming plants
are considered best ground cover for protecting slopes and other
roadside areas. There are those that root from decumbent
branches and those that spread from suckers and shoots.
Other Vegetation Desirable for Roadside Protection
l. Bushy dense foliage plants, and those producing litter
with great water holding capacity are considered good
vegetation to protect the roadside against erosion.
? The rapid growing species with inconspicuous flowers to
prevent distraction and vandalism are preferred.
3. Fire resistant plants with the abilrty to sprout after bum-
ing are much desirable. The cogon grass is one example.
4. Plants that are subject to disease and insect damage, poi-
sonous or irritating to the skin or that may become agri-
cultural pest should be rejected.
For median strips and islands, erosion control is but one of
the functions of ground covers. Properly selected plants prevent
headlight glare without affecting distance and provide a con-
trasting background that also guide traffic directions.
Tires and Shrubs
Trees and shrubs are effective means of providing interes!
variety and beauty to the roadside. Those that are native to the
area are more preferred than the imported variety. The follow-
ing are important tips in planting.
l. For rural roads, the objective is to preserve or recreate a
natural foreground in harmony with a distant view. Exist-
ing well placed trees should be preserved while ugly and
obstructing growth are removed.
2. Replanting should be considered only when irregular in-
322
Road Maintenance
troduction oftrees and shrubs serve to highlight the natu-
ral beauty or where it is particular$ desirable to screen
unsightly objects.
3. Trees should be planted back a distance from the traveled
way to provide recovery area for vehicles that run offthe
roadway. A minimum distance of 9.00 meters from the
lane edge is recommended (See "A guide for highway
landscape and envi ronmental desi gn " )
4. Row planting along rural road is not considered a good
taste. It spoils distant views with a monotonous design.
The formal arrangement oftrees and shnrbs is suitable for
urban freeways and expressways.
5. Group planting creates an occasional point of interest or
call attention to intersections, bridges or other point of
hazard.
6. Continuous planting is appropriate to screen unsightly
roadside condrtions or to insulate residential areas frorn
the road^
7 . Avoid monotony over long stretches of the route. The so-
lution is to group flowering trees and vines at best and
appropriate locations.
9-11 Parking and Rest Area
Parking turnout to accommodate stopping off the traveled
way is an important adjunct to major rural highways. Wayside
rest areas are necessary facilities of the highway wherein motor-
ist stops, relaxes and use sanitary facilities.
Wayside rest areas should be located on those with natural
features that make the area:
1. More attractive.
2. Those that are accessible and safely located.
3. Those with sufficient area and with existing shades.
Locations where public use will create fire hazard or other-
q.ise affect adjoining property should be avoided.
323
 Elements of Roads and Highways

Likewise, location closer to cities and towns are not advis-

cHAPrE"ffi
able, because it will just be monopolized by the town people.
The site must have adequate driveways and parking space sepa-
rated from the traveled way with bumper rails or curbs to con-
fine vehicles. and if possible, provided with fence. TRAFFIC ENGINEERING
Without questions, highway rest areas are worthwhile, but
highlvay offrcials and maintenance personnel object to their
' 10-l Road Traffic Signs
establishment because motorist users :re untidy and are some-
The importance of road signs have been recognized world
times vandals making maintenance difficult and very expensive.
wide because of the increasing incidence of road accidents due
- to ttre volume oftraffic and bad habits of motor vehicle drivers.

The United Nations Conference on Road Traffic was held in

Vienna, Austria on October 7, to November 8, 1968 under tlre
auspices of UNESCO. The participating countries including the
Phiiippines agreed on the Road Traffic conference to hdve a
sepilate conveirtion for Road Signs and Stgnals as necessary to
facilitate international road traffic and to increase road safety'
On June 6,1973, Presidential Decree No. 207 was issued by
then President Ferdinand E. Marcos which states and partially
quoted:

Wereas, th.e contracting parties to these conventions to

which the Philippines is a signatory, have agreed to accept the
system of tffic, road signs, signals and symbols and road
markings described in said conventions and to'adopt the same
as soon as possible.
Whereas, there is now an urgent needed for the ratif cation
of these conventions in order to adopt internationally, pre-
icribed unifurm rules of traffc and ,oad signs and sigials in
the Philippines, specially so, because of the intensifed govern-
ment campaignfor road safety.

Whereas, the urgent need for adopting the unifurm trffic

rules, road signs and signals as prescribed in the conventions is
made more necessary because of the considerable number of
foreigners and tourists that are now operating motor vehicles
on Philippine roads.

iz5
3 ZL+
 Elements of Roads and Highways Traffic Engineering

After more than 20 years, although majority of the world 3. Prescription Signs
countries have already applied the recommendations of the Vi- a) Prohibitive
enna Convention, some countries like USA and the Philippines b) Obligation
have still difficulties in implementing the international traffic 4. General Information Signs
system" 5. Direction Signs
T'he three efficacy principles of Unifurmity, Homogeneit)) 6. Agglomeration Signs
and Simplicity Ne not being inforced. Instead, a very compli- 7. Railway Crossing Signs
cated mixture of lnternational and US rules are adopted which 8. Temporary Signs (on road works)
leads to misunderstanding and consequently non-respect of the 9. Special Instruction Signs
rules.
Visibility and Legibility
Uniformity includes the prohibition to use unofficial signs
and markings. Signahng devices whether horizontal or vertically installed
Homogeneity requires that in the same conditions, the user has the following objectives:
notices signs or markrng with the same value, sanrc importance
and lcoated according to the same rules. 1. To Inform
Simplicity is to avoid superabundance of signs that over 2. To Prevent
strain the drivers having the tendency to neglect the given in- 3. To Guide
structions. Sometimes drivers cannot read, understand, or regis- 4. Act as liaison agents between the driver and the highway
ter the meaning of the signs or markings. alignrnent.

Road Signs has the Following Objectives At night, drivers has no complete view of the highway envr-
l. To lead to a safest road traffic. ronment. His only guide is the headlight. Therefore, road signs
2. To facilitate this traffic. and signaling must be effective in the dark. Report of accidents
3. To indicate or to remind some particular traffic rules. revealed that for the same traffic condition, the percentage of
4. To inform the drivers how to use the highway. fatalities at night is double than during daytime.

This difference can be explained only by the modification of

The Different Categories of Signaling I)evices are:
one factor- Visibility. To be effective, road signs and signaling
l. Road taffic signs. must be visible and readable considering human eye limit that is
2. Road traffic signals. not adaptable at night driving
3. Pavementmarkings.
4. Guide posts and delineators Visibility and Legibility of road signs or the pavement
markings are dependent on three parameters.
Road Signs are Classified into the Following Categories.
l. The detection
l. DangerWaming Signs 2. The identification
2. Intersection Signs 3. The reading
326 3Z I
 Elements of Roads and Highways Traffic Engineering

Detection is the minimum area in contrast with the envi- Valorization Principle means to use only the needed and
ronment perceptibility by human eye. useful signs. Too many road signs lessen its efficiency. Regula'
Identification is an analysis of the form and color of the tory and warning slgns should be installed sparingly because
road signs to understand the messages it conveys. excessive use of these signs will only decrease their authority.

Reading is the fundamental role of road signs conforming Concentration Principle. Wren it is necessary that some
to alpha numerical language or by the syrnbol of information road signs must be seen at the same time, they should be in-
transmitted to the driver. stalled for the driver to see at a glance by mght and day. The
signs must be set on the same post when the two indications
relating to the same point are complementary. For instamce, traf-
TABLE IGI STANDARD FOR.DI AIYD SIZE OF ROAD SIGNS
fic signal ahead and the pedestrian crossing. This concentration
IN CENTIPTETERS
principle however, is limited bythe legibility principle.
Typ" Triangle Circle Octagon Square
Side Diameter Width Side Legibility Principle" Excessive efforts of reading or llrolrr-
ory works cannot be requircd from the driver. The indicalions
Very Big
Big Size
150
t25
t25 t20 i05
or analogical messages should be reduced, and if necessary,
105 100 90
Normal Sizc
road signs should be properly distributed. Experienced proved
100 85 80 70
Small Size 70 65 60 50
that average observer caruiot see and understand at a glance
Very Small 50 45 40 35 more than two symbols at a time

10-3 Warning (Danger) Sign

The snrall type of road signs are used only when some diffi-
culties prevent implementation of the normal type such as line Warning Sign is used to warn traffic of potentially hazard-
of trees, mountainous road, reduced shoulders, small side walks ous conditions on or adjacent to the roadway. Warning Sign is
and the like. The very small type is used exceptionally in cities always Triangular in Shape with one Vertical Angle and dark
for aesthetical considerations. blue symbol, rwo borders one white and red with reflectorized
white background.
10-2 Basic Principle of Road Signs There is no exception tq this rule, and the use of yellow
color for background is strict$ prohibited for permanent signs.
The basic principle of road signs is to be perceived clearly The yellow color is reserved only for temporary signals used
by a driver traveling at relatively high speed, whose attention is during road construction or maintenance work.
solicited by the driving requirements. To be useful, road signs
must be efficient according to: Objectives of Warning Signs
l. Valo.rizationPrinciples The objectives of warning sign is to attract driver's attention
2. Concentration Principles in the areas where his watchfulness has to increase on account
3. Legibility Principles of the obstacles or of the dangerous points linked to:

328 329
 Elements of Roads and Highways Traffic Engineering

AAAA
1. The highway structure such as curves, humps, dips and
narowing.
2. Conditions of the road such as slippery, falling rocks and
the like.
3. Other transport infrastructure like opening bridge, airport
vicinity, railway crossing etc.
Merging Tralic Hanging Bridge lpproaching Road under repair 4. The condition of vehicles and pedestrian traffic, pedes-
Trafiic tight trian crossing, children area, two-lane highway after a
multi-lane highway.

AAAA
5. Local circumstances such as: factory exit, quarry exit etc.

When it is necessary to point out a potential risk, an ad-

vanced danger warning sign is installed. The purpose is to in-
form the driver that he is approaching the obstacle, the danger-
ous point or the beginning of a dangerous zone. Road signs
Pedestrian Crossing Animal crossing Nanowing road Rough road pointing to danger zone or intersections should indicate the
let gth repeated after each intersection.

AAAA
Steep downward road Steep upward Slippery road River ahead
Fixed Message Signs Includes:

1.
2.
3.
Detailed direction to motorist of the freeways and warn-
ing signs regarding destination and lane occupancy.
Signs to notifu motorists of the changes in directions.
For low volume rural roads, only directional and kilo-
metric signs installed at intersections and also signs for
dangerous condilions.

AAAA
Road signs should not carry commercial advertisement
other than for traffic control only. There are situations where
almost no signs are installed because they are being vandalized
or taken away as building materials.

Approaching Two way road Caution ialling stone Railroad crossing

Installation of RegulatorT and Warning Signs

Regulatory and Warning signs are installed sparingly be-

will only decrease their au-
cause excessive use of these signs
FIGURE 10.1 WARNING (DANGER) SIGN rhonty.

330 331
 Elements of Roads and Highways
Traflic Engineering

LJ\ AA
A^\A
For oversized signs on expressway and freeways, white
letter on green background with white border is recom-
meNrded.
2, Large sizes of signs are effective on expressway or where
Dangerous speed, hazard, accident orperie,nce or competition from
Dangerous Dangeroue Dangerou!double
Curve Left Curve Right Curve curve at lefi lights or other signs is extreme.
3. Excessive use oflarge signs should be avoided because it

AA
AA A
makes the regular sizes less effective.
A 4. Non-refleclorized signs are satisfac0ory for most school
zone markings, parking conaol, me,n working and other
temporary warnirgs that are effective only in daytime or
illuminated by street lighting.
Dangerour Waming Entering Crosa Entering Major
5. The Traffic Manual suggest that two signs, one black on
right
double curve at Croas Road Roao Crosg Road white, unreflec0orized and other white on black reflector'
ized be mounted on the same standard where speed limits

AA
A A' differ between day and night.

AACurve to right Curye to lefi Airport vicinity Nanowed road

6. Signs with significance at night should be illuminated or

7.
reflectorized.
The sign message must be simple. The driver in so short a
tinne available looking at slgn messages ciumot observe
and assimilate large amount of information printed on it.
8. An expressway or freeways usually have two messages
FtcuRE 1G2 WARNTNG (DANGER) StcN and no more than three regarding directions or destination
should appear on a single signboard.

Other important Place Information should be given on

separate signs. At turnoffs from limited acc€ss facilities, direc-
tional sign may be used either:
l. To indicate the immediate numzuver wit"\out dstail to
subsequent one or
2. To diagramthose later movemeds on earlier signs.

Effectiveness of Road Signs

R:50-
As mentioned earlier, too many signs will make all of the'rn
less effective. I".arge signs overwhehn any smaller ones. Thus,
FIGURE DETAIL OF WARNING (DANGER) SIGN
'G3 signs often fail to accomplish its main purpose. For example:

732
333
 Elements of Roads and Highways Tra{Iic Engineering

l. Stop sign to control vehicle speed in residential areas are
useless for being ineffective. Majority of the motorists
make a roll stop and few otlers only ignore the signs.
2. Signs like "Slow Children at PIay" have no effect on
speeds. Selection of sign message is important because
drivers react to them differentlv.
3. The "Slippery When Wet" warning sign is not threaten-
ing, but effective only when accompanied by flashers.
4. tf signs convey incorrect information such as safe speed
right of way against the vehicle coming from the right or from
the left, except as ottrerwise provided.
Priority Road: Sign 12-9 punctual warning
sign of the intersections where the driver has
priority against all vehicles. The thickness of
the principal road is bigger to avoid confusion
with another sign. Sign STOP or GIVE WAY
has to be located on the other road.

5.
indicator on curve warning sign suggest a speed slower
than the driver find easy and comfortable, they
nore subsequent messages, ttrinking that the signs are
only fooling them.
will ig-

If signs tell them tJrat there is ongoing construction or

s@ Priority Sign Pr and Pz is to inform the driver
that he is driving on a priority road or street
and that he has the right of waY.

maintenance work ahead when none is actually in pro- 3. Non-Priority Road

gress, drivers will ignore all such signs.
The driver of any vehicle entering a highway from private
l0-4 Intersection Signs road shall yield the right of way to all vehicles approaching,
entering or in the intersection.
Article III
of the Nght of Way and Signals of the Traffic
Code is not clear. Therefore, it is necessary to define the right of
way rules at the junctions and intersections. The right of way The Stop sign is used to ensure caution be-
can be reduced to three possible situations:

1. General Rule.
@
Sign R1-1
fore entering an intersection. A full stop is
necessary for safetY.

When the vehicles approaches an intersection from different

The Rl-l Sign cannot be used alone' It is announce by Rl-
roads, the driver on the left should yreld the right of way to the
2a sign installed before the intersections like a warning sign.
vehicle on tlre right except as otherwise hereinafter provided.

The GIVE WAY sign notifies the obligation of

General Rule, right priority sign W 2-1 warn-
the driver to give way to all vehicles coming
ing sign of the intersections where the driver
from right and left without the obligation to
has to give way to the vehicles approaching

2. Priority Road
or entering the intersection on the right.
V
Signs Rl
stop. The use of this sign supposes that the
sight triangles are effectively implemented
and maintained. lt also supposes. that the
GIVE WAY sign is announce by R1-2b sign
located before the intersection like a warning
Any vehicle mning onthis type of road has always sign.
the

335
734
 Elements of Roads and Highways
The Philippine road signs manual (Revised Edition 1982)
proposes no less than 22 traffic sign combinations for junctions
and intersections. [t is too much number giving the drivers more
confusion. The proposal is to use only six types of intersection
signs for simplicity.
Exception to the Right of Way Rules
l. Vehicle drivers entering a highway from private road
must yield the right of way to all vehicles approaching
on such highway.
2. Driver of vehicle upon a highway of any category must
yield the right of way to police or fire deparfrnent vehi-
cles and ambulances operating on official business and
the driver thereof sounding audible signal of their ap-
proaches.
3. The indicatrons of traffic signals or the orders of a traffic
office1 prevails against the right of way rules.
In an intersection where some flows of traffic can be in con-
flict, it is suggested that the drivers must be:
1. Notified in time of the existe,nce of intersection.
2. Informed ofthe applicable rigtrt of way rules.
3. Able to see the vehicles approaching upon the other
roads.
The first two prescriptions will be implemented by means of
road signs the third is by sight triangles.
Location of the Intersection Signs
On Rural Areas, the normal distance between the intersec-
tions and the waming signs is 150 meters. This distance can be
modified according to site conditions and the free operating
speed. It can reach up to 400 msters on highways with good
visibility and where the speed can be high. There are excep-
tional cases where two very near successive intersections can
justi$ location distance shorter than i00 meters.
336
Traflic Engineering
When signs are located more than 200 meters from an inter-
section, it should be repeated at half distance, and the two signs
should be equipped with distance slgn.
Distance Indication Sign
Road signs located betwesn 100 meters and 200 meters be-
fore an intersection do not have distance sign. Where the dis-
tance is shorter than 100 msters or greater than 200 msters it
should be indicated on the distance sign' The distance is
rounded to the ncarest 50 meters if it is greater than 200 meters.
Between 50 and 100 meters it is rounCeci to 50 or 100.
The road signs Rl-2a and R1-2b are always located with a
distance sign. The distance is rounded to nearest 50 meters if it
is grcater than 100 meters" Bstween 50 and 100 meters it is
rounded to 50, ?5 and 100 meters. The distance signs are 1o-
cated under the road signs.
The roadside srgn should be mounted clear of roadside
vegetation and clearly visibte under low headlight illuminatron
by The heigh of the sign base is 1.00 meter above the
"ight.
nearest edge of the travel way but this height could be modified
to improve visibility. On the intersection island, the signs can
be installed less than 1.00 meter to prcvent them from masking
the visibilrty.
In Urban Areas, the distance bstween the successive inter-
sections is variable including the warning signs. Road signs are
located betwesn the intersection and the preceding junction'
When the distance is smaller than 50 meters, it is rounded to the
nearest l0 meters. On curbed roads, signs are located back from
the face of the curb not less than 30 celrtimeters or more than
1.00 meter.
In Urban Areas with public illumination, tlre signs can be
placed a|2.30 meters above the top of the curb. Where pedestri-
iilN or parking of vehicle is not allowed, ttre rural area rules are
applicable.
337
 Elements of Roads and Highwnys Traffic Engineering

Sight Triangles

If possitrle, vehicle drivers should be given the best visibil-

ity conditierns. Thus, in designing road intersections, the Free
l||rr llrttt|t Flow Operating Speed is considered, not the Design Speed. In
lltll trl.rilt
approaching irrtersection, the drivers of two converging vehicles
need enough visibilrty to see each other in time to prevent colli-
sion at the crossing" The sight triangle is associated to each con-
flict point between two vehicle fl,:ws. The summits of this tri-
angle are the conflict point, and the limit from where the drivers
must notice an adverse vehicle.
\\- J6O
The signal GIVE WAY is applied only to the vehicles on
the secondary road. However, it is necessary to check if the ve-
hicles on the secondary road have the visibilrty corresponding
to tJre execution at the crossing or insertion maneuver.

Forms of Intersection Signs

1. Triangular in shape with one angle vertical.
2. Triangular shape with one angle atthe bottom"
3. Square and octagonal shape.

The triangular shaped signs with one angle vertical are

following the general rules for warning signs. The triangular
shaped with one angle at the bottom includes red border wider
than the normal waming sign (x 1.333).

l0-5 Prescription Sign

l--*- a,nn, o'*r"n"" .o The Prescription Road Signs inform the drivers of the traffic
laws and regulations that could be an offense to anyone who
disregard and violate it.
Prescription sign is installed only with the approval of Pub-
lic Authority having jurisdiction of the premises to be removed
any time if the legal requirements of the signs become inconsis-
FIGURE 1O-4 SIGHT TRIANGLES RIGHT PRIORIry tent with the prevailing conditions.

338 339
 Traffic Engineering
Elements of Rosds and Highways

ae
The No Left Turn - No Right Turn
Included in this classification are those signs that indicate The turn prohibition is applicable at the next
removal of legal restrictions imposed by a preceding prescrip- intersection. The signs can be completed by
tion sign. auxiliary sign M4 giving the category of vehi-
cles.
Prescription Sign is Classified into Three Categories
The No U Turn
a) Prohibitive Signs This sign is used to notify the U-Turn prohibi-
b) Obligation Sigrrs tion up to the next intersection. This intersec-
tion is included in the prohibition.
c) End of Prescription Signs
The No Overtaking Sign
The prescription signs are circular in shape, but for regula- The R3-16 sign signifies the drivers that it is
tory purposes ofparking applied to a zone, the circte is placed prohibited to overpass any Vehicle except the
inside a square.

1. The Prohibitive Signs have a white background, red

@@ two wheel vehicles without sidecar. The R3-
16 sign must be completed by continuous line
marking on the pavement.
nng and prohibitive red bar, symbols, and letters. Num-
Stop Contrcl
bers are dark blue except the srgn R3-l vvith red back- The R3-17 sign is used to notify the proximity
ground and the Signs R5-10, R5-12 with a dark blue of a control point where the vefricle has to
background. stop. The sign is divided into two by a dark
blue horizontal bar. On the superior part it in-
cludes the word STOP and below it is written
The NO ENTRY sign has only white border. The back-
the nature of the control or the reason of the
ground is red with a horizon*,al white bar. required stop, which can be Police, Custom,
Health, Toll, etc.
ln order to improve the legibility, only the following signs
includes transversal bar.
* No Left Turn, No Right Turn, No U Turn
* No Stop, No Parking
* No Use of Audible Warning Device
D=85cm
Prohiblted Traffic
The sign RO indicated that atttraffic is prohib-
ited on both directions for all vehicles.

No Entry for all Vehicles

This sign R3-1 indicates in the beginning of
the one way road that the vehicles can only
circulate in opposite direction. lt is necessary Prohibitive Sign End of Prohibitive Sign
to repeat this sign on all intersections along
FIGURE 1O- 5 MEASUREMENT OF PROHIBITIVE SIGNS
this one way road.

340 341

]'
 Elernents of Roads and Highways Traffic Engineering

10-6 Obligation Signs

O
Prohibited Trafhc No €ntry for all Vehicbs No U Tum
The meaning of the following Obligatory Direction signs

R2-l
R2-2
R2-2
(R)
(L)
- Obligation to continue straight ahead
- Obligation to follow the right direction
- Obligation to follow the left direction
R2-3 (R) - Obligation to turn the obstacle by its right side
R2-3 (L) - Obligation to turn the obstacle by its left side

@ @No Parking Prohibited to Cars No StopNo Parking

R2-4 (R) - Obligation to turn right
R2-4 (L) - Obligation to turn left
R2-8 (R) - Obligation to go straight ahead or to turn right
R2-8 (L) - Obligation to go straight ahead or to tum left
R2-9 - Obligation to turn right or left
R2-10 - Obligation to use the roundabout

@ @
No overtaking for vehicles
whose weight exceeds 3.5 T
No left tum No right tum

@ No overtaking Prohibited to trucks

Prohibited to pedestrians

@
Prohibited to animal drawn vehicles

FIGI-.'RE 10-6 PROHIB IVE SIGNS FIGURE 10.7 OBLIGA'I'ORY DIRECTION SIGNS

34) 343
 Elements of Roads and Highways Traffic Engineering

The Obligation Signs are circular in shape. The background

is dark blue. The symbols and border is white. If the administra-
tion enforces prohibition or an obligation sign, it has to inform
the driver the end of this restriction to ttre highway use. For ex-
ample; the No Passing Zone, the No Parking Zone, the speed
limit, the prohibition to use audible warning signal and others.

{-+
t-r.s I
1-t -
1gi \
!-i--_-_____

"t
$q
{o
FIGURE 10.9 OBLIGATORY DIRECTION SIGNS

281 n. La,/Ai 10-7 End of Prescription Signs

-ll I l\ i

iltl.,u -'. ---, The end of all prohibition signs is also circular in shape and
represents the sarne bar sign obligation symbol. A red bar from
| ---f-- |
the right top to the left bottom cancels this obligation. The R4-2
t---------.21.s -- ----__.1
informs the drivers of the end of all the previous prescriptions.
However, it does not include the law that prescribes the national
FIGURE 1O€ MEASUREMENT OF OBLIGATION S|GNS
speed limit.

344
345

4
 Elements of Roads and Highways Traffic Engineering

The R4 notifies the driver of the end of all particular speed

limits other than those defined by the general laws, speed limits
previously applied to all vehicles or only to one or several cate-
gories. The sign should not be setup on the road where tle
speed limit is greater or smaller than tlle ones prescribed by the
i:[1"''>
general rules. -
ADVANCE DIRECTION SIGN

O
End of all indicated
prohibition
Ehd of speed iimil End of overtaking
prohibition
BULACAN

(R\
v
End of prohibition limiting
weight greater than 3.5 T
End of reserved lane
for buses
End of prohibition using
audible waming signal
INTERSECTION DIRECTION SIGNS

FIGURE ,IG1O END OF PROHIBITION SIGNS

10-8 Direction Signs

Direction signs are divided into four categories
l. Advance direction sign
2. Intersection direction sign
3. Reassurance of confirmatory slgn
4. Entering and Exit of urban area
CONFIRMATORY SIGNS

TT" four categories are well defined in the philippine

Road Signs Manual. In Europe, a different green is or"d- fo,
background of the sign. It is more intense with an emerard tint. FtcuRE r0-rr DrREcnoil stolts

?.46 347
 Elements of Roads and Highways Traffic Engineering

The driver should be informed that he is entering the crty of CX)

and to refrain from being attracted by anything except to look at
the shop signs only to know where he is.

The sign EB10 is rectangular in shape with white back-

ground, red and white borders and dark blue letters. At ttre end
of the city proper, another sign EB20 notifies the driver that he
is leaving the place and that he can resume his speed under the
traffic regulations.
These two signs, limit ttre area where the attention of the
Md--
2 driver is concentrated. Outside the city limit after the EB20
?*- sign, the condition of driving will be different givtng the driver
lrc
the signal to resume his speed.
lri
2
10-9 Informative Sign
The objectives of this sign is to give the driver miscellane-
ous information usefi.rl in his driving and general knowledge.
The signs are square in shape with dark blue background, white
symbols and letters bounded by white borderline. Informative
signs may include red symbols and bar notifring the end of
prohibitions etc.
MC MC
2 2 Material Requirements
FIGURE 1O-12 DIRECTION SIGNS STANDARD MEASUREMENTS
Sign Panels for warning, regulatory and informative signs
are manufachrred from aluminum sheeting of at least 3 mm in
These green signs with white letters, bonrer and arrows
are thickness. The Reflective Sheet used for road signs consist of
used for nafional highways. For expressways and freeways,
blue spherical lens elements embedded in transparent plastic having
background signs are used. The letter synnbols and bo.deis
a.e smooth, flat surface with protective pre-coat adhesive which are
all white. For small rural roads, white backgrou"O ,ign. *iih pressure sensitive for manual application or tack free heat acti-
black leuers, numbers and borders are used,
vated for mechanical vacuum heat application.

Entering and Exiting Urban Areas
It is necessary to advise all vehicle drivers that they are
entering an urban area where the condition of traffic is
diffeient.
The minimum brightress value of the reflective sheet com-
pared to magnesium oxide should be in accordance with Table
l0-2. The brightress of the reflective sheet when totally wet by
rain should not be less than 90% of the given value.

:48 349
 Elements of Roads and Highways Traflic Engineering

The reflective sheeting should be flexible to permit ap-

m
plication and adhesion to moderately embossed surface.
2. The sheeting should be solvent resistant capable of
withstanding cleaning with petrol, diesel fuel, mineral
spirits, turpentine or methanol. It should be weather re-
tEl sistant without discoloration, cracking, blistering, peel-
ing or any dimensional changes.
,;;;"n The sheeting must show no cracking or reduction in re-
flectivity after dropping a 25 mm diameter steel ball
from a height of 2 meters into its surface.
4. The adhesive should permit the reflective sheeting to

m
adhere accurately 48 hours after application of 90"C
temperature.

Combrtrwn Picnic area Ferry boat

TABLE 1O-2 RtsFLECTIVE BRIGHTNESS OF
TRAITTC SIGN SURFACE

m
Mnimum Rcfl cctivc Brightrrcss
Valrr comparcd with MgO

0.5"
0.50
End offteeway Hospital with 0.5"
Priority to this
emergenqy servi€ direction
0.5"
0.5"
0.5"

0.5"
0.5"
0.5"

No through road One way Perting

FIGURE 1S13 VARIOUS INFORi'ATIVE SIGNS

350 351
 Elements of Roads and Highways
Traffic Engineering
Placement of Signs 4. Coordinate traffrc under conditions of favorable signal
spacing so that it flows nearly continuously at definite
The position of individual sign depends upon its purpose
speed.
and circumstances peculiar to its location. If possible, iocation
should be standardized. Positioning provides another set ofcues
5. Interrupt heavy traffic to permit crossings by other vehi-
cles or pedestrians.
to motorists. The Manual recommended the right positions for 6. Control the traffic lane use.
all situations to wit:
7. Provide ramp control at freeway entrances.
l. Warning, Regulatory andAdvisory signs for rural roads 8. Intemrpt traffic for emergency vehicles and at movable
are mounted 1.80 to 3.60 meters from the pavement edge bridges.
with the bottom of the sign 1.50 meters or more above
the roadway.
The belief of la1'rnen and public officials that traffic signals
2. On high-speed roads, warning signs are posted as much could provide solution to all traffic problems, has led to the
numerous unsuccessful installation of traffic signals. The unfor-
as 450 meters ahead of the hazards.
3. Rural road warning sign distance should be placed about tunate results of unplanned installations of traffic signals are:
250 meters and75 meters in urban areas.
4. A horizontal clearance not less than 60 centimeters be_ 1. Excessive delay to motorists and pedestrians.
tween the curb face near the edge of the sign a minimum
2. Disobedience to signal indications and other particular
installations.
height of 2.10 meters above the curb is prescribed where
vehicles may park along the curb.
3. Diversion of traffic to less advantageous and undesirable
routes.
5. Sign positioning must fall within the driver,s field of
4. Increased accident frequency like rear-end collisions and
view so that drivers may not be looking away from the
pedestrians.
roadway.
6. If the signs are not illuminated, they must appear in the Signs and directions are enforceable only if they are in-
headlight to be effective at night.
stalled under legal authority. Model legislation is found in the
Uniform Traffic Laws and Ordinances.
10-10 Traffic Signals
Traffic Signals are Classified into:
Traffic signal is defined as all power operated traffic control
devices, except flashers, signs and markings for directing or l. Pre-Timed Signals - where traffic time intervals are di-
warning motorist cyclist or pedestrians. vided to the various traffrc movements.
2. Traffic Activated - where time intervals are controlled
Each of these different types of signals.serves as one or
as a whole or in part by traffrc demands.
more of the following functions:

l. Modern signals are electrically operated. Individual units

Provide orderly movements of traffic.
have separate red, yellow and green lenses with 20 or 30 cm.
2. Increase the traffic handling capaclty of intersections.
3. diameter each has its own light sources. The 30 cm. lens is
Reduce the frequency of certain types of accident.
specilied for irtersections where 85% speed exceeds 60 km. per

352
353

i
Elements of Roads and FlighwaYs
hour for all arrow applications and for problem locations. Sig:'
nals pedestal or brackets are mounted outside the roadway limit,
sornetimes they are suspended above the intersections by ca-
bles, mast arm or other support.
Mounting Specifi cations
l. 'lhe recommended height for post-mounted signals from
the bottom of the housing is 2.40 to 4.50 meters above
the sidewalk or crown of pavement, if there is no side-
walk.
2. The minimum mountrng height is 1.35 meters.
3. The minimum and maximum vertical clearance for sig-
nals suspended over ttre roadway is 4.50 and 5.75 meters
respectively.
4. For each through movement, two or more signal display
of faces visible to approaching traffic is prescribed. This
is to give the driver following immediately behind trucks
a chance to see the signal indication as they approach the
intersections.
@ 5. Flashing Yellow
@ Location of Signals
@@
FIGURE 1G14 TRAFFIC SIGNALS
354
_
Tralfic Engineering
5. Signals must be visible to approaching vehicles witb a
distance ranging from 30 meters for an 85 percenule
speed of 30 km./hr. to 21CI meters for 90 km. per hour.
6. Where a continuous view of at least two signal faces are
blocked by physical objects, warning sign is required.
7. For an excessive t rnring lane, one slgnal face is required.
8. Where signals must intemrpt fast moving traffic on
expressways, the cornmon practice is to install three or
four signal faces on each approach.
9. Under special conditions like heavy pedestrian move-
ment, school crossing, mid lock crossing arrd special rec-
tangular pedestrian walk, the ..Dontt Walk" signs with
either words or symbol message is extremely nscessary.
10. For non-intersection pedestriar crossings, two signal
faces for vehicles are required augmented b1' signs
pavement maikings and parking restrictions.
Positive Meaning of Each Color
1. The steady Circular Green... Means GO
2. Green Arrow..................,..... Go to such direction
3. Solid Red light ... .......... Stop and wait for a green
indication.
4. Flash Red ...............,...."........M&ms an arterial Stop Sign
Means Proceed with caution
6. The use of Steady Yellow for caution is prohibited except
as waming between green and red indication.
1. A distance of 12 to 36 meters beyond the top line for
t'"ical right angle intersections far side by mast arm or
cable zuspended locations.
2. If bottr signals are post mounted, install on the far side,
one on the right and the other on the left or median.
3. The angle between the drivers normal sight dire,ction, ei-
ther of the signal faces should not be more than 20o angle
355
 -

Elements of Roads and HighwaYs Traflic Engineering

TABLE IG3 PARTTAL DATA ON RECOMMENDED

ROADSIGN INSTALLATION PRACTICES* g -t:ts'. I e?
9q
33 I FE z?7
Purpose Minimum
5
()
o
ao | sq $'< E
9? q
of Design Dimension in Inches
;'€ { F
t
ae I
I

d'; E"E
8Es
E +r
Warning of hazard Diamond Black on Ycllow 30x30 sg;E
Y.O O
N)f.J-F.
g eB
O r{<O
tl
No Passing zone Triangular Black
Disk
on Yellow 36 (vert.) x 48 x 48
-'-ot
fgsx-g
O
"<
H3 5r 6' ut
lll
IE
F
Railroad crossing Ellack on Yellow 36n diameter a7
Regulatory sign Vertical 24 or 30'wide sa€*
6Fl1rX E
Rectangle Black on White height variable rF53 gs<
- ld
t-;i!
IP 3
C *\t rl t{
Stop sign Octagon White on Red Primary 30 x 30 g6O-' (/t O\ O\ Ll le .$
'u z
Secondary 24x?A Fis*
F::*.o
8888 I pq 3
Yield Triangular Red on White 36x36x36 '5cc) 8"S F F
3
o 8 g
Parking - Urban Vertical
Rcd bordcr
Rcd on Whitc or
;T
='6
e o.O
B
O o o-
v) t!
o o
Rcctanglc E !.,5
Parking - Rural Vcrtical
Grccn on White
Red on White or ?An x30" ' =p
E:8 B' li.
hJt.JH- ^6< o
r
Rcctangle Grcen on Whitc EE.F
Fr
8888 <ex l'
\J!t
o
c
F
Informational Horizonial Black on Whitc F.e 9a ET
tc
I F
Rectangl., White on Black or
to
o9
rno
;E
=. o
+
3
Fx F Gt
Whitc on Grcen oo
.^o o
o {
Sccnic Rest Horizontol White on Grccn E* t
Rcctanglc eg
tatr
5
F
I vv
Recreational Tnpczoidal White on Brown
"Be --l \O \O \t tsdF 19
o
t zrl
Route lvlarkers Shicld or Black on Whitc
rt .' 8888 E:E z
spccial 3g sgffo o
I
D
E o
rl
Road Markers :'O € 7
interstate Shield White on Red 5F !t
and Bluc <s;
oo !
=ro
C)X'
(D o
Construction and Black on Orange 2
Maintenancc *= vr z
Pedcstrian Control Vcrtical Black on Whitc 9x12or12xl8 x3
>1 a^.-I-l
5 5 u,ut
e lg
.?Ye t-
o
Rcctangle 35 or
9a t,

r Based on Manual on Uniform Traflic Control Devices

3;
5q Yd
,o
-l
Bg.
o
t

356 357
 Elements of Roads and trIighwaYs
4. 'l"he Uniform Vehicle Code prohibits illuminated adver-
tising signs that interfere with the effectiveness of traffic
control devices. The Manual recommended that local
government legal authority should prohibit them.
Signal Control
A solid-state mini-processor for intersections control must
be available. The mini-processor receives inputs from detectors,
and interprets their meaning, then select the appropriate set of
signals from those in the processor's memory bank These de-
vices can accept thousands of instructions per second and re-
spond very quickly to any changes in the traffic.
The advance miniaturization systems make it possible to
combine the advantages of pre-timing coordinated movement
and tlaffic acluation in a single or area wide intersections to
reduce cost and delay. Today, most detectors consists of wire
loops installed under the road surf;ace that register the presence
of vehicles through changes in their magnetic fields. A more
sensitive series of loops recording the number of vehicles wait-
ing to m:,k-e a maneuver. Transverse and loops are sometimes
installed diagonally in part to detect the presence of motorcy-
cles.
Designing an effective detector system is not easy because
the location of detector loops in relation with the stop line de-
pends on the traffic control plan. The detector is somstimes
placed at a distance from the intersection where vehicles on the
main road are approaching at high speed and expectrng to con-
tinue through. Another close-in detector is installed to prevent
entrapment at the stop line or to extend the green signal time.
The distance where detectors are installed ranges from 55 me-
ters for 45 kmftr. to 135 meters for 90 kmihr. speed.
Cycle Length of Signals
l. Ordinarily, the time required fbr cornplr:te sequence of
358
Traffic Engineering
indications fall betrveur 30 and 120 seconds. To reduce
delay of strnding vehicles, short cycle lengths are
adopted. Holever, a relatively high percentage of the to-
tal time is consurned in clearing the intersections and
starting each succeeding rnovements.
2. A larger cycle increases the percentage of time lost. For
high volurne traffic it is necessary to increase the cycle
length to gain additional road capacity.
3. Approximately, one vehicle can pass each traffic lane
with normal signalized section in 2 second of green light.
4. The yellow inten'al following the green signal is usually
between 3 to 6 seconds depending upon the width of the
road, pedestrian needs, zurd vehicle speed approach.
5" Thc Traffic Manual recornrnended that dre total time al-
lowed for pedestrians should be an initial interval of 4 to
7 seconds to start plus walking time computed at 1.20
meters per second"
6. On wide streets, pedestrians rnay be stopped on medians
at least 1.80 meters wide. However, a separate pedestrian
signal activator must be installed on this median if pedes-
trian push button is incorporated in the overall control
system.
Synchronized Movement
Under normal traffic volume, coordinated signals at various
intervals estimated from 750 meters to more than a kilometer is
effective in making smooth flow of traffic. On the contrary,
when the street is loaded to capacity, coordination of signals is
ineffective in making smooth traffic flow.
The four systems of coordination are:
l. Simultaneous coordination
2. Altemative coordination
3. Limited progressive
4. Flexibleprogressive
359
 Elements of Roads and Flighways Traffic Engineering

Simultaneous coordination makes all color indications 7. Approach to obstruction 8 Light rail or bus clearance
along the street alike at the same time. It produces high vehicle 9. Stop line 10. Cross walks
spoed between stops but have low overall speed. 11. Railr<lad crossings 12. Parking limits

ln Alternative Coordination, all signal changes their indi- To be respected, pavement marking should be simple, easy
cation at the same time, but adjacent signals along the street to understand, well designed and properly located. tn ttre prrii,
show different colors. This is fairly well on a single street that ippines, 80% of the drivers do not respect the horizontal mark_
has approximately equal block spacing. [t is also efFective in ings because it is too complicated. For example:
controlling traffic in business areas several blocks on one side
trut only when the block lengths are approximatd equal in both l. The continuous white line
directions. 2. Simple continuous yellow line
3. Double continuous yellow line
The Limited Progressive System retains a common cycle 4. Broken white line bordered by two continuous yellow
length providing separate "GO" at each uttersection to motor lane
traffrc progression. This gives continuous or nearly continuous
flow of vehicle group at designated speed in one direction and What is the barrier line? The 1968 Vienna Convention gave
discourages speeding between signals. the answer: A continuous line must not be crossed. It ii an
impassable wall All other broken lanes can be crossed with or
The Flexible Progressive System is provided with a master without care
control that commands the controller for the individual siguals.
The systerns give proper coordination between signals and Specific Use of Colors
make prcdetermined changes in cycle length, cycle split, and
offsets at intervals during the day For example, the cycle lenglh a) White is used where vehicles may cross the markings like
of the entire system could be lengthened during peak hours to
increase the road capaclty and shortening other time to decrease l. Lane lines 5. Stop lines
delays. 2. Pavement edge lines 6. Cross walk
3. Channeling lines 7. Parking space limit line
10-1 I Pavement Markings 4. Turn markings 8. Words and svmbols
b) Yellow Lines delineates the separation oftraffic flows like
The early road marking was first introduced in Wayne
Country of Michigan in the year 1911. After a decade, pave-
ment markings gained universal acceptance.
l. Center line oftwo highways.
2. Double centerline for multi-lane roadway.
Pavement marking was introduced to delineate
3. No passing barriers or zones of two and three lane road
and road transitions.
1. Roadway centerline 2. Lneboundaries 4. Channeling a c€rrter lane for two-way, left turns on undi_
3. No passing zole 4. Pavement edges vided multi-lane highways.
5. Roadwaytrar:sitions 6. Tumingpatterns 5. Obstructions must be passed to the right.

16()
361
 Elements of Roads and Highwavs
c) Dashed Lines for directional line such as center strips on
two lane highways and lane lines. The ratio of the stripe to gap
is I to 2 stripes - 3 meters long and 9 meters gap is recom-
rnended for rural roads.
Excessive use of continuous lines should be avoided when it
leads to the creation of artificial traffic bottlenecks or to a no-
ticeable decrease ofthe capacrqy on an important length of road.
The Rules State that:
l. A contirurous line shorild not be placed in sections
where the visibility is greater than the minimum lengfh
for passing.
2 There should be no continuous line in the sections
w'here small width of travel way hinders the drivers to
respect the continuous lane.
3. '[he length of contimrous line is strictly limited to the
indispensable length. The minimum length is: 30 meters
rn rural area and 20 rneters in urban areas.
The beginning of a continuous line must be designed not to
surprise the driver. Drivers must understand the reason of the
continuous line. For instance, the long straight line along a wide
bridge on flat area where the driver cannot understand the pur-
pose of such continuous line. The driver will not respect
instructions that he does not understand. Nexl time when the
continuous line is necessary, the driver will ignore the waming
and cross the line thinking once again that this line is only a
landscape for beautifi cation.
For urban areas, short length may be appropriate. On the
contrary, yellow barrier lines and white guidelines are generally
continuous on where crossing is to be discouraged. The recom-
mended stripe width is 10 to 15 centimeters, and for emphasis, a
stripe double the usual width is recommended.
Requirements for Ideal Road Markings
l. It must be cheaper to install
?62
Traffic Engineering
2. Should be permanent
3. Must be readily visible day and mght, rain or snow.
4. Even with water standing on the pavement, the surface
markings should clearly transmit to the motorist the in-
tended message.
5. Marking should not be destroyed by snow or dirt-
removing equipment.
The Paint Materials for Striping
l. Modified alkyd resin with Titanium Dioxide (white) or
Lead Chromate (yellow) pigment.
2. The paint film thickness should be in a range of 0.015
inch with about 60% solid.
3. The paint coverage should be about one gallon per 100
meters of continuous i0 centimeters stripe.
4. In addition, 2 tD 3 kilos of glass treads with an average
diameter of 0.5 rnm per gallon is added to the paint or
by drop-in during application.
5. Re-striping (re-painting) frequently depends on a vari-
ety of factors reported to be as frequent as 3 times per
year where traffic is heavy.
6. Paint must dry after application at the rate of less than
60 seconds and not more than 3 minutes.
Other Markings:
A raised reflector less than I rnch in height illuminated by
vehicle headlight is widely used. White color is used for lane
marking, bhre color to outline bicycle lanes and red to fucrng
vehicles traveling in wrong direction to the freeway entrances
or exil rnmps.
The raised reflector creates rumbles on running vehicles
when it crosses the line or tray on it. These devices are mounted
on the road by means of epoxy. The disk or reflector serves to
alert inattentive drivers. The large mushroom button type was
one time employed as pavement markings but their use are
found to be objectionable.
363
 Elements of Roads and Highways Traffic Engineering

TABLE lOS COMPOSITION OtrPAVEMENT PAINT SOLVENT

,if Raw Tung oil o/o

15
I Normal Butyl Alcohol l7 o/o

t Aoctone cp (dimcthyl Ketone) o/o

rli
(o 34
Dcnatursd Alcohol (Formula No. l) 34%

Thc alcohol and acctonc are mixcd first thcn thc oil is addcd to form a clccr

,f
solutionat2loC.

I
TABLE II}6 COMPOSITION OFPAINT VEHICLE
EEE
p88
l.r ,f i,,l ---t-
q
I I
I

I
ililll
:J5
(!
a
ES€
I
KEE
o ITT I

I T, ill
I TABLE I(}7 COMPOSITION OFPAINT PIGMENT
8 988
Qn v
R Compositionby Weight %
i Ess.c
tr.c
E
:!
l,l TJ
I

I
I

I
i':'t
rgg
Titanium dioxidc (anatasc )
Mcdium Chromc Ycllow

,ii
I !P!.g Para Toncr ( liSht ) CP
..j E.g,.c,
1 I
I :lI Extondcr

r +'
I

i
E :
;o
I

_il
I

TABLE lOE COMPOSITION OF?NNT

I

co
I

I I
i
T

I il ,ill "i ll _l
g I
.C Compositionby Weight%
co
l
I

J
I I Pigmcnt 4245Yo 23o/o
Vchiclc 5*58c/o 77 o/o

NNOoa
r-i-r-l-ri-t
l. Para toncr to standard shadc
2. orrc part by volumc and I acctatc is addcd to lfi) parts paint
3. Sultcient Prussian bluc is addod to thc raw tug oil for thc whitc paint
FIGURE 1Gl5 BROKEN LINE TYPICAL MODUI.ATION to ovcrcomc its vcllowish tint.

354 365
 Elements of Roads and Highways Traffic Engineering

Words, I-etters or zurows are also placed on the pavement to
notify the motorists that they are approaching hazard zone Such
as railroads, school crossing, or to mark straight through or
turning lanes. Symbols, words or numbers convey information
such as Speed Limit and the nearness of schools, hospitals, ju-
diciary courts, etc. Pavement markings have been proven effec-
tive in the reduction of accident, and much is yet to be learned
ofdriver's response.
Paint should not be applied on wet pavement and during
damp weather, or when the air is rnisty. Application is prefera-
bly by machine but where brush is used, only round or oval
shape not exceeding 10 centimeters width is permitted.
Traffic paint is applied producing a uniform even coating in
close contact with the surface being painted. It is applied to the
pavement at the rate of 0.33 liter per square meter and dried
sufficiently and free from cracking from 15 to 30 minutes.

Ballotini for Reflective Road Paint
Ballotini consists of beads of good quality, optically clean,
lead free glass with not less than 90Yo spherical and free from
flaws. The beads contain not more than one half percent of for-
eign matter free from flowing under normal atmospheric condi-
tions.
TABLE IG9 GRAI'ING OF BALLOTIM
For punctual obstacle like the curb of bridge sidewalks shall
be marked by one or several reflectorized dwice. The color is
red if the obstacles are on the right side, white or yellow if they
are on the left side.
Reflective Pavement Stud
Reflective stud is either Flush Surface or Raised Profile type
with the fol lowing characteristics
:

US Standard Sieve Percentage Passing L The Flush Surface R.eflector short base type measure 120
mm Inch. by Weight mm x 140 mm. The base is formed on cast iron with ade-
quate webbing to insure a firm key to the road when ins-
l.l8 No. 16 100 talled.
0.85 No.20 65-75 2. The pad is highly resilient and durable rubber reinforced
0.60 No.30 45-55 with canvass des:gned for at least 5 years.
No.50
0.30
0.18 No.80
t2-25 3. It is designed to produce a self-wiping action of the
0
reflectors when depressed.
4. The reflector is made of impact and abrasion resisting
glass hermetically sealed into a copper socket.
For proper light reflection, the proportio.n of ballotini to
5. The Raised Profile Reflector consist of acrylic plastic
paint should not be less than 45 kg. per liter and not more than
and shell filled with an epoxy compound molded from
.50 kg per liter of mixed paint. In cities with street lighting the
methylmethacyclate into the shape of a shallow frustum
use of reflectorized paint is not necessary.
of a pyramid with base dimensions approximately 100 x
Thermoplastic materials with or without reflective proper- 100 mm and thickness not more than 20 mm.
ties can be used in locations subject to extreme traffic wear. The 6. The shell contain two prismatic reflectors, each inclined
service life of this material is five times that of beaded trafhc at an angle of30o to the horizontal and having an area of
paints. not less than 20 cm2.

3(6 367
 Elements of Roads and Highways Traffic Engineering

7. The Reflectors minimum specific intensity values Cement Mortar shall consist of one part portland cement to
expressed as candle power per foot candle of two parts fine aggregates mixed wrth water.
illumination at the reflector on a plane perpendicular to
the incident light givur in Table l0-2. Advance Marking
8. Each reflector for testing is located at the center of the
reflecting face at a distance of 1.50 meters from a uni-
formly bright light source having an effective diameter
of 5 mm. The width of the photocell is 1.2 mm shielded
from stray light. The distance from the center of the light
source and photocell is 5 mm. Failure of the reflective
faces more than 4% could be a cause for reiection of the
complete batch.

TABLE IO.TO RAISEI' PRONLE PAVEMENT STUDS

PHOTOMETRIC PR.OPERTIES

Divcrgence Anglc 0.2"

.oo-_=- 1.O0
Incidcncc Angle
00 0.75
200 0.30

SELECTIONARROW

The reflector shall support a vertical load of 1000 kg (kN)

when tested in the following manner:

l. The reflector is centered horizontally over ttre open-end so .os ;24 HQhway or
lane axis
to a vertically positioned hollow metal cylinder, 75 mm - R=21
internal diameter 25 mm high and 6 mm wall thickness
2. The load is applied to the top of the reflector tluough a
6 mm diameter by a 6 mm high metal plug centered on 1.12 __
top of the reflector. Failure shall constitute either a.g) _
6.O0
breakage or significant deformation of the marker at
f- .r,1.lss--l I
any load less than 1000 kg. per foot. l-- ----1

Adhesive. When Raised Profile type reflector is specified

FIGURE .IO-16 RETURN TO LANE ARROW
an approved epoxy adhesive is used.

368 369
 Elements of Roads and Highways

Traffic Engineering

\ .:os

,\ l|f|l||trt ttartr
al ttsarttrY rtll
\\^Tl*'

I arr r3r
l_

-l - ,. -a
6 r.---:r ' t
-<-!F:_-11.3v__ -L..
r _
?

FIGURE tO-17 TAPER tetARKtNGs FIGURE lO-18 DtVtSlOfttAL

tSLAlitD Ot{ SECOIDARY
ROAD
370

371
 Elements of Roads and Highways Traffrc Engineering

On two-lane highways, all continuous lines are preceded by There are Six Types of Guideposts or Bescons.
warning broken lines. The line must be completed by Return to
Lane arrows. At the approach of the continuous line and in the l. Curve guide post Jl
case of reducing the number of lanes, the use of Return to Lane 2. Intersection guide post J3
Arrows is compulsory to incite the driver to use the indicated 3. Hazard marker 14
lanes. 4" Nose Marker J5
lfre arrow overlaps the warning line. On multi-lane high- 5. Delineator J6
way, the arrows are sst out on the axis of the lane to be sup- 6. Wind cone J7
pressed generally by the left lane in the considered direction.
The number of arrow is normally three. In urban area it can be
Ref, €crtorized red materials
reduced to two. On certain exceptional cases like sinuous roads,
the number could be increased to 5.
The advance selection warning and the identified position
(t
can be on selective cases in urban areas by painting an Eurow on N
the pavement called selection arrows assigning each lane to one _t

or several directions. The use of these arrows is to limitthe left

o
tum and right turn specialized lane. o
I
I

10-12 Guidepost and Markings

Guideposts are set to guide the drivers and to pinpoint a par-
CIRCUI.AR SECTION SQUARE SECTION
ticular or linear danger.

FIGURE 1O-20 SECTION OF CURVE GUIDE POST J1

,/ zs
.----.|
20
--t
I
130
I

80
I

I
CIRCULAR SECTION SQUARE SECTION

FIGURE 1O-19 CURVE GUIDE POST J1 FIGURE 1O-21 INTERSETION GUIDE POST J3

-1 /-t
372
 Elements of Roads and llighways Traffrc Engineering
Non- rcllective dark Hue
l. b-
I
o o\
Nt
J o-'
---l
I

I
I

Ref,eclive white E
o
@

FIGURE 1O,22 HMARD MARKER J4

Shoulder ,"""",""r1
Non refiective dark btue

Reflective white

30"
--<' I
. FIGURE 10-23 NOSE MARKER J5
F-f: 11

Delineators
Delineators are light reflecting devico mounted on posts at
the side of the roadway in series to guide the driver along the
proper alignment.
Specifications:
1. ln straight alignment, tlre spacing betwoen delineators is
30 msters and the same interval is observed in curve
with 300 msters radius or more.
2. For smaller curve; 20 m. spacing with radius between
150 and 300 meters, l0 m. spacing on curve with a ra-
dius less than 150 meters.
3. Under normal atmospheric condition, it shall be visible
at a distance of 300 m. under the upper headlight beam.
FIGURE 10.24 DELINEATOR POST J6
4. Delineators are specified on the right side of express-
way and freeways unless these are fixed lighting and at
least on one side of the ramps.
5. For edge lines the color must be the same. Red reflec-
tors may be installed on the backside of ramp delinea-
tors to tell the driver that he is going the wrong way.
6. It is recommended that they should be used on two-lane
two-way road. The recommended spacing is between
50 to 150 meters or tangents.
7 It must be progressively smaller on approaches to
curves with minimum spacing from 6 meters with 15
meters radius to 30 meters with 300 meters radius.

374 375
 Elements of Roads and llighways
Traf,fic Engineering
8. Single delineators may be installed on the left side
q'here the road is curving to the right. rng the distance from the crty of Rome to other principal cities
9. On freeways, two yellow delineators at 30 meters on were ftrund. Today, kilometric markers were insialled to assist
center is specified along acceleration lanes. Roadway the rnotorists in estimating:
narrowing should be marked for their full length.
10. Where curbs projects into the travel way, their ends l. Travelprogress
shall have yellow reflectors if traffic moves to the right,
2. Pinpointing accident locations
white if it is to pass on either side.
3. Distinguishing the positions of structures such as bridee
and culverts
Whatever type is used, delineator is called single face if it
4. To identify road sections for cost accounting purposes.
has one reflectorized device and double face if it has two de-
5. To designate where maintenance is to be done.
vices. The single face is used on one direction travel rvay and
the double face on two directional highway.

Raised bars are sometimes called "Jiggle Bars" used as

charurel device at the nose of traffic island to keep vehicles out
of certain paved areas. They are lower than the curb made of
concrete or asphalt painted or reflectorized sometimes set di-
agonally to the vehicle way oriented to direct it back on to the
right course.

Rumble Strips

Rumble strips'are installed across the roadways to alert the

motorist as they approach a dangerous situation like stop signs
or abrupt changes in the oncoming alignment, grade or profile. FIGURE 1O-25 DISTANCE MARKER

Rumble strips are specially designed to create roar in the run-

ning vehicles. 10-13 Griardrail

Distance Marker Guardrail is generally designed to prevent a car from leav_

At the side of the roadway, kilometric markers are installed
at every 1000 meters distance. These markers are usually made
of reinforced concrete indicating the number of kilometer dis-
umce from and to a specific place. The origin"of this marker
was traced to have started as early as the Roman tirnes. Early
markers were large upright cylindrical stone monuments show-
rng the highway or from colliding against an obstacle by de-
flecting it so that it continues to move at reduced velocity along
the guardrail and in tle normal direction. Guardrail is disigned
to stop vehicles whose weight is smaller then lg00 kg. The
need for guardrails on fill is related to the slope and height of
the embankment In the Philippines, guardrails are not properly
set and they may constitnrte additional road hazards than safetv
dences. For instance:

376
3'17
 Elements of Roads and HighwaYs Traffic Engineering

End of section The beginning of the guardrail sections are not

equipped with proper protection thereby constituting a
kind of sword or battering ram which can penetrate in-
side t}e car during an impact.
2. Sometimes the rails are mounted too high becoming se-
riously hazardous that could enter into the vehicle and
decapitate the car occupant.
4 holes 2.7 x 3.75
3. The superimposition of the different elements of the
guardrails is done in the \ryrong direction. During an
impact, the element can be flaked off endangering the
motorists.

Eeginning of section Elemcnt lenglh 43.10 End of lcctiong Other Setup Arrangements Making the Guardrail
Absolutely Useless
E holes 2.3 x 2.8

1. Guardrails were fixed on the post transmitting directly

the energy of impact to the support that cannot sustain
the shock. When the barrier collapses, the vehicle
passes over easily.
2. The holes and bolts used were not in accordance with
the design and specifications.
ELEVATION 3. The supports are sometimes located very near the crest
of the slope. The foundation is weak to prevent the post
from being tipped offduring an impact.
Hole 17 x 50 Guardrails are frequently used to protect the structures,
Bolt 1.6 x 4.0 TH
direction boards and traffic signs but not the drivers.
Bolt 1.6x4.0TH
lr
182
5. Guardrail is used perpendicular to the flow of trafEc in
the shoulder or in the median to protect a manhole. In
Oval hole2x6.3
ll case of impact, the economic cost of car damages will
be greater than the cost of ths manhole repair.
8.2
6. Guardrail is often used to replace the J4 marker or bar-

6olt # 16
L rier.
8 holes 2.3 x 2.8

Pcst C 25x 50 x 100 x 50x25 x'i

t0-14 Concrete Barrier
OVERTAPPING DETAIL
The concrete barrier was introduced in the USA. It was
FIGURE 10-26 GUARDRAIL TECHNICAL DISCRIPTION n 1972 under the following conditions:
tested in France

378 379
 Elernents of Roads and Highways Traffic Engineering

l. For light vehicles the impact angle of 30 degrees at a Functions:

speed of 80 kn/hr"
2. For 10 tons truck with impact angle of 20 degrees at 70 The concrete separator is a rigid retaining device. It does not
kmlu. absorb kinetic energy by its own deformations:

After two years of testing in real conditions, this tlpe of

a) For light vehicle weighing less than 1800 kg it's func-
tion is dependent on the angle of impact. If this angle is small,
Separator was authorized rn the entire road network of France.
the section of the separator acts on the tires to guide back the
In 1977 it was used in USA, Canada, Sweden, Belgium, Ger-
vehicle to the travel way without serious damage. On the other
mztrly, Ivory Coast and Morocco. Record shows that no cal or
hand, if the impact angle increases, more damages will be visi-
truck has ever crossed this kind of seoarator or trarrier.
ble. The impact energy is absorbed by friction and deformations
of the car body.
b) For heavy vehicles werghing 12 tons or less, in case of
impact, the inertia and adherence to the ground of the separator
will prevent the crossing by guiding back the truck to the right
trajectory.
c) For heavy vehicles weighing more than 12 tons, the sepa-
rator functions effectively if the impact conditions are not very
hard ( low speed, small angle.)

If the separator is constructed on top of an embankment, the

distance between the front face of the separator and the begin-
ning of the rounding should be equal or greater than the width
of the separator itself. It is necessary to design a supplementary
anchorage, concrete bed or a reinforced foundation beam.
concrete bed if reouired
Concrete bed if reauired
1 m. min

FIGURE 1O-27 CONCRETE SEPARA'TORS

The separator can ensure double functions: as guardrail and

as barrier. The double concrete separator was designed to be
set-up on medians or shoulders. The single type has a reduced
section and its use is limited to particular cases. The concrete
separator being solid and rigid device camot support differen-
tial settlements. Thus it must be set up on stabilized ground in
FIGURE 10.28 LOCATION OF SEPARATOR4 ON MEDIAN
order to eliminate the risk of rupture.

r80 381
 Elements of Roads and Highways Traffic Engineering

When the wall is set on the centerline the width Lensth
the Median is:
L=0.60m+2d
Two separators can be designed to reserve place for planting.
L > (2 x 0.48) + 2d + e for the single separator
L > (2 x 0.60) + 2d + e for double separator
e ='the width of the planting area.
of for longer trips. In fact, these arterial roads are existing highway
of considerable length wherein cross traffic is regulated by sig-
nals and stop signs. These arterials provide access to adjacent
property with restricted entry and exit locations, street parking,
cross center left turn and other difficult traffic activities.
Arterial Streets are considered substitute for a controlled
access when traffrc volume exceeds 20,000 vehicles per day.
Basic considerations in planning arterial roads

0 .32 0.20
l. Selection ofconvenient route
2. Studies oftraffic volume
15 3. Origin and destinations
3 continuous round bars 15
4. Accident experienced
High adherence steel 12 mm dia.
15
Planning Criteria

l. Arterial road should be at least 15 meters wide.

2. Must carry at least one lane of traffic in each direction.
3. It should be at least one kilometer in length.
4. It must skirt the neighborhood areas and not just pene-
trate them.
Possible concrete bed 5. It should be spaced about 600 to 900 meters apart from
grid type street pattern.
6. The minimum volume to justi$ arterial road is 300 vehi-
FIGURE 1O-29 CONCRETE HEAVY BARRIER DOUBLE FACE cles per average hour during the day and 450 vehicles per
hour during peak periods.
10-15 Highway and Urban Street Operations
There are times when the traffic volume exceeds the capac-
Prior to the existence of Freeways and Expressways, Arte- rty of the arterial road of conventional two way street during
peak hour and to unload and increase the capacity of the road,
rial streets were the main way of trafific. Arterial and local street
the followin g solutions are employed:
operations make use of street marking signs and signals con-
trolled in several ways by either fixed setting or computerized
system. Despite the existence of freeways and highways, arte-
1. Parking is strictly prohibited during peak hour on one
or both sides of the street.
rial roads serves the major traffrc flow to the nearest access
points because arterial roads offer the most advantageous route
2. No parking is allowed several meters away on each side
of intersections.

382 383
 Elements of Roads and l{ighways Traffic Engineering

3. Allowing right turns on red signal or providing special
provisions for these turns outside through the lanes.
4. Eliminating left turn at congested intersections.
5. Reversing the flow of traffic in the center lanes to ac-
commodate more lanes in the direction of heavier flow.
One Way Street
One-way streets are those where traffic moves in one direc-
tion only. Making one-way traffic is based on the number of
important advantages over the two way operation such as:
l. Bigger Capacity. More vehicles are accommodated by
the same street system.
2. Fewer Stops and Increasing Speed. Fewer delay at in-
tersections because the number of possible conflicts
were substantially reduced.
3. Improvised Pedestrian Movement. One crosswalk is
totally free from turning vehicles durmg each phase of
the signal at signal-controlled intersections of two one-
wav streets.
4. Reduced Accidents. When conflicts are elirninatecl'
one-way operation reduces accidents of all types'
5. Elimination of Headlight Glare. Ease of movement
for emergency and less attention to traffic-
Ihe idea of making a street one-way to traffrc have meet
oppositions from the business group and others who fear ad-
verse effect on their interests. For instance, the travel distance
to reach a certain location is often increased, a condition that
seriously affect a particular business.
There were inslances when due to strong objections the plan
to convert the street into one-way traffic was aborted forcing
the crty officials to give in after public hearing. The one-way
preference streets in pairs could be an altemative.
10-16 Traffic Control
The most important traffrc control device for street opera-
tions are the STOP and YIELD signs and the Traffic Srgnals.
The Manual calls for Two Way Stop on the less important two
intersecting street where reliance on the right way, high speeds'
or restricted sight distance indicates high accident hazard. The
manual further states that multi-way (4-way) stop slgn installa-
tions should be used only where volumes on the intersection
roads are approximatel;' equal' and only when any one of the
following conditions warrants or qualification is met.

l. As an interim rneasure when traffic signals are needed.

2. When an accident problem ( as demonstrated by fve or
more accidents in a year) can be corrected by multi-
way stop signs.
Both streets two way One street one-way Both streets one-way
3. When the total vehicular volume of 500 per hour enters
( 24 conflicts ) One street two-way ( 6 conflicts) the intersection in 8 hours or when an average dailv
(11 conflicts) combined vehicular and pedestrian volume of 200 per
hour from the minor highway I'rith an average delay of
30 seconds to minor streets.
FIGURE ,I0.29 CONFLICT BETWEEN VEHICLES IN INTERSECTION
OF TWO LANE STREETS; 2-WAY AGAINST ONE WAY OPERATION Sometimes there are request from the public and its local

384 -? 85
 Elements of Roads and Highways
officials to install stop signs where the condition does not war-
rant its placement. Example: a four way stop sign installed have
been used where they could not be justified economically or on
records ofaccident.
The Yield Sign could be a compromise between the full
stop and no control. The Traffic Manual recommended its use
under the following conditions:
l. That its bene{it include decrease<i operatior-r costs.
2. Lower contributions to air pollutron
3. Passage time reduction of 2 to 6 seconds
4. Lower accident ftequency
The Manual also provides minimum warrants for traffic sis-
nal installations based on:
l. Vehicular or pedestrian volumes.
2. Accident experience.
3^ Progressive movement.
4. Intemrption of continuous traffic to permit cross traffic
to move as part of the network.
Public pressure that forces the installation of stop signs and
unrealistically low speed limit signs sometimes contributed to
the increased number of accidents.
10-17 Freeway and Expressway Operafions
Freeways are designed for high speed, free flowing, low
accident facilities and operate without hindrances from traffic
control. This type of roadway operates well because of their
isolation from the surroundings with widely spaced access and
barred pedestrians. However, because of its isolation. correction
is difficult if congestion develops to the frustration of the
motorists who have no information as to its cause and duration.
Indeed, because of its isolation, it is difficult to call for and ren-
der assistance in case ofaccidents or vehicular breakdown.
386
Traffic Engineering
Recommended Relief to Alleviate Congestions:
1. flhe most common cause of traffic breakdown is adding
more vehicles on the ramp. Thus, ramp control is nec-
essary to prevent the flow disruption.
2. Entry erf vehicles on the ramp should be restricted or
stopped when breakdown on the flow of the fieeway is
noticed.
3. It is better to delay the few motorists who wish to enter
the ramp than those motorists traveling on the freeway.
4. A sirnple soluticn to congestion on the ramp is to close
the ramp completely before the flow on the freeway
reaches critical level. That is, if the rate of flow reaches
a pre-determined level or by closing the ramp dunng
peak periods.
5. The use of service roads or arterial streets parallel to
freeways during peak hours would gain road capacity.
Motorist Problems on Freeways and Expressways
l. The motorists are completely isolated from the sur-
rounding community. The ramps that they could exit
are far spaced, and sometimes several kilometers apart:
in rural areas, and toll facilities are separated in kilome-
ters or more in urban districts.
2. Walking on freeway shoulders is very dangerous.
3. It is almost impossible to walk on elevated structures
that have neither shoulders nor walkways.
4. Motorist would not like to leave their vehicles for fear
of robbery and attack.
5. Modem vehicles are now complex and diverse in de-
sign that repairs by the driver or passing motorists is
difficult.
Solution:
1. Highway patrol should provide systematic surveillance.
2" Emergency radio or telephone installed at roadside.
381
 Elements of Iloads and flighways
Emergency vehicles and crews should standby on call
to remove obstructing vehicles as quickly as possible.
The agencies concerned should detail patrol cars along
the fieeways for immediate assistance to motorists
l0-18 Street Lighting
With the exception of nraior dor,inlown afieries. itighr,,'ay
amd strect lighting are generaiiy incoqrorated in tli,,: rJcsrgn tt:
illuullnat* the roadway tc., provide seeing by silhonefle. When
an obji:ct is seen darker than the background, discermrent is by
silhouette.
On the other-hand, if the object is lighter than its back-
ground" seeing is a reverse silhouette" A person or object on an
iiluminated roadway is viewed in silhouette because the obiect
is darker than the surrounding background.
The AASHTO publication on Informational Guide for
Roadway Lighting, NCHRP report 152 recommended an aver-
age horizontal illumination level of 0.6 to 0.8 foot-candle when
the light source is at its lowest output due to age or dirt. It
means that the light or bulb is about 1.0 foot-candle at the time
of installation.
The guide also recommended adaptation of lighting on the
leaving end of continuously lighted freeway to provide for an
eye adjustment to headlight illumination. The recommended
lerrel of illumination for streets and hishwavs are based on the
level of lamp output.
l. For expressrvays, the standard proposed foot-candle is
10. On residential 1.4 fc in intermediate and 2.0 in
downtown areas.
2. For sidewalks on commercial areas, the recommended
level of illumination is 1.0 foot-candle.
3. For residential streets the value is 0.4 foot-candle.
4. The requirements for collector road facilities fall be-
tween those for arterials and minor streets.
388
L
-Traf'fic Engineering
5. [*"or fr*eways, the uniformity ratio is set at 3:l or 4:1.
'l-he unjftrrmitv ratio is the average illumination
divided
b-v the lolvest illumination.
(;. The Guide also recommended the right illumination
level firr lorv mounted bridge, railings and walls of tun-
neis and underpasses.
Lighting Source asrsl tri!ntallation
Highrvay iighting adopf fhe new and more economical types
high and low pressure serlium and rnetallic halide but the trend
is torvard the use cf high i)ressure sodium with common watt-
age for ali l:ypes fiom 175 to 1000 watts^
Lum.in:rires as Street Lights has the Following Criteria
1. Recummended practice: Instali luminaires at 12.00
meters or mor{: above the roadway, although at present,
the predonr.nanf mounting height is between 7.50 and
10.50 rneters.
2. When mounting is high, a rnore uniform illumination
can be maintained even though units are widely spaced.
3. High mounting of lights reduces the blinding effects of
glare.
4. Lurninaires distribute light to a definite pattern that
suits particular conditions.
5. For a higher mounting, the spacing could be in the
range of 60 meters apart with fixtures mounted on both
sides of the road.
6. Unifonn distribution could be adopted at intersections.
A symmetrical pattern is used when the fixture is
rnounted at the center of the street or an asymmetrical
fonn when mounting is near the curb.
7. 'llhc normal practice is to suspend the luminaires
over
t}te roadway, sometimes on cables or mast arms extend-
ing outward from the roadside.
8. For roadway interchanges, the trend is to mount the lu-
minaires on high poles, as high as 45 rneters.
I t11l
 Elements of Roads and Highways
10-19 Street Parking
l
'Parking on the street substantially reduces the capacity of
the road. It creates congestions and confusions. It increases
travel time and accidents of vehicles. Legally, the right of the
goverffnent to regulate the parking of vehicles on the street was
established when Lord Ellenborough a famous jurist of England
irr 1805 assertedthat:
"The King's Highway should not be used as stable yard"
He established the principle that:
"Streets are primarilyfor the free passage of the public and
{;nything: that impedes that passage, except tn an emergency is a
nuisance that may be abated.
"Parhng of vahicles even infront of one's owned praperty is
classtfe,l as u privilege subject to control and not as a right."
The authority to regulate parking stems fiom the police
power the right of the govemment to legislate in order to protect
health, safety and morals. Under such principle, public officials
are free within reasonable limits to establish rules to control
parking on street and to set penalties against violators.
TABLE TO.II HIGTNYAY CAPACITY
Facility Capacity in Passenger Car
Freeway and Expressway away from rams
and weaving sections, per lane per hour..................... 2,000
Two lane highways, toral in both directions per hour... 2,000
Three lane highways, total in each direction per hour.. 2,000
A 3.60 m. lane at signalized intersections per hour
of green signal time ( no interference and ideal...... 1,800
progrcssion)
Source: The Manual, TRB circular 212
JYU
Traffic Engineering
10-20 Highway Capacity and Level of Service
The capacity of any element of the highway system is the
maximurn number of vehicles wilh reasonable expectation o1'
passing over tho section (either one or both directions) during a
given time period under prevailing roadway and traffic condi-
tions. Example of capacities for modem highway element is
presented in Table l0-l l.
Defining Terms Associated With Capacity
Maximum Volume. Whcre traffic flow is likely to con-
tinue without breakdown and serious compositions. It follows
that at capacity, the quality of level of service is far from ideal.
Number of Vehicles. Capacity is stated in passenger cars
per hour. Trucks and buses in the traffio stream can decrease the
road capacity substantially.
Reasonable f,)xpectations. Values for capacity cannot be
determined exactly due to the many variable that affect traffic
flows, particularly at high volumes. Assigned values for capac-
rty are more of probabilrty rather than certainties.
One Direction Against Two Directions. Traffic is one di-
rection flows independently from that of the other. On the other
hand, on two and three lane roads there are interactions between
traffrc in the two directions and these affect traffic flow and ca-
paclty.
A Given Time Period. Traffic volume and capacity are
stated in vehicles per hour but traffic flow does not vary uni-
fo.rnly with time, volume and capacities. This variation within
an how is expressed by a peak hour factor (PFm) This factor
which is less or equal to one in the quotient of the hourly vol-
ume divided by the shorter period volume multiplied by the
number of periods in an hour.
Exomple:
lfthe hourly volume is 1,000 and the highest 5 minutes vol-
ume is 100, the peak hour factor (PFf) will be:
l9l

Blements of Roarls and Highways
1000 x 12 periods in one hour at 5 min./period
100
lQ = 0.85
t2
where: 60 min : 12
5 min
Prevailing Roadway and Traffic Conditions This in-
cludes physical features that affect capacity like lane and shoul-
der width, siglrt distance and grades. It also reflects changes in
the character of the traffic stream.
Ambient Condition is weather relateo conditions that affect
capacrty such as rain, fog, smog or wind.
Level of, Sen ice
The level of service is conrmonly accepted as measure of
the restrictive effects of increased volume. Each segment of the
roadway can be rated at an appropriate level from A to F inclu-
sive to reflect its condition at given demand of service volume.
I-evel A - Free flow; speed control by driver's desire^
B= Stable Flow; cperating speeds beginning to be
restricted: little or no restrictions on maneuver
abiliry from other vehicles.
C - Stsble Flow; speeds and maneuverability more
closely restricted.
D: Approaches unstableflow:tolerable speeds can
be maintained but temporary restrictions to flow
cause substantial drop in speed. Littie freedom to
rn:ureuver comfbrt and convenience flow.
E =- Volume near capacity. speeds in neighborhood of
45 km./hr. Flow stable: stoppage of momentary
duration. Abihty to maneuver is limited.
p= Forced Flow: low operating speeds, voiume
below canacitv.
392
Iraffic Engineering
The ideal conditions for the roadway to have an uninter-
rupted flow must:
l. Have 3.60 meters lane and 1.80 meters wide shoulder.
2. Road with flat grades.
3. Sight disturbance unrestricted
4. No trucks or buses plying the route..
If these conditions are not met, road capaclty may be re-
duced. Enumerated below are the factors that contribute to the
reduction ofroad capacity and level ofservice.
l. Narrorv lanes and shoulders, and restriction on edge
clearance.
2. Sharp horizontal curves create dynamic forces to which
drivers react. Short vertical curve over crests or ob-
structions to vision on the inside of horizontal curves
causes vehicles to slow down.
3. Commercial vehicles like truck requires more highway
space per vehicle than the passenger cars.
4. Effects of grade on uphill road, makes desirable vehicle
spacing for higher road capacity. T\e 3o/o to 7Yo road
upgrades does not affect passenger c:trs unlike cargo
trucks that are markedly affected by steeper grade.
Weaving Section
Weaving section is defined as the crossing of two or more
traffic streams traveling in the same general directions along a
significant path of highway with the aid of traffic signal.
The Traffic Circle Rotary or British "Roundabout" is con-
sidered series of weaving sections placed end to end. Likewise,
a partial and full cloverleaf interchanges are example of weav-
ing section. Vehicle entenng the freeway must wsave witl
those leaving the freeway.
In establishing level of service for.design purposes, each
highway agency establishes its orm guidelines composed of
two elements:
39:l
 Elements of Roads and Highways Traffic Engineering

l. The traffic volume served. l actors that Affect the Capacity and Level of Servicc
il
2. To proportion the basic freeway, weaving sections,
r:rmps and rarnp junctions to accommodate this flor,v at l. The Physical and operating width approaches.
the designated level ofservice usrng appropriate data 2. The Physical and operating parking conditions.
3. Physical and operattng one way versus two way strocts
TABLE 10-12 PASSENGERCAR EQUryALENT OFTRUCKS 4 Environmental conditions - load factor
ON FREEWAY UPGRADES 5. Environmental conditions - peak hour
Four Lanes Six or More Lanes
(r. Traffrc characteristics - turning movements
Grade 1 Traffic characteristics - trucks and through buscs
o/o
t0 20
tt Traffic characteristics - local transit buscs

2 2 2 2 a
2 a
2 4 J 7 4 -t
4 4 4 7 i J
4 17 9 9 l3 8 8
6 9 6 6 l0 5 5
6 28 l8 !8 20 t4 IA

TABLE 10-13 LIMITING VOLUMES IN PASSENCL,R CARS PER HOT:R

r.OR FREEWAYS AND ON AND OFF RAMPS FOR VARIOT,]S LE\'EI-S
OF SERVICE AND PHF OF T.OO

Freeway Volume in One

of Direction*
Levcl Checkpoint Volumes Wcave
Servicc Four lanc Eight lane Mergctr l)ivergesrtr Voluntet | * 1

A 1600 3280 7fi 800 500

B 2500 5400 1200 1300 700
c 3400 6800 15m 1650 1 300
D 3850 7700 1800 1900 1 550
E (capacity) 4000 8000 2000 2000 2000
F" Highly variable

Sourcc: TRB Circular 2 l2

t For 70 mph frccway dcsipln s1rccd
tt Lane I volumc plus rarnp volunrc lirr onc lsnc ()rl rsnlps
rtt 2 volume imnrcdiately upstrcarn ol'oll'rrrnp
tt'r Lanc
Wcave volumcs bclu'ccu ()rr rstlry. otl'rsrnp psir pcr 500 tl. of length

3c)4