Unit 3. Transformers: Electrical Technology Master's Degree in Chemical Engineering Prof. Alejandro Rolán, PH.D

UNIT 3.
TRANSFORMERS
Electrical Technology
Master’s Degree in Chemical Engineering
Prof. Alejandro Rolán, Ph.D.
SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING
SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING
Introduction
• Transformers are static electrical machines.
• Thus, they have high efficiencies (between 90 - 98 %).
• They transform AC into AC with different magnitudes (they reduce or

increase voltages or currents).
• Power transmission for high distances with minimum power losses

(380-400 kV).
• Winding with higher voltage: high-voltage winding (HV) or primary.
• Winding with lower voltage: low-voltage winding (LV) or secondary.

2
Unit 3. Transformers
1. Constitutive aspects
2. Principle of operation
3. Equivalent circuit
4. Tests
5. Losses and efficiency
6. Three-phase transformers
7. Transformers working in parallel
8. Self-transformers
9. Measuring transformers 3
• Magnetic circuit:
– One-phase transformers:
(The central column has

twice the section of the
other two columns) 4
Shell type Column type
• Magnetic circuit:
– Three-phase transformers:
• Main parts:
– Core.
– Winding.
– Refrigeration
system.
– Isolators and
breakers.
6
• Core:
– Transformer’s magnetic circuit.
– Magnetic plates are made of steel with silicon.
– Columns (where windings are placed) + butts (joints
between columns).
Joint between
magnetic cores
Cross section
(cruciform, in order to
make the most of the
windings’ inner section) 7
• Windings:
– Transformer’s electric circuit.
– Conductors are made of copper and have an
insulation layer made of cotton fiber, paper or varnish.
Insulator
Insulator
Concentrated winding Alternating winding (cookies) 8

• Refrigeration system:
– There appear high temperatures due to the normal
operation of transformers.
– Low-power transformers:
• Dry transformers: natural refrigeration (air) is enough.
– Mid-and-high power transformers:
• Oil transformers: refrigeration by means of oil.
• Oil works as a refrigerant and as an isolator.
• Tank for oil + inhibitors (to improve the oil properties as time
goes by).
• Natural or forced refrigeration (for high-power transformers).
• Refrigeration system:
– IEC regulations (International Electrotechnical
Comission):
Refrigerant Symbol Circulation Symbol
Oil O Natural N
Pyralene L Forced F
Gas G
Water W
Air A
Solid insulator S
10
• Isolators and breakers:
– The transformer terminals are connected to the
outside by means of isolators (HV caps and LV caps)
made of porcelain and filled with air or oil.
– Buchholz relay: protection againts overloads,
insulation faults, etc. It is activated by means of an
anomalous heating in the transformer. The movement
of the float causes the activation of a relay which
controls the circuit breaker and activates an acoustic
alarm.
11
• Isolators and other elements:
– Buchholz relay:
12
• Transformer parameters (according to
regulations IEC-76 and UNE 20-101-75):
13
• Transformer symbols:
14
4. Tests
• Ideal transformer:
Faraday’s law:
– Assumptions:
• Both windings have negligible resistances.
• There are no leakage fluxes.
16
– Applying KVL (Kirchhoff’s voltage law):
– Assuming a sinusoidal flux:
– It results in:
17
– Dividing the previous equations, we have:
– m = transformer’s ratio = ratio between voltages =

ratio between turns. If:
• m > 1: step-down transformer.
• m < 1: step-up transformer.
18
– No-load operation (switch S = open):
– Load operation (switch S = closed):
– Matching the previous equations (the flux in the Reduced

magnetic core must be the same), we have: secondary
current
19
– Phasor diagram:
20
• Real transformer:
– In real transformers:
• There are resistances in both windings.
• There appear leakage fluxes (through air).
21
– Fluxes, inductances and reactances:
22
– Applying KVL (Kirchhoff’s voltage law):
– The following phasor expressions result:
23
– Note: in real transformers, the following relation is
satisfied:
– However, the voltage drop in a transformer operating

at full load is between 1 and 10 % of the rated
voltage, so the following approximation can be stated:
24
4. Tests
• Equivalent circuit of a 1-phase real transformer
reduced to the primary:
– Idea: primary and secondary windings have different

number of turns. Then, the secondary is “reduced” to the
primary in order to make them have the same number of
turns. Thus, the circuit will be coupled not magnetically 26
but electrically.
• Reduction of e.m.f.s and voltages:
– As :
– We can apply the same argument for voltages:
27
• Reduction of currents:
– Conservation of apparent power in transformers:
• Reduction of impedances:
28
• Equivalent circuit (exact) reduced to the primary:
29
– Magnetic core fed by AC current:
– Note:
• IFe = related to power losses in the magnetic core.
• Iμ = current required to magnetize the material.
30
31
• Equivalent circuit (approximate) reduced to the
primary:
Xcc
Rcc
32
• Equivalent circuit (approximate) reduced to the
primary:
33
• Equivalent circuit (more approximated) reduced
to the primary:
OK for power
system analysis!!
34
• Exercise 1:
A 1-phase transformer of 10 kVA, 500/100 V, has the following impedances in its

primary winding and secondary winding, respectively: Z1 = 0.2 + j·0.4 Ω and
Z2 = 0.008 + j·0.016 Ω. When this transformer is fed at 500 V, the no-load current
is 0.2 ∟–70º A.
Obtain:
a) The values of E1, E2 and V2 when the transformer works under no-load conditions.
b) If the secondary current is 100 ∟–30º A, obtain the new values of E1, E2 and V2.
Solution:
a) E1 = 499.91 V , E2 = 99.98 V , V2 = 99.98 V
b) E1 = 492.47 V , E2 = 98.49 V , V2 = 97.02 V
35
4. Tests
4. Tests
• Aim:
– To obtain the parameters of the equivalent circuit of

the transformer.
• Types of tests:
– No-load test  RFe and Xμ (parallel branch).
– Short-circuit test  Rcc and Xcc (series branch).

37
4. Tests
• No-load test:
Primary: rated (nominal) voltage Secondary: open circuit
Measurements:
- Absorbed power (P0).
- Primary current (A).
38
- Secondary voltage (V20).
4. Tests
• No-load test:
– Equivalent circuit, phasor diagram and equations:
39
4. Tests
• No-load test:
– Note:
• The voltage drop in the primary winding can be neglected
(compared to the rated voltage of the machine), so the
applied voltage to the primary winding equals the e.m.f. in
that winding (V1n ≈ E1).
• Then, the equivalent circuit of the transformer under no-load
conditions would be the parallel branch only.
40
4. Tests
• Short-circuit test:
Primary: the voltage is increased Secondary: short circuit

from 0 until the current equals
Measurements:
the rated (nominal) current
- Absorbed power (Pcc).
- Primary current (A).
41
- Primary voltage (V1cc).
4. Tests
– Equivalent circuit, phasor diagram and equations:
42
4. Tests
– Note:
• The applied voltage to the primary winding is quite small
(between 3% and 10% of V1n), so the flux in the magnetic
core will be small. Then, there will be no magnetic losses.
• The magnetizing reactance is quite big compared to the other
impedances, so the no-load (parallel) current can be
neglected.
• Thus, the parallel branch can be neglected.
• If we want to obtain the values of resistances and reactances
of both primary and secondary windings, we can make
following assumption (approximation):
43
4. Tests
– Note:
• The voltage drop in the primary winding is usually given by
means of the % with respect to the rated (nominal) voltage,
which is called the “relative short-circuit voltage”:
• It is important not to mix the concept of short-circuit test with

the concept of the machine operating under short-circuit
conditions!! When a short circuit appears, the machine is fed
at its rated voltage, while in the short-circuit test the machine
is fed at 3-10% of its rated voltage. 44
4. Tests
• Exercise 2:
A 1-phase transformer of 250 kVA, 15000/250 V, 50 Hz, is tested. The

measurements are:
- No-load test: 250 V, 80 A, 4000 W (all data in the LV winding).
- Short-circuit test: 600 V, rated current, 5000 W (all data in the HV winding).
Obtain the parameters of the equivalent circuit of the transformer reduced to the
primary.
Solution:
RFe = 56.25 kΩ , Xμ = 11.48 kΩ , Rcc = 18 Ω , Xcc = 31.17 Ω
45
4. Tests
• Power balance in a transformer:
Iron losses
Copper losses Copper losses
(primary) (secondary)
Primary power Secondary power
47

• Power losses:
– Copper losses:
• Primary: Pcu1 = R1·I12
• Secondary: Pcu2 = R2’·I2’2 = R2·I22
• Overall: Pcu = Pcu1 + Pcu2 = Rcc·I2’2
– Iron losses (in the magnetic circuit):

PFe = P0 = RFe·IFe2 = V1·I1·cos φ0
• Efficiency: ܲଶ ܲଶ
ߟൌ ൌ
ܲଵ ܲଶ ൅ ܲୡ୳ ൅ ܲ୊ୣ 48
• Efficiency in terms of the load index:
– Load index:
• Between 0.5 and 0.7 for
high-power transformers.
• Between 0.3 and 0.5 for
low-power transformers.
– Secondary power:
– Power losses:
– Efficiency: 49

• Exercise 3:
A 1-phase transformer of 250 kVA, 15000/250 V, 50 Hz, has 4000 W of iron

losses and 5000 W of copper losses at full load.
Obtain:
a) The efficiency at full load if the power factor of the load is 0.8 (inductive).
b) The efficiency at half a load with power factor = 1.
c) Apparent power for maximum efficiency.
d) Maximum efficiency assuming a power factor = 0.9 (inductive).
Solution:
a) 95.69 %
b) 95.97 %
c) 223.61 kVA
d) 96.18 % 50
4. Tests
• Two options to transform 3-phase magnitudes:
– Three 1-phase transformers:
• A lot of iron is needed: 6 columns.
– One 3-phase transformer:
• Less iron is needed: 4 columns, but the central column is not
built because in 3-phase balanced systems, the addition of
the 3 fluxes is zero.
• So, it is enough to built a 3-phase transformer with just 3
columns.
• Each column can be considered as a 1-phase transformer.
• 3-phase transformers are solved analytically by means of the
equivalent per-phase circuit (with phase values).
52
• Construction of 3-phase transformers:
53
• Connections in 3-phase transformers:
Star (Y-y)* Delta (D-d)* Zig-zag (Z-z)*
54
* Primary winding: capital letter; secondary winding = lower case
• Exercise 4:
A step-down 3-phase transformer is connected to a 20-kV grid and it absorbs

20 A. If the turns ratio is 100 and if the transformer losses are neglected, obtain
the phase-to-phase (line) voltage and the line current in the secondary of the
transformer for the following connections:
a) Y-y.
b) D-d.
c) Y-d. Solution:
d) D-y. a) 200 V, 2000 A
b) 200 V, 2000 A
c) 115.47 V, 3464.1 A
d) 346.41 V, 1154.7 A
55
• Time index of 3-phase transformers:
– 3-phase voltages change their phase angle due to the
propagation through 3-phase transformers.
– The change is made in steps of 30 deg (π/6 rad),
which corresponds to “one hour” of a clock.
56
– Example. Dy transformer:
Dy11
57
58
59
• Exercise 5:
Assume the following 3-phase transformer
Obtain the time index of the transformer.
Solution: Yz11
60
• Exercise 6 (1/2):
Assume the following 3-phase balanced installation. A 3-phase transformer of

50 kVA, 15000/400 V, has the following relative short-circuit voltages: εcc = 10%
and εXcc = 8%.
61
Obtain:
a) The parameters of the equivalent per-phase circuit of the transformer (the iron
losses and the magnetizing reactance can be neglected).
b) If the measurement given by the voltmeter 1 is 15 kV, obtain the measurements

given by the voltmeters A and B.
Solution:
a) Rcc = 270 Ω , Xcc = 360 Ω (Star connection)

Rcc = 810 Ω , Xcc = 1080 Ω (Delta connection)
b) VA = 384.36 V , VB = 376.53 V
62
• Exercise 7:
A 3-phase transformer has the following characteristics: Yy0, 100 kVA, 3000/400 V.
The measurements (in the primary) obtained when testing the machine have been:
- No-load test: 3 kV, 9 A, 5 kW.
- Short-circuit test: 300 V, rated current, 6 kW.
If the secondary voltage is 400 V (phase-to-phase), obtain:

a) The parameters of the approximate per-phase equivalent circuit.
b) The primary voltage (phase-to-phase) when the transformer feeds a 3-phase
balanced load of 50 kW with power factor = 0.6 (capacitive).
c) The maximum efficiency assuming a unitary power factor.
Solution:
a) RFe = 1800 Ω , Xμ = 193.56 Ω , Rcc = 5.4 Ω , Xcc = 7.2 Ω
b) 2939.8 V 63
c) 90.13 %
Assume the following 3-phase balanced installation. A 3-phase Dy transformer of

10000/400 V is used. Its parallel branch can be neglected. The measurements
given by the wattmeters 1 and 2 are 1000 kW and 500 kW, respectively. The
measurement of the voltmeter 2 is 400 V.
64
Obtain:
a) The apparent power given by the transformer.
b) If the per-phase impedances of the transformer windings are Z1 = 2.9 + j·5.1 Ω and
Z2 = 1.5·10–3 + j·2.36·10–3 Ω, obtain the required primary voltage (given by the
voltmeter 1) in order to feed the load at 400 V.
c) The time index of the transformer.
Solution:
a) 1732.1 kVA
b) 10.56 kV
c) Dy11 65
4. Tests
7. Transformers in parallel
• Another transformer can be placed in parallel
connection with a previous transformer in order
to meet an increase in the power demand.
• This is a good option in order to satisfy the
seasonal power demand (e.g. in winter and in
summer the power demand increases).
• In order to connect 2 transformers in parallel,
both transformers must have:
– The same connections + time index.
– The same voltages in both primary and secondary.
– The same relative short-circuit voltages.
67
– (Their rated powers should not increase the relation 3:1).
• Connections:
68
• Equivalent circuit:
69
• Exercise 9:
We have two 3-phase transformers with the following parameters:

- Transformer 1: 1000/100 V , 100 kVA , εRcc = 3 % , εXcc = 4 % , εcc = 5 %
- Transformer 2: 1000/100 V , 200 kVA , εRcc = 3 % , εXcc = 4 % , εcc = 5 %
Both transformers are connected in parallel in order to feed a 100-V load that
absorbs 150 kVA with power factor = 0.8 (inductive). Obtain:
a) The short-circuit impedances of each transformer.
b) The current, active power and apparent power of each transformer.
Solution:
a) Rcc_TR1 = 0.3 Ω , Xcc_TR1 = 0.4 Ω , Rcc_TR2 = 0.15 Ω , Xcc_TR2 = 0.2 Ω
b) ITR1 = 28.87 A , ITR2 = 57.73 A , PTR1 = 40 kW , PTR2 = 80 kW
STR1 = 50 kVA , STR2 = 100 kVA
70
4. Tests
• Special transformers with only 1 winding, which
works as both primary and secondary.
Transformer Self-transformer 72
• Copper weight in a transformer:
• Copper weight in a self-transformer:
• Relation:
73
• Note:
– Using self-transformers we can save material. For
example, if V1/V2 = 2, we obtain an economy of 50 %
in the copper.
– The reduction in the number of turns make it possible
to create magnetic circuits with a lower “window”, i.e.,
with a reduction in the weight of the iron.
– Then, a self-transformer has less copper losses and
less iron losses than a transformer.
74
• However, a self-transformer has 2 drawbacks:
– Due to its lower resistance and reactance, if there is a
short-circuit in the grid, a high current will appear
through the transformer.
– If the transformer’s ratio is quite small, there will be a
common terminal for both HV and LV terminals (A’=a’).
– Self-transformers are only used when there is a slight
difference between voltages V1 and V2.
– In electrical labs it is very common to have a variac
(variable alternatic current), which is a self-transformer
that let us obtain a variable voltage from 0 to 230 V.
75
• Phase-to-ground fault in a self-transformer:
76
4. Tests
9. Measuring transformers
• When measuring high voltages and currents there will be a
real danger for a person if they connect the measurement
device (voltmeter or amperemeter) directly to the
installation.
• In order to isolate the installation and the measuring
device (for safety purposes), measuring transformers are
needed.
• They can change the high values of voltages and currents
to values around:
– 110 V for voltmeters (voltage transformers).
– 5 A for amperemeters (current transformers).
• The operation characteristics of measuring transformers
are given by regulation UNE 21088. 78
• Voltage transformers:
Due to the high impedance of the
load, the voltage transformer
operates as if it were under no-load
conditions, then its impedance can
be neglected. So, V1 ≈ V2’.
79
• Voltage transformers:
– Normalized primary voltages:
• 110 V, 220 V, 385 V, 440 V, 2.2 kV, 3.3 kV, 5.5 kV, 6.6 kV,
11 kV, 13.2 kV, 16.5 kV, 22 kV, 27.5 kV, 33 kV, 44 kV, 55 kV,
66 kV, 11 kV, 132 kV, 220 kV, 396 kV.
– Normalized secondary voltage:
• 110 V.
– Voltage error:
– Accuracy class (maximum allowed εv for a transformer

operating at its rated power and power factor = 0.8
inductive): 0.1, 0.2, 0.1, 1, 3.
80
• Current transformers:
- They are connected in series with
the line.
- Due to the low value of their
impedance, current transformers
work in short-circuit.
- I0 can be neglected. So, I1 ≈ I2’.
81
• Current transformers:
– Normalized primary currents:
• 5 A, 10 A, 15 A, 20 A, 25 A, 30 A, 50 A, 75 A, 100 A, 150 A,
200 A, 300 A, 400 A, 500 A, 600 A, 750 A, 1000 A, 2000 A,
3000 A, 4000 A, 6000 A, 10000 A.
– Normalized secondary voltage:
• 5 A (usually), 1 A.
– Current error:
– Accuracy class (maximum allowed εi for a transformer

operating at its rated power and power factor = 0.8
inductive): 0.1, 0.2, 0.1, 1, 3.
82
• Types of current transformers:
Important!!
Current transformer with Ni = 1 Amperometric clamps
83
• Voltage transformer and current transformer
working together in an installation:
84
85

Unit 3. Transformers: Electrical Technology Master's Degree in Chemical Engineering Prof. Alejandro Rolán, PH.D

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UNIT 3.

Prof. Alejandro Rolán, Ph.D.

• Thus, they have high efficiencies (between 90 - 98 %).

• They transform AC into AC with different magnitudes (they reduce or

• Power transmission for high distances with minimum power losses

• Winding with higher voltage: high-voltage winding (HV) or primary.

• Winding with lower voltage: low-voltage winding (LV) or secondary.

(The central column has

Concentrated winding Alternating winding (cookies) 8

– Assuming a sinusoidal flux:

– m = transformer’s ratio = ratio between voltages =

– Load operation (switch S = closed):

– Matching the previous equations (the flux in the Reduced

– Fluxes, inductances and reactances:

– The following phasor expressions result:

– However, the voltage drop in a transformer operating

– Idea: primary and secondary windings have different

– We can apply the same argument for voltages:

A 1-phase transformer of 10 kVA, 500/100 V, has the following impedances in its

– To obtain the parameters of the equivalent circuit of

– No-load test  RFe and Xμ (parallel branch).

– Short-circuit test  Rcc and Xcc (series branch).

Primary: rated (nominal) voltage Secondary: open circuit

Primary: the voltage is increased Secondary: short circuit

• It is important not to mix the concept of short-circuit test with

A 1-phase transformer of 250 kVA, 15000/250 V, 50 Hz, is tested. The

RFe = 56.25 kΩ , Xμ = 11.48 kΩ , Rcc = 18 Ω , Xcc = 31.17 Ω

Primary power Secondary power

5. Losses and efficiency

– Iron losses (in the magnetic circuit):

5. Losses and efficiency

A 1-phase transformer of 250 kVA, 15000/250 V, 50 Hz, has 4000 W of iron

Star (Y-y)* Delta (D-d)* Zig-zag (Z-z)*

A step-down 3-phase transformer is connected to a 20-kV grid and it absorbs

Assume the following 3-phase transformer

Obtain the time index of the transformer.

Assume the following 3-phase balanced installation. A 3-phase transformer of

b) If the measurement given by the voltmeter 1 is 15 kV, obtain the measurements

a) Rcc = 270 Ω , Xcc = 360 Ω (Star connection)

If the secondary voltage is 400 V (phase-to-phase), obtain:

Assume the following 3-phase balanced installation. A 3-phase Dy transformer of

a) The apparent power given by the transformer.

c) The time index of the transformer.

We have two 3-phase transformers with the following parameters:

• Copper weight in a self-transformer:

– Accuracy class (maximum allowed εv for a transformer

– Accuracy class (maximum allowed εi for a transformer

Current transformer with Ni = 1 Amperometric clamps

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