Types Of Ships

The great majority of ships that are neither military vessels nor yachts can be divided into several
broad categories: cargo carriers, passenger carriers, industrial ships, service vessels, and
noncommercial miscellaneous. Each category can be subdivided, with the first category containing
by far the greatest number of subdivisions.

Service vessels
The service ships are mostly tugs or towing vessels whose principal function is to provide
propulsive power to other vessels. Most of them serve in harbours and inland waters, and, because
the only significant weight they need carry is a propulsion plant and a limited amount of fuel, they
are small in size. The towing of massive drilling rigs for the petroleum industry and an occasional
ocean salvage operation (e.g., towing a disabled ship) demand craft larger and more seaworthy
than the more common inshore service vessels, but oceangoing tugs and towboats are small in
number and in size compared with the overwhelmingly more numerous cargo ships.
Miscellaneous
The word miscellaneous has only small scope here. It is intended to encompass classifications such
as icebreakers and research vessels, many of which are owned by government. Neither type need
be of large size, since no cargo is to be carried. However, icebreakers are usually wide in order to
make a wide swath through ice, and they have high propulsive power in order to overcome the
resistance of the ice layer. Icebreakers also are characterized by strongly sloping bow profiles,
especially near the waterline, so that they can wedge their way up onto thick ice and crack it from
the static weight placed upon it. To protect the hull against damage, the waterline of the ship must
be reinforced by layers of plating and supported by heavy stiffeners.

Industrial ships
Industrial ships are those whose function is to carry out an industrial process at sea. A fishing-fleet
mother ship that processes fish into fillets, canned fish, or fish meal is an example. Some floating
oil drilling or production rigs are built in ship form. In addition, some hazardous industrial wastes
are incinerated far at sea on ships fitted with the necessary incinerators and supporting equipment.
In many cases, industrial ships can be recognized by the structures necessary for their function.
For example, incinerator ships are readily identified by their incinerators and discharge stacks.
Cruise ships
Cruise ships are descended from the transatlantic ocean liners, which, since the mid-20th century,
have found their services preempted by jet aircraft. Indeed, even into the 1990s some cruise ships
were liners built in the 1950s and ’60s that had been adapted to tropical cruising through largely
superficial alterations—e.g., the addition of swimming pools and other amenities to suit warm-
latitude cruising areas. However, most cruise ships now in service were built after 1970
specifically for the cruise trade. Since most of them are designed for large numbers of passengers
(perhaps several thousand), they are characterized by high superstructures of many decks, and,
since their principal routes lie in warm seas, they are typically painted white all over. These two
characteristics give them a “wedding cake” appearance that is easily recognizable from great
distances. Closer examination usually reveals a large number of motor launches carried aboard for
the ferrying ashore of passengers. Many cruise ships have stern ramps, much like those found on
cargo-carrying roll-on/roll-off ships, in order to facilitate the transfer of passengers to the launches
and to serve as docking facilities for small sporting boats.
Ferries
Ferries are vessels of any size that carry passengers and (in many cases) their vehicles on fixed
routes over short cross-water passages. The building of massive bridges and tunnels has eliminated
many ferry services, but they are still justified where waters are too formidable for fixed crossings.
Vessels vary greatly in size and in quality of accommodations. Some on longer runs offer overnight
cabins and even come close to equaling the accommodation standards of cruise ships. All vessels
typically load vehicles aboard one or more decks via low-level side doors or by stern or bow ramps
much like those found on roll-on/roll-off cargo ships.

A special type of ferry is the “double-ender,” built for shuttling across harbour waters. The typical
vessel has propellers, rudders, control stations, and loading ramps at both ends. It is usually wide
enough to handle four vehicle lanes abreast and may accommodate up to 100 four-wheeled
vehicles. Special docks, fitted with adjustable ramps to cope with changes in water levels and
shaped to fit the ends of the ferry, are always part of a ferry system of this type.
Cargo carriers
Cargo ships can be distinguished by the type of cargo they carry, especially since the means of
handling the cargo is often highly visible. As noted below (see Cargo handling), the trend is toward
specialization in this regard. One consequence is a proliferation in types of cargo vessel. The
present discussion is limited to a few types that are represented by large numbers of ships and are
distinctive in appearance.

Tankers
Ships that carry liquid cargo (most often petroleum and its products) in bulk are made distinctive
by the absence of cargo hatches and external handling gear. When fully loaded they are also readily
distinguishable by scant freeboard—a condition that is permissible because the upper deck is not
weakened by hatches. In essence, the tanker is a floating group of tanks contained in a ship-shaped
hull, propelled by an isolated machinery plant at the stern. Each tank is substantially identical to
the next throughout the length of the ship. The tanks are fitted with heating coils to facilitate
pumping in cold weather. Within the tanks are the main, or high-suction, pipes, running several
feet from the bottom to avoid sludge. Below them, low-suction piping, or stripping lines, removes
the lowest level of liquid in the tank. Tanks are filled either through open trunks leading from the
weather deck or from the suction lines with the pumps reversed. Because tankers, except for
military-supply types, usually move a cargo from the source to a refinery or other terminal.
Container ships
Like tankers, container ships are characterized by the absence of cargo handling gear, in their case
reflecting the usual practice of locating the container-handling cranes at shore terminals rather than
aboard ship. Unlike the tanker, container ships require large hatches in the deck for stowing the
cargo, which consists of standardized containers usually either 20 or 40 feet in length. Belowdecks,
the ship is equipped with a cellular grid of compartments opening to the weather deck; these are
designed to receive the containers and hold them in place until unloading is achieved at the port of
destination. The ship is filled to the deck level with containers, the hatches are closed, and one or
two layers of containers, depending upon the size and stability of the ship, are loaded on the hatch
covers on deck.

In a few hours the ship can be filled with containers destined for another port and can be under
way. An additional economy is the low cost of the crew of the ship while it is in port awaiting
loading or unloading. Further, because each ship can make more trips than before, container fleets
require fewer vessels.
Dry-bulk ships
Designed for the carriage of ore, coal, grain, and the like, dry-bulk ships bear a superficial likeness
to container ships since they often have no cargo handling gear and, unlike the tanker, have large
cargo hatches. The absence of containers on deck is a decisive indicator that a vessel is a dry-bulk
ship, but an observer may be deceived by the occasional sight of a dry-bulk ship carrying
containers and other nonbulk cargo on deck. An incontrovertible indicator is the self-unloading
gear, usually a large horizontal boom of open trusswork, carried by some bulk ships. On the Great
Lakes of North America this gear is a near-universal feature of ships built since 1960.

To ensure stability, fixed ballast is usually included in these ships, along with water ballast to
adjust load and stability. The engineering plants are commonly twin engines of compact variety,
such as geared diesel, and they are arranged so that the engine spaces are at either side of the ship,
allowing valuable free space between them for vehicle passage.
Carriage of wheeled cargo, are always distinguished by large doors in the hull and often by external
ramps that fold down to allow rolling between pier and ship. Because vehicles of all kinds have
some empty space—and in addition require large clearance spaces between adjacent vehicles—
they constitute a low-density cargo (a high “stowage factor”) that demands large hull volume.
General cargo ship
The once-ubiquitous general cargo ship continues to be built, though in modest numbers. Those
built in the last third of the 20th century are usually fitted with deck cranes, which give them an
appearance distinct from the more-specialized ship types.
SHIP’S ORGANIZATION
2. Communication at sea
Marine Communication Equipment
For standard marine radio communication principally three kinds of equipment are used:

VHF transceivers for short-range (up to 50 Km) communications

HF-SSB transceivers for long-range (up to 5000 Km) communications
Satellite transceivers for world-wide communications
A transceiver is a combined transmitter-receiver communication unit, in which some of the
hardware (e.g. the user controls) is combined to reduce cost and complexity. VHF equipment is
relative cheap and most user friendly. HF-SSB equipment is more expensive and technically
more difficult to manage.

The distance over which communication can be conducted, strongly depends on the radiation
performance of the antenna used. This includes high-quality matched cabling between
transmitter and antenna as well as careful grounding installation.

VHF Transceiver
sail018d_A.jpgToday's marine radio sets for use on VHF are very user friendly with only three
basic controls:

a control to select the frequency for transmitting and receiving, using simple channel numbers
(Ch.),
a control to set the audio volume level for the received signal (VOL),
and a third control to set the squelch level (SQL), which silences the normal background noise
when no signal is being received.
Other controls that may be found on the VHF set allow to quickly shift to the distress and calling
channel (16) or to scan a variety of channels.

The IMO regulations require that every VHF set be capable of operating on Channels 16 and a
working channel, but today, all sets, even the small hand-helds, can tune to all marine channels
(about 58 channels in the range of 156.0 MHz to 164.0 MHz). Many channels are appointed to
specific types of communication such as ship-to-ship communication or distress communication.
Here is a list of the VHF channels and the different types of communication allocated to them.
Notice, that there is no strict international agreement on the usage of these channels and that
especially in the USA there are some exceptions to this scheme. See the VHF marine radio
channels recommendations issued by the USCG for details.
Maritime VHF communication with Digital Selective Calling (DSC) is an integrated part of the
Global Distress and Safety System (GMDSS) introduced by the IMO in 1991 in order to improve
the safety of live at sea (primary for commercial shipping). In order to participate in the GMDSS
a VHF tranceiver will have to be equipped with a DSC controller enabling Digital Selective
Calling
This is important also for pleasure yachts, since after the introduction of GMDSS, the IMO has
discontinued the permanent watch obligation on the distress channels (for both commercial
shipping and the coast stations). Today (2007), almost all newly build maritime VHF sets have
DSC capability. But in order to use the DSC feature, the equipment must be registered with the
national telecommunications authorities. Through registration, the DSC radio station will obtain
a unique calling number and call sign. In most countries also an operator's certificate is required
to use DSC featured VHF radio transceivers.
Other restrictions concerning on-board VHF radio equipment include the following:
Mounted VHF sets may have the maximum allowable HF power output of 25 W, with a required
low-power mode of 1 W. Hand-held VHF radios may have up to 5 W transmission power and
also a required low-power mode of 1 W.
National regulations usually prohibit the use of hand-helds on shore or the use of regular marine
channels for on-board communications.
All radio equipment that can transmit a radio signal must be "Type Approved" by national
telecommunications authorities. This should be no problem when purchasing new sets because
"Type Approval" is required before equipment may be offered for sale (e.g. in Europe this is
documented through the "EC sign" on the outside of the transceiver). However, when crossing
national borders with the equipment or when "Type Approved" equipment is imported, a
supplementary inspection by the local telecommunications authorities may be required.
The "Type Approval" of a radio set is certified in a document that will be delivered with the
equipment at purchase and must be kept on board.
HF - SSB Transceiver

Sail018d_B.gifTransceivers for AM-SSB communications are larger and more complicated to

handle than those for VHF. SSB equipment is mainly used for long-range communication. The
maximum RF power is usually 150W. As on VHF transceivers all AM-SSB transceivers have an
instant 2182kHz selection capability. This is the distress and calling frequency in the MF radio
band.
The range of SSB communications is dependent on sky waves, so it is extremely sensitive to
atmospheric and ionospheric interference. Transmission conditions can vary strongly on a
seasonally, daily and even hourly basis.

With additional hardware including a radio modem, a text decoder and a printer, SSB equipment
can also be used to pull down weather faxes around the world and gain an up-to-date and
accurate picture of the weather systems and forecast for the region.

Some SSB coast stations with internet connections also offer a simple data communication
service for mariners enabling the on-board transmission and reception of E-mail. This requires a
radio modem and a PC-based software coder-decoder. Due to the limited audio bandwidth, the
data rate (characters per second) is limited to about 1200 baud allowing for only text-based E-
mail without binary attachments. For more information on this service and on the required hard-
and software, please link to "SailMail.com".

For operating an AM-SSB radio station, a stations licence and an operating permit are required.
Also regard that in some countries (e.g. USA) it is not allowed to use SSB transceivers for short-
range communication.
2.1 Three main methods

AMATEUR RADIO (HAM) - No Ham Radio equipment is provided. Any licensed Amateur
Radio Operator wishing to install equipment should discuss it with the captain.

CELLULAR TELEPHONE SYSTEM - A Uniden model CP-1100 cellular telephone is installed

in the ship's Communications Center. Under favorable atmospheric conditions the unit will
provide good service up to one hundred miles off shore. The unit may be used for either voice or
facsimile communications and it is available for personal use as well as ship's and scientific
business.

DATA COMMUNICATIONS - The ship has two primary methods for transmission and
reception of data; Inmarsat and single-side band. The method of choice for data communications
is effected through the unique marriage of an IBM PC and a single-side-band, high-frequency
transceiver. What makes this possible is a set of hardware and software collectively referred to as
"pakratt." Users can type their own messages on their own PC's using any word processor or
editor. When ready, a user saves his text to a floppy disk (5 1/4 or 3 1/2 inch) as an ASCII (or
DOS) file. The floppy is then brought to the bridge where the mate on watch will transmit the
message. Traffic is routed through the radio station WWD, from where it is forwarded to the
addressee. Only business traffic can be handled in this manner. Other means are available for
handling traffic of a personal nature.
2.2 Flags used for signaling
Maritime Signal Flags
These flags are used at sea for communication between ships. They can spell out short messages,
and individual flags and various combinations of flags also have special meanings. On
ceremonial and festive occasions the signal flags are used to 'dress' (decorate) ships.

This signalling system was drafted in 1855 and published in 1857, and was gradually adopted by
most seafaring countries. It was revised in 1932.

Usage
One-flag signals are urgent or very common signals (see meanings below)
Two-flag signals are mostly distress and maneuvering signals
Three-flag signals are for points of the compass, relative bearings, standard times, verbs,
punctuation, also general code and decode signals
Four-flags are used for geographical signals, names of ships, bearings, etc
Five-flag signals are those relating to time and position
Six-flag signals are used when necessary to indicate north or south or east or west in latitude and
longitude signals
Seven-flags are for longitude signals containing more than one hundred degrees.
1.5 Cargo and its Handling
Cargo handling as an activity has evolved from being purely manually driven to an activity that
is performed using the latest materials handling equipment money can buy. But, humans still
have an important role to play in cargo handling, which essentially throws the doors opens for a
diverse and serious range of safety concerns.

It’s important that shipping personnel are well aware of the various considerations that need to
be kept in mind to perform cargo handling operations on ships with utmost safety. Knowing the
essential safety features, and making appropriate use of materials handling equipment are just
some of the ways you can make sure you’re able to handle cargo safely on ships.

Let’s take a look at some of the essential tips that need to be kept in mind while handling
shipboard cargo. Knowing these tips can mean the difference between life and death:
3. Rules of the road
The International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea 1972 (COLREGs) are published
by the International Maritime Organization (IMO) and set out, among other things, the "rules of
the road" or navigation rules to be followed by ships and other vessels at sea to prevent collisions
between two or more vessels.[1][2] COLREGs can also refer to the specific political line that
divides inland waterways, which are subject to their own navigation rules, and coastal waterways
which are subject to international navigation rules. The COLREGs are derived from a
multilateral treaty called the Convention on the International Regulations for Preventing
Collisions at Sea.

Although rules for navigating vessels inland may differ, the international rules specify that they
should be as closely in line with the international rules as possible. In most of continental
Europe, the Code Européen des Voies de la Navigation Intérieure (CEVNI, or the European
Code for Navigation on Inland Waters) apply. In the United States, the rules for vessels
navigating inland are published alongside the international rules.[3]

The Racing Rules of Sailing, which govern the conduct of yacht and dinghy racing under the
sanction of national sailing authorities which are members of the International Sailing Federation
(ISAF), are based on the COLREGs, but differ in some important matters such as overtaking and
right of way close to turning marks in competitive sailing.
Prior to the development of a single set of international rules and practices, there existed separate
practices and various conventions and informal procedures in different parts of the world, as
advanced by various maritime nations. As a result, there were inconsistencies and even
contradictions that gave rise to unintended collisions. Vessel navigation lights for operating in
darkness as well as navigation marks also were not standardised, giving rise to dangerous
confusion and ambiguity between vessels at risk of colliding.

With the advent of steam-powered ships in the mid-19th century, conventions for sailing vessel
navigation had to be supplemented with conventions for power-driven vessel navigation. Sailing
vessels are limited as to their manoeuvrability in that they cannot sail directly into the wind and
cannot be readily navigated in the absence of wind. On the other hand, steamships can
manoeuvre in all 360 degrees of direction and can be manoeuvred irrespective of the presence or
absence of wind.

In 1840 in London, the Trinity House drew up a set of regulations which were enacted by
Parliament in 1846. The Trinity House rules were included in the Steam Navigation Act 1846,
and the Admiralty regulations regarding lights for steam ships were included in this statute in
1848. In 1849 Congress extended the light requirements to sailing vessels on US waters. In the
UK in 1858 coloured sidelights were recommended for sailing vessels and fog signals were
required to be given, by steam vessels on the ships whistle and by sailing vessels on the fog horn
or bell, while a separate but similar action was also taken in the United States.

In 1850, English maritime Law was being adopted in the United States.[4]

Also in 1850, courts in the England and the United States adopted common law pertaining to
reasonable speed within the Assured Clear Distance Ahead.[5][6][7]

In 1863 a new set of rules drawn up by the British Board of Trade, in consultation with the
French government, came into force. By 1864 the regulations (or Articles) had been adopted by
more than thirty maritime countries, including Germany and the United States (passed by the
United States Congress as Rules to prevent Collisions at Sea. An act fixing certain rules and
regulations for preventing collisions on the water. 29 April 1864, ch. 69.[8] and signed into law
by President Abraham Lincoln).

In 1867, Thomas Gray, assistant secretary to the Maritime Department of the Board of Trade,
wrote The Rule of the Road, a pamphlet that became famous for its well-known mnemonic
verses. In 1878, the United States codified its common law rules for preventing collisions.[9]

In 1880, the 1863 Articles were supplemented with whistle signals and in 1884 a new set of
international regulations was implemented.

In 1889 the United States convened the first international maritime conference in Washington,
D.C. The resulting rules were adopted in 1890 and effected in 1897. Some minor changes were
made during the 1910 Brussels Maritime Conference and some rule changes were proposed, but
never ratified, at the 1929 International Conference on Safety of Life at Sea (S.O.L.A.S.) With
the recommendation that the direction of a turn be referenced by the rudder instead of the helm
or tiller being informally agreed by all maritime nations in 1935.

The 1948 S.O.L.A.S. International Conference made several recommendations, including the
recognition of radar these were eventually ratified in 1952 and became effective in 1954. Further
recommendations were made by a S.O.L.A.S. Conference in London in 1960 which became
effective in 1965
6. Safety culture as an organization integrated concept at sea