Literature Review

Bulk Carrier Types

Ore Carriers

Ore carriers are specially designed and may only be employed for a specific trade, eg carriage of
iron ore in bulk from major Australian or Brazilian ports to specific ports in China or
Japan.Ships that are designated as ore carriers have to be strengthened by class standards. In a
seaway these ships tend to be stiffer due to the high density of ore cargoes.

Oil/Bulk/Ore OBO Ships

These ships were designed to alternate between dry bulk and oil cargoes, avoiding a non-earning
ballast passage by carrying both cargoes in the same cargo spaces at different times.
They were designed with large hatches to facilitate loading and discharging. However, the hatch
covers were designed to be `oil tight' so the same ship could be loaded with oil cargoes with
strengthened holds for ore cargoes. For this dual purpose operation, OBOs were fitted with
pipelines, pumps and other oil tanker equipment. Major problems on these ships included gas
freeing to load dry cargo after an oil cargo and the high maintenance costs caused by heavy wear
and tear. Owing to the number of losses, notably the Berg Istra (1976), Berg Vanga (1979) and
the Derbyshire (1980), combined with the high maintenance costs, there has been a reduction in
the number of these ships, with few new OBOs built. Most remaining OBOs are limited to one
cargo type.
OBO construction is similar to that of a bulk carrier except that they have larger wing tanks and
their DB tanks are deeper to improve stability when carrying ore cargoes. Many OBOs have void
spaces formed by fitting transverse bulkheads between two cargo holds.

Other features of OBOs are:

 1. Oil tight hatch covers to allow the carriage of liquid cargoes
2. Dedicated slop tanks
3. Pump room for load/discharge of liquid cargoes
4. Inert gas system
5. Tank/hold cleaning system similar to the crude oil washing system on oil tankers ·
ullaging equipment
6. Pipeline system (ballast, bilge and cargo) fitted through the duct keel
7. Bilge lines (for use with dry cargoes)

Self-Unloader Bulk Carriers

Similar in hull structure to other bulk carriers, these vessels are fitted with one of two systems for
discharging cargo:
i) A gravity fed self-unloader: the cargo is dropped onto a conveyor belt running in a duct keel
under the cargo holds that carries the cargo towards the bow or stern of the vessel where another
conveyor lifts it for discharge ashore. The discharging arm is connected to a boom that can be
slewed into position for discharge
ii) A hybrid self-unloader: commonly used, this method does not require any special structural
design of the vessel. The cargo is discharged by grabs into hoppers where it feeds onto a
conveyor belt. The hoppers can be permanently fitted on the ship or may be placed on the deck
of the vessel when discharging.
These ships can discharge cargo in ports without any unloading facilities. The discharging rates
achieved can be the same or higher than those of similar shore based facilities. An added
advantage is that a totally enclosed conveyor system can discharge cargoes such as cement, coal,
grain, ores and fertilizers without causing problems such as dust, cargo wastage, or damage to
the ship's structure by grabs or weather effects.
While the initial cost may be high and the ship's carrying capacity is reduced by fitting an
unloader, this is offset by the quick turn around and reduced port stay.
Open Hatch Bulk Carriers (OHBCs)

These vessels do not have upper and lower wing tanks. Instead, they have straight sides to carry
square shaped bundles of forestry products such as unitised wood pulp, rolled paper or packaged
timber cargoes. They can even carry twenty foot containers. They may have fixed or travelling
gantry cranes for loading/unloading. Due to the nature of their cargoes, these vessels may be
fitted with:

i) Dehumidification systems

ii) Vacuum equipment for loading/discharging cargoes such as steel slabs/pipes, rolled paper,
unitised wood pulp, newsprint, Kraft liner board, Kraft paper etc.

Forest Product Carriers

Open Hatch Bulk Carriers (OHBCs) can also be regarded as a forest product carrier, this
collective term generally refers to the following ship types:

0 Woodchip Carriers

These vessels are designed to carry woodchips (shredded wood) in bulk. Woodchip is
described as a `neobulk' cargo that requires methods and precautions similar to those for
bulk cargoes. They are usually constructed with 6 watertight (in contrast to weathertight)
cargo holds to prevent water ingress. This is particularly important as contact with water
causes woodchips to expand and could cause severe damage to the structure of the ship.
Additional security measures to prevent water penetration through air pipes and
ventilation ducts to cargo compartments are also incorporated to protect the cargo.As the
cargo holds fill, bulldozers are used to press the cargo. Some ships are fitted with cargo
 loading/ unloading equipment including cranes, grab buckets and wings with conveyor
belts on deck (to pour the chips into cargo holds).
When discharging, the ship's cranes are used together with a grab bucket system running
at the bottom of the cargo compartments. The cargo is carried to the forecastle by
conveyor, where it is discharged ashore through a single discharging point. However,
many ships use conventional grabs to discharge the cargo.

1 Timber Carriers

These vessels are used for carrying timber or logs in the holds and on deck. The
machinery space and accommodation are located aft to provide clear deck space for the
cargo. Generally, they are fitted with cranes that can handle logs that weight up to 25
tonnes. This means that the decks, tanktops, hatch covers and other structures are
additionally strengthened to withstand these loads.
These ships usually have fixed or portable uprights to support logs/ timbers lashed on
deck. It must be ensured that there is clear access to the mast houses, sounding pipes, etc,
during loaded voyages.
These vessels carry lashings that include turnbuckles, wire ropes, chain, etc, fitted with a
quick release mechanism such as a senhouse slip to release the deck cargo in case of
emergency. On some ships, air powered `speedlashings' automate the lashing and
tightening procedure.
The ship's lashing plan should be adhered to as prescribed in the approved cargo loading
manual. The Code of Safe Practice for Ships Carrying Timber Deck Cargoes should be
complied with for the carriage of timber on these ships.

2 Wood Pulp Carriers

 Wood pulp from soft trees such as pine, larch, hemlock, fir and spruce is the most
common material used to make paper. The major hazard of wood pulp cargo is that it
swells if it comes into contact with water, exerting enormous pressure on the structure of
the cargo hold and possibly causing a structural failure. Additionally, this cargo depletes
oxygen from the environment and generates carbon dioxide, making the atmosphere in
the hold unsuitable for entry.
Considerable attention is required to avoid contamination of the cargo by dirt or by
residues of the previous cargo. Wood pulp is typically carried in bales that have a
protective covering to avoid any contamination to the cargo. To assist in the protection of
a wood pulp cargo, holds are frequently repainted. Air bags are used to prevent the
movement of bales in the hold.

3 Hybrid Configuration (HyCon) Bulk Carriers

A recent advancement in bulk carrier design is the `hybrid configuration' or `HyCon'. In

this design, the most forward and most aft holds have a double skin but the other parts of
the ship still have a single skin . In this way, the areas that require additional protection
are strengthened without greatly increasing the lightship weight.
A double skin enhances safety, security, dependability, reliability, and reduces the
possibility of damage from accidental flooding. In addition, structures such as frames and
brackets located inside the double skin structure provide a smooth surface for the cargo,
reducing problems with inspection or maintenance. The potential for damage caused by
cargo gear like grabs or bulldozers is reduced, increasing the speed of cargo discharging
in port. The double hull makes inspection much easier through the use of passageways,
ladders and manholes in the double skin. Ballast capacity is also increased, which is an
added advantage in ballast voyages.