CHAPTER 11

晶晶體會F 尋

Labour

Cons甘uctio聽 is one of the 醋。st labouf\國intensive industries. W區i1e

increasingly sopb.isticate過 plant
. is being u閱過 and 醋。蹄。路site
p時fabrication of par髓。f t區e project (eg to盟et 臨。磕碰les曹過時r-wa盟
pa插話。ns .& precast faca臨時會 t區ere is st蠶1 a great relia過ce on
site國base晶 labour i噩噩ong Kong. As a 甜甜能 tb.e co過struction
i蠶蠱輔甘于 e臨ploys about 7% of 船臨I wor腫。rce.雪梅e 臨ajority (盟ore
than 80oÆ,) of wb.o臨 are involved in production work(ie site worl臨時).
T b.e c1erical，臨anage盟ent， ad臨ini畸重"ative a避dp臨fessional 電影or醋。rce
co蠶S重itute the rest.

The constrn.c錯。ni鼓dus甘于 employs a wi通e ran蠶e of variou.s 騙過聶s of

labour. The range會 and t b.eir daily wa草.es are given i旦 Table 14.1.

Due to the uncer臨inty of e臨 ployme訟t， t b.e unattrac誼veness of

worki時甜甜itions on國site會 and strong co臨伊拉拉on for labour from
other i通過驅stries w盈ich are 醋。re stable a誼通 provi通egoo晶 worki趟車
conditions會臨e cons甘uction indus甘于區as not bee益 a popular indus位"y
i鼓 whicb. to work..直s a resu.1t會 labour for the construc錯。過 industry
區as tradi鎧onaUy been provi悔過 byim艷梅rantsfrom C區ina.

TheCo訟struc錯。n l~tdg~壘野宜世aini盟軍 A敬重壘。睡聖 (CIT司~)

TheConstruction Industry Trai越誼g Autb.ority was esta鵲起轟ed in

Septe盟ber 1975 by t區e enact臨ent of t b.e I歸祖strial 軍區oaini租車
(Construc話。nln蘊ustry) Ordinance 1975 with an a臨e越dmentin 1嘗嘗L
T b. e Authority 盈as a c區airman a蟬直2 盟e臨be職 all appoi盟章縛 by t b.e
governor. T區e Aut區ority raises its 恆的臨e 臨時u軍區 levy i臨posed
compa蠶ies in t區ein謹ustry.
Thesta臨重。可 functio醋。f the Authority are:
to establish and maintain indusn幅1 位官扭扭蠶 centres
to p rf)vide training cou路efort區e construction indusíry
to assist in the place臨e醋。fpersons co臨pleting n祖祖ing cou. rses
to 臨時ereco臨盟enda誼。越 with respect to the rate of t臨扭蝠g levy.

路aterials

The constru.ction in通u.stry depen謹s 盈eavily on i臨ported ma重:erials..

This was not al'可vays t區e case alíhou.gh the reinforced concrete會 steel
a訟d marble of today會s hi蠶蠱咕:echnology b超越dings see臨 a long way
fro臨 so臨e of the traditio組組臨aterials u.se通 in t盈e early bu.ildings i過
盤驅車直至.ong.

S臨ndards a訟d specmcatio遮s in 盟on蠶 Kon莒 tend to fQUow those of the

UK with slight 臨。謹mca誼ons 重o suit local conditio蟬" Govern臨e濃重
projects 時唔ui時s that constru.ction 醋的'erials會 their properties，臨ixing會
岔路過 tes錯適齡 co臨ply witb. t區e General Specificatio聽 for Bu.iI晶ing
issu.e謹 bytb.eArc區itectural Se軒在ces DepartI踐ent.

T b.e range of cou.n揖es from whlc攝電齡融融IStry會s basic materials are

ob臨ined e臨phasizes the logistical proble臨s witb. w b.ich the i蠶蠱ustry
has to coníend. Sou.rces of 蠶ong Kong Bu誼通姆雷躍aterial s區own in
the aítached 騙ble.
Sou .r ces of Hong KongFs Building Materials
一 一一一一一 l

Cement Hong Kong

China
lndonesia
Japan
Philippines
South Korea
Taiwan

Aggregate Hong Kong

China
Macau

Sand Hong Kong for manufactured sand

China for marine sand

Steel Hong Kong for reinforcement bars only

China
Europe
Japan
γaiwan
Korea

1ï mber Canada
Chîna
Indonesia
Malaysîa
Thailand
USA

L!ilijilliili--
Hydrated lime China

Red bricks China

γaiwan

J
Concrete bricks Hong Kong
and blocks China

Glass Belgium
China
Germany
Japan

-一」
USA

125
Constrnction 酷的胸部

The objective of this section is not to 晶eal in de鵲起 with this COI且plex
帥pic， but si臨ply to give a very general overview of the 句pe of
construction and facili誼es often encou鼓臨時通 in b誼il通i過gs 1旦誼。血g
Kong.

祖國si軒I Reinforced Co過C時te

The pre盛。臨1nant for醋。f construction .for 矗igh-rise buil通ings i訟

藍。盟軍區。過g is the in嘲si軒1 reinforce是 concrete fra睡e.. This consist of
reinforce謹 concr哈姆的融體懿S學 bea臨s a誼通 slabs 曹雖也 are 草iven
stabiUty by a cen甘al core of 賞它inforce過 concrete lift shati髓 as
i體ust臨ted i過 Fig過re 14.1.. Internal 可1Valls areoften 時:inforced co認crete會
as are the external walls of reside適當ial buildings. Alternatively~會
co臨時僻 blocks 01' clay bric盈s set i聽甜甜姆r 盟ay be 磁se益 The
exter越al wa盟s are generally covered wit區 a 醋。ssic tile 噩噩ish which
provides protec話。n agai設st ingress of water and ~畸重頭時s little
臨ai齡@盛ance. 聽，owever， 0錯ce and commercial buildings wiU
nor盟aUy becla攝制臨 eithera cor飽inwaU01'臨ason靈ybloc臨

In國situ reinforce晶 concrete construction re哩uires the p時vision of

for臨啊。rI章程he 盟。啦啦蝠軒矗ich 問蝠forcing s重eel is 蠶xed an過 onto
whic區 concrete is pou.re梅 an過 falsewor盈 (temporary su. pports to 區。輔
攝e for臨.work in place 迪遜晶晶e co訟crete 臨時e酪). For臨.work has
traditionally been ma謹e of plywood sheets but re甜甜 moves towards
more e蟬cie過t pr。如蹦蹦臨d p時tec錯on of the envi:r明盟ent 區ave
lead to the use of 臨e組I for:r越work rather than tropical hardwooo.
Onceu.nder可vay;會 a typical ßoor cycle (that is the 誼鞘e 臨扭過如 casto鼓e
ßoor) for a reside師ial building will be four to 琵ve days. Concrete is
usua盟y place晶 using a skip and tower c臨nealt區。越蠶蠱 concrete pu.盟ps
are popular on large sites and in conñ汲ed spaces.

Cenfral Plaza is t區eworld's ta盟est reinforced co訟crete buil通ing and a

蠶001" cycle of four 通ays was ac斟eved on this project. T區is came abou.t
by t盈e u.se of sfeel 紐bie for盟s for 聾。01" slab co血stru.c錯。na蠶d by
pu睡ping t區e high stre過gt區 concréte from the bo髓。臨 ofthe buil攝ing
to the 盟。or under constructÏon. The lift core was constructed using a
self-Ii雛ng (c瞌睡bing) formwork syste鸝. A tolerance of +1咽主8瞌睡 per
是臨etre heig齡 was achieve通電iVi晶晶is system.

Li ít shaft as centrai core

Figur電 14.1 Reinforced Conc時te Li錢 Sha食

Sb.~el Fra盟edB扭扭din部

So盟e of the 飽盟est

buildings in 誼。ng 哀。過g suc區 as the Hong Kong
and Shan軍區ai Bank an如heBa墟。f China have been co過st闊的:ed in
s甘uc臨時I stool. The co臨plex stool arl可lnge臨ent of the 宜。ng益。ng
Bank Building is 蠶lus甜的ed in Fig. 14.2. For very 鶴盟 b磁盤通知辭書 steel
is often a益 economical solu誼on but is rarely used 0施 buUdings other
th臨 hu當e， pres錯gious projects. The s驅臨時quired for welding and
steel e時ction a時 not co臨臨only found i噩噩ong Kong an轟鳴時r
stringen重 qua盤帶 co醋冊，1 proce通過問s a聽 過ee通緝. Aspec組 of

concrete and s飽el frames are show訟 in Fig. 直是.3.

:“ QR1Z0NτAL TRUSSËS
2 TRUSSEO MULLlONS
2 月 EFUGE TERRACË
d RAISED FLOOR
5 SUßFLOOR HVAC 0υCTS
AlυMINIUMSυNSHADE
WIND BRACING
B VIE乎有 ENDEELτHVSS t o1A Sï
!-',1ËCHAN:CAL R!SERS

10 HA.hIGER
們 GLASSSτAIR ENCLOSURE
j 2 F!RË STAIR

Figure 14.2 Hongkong Bank Building

 a Stifí joints - easier with
reinforced concrete than sleel

b Shear walls on elevation , or

internally as partitions or se l"\lice
core
門 igid Spandrel walls can also
interact and stabilise frame

c Diagonal bracing triangulates

selected bays in steel frame , on
elevation or internally

d Surface-active cladding , rigid

enough 10 interact with frame
and stabilise it

Figure 14.3 Stability system for Concrete & SteeI Building

Foundations

AH buildings must star:t with a foundation. Foundations are often

deep and co盟plex in Hong Kong.

Prior to the commencement of construction, it is' necessary to conduct

.
a site investigation This generally entails drilling below the surface
of the site to ascertain the nature and strength of the u :nderlying soil
or rock. The :nature of the material on which a buildi:ng is founded
wiU determine the 特rpe， layout and size of foundation used. Therefore會
a site investigation is necessa時r before 通esign can be undertaken.
Hong Kong is founded on dense granite, which provides a very stro :ng
foundation, but this may be overlaid by decomposed granite. Large
areas of 宜。ng 監ong have been reclaime晶宮rom the sea and these
areas wiIl be compose過 of layers of 最直 material會 perhaps overlyin草
sand or mud. Consequently.會 every project requires a thorough site
investigation :nor臨ally do:ne by a specialist contracting 直r體會 with the
results interpreted by a civil or geotechnical enginee民

間ost taU buildings in 盟ong 直至ong are buiU on piles: concrete coh.l盟軍IS
cast in the soil which are usually founded on solid bedrock. These
piles can be constructed by dri盟ing (ot boring) holes in the ground會
and fiUing the holes with steel reinforcement and concrete as sbown
in Fig. 14.也

Piles may be driven, rather than bored or excavated. Fig. 14.5 shows
a typical rig using a drop ha瞌睡er， and Fig. 14.6 shows the more
co臨臨。誼ly used , but noisier diesel hammer. Cylindrical co設crete piles
are co瞌睡only used on Housing Authority projects會 but steel 區 piles
may also be used in so臨e circumstances. For tempora可T works雪
driven steel sheet piles may be use過 around the perimeter of a site to
facilitateexcavation within the site area. In effe討會 sheet piles fro臨 a
steel wall driven into the grou:nd since they are connected together.
宜。!wever， for deep excavations會 it is common to constru: ct a
diaphragm wall around the perimeter of the site. This is a continuous
reinforced concrete wall which is constructed using specialist
excavation equ.ipment.
Due to the speed of construction required in 宜。ng Kong (a function
of the high cost of land an過 capital) à top圖down construction method
is often used for basement construction. In the metþod , piles or
diaphragm walls are constructed to support the superstructure of the
building. Construction 臨kes place upwards and downwards at the
same ti酪科 with superstructure and base臨ent being constructed
si臨ultaneously. The Hong Kong bank and Central Plaza were
constructed in this way.
 bucket contalller
for collecting spoiJ

kelly bar
slandard
crane
power
unlt

expanding
cutting wing
controlle世 by
ve r1ical movement
01 kelly bar

crane mounted
power unit 10
drive telescopic
keliy bar

pile cap
bonding bars
top 3.000
usually
Ii nedwiih reinforcemenl
steel 10 pile shaft
tube not always
門 ecessary

helical auger
∞ mpleted pile

in situ concreie consolidation

by gravitational force - if
water is present in bore hole
concrete is placed using a
tremie pipe

underreamed toe

!3Dmax
-<-

Fi伊re 14.4 Piiing Const問ctio股價ril臨的

 droD haπ1付1er

helmet or driving
head connecled
10 steel mandrel

pile localed between

pair of stee! tube
leaders
/

h-n
ev ie
uupv huO ‘B nqv
SJ 口

Dan >

slan廿日 rd
lenglh
shell
steel mandγel

白白白
inside shell core

helical
binding

sleel reinforcement to design

polypropylene reinforced
白白白

concrete shells

的 silu concrete filiing 10 core

sleel jointing band

solid concreie drivíng shoe

Typical pile details

Figu間站.5P蟬ng De扭扭S
 overall leng\h
lifting rope to raise oí hammer 4.370
ram \0 slaft
hammer

suspenswn
lug

ram ialling under

gravily closes
automahc tnp exhaust ports ‘
πleohanis付110
actuates fuel
release ram ai pump ançl
end 01 ínitìallift 00π1presses Ëi lr

in cup 01 anvil
displacing fuel
which ignites and
ihe explosìve
lorce drives ram
uowards \0
recommence cycle

2260 kg ram
delivering aη
average 01
4ï blows per
mìnule

ball end to
raπ1

iuel and
lubricating
exhaust ports pump cam
closed and opened
by passing 01
ra口1---

cup to match
ball end 01 ram

control
anvil line to cut
o[j pump
and stop
hammer driving cycle
base plaie

F站ure 14.6 Drop Hammer

 Curtain 鴨laUin控

間any office and co盟臨ercial buildings in Hong Kong are dad with
curtain walling. Basicany~會 a curtain wall is a thin layer(or s腦時 on
臨e outside of a buiI過ing which is supported from the structural
frame of the building. 斑。st curtain waUs are made up(in part or in
whole) of r吋lective glass. The reflective proper句r of the glass is
helpful i過 reducing ther阻al transfer, and reduces the cost of
臨aintaining the bu.ilding海 internal environment. A curtain wall is
quick to construct but requires extensive prefabrication and
preparation of co臨ponents 0路site. The components of the curtain
{ wall of the 盟ongkong Bank are illustrated i過 Fig. 14.7. The
components are 盟xed to the structural frame and the skin is fixed to
the mullions (vertical 臨e臨 ber吋.

Tbere are tbree 盟ain types of cu. rtain wall a迪拉 these types are
reßections of tbe installation method:

Tbe stick system involves the erectio鼓 of mullions and transoms

(horizontal 臨e臨bers) 直xed to the outside of the str也C臨時1 frame.
Tbe glass panels can be Îned into position witbin this fra n:iework.
This is si臨ple system whicb allows for adj也關臨e濃t to suit site
conditions會 bu.t it is not a quid主 method of construction.

Tbe unitized sys甜甜 can be assemble 臨ore quic磁y and is

composed of large會 pre-asse臨bled frames whicb join and
interlock at tbeir edges. Stone an過 other finisbes can be
incorporate過 into tbe units. This system was used on Exchange
Square.

A tbird metbod is the column cover and spandrel syste臨 wbich

dosely follows the layout of tbe structural frame of building. In
tbis system會 spandrel units span between colu. mns and provide
s u. pport to tbe glazing system.

Tbe 臨ajor desig遜 consi過erations wit區 curtain waUing are resistance

to wind load會 wbicb can be ve可T bigb in 蠶ong Kon辜會 tbe i虹gress of
water, and the ther盟al movement that takes place between adjoining
panels. Fire protection is another issue which has to be carefully
considered.
一一 一一一

Edge bracket

Mullíon

Figure 14.7 The structural component of curtain waU system

Floor and Ceilin2: Finishes

The finishes to buildings are generally ve可r labour.回intensive items of

construction worl主 and require considerable skill on the part of the
site labour.

Typical 晶。or 直nishes in Hong 直至ong would be terrazzo tiles in pub盟c

areas and q u.arry or cera臨ic tiles in locations such as kitchens. Vinyl
sheet is also ve可r popu.lar. Many residential areas make u.se of ti盟ber
fl. oors constructed fro臨 teak blocks which are f lXed to the f1 00r slab
by bitu臨en. Office bui臨ings wHl require 盟any services(electricity會
telephone, data communication cables) to be 通istributed around the
fl.oor, and so a raised ßoor system may be used. The f1 00r surface is
raised between 100 and 250 millimetres to aUow 甘u.nking to carrying
these services. Air-conditionin草 ducts 盟ay be also be ins組盟00.
Ceramic tHes are co瞌睡only u.sed for internal area wall finishes會 and
externaU那 granite or marble slabs are use晶. Plaster is genera盟y used
to finish the s u. rface of walls in office a迪拉 residential units.

豆豆。。最n2:

其直any of 盟ong Kong會s buildings are high rise and have 蠶at roofs
which often house water 臨nks. 研制 roofs 臨迦st be laid to falls so that
they drain water away already, and 臨ust also be waterproof to
protect the occupants below.

Asphalt is 閥門的扭扭on for盟 of roofing material in 盟ong Kong.

Special care 臨ust be taken with details at corners and edges. Roofing
usua盟y incorporates insula誼ng foam slabs to curtail solar gain. It is
generally covered by concrete tiles to prevent 益a臨age by traffic.

Doors句 Windows and Fittin!!s

AlI bu.ildings 區avea vast array of small items whicb nee通

誼lanufacturing and fixing. Such i如ms inclu. de doo悶 windows，
joinery fittings such as cupboards and benches，區andrails會 balus重ers會
balcony rails會 door ironmongery and 臨any many other items. In
Hong Kong, sucb ite臨s are 益。t standardized and are generally 盟ade
speciaUy for eacb buHding. Tbey are individuaUy designed by tbe
arcbitect and usually made in s翻a盟 workshops. 關any of tbe
manufacturing units are now located in China for items sucb as doors
and Windows.

Doors and Windows are usually mass produced at factories in Cbina

or otber couníries. 班any doors are classi:fied as 自re doors witb a
required 誼r resistance會 The door 臨ay bave to be tested and certi琵ed
to be oftbe re伊ired 盟re resistance. 規any special doors are required.
For instance bigb quality glass a迪拉 a扭扭扭扭扭 are needed for
prestigions offices and apartme巫師會 steel doors for bank vaults會
sbutiers for shop fronts會 etc.

Buildi噩噩 Services

Building services會 also known as electricity and mechanical

engineeri時 services 扭&班 se畫-vices)， are one of 臨ajor ele鵬濃重s in
building construc話。n. These services include the provision of
sir-conditioni通g and ventilation會 lifts and escalaíors會 electrical
instaUation. and lighting會 plumbing and drainage會 fire and security
services and otber 血iscella巫師那 services in a bnilding. B u.ilding
services are significant in modern society because tbey directly a缸ect
people's working and living environ盟el且t. AJ.ongside tbe economic
and social progress of buman society雪白mand for building services會
in terms of quantity and quali背書 bas been increasing worldwide. For
盟odern buildings in general會 building services could account for as
盟ucb as 20 姆是o % of tbe total building cost. In tbe past會 design of
tbe service systems was done by specialized contractors who botb
desig盟ed and construc紐d tbe instaUations. Nowadays會 specialist
consultants are engaged in system design and supervision witb detail
design left to specialized contractors.

Many aspects of building services are covered by the BuHding

Regulations under tbe Building Ordinance due to their impact on
pu blic healtb (eg. Drainage) and safety (eg. Lifts). Building services
are tbe bidden ele盟ent of buildings會 but they are vitual to tbe
effective functional of buildings. Tbe pipes會 cables會 ducts會 etc used to
transport wa重:er， sewage會 power and air aronnd 晶ebnildi遇g are
hidden in walls會 ceilings and nn晶er floors and the gronnd. In
additional to the actnal installation of the pipes會 cables會 dncts會
e哩nipment and fittings會 there is a large a醋。nnt of what is termed
builder's work to carry ont in conjnnction wi晶晶e sen是C的。 Such
work incln鍾的 digging trenches and bnilding manholes (for access to
pipes), snbsta話。益為 lift motorl明ms會 swi重chgear honsing, etc.

Drainage and plnmbing works inclnde the provision of sani臨時r

盔扭扭gs (eg. Sinks會 ba.sins會 water closets會 etc)， water s u. pply disposal
systems會 rainwaíer drainage and i過 so臨e cases會 septic tanks and
cesspools for sewage treatment. Dl啦畫臨ge is provided. both inside a通通
o u. íside bnildings. Interna盟:品 pipes are ns u.ally cast iron or
plastic(upVC) and nndergronnd pipes are ns也a盟y plastic or
stone研are.

Pipework for water systems incln d.es galvan垃，ed steel, copperand

plastic. 路any bnildings in 宜。ng Kong nse seawater for fl u.shing
water closets and 晶晶 Ïs being extended to conserve fresh water.
However, corrosion of iron pipes dne to saft 暫ater is a pro制em with
this syste臨，

Electrical instaUations會 most large bnildings re唾nire a transformer

room or snbstation to receive the power snpply. A switch rool設 iS
located adjacent to the transformer room. The power supply
company has reqnirements regarding these facilities. Power
晶istribntion facilities and often 臨的ers are provided會 from which the
supply cables are rnn for each 盟。。民

斑ajor commercial, indnstrial and presti草ions residential bnildings

are nsnally provided with ceníral air.國co益di誼oning. The central
air-圓conditioning plant occ u. pies a large amonnt of space and
generntes noise and vibration. ChiUed wa重:er pipes, air dncts and
air.品andlin蠶 nnits are required on each 晶。or. Snb髓。or air ducts are
shown in Fig.14.2. Ai r intakes and ex盈ans飽 are also needed. In most
residential a蠶d other non國prestigons bnildings, window 每'pe
aIr'間conditio旦ing nnits are provided.
 Fire services ins臨Uanons include hydrant ou誼e鶴 and risers會 hose
reels, sprinkler and detecnon systems.

A wide variety of lifts are available in terms of size會哩uality of interior

and doors and speed. Speed has the greatest influence 0過 cost since a
machine room and a lift pit are required.

Refuse coHection facilities are provided for high rise buildings. This
comprises a refuse storage ch組B.ber which receives discharge from a
refuse chute lined with an impervious material, with a hopper on
eac盈 ßoor tò receive refuse.

"r:::

The Construction Process

The complexi重y of construcnon in 誼。ng Kong is compou過ded by:

the difficulty of sites and ground conditions. 覽。鼓g Kong builds

on sites which would not be co訟sidered .for developI組entin 臨的t
other countries

In ti醋的 of high demand, there is i汲variably a labour shortage

and a restriction on imporiing labour

The high speed of construcnon that is demanded by dients會 bo重h

public and private

The congested of most sites due to high plot ratios. The logisncs
of site transport both horizontal and veriically are very difficult

Hea可T dependence on importe矗臨的erials which can create

uncerlainty in delivery.

Construction Costs

The costs for the types of projects given below are averages based 00
fixed price compennve tenders會 and no more than rough guides. It
 臨ust be understood 晶at the adual costs of a buil過ing w iU depend
upon the individual desig益 and many other fadors such as size會 plan
shape會 height， location and specifica話。n.

Consíruction costs in Hong Kong in 2002 were approximately as

follo哪位

i) Low cost housing會 high rise:

血革$ 32001 square 盟的reto 質區$37001 s哩 uare 艷的時
Low cost housing based on 宜。ng Kong 盟ousing Autrhori句r
harmony blocl主 design.

ii) 盟igh固dass residential, high rise:

E監$67001 square 臨的re to 單草$80輔/呵uare 醋的reand above

iii) Average standar盛會 commercial (0臨ces)會 hi蠶h rise:

藍藍$7S001 square 臨的reto 盟臨8700/ sq誼aremetre

iv) High個dass co瞌睡ercial (offices), high rise:

藍藍$1100會/呵臨時啞的retoID岱130001 呵uare 臨etre

v) Fado時T (standar謹):
聽監$36001 square 醋的reto 蠶藍$40001 畸重lare 盟的問

( vi) Five-star hotel:

直瓦$130001 呵uare 盟的re to H K$ 160001 square 盟etre