ROUGH REPORT

SUBMITTED BY
SAISH KAMBLE
ROLL.NO.19293
TYBA PSYCHOLOGY
A.Y 2021-22
EINSTELLUNG EFFECT
 INTRODUCTION
According to APA Dictionary of Psychology, “problem solving is the process by which
individuals attempt to overcome difficulties, achieve plans that move them from a starting
situation to a desired goal, or reach conclusions through the utilization of upper mental
functions, like reasoning and artistic thinking. The standard theory of problem solving,
initially outlined by Newell, Shaw, and Simon (1958), focuses on how humans respond once
they are confronted with unfamiliar tasks. The theory makes several claims about human
cognition. The most basic is that problem solving involves the mental inspection and
manipulation of list structures Newell and Simon (1976) later refined this into their physical
symbol system hypothesis, which states that symbolic processing may be a necessary and
sufficient condition for intelligent behaviour. Another central claim, termed the problem
space hypothesis, is that problem solving involves heuristic search through a space of
candidate states generated by operators (mental representations of actions). The problem
space has three components: the mental representation of the problem itself, the goal to be
accomplished, and the set of actions that a problem solver will consider in the course of
solving the problem. A more detailed aspect of the idea is that, in many cases, problem
solvers utilize means-ends analysis.
9 dot problem (Weisberg & Alba,1981; Lung & Dominowski,1985): The display for the nine-
dot problem consists of three rows of three dots each. The rows and columns are equidistant
to one another and the pattern of nine dots is usually perceived as a square.
The task is to attach the nine dots with four straight lines without lifting the pencil from the
paper. Although it seems to be an easy task, investigators have found that folks either take an
extended time to realize the answer or fail to unravel the matter .
The difficulty of the problem based on Gestalt psychologists' viewpoint is that subjects fixate
on the square shape of the dot pattern and to confine their lines to the square area whereas the
solution to the problem requires that lines go outside the square.
To open new possibilities for solving the problem, subjects need to restructure the original
problem situation in some other way based on a new direction which may give insight.
Weisberg and Alba (1981) argued against Gestalt viewpoints. According to their hypothesis-
testing framework, when subjects confront the problem, they will sample the hypothesis that
the problem can be solved in the way they usually solve dot-to-dot puzzles.
The domain of solutions under this hypothesis, although not containing the
right solution, could be very large and would take a while to exhaust. Subjects may fail
because they do not exhaust it within the allotted time.
Even if the domain were exhausted, subjects still may not find the solution because they fail
to notice that other domains of solutions exist. This failure is due to their lack of relevant
experience which accounts for the difficulty of the problem.
They argued that significant facilitation to the solution to the problem could be brought about
only by having very specific experience, for example, specific lines which form the solution.
Ohlsson, 2012: In the early 1970s, Newell and Simon suggested that research
should specialise in the question where problem spaces and search strategies come
from. Ohlsson (2012) propose a breakdown of this overarching question into five
components:
The first component is problem perception. The perception of a problem
presumably engages an equivalent perceptual apparatus as all other sorts of perception.
However, as a part of the heuristic search process, it would be difficult to account
for the impasse that individuals encountered during insight, which is usually
resolved through re-perceiving the problem and bringing unheeded options to mind.
The second component is action retrieval which goes beyond mere memory
retrieval and may relate to phenomena of functional fixedness and affordances.
The third component is goal setting/ problem finding. It is common to describe complex
behaviour as goal-driven and hierarchically organized. The question that remains unanswered
is where the top goal in everyday life comes from. Viewed in this way, goal setting is closely
related to problem finding and problem recognition.
The fourth component is action selection. Usually, prior experience of past situations inserts
itself into the present situation through a process called transfer, defined because
the application of
knowledge acquired in one situation to another, qualitatively different situation.
The last component is outcome evaluation. Wrong moves are unavoidable when solving an
unfamiliar problem and search is necessarily guided by the evaluation of action outcomes.
The question arises how the matter solver decides whether his or her last step brought him
or her closer to or beyond the present goal.
Wendt, 2017: Wendt (2017) proposes a phenomenological view of problem solving such that.
Problems cannot be defined solely by the relationship between the beginning and goal states.
Solvability, on the other hand, is an important quality of the problem as a mode of the
circumstance. The oppressiveness of the problematic circumstance is shown through
phenomenological analysis. Even if a situation is solvable, its classification as a problem is
not justified. Because challenges aren't oppressive, one may find a situation to be manageable
but free of commitment in a challenge. A problem is truly onerous when compared to the
challenge.
Might a situation even be solvable, its status as a problem thereby is not warranted. In a
challenge one may find a situation to be solvable but freely disposable of commitment
because challenges aren’t oppressive. Compared with the challenge, a problem is genuinely
oppressive.
Its oppressiveness compels the matter solver to affect things. The third feature of a problem is
its horizon.
The issue space has been described as a closed system of theoretically applicable states, while
the phenomenological approach claims that the situation's horizon is essentially open. As a
result, the multimodal nature of circumstances and the evaluation of problems' actual
characteristics enable a non-reductionist approach to problem solving. This dedication to the
laboratory is based on a dubious conceptual assumption: the idea that all problem-solving
behaviour can be reduced to a cognitive mechanism. Dorner & Funke (2017): The goal state
for solving the political conflict in the near-east conflict between Israel and Palestine is not
clearly defined and even if the conflict parties would agree on a two-state solution, this goal
again leaves many issues unresolved.
A "complicated problem" is a problem of this nature. The umbrella phrase "complex problem
solving" encompasses all psychological processes that occur within individual humans and
deal with the handling of such ill-defined complex challenges (CPS). In the 1970s, systematic
study on CPS began with observations of participants' behaviour when they were presented
with computer-simulated microworlds. Participants in one of the microworlds, for example,
took on the role of executives tasked with managing a corporation for a set amount of time.
The capacity to solve complicated problems is usually assessed using dynamic systems with
multiple interconnected variables that participants must change. The Einstellung effect refers
to the brain's inclination to firmly adhere with the most familiar answer to a situation.
Einstellung effect is the brain’s tendency to stick with the most familiar solution to a problem
and stubbornly ignore alternatives. With successive, repetitious use of the same method,
individuals are mechanized and blinded towards the possibility of a more direct and simple
procedure (Luchins, 1942; Bilalić & McLeod.

INDIVIDUAL DATA
Two participants were present for the experiment. One for experimental group and one for
control group. Experimental group consists 5 practice problem whereas control participants
has 0 practice problem. Number of critical and extinction trails were same for both the
groups 2 and 1 respectively. Subject in experimental group was able to attempt all 5
Einstellung problem. Participant was able to solve set problem with the help of the formula
that he got insight form demo problems participant used (B-2C-A) to solve the problem set.
Participant in experimental group was also able to solve both of critical problem including
extinction problem. Participant was using random addition and subtraction strategy and later
got some insight and used A+B strategy time taken to solve first problem and second problem
was 28 seconds and 30 seconds respectively. Participant was also able to solve extinction
problem. Time taken for solving problem was 119 seconds. Participant again used multiple
add and subtract combinations and was able to solve after getting insight of formula A-C.
The participant in control group was given demo problem which was also demonstrate by the
experimenter. Participant was able so solved both the critical problem in 59.5 seconds and
39.2 seconds respectively. Participant was able to solve critical problem by simple
subtraction combination which was analyse to the formula (B-A-2C) which is similar to
strategy formula (B-2C-A). participant in control group was not able to solve extinction trial
as participant exceed time limit of 150 seconds.
PTQs were asked for evaluating the experiment. Participant 1 stated that they have no idea
about the experiment and participant 2 stated that the purpose of this experiment was to know
thinking capacity. Both the participants did not experience any difficulty while solving the
problems. Participants also stated that they used simple mathematical combinations to solve
the problem, and demo trails were helpful to solve remaining problems. Participant in
experimental group was habituated with Einstellung problems and tried to use same formulas
for critical problem where as participant in control group was not given einstellung problem
hence was not habituated with solutions. The following data was not in line with the
hypothesis because participant in experimental group was able to solve extinction problem
within time limit of 150 sec. participant in experimental group was a psychology student and
was aware of similar concepts.
 GROUP DATA
Data from 18 participants were collected in total in which it was observed that 2 participants from
experimental group could solve extinction trails. 14 participants could not solve extinction trails and
in controlled group it was observed that 16 participants could solve extinction problem. In controlled
grp no of solvers in extinction trails was 16 and 0 non solvers. To analyse the following data we used
chi square. A chi-square (χ2) statistic is a test that measures how a model compares to actual
observed data. The chi-square statistic compares the size of any discrepancies between the expected
results and the actual results, given the size of the sample and the number of variables in the
relationship. Chi square test of independence help or establish association. It is the association
between einstellung effect in which solved and non solved extinction problem were compared. After
interpretation of chi square test the expected result shows that data is significant at p value
0.0000002. hence chi square was found to b 24.88 at df 1. Therefore bigger the value the more
significant data. Solving word problems is a tough task for students at-risk for or with learning
disabilities (. One instructional approach that has appeared as a valid method for helping
students at-risk for or with LD to become more practised at word-problem solving is using
schemas. A schema is a substructure for solving a problem. With a schema, students are
instruct to identify problems as falling within word-problem types and to apply a problem
solution method that goes with that problem type.
In the late 1960s and early 1970s, Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman began work on a
series of papers examining "heuristic and impulses" used in the hypercritical under query.
Prior to that, the predominant view in the field of mortal judgment was that humans
are rational actors.
Kahneman andTversky explained that judgment under question frequently depends on
a limited number of clarify heuristics rather than high budget algorithmic processing.
This idea spread beyond academic psychology, into law, drug, and political wisdom.
One simplifying strategy people may calculate on is the tendency to make a judgment about
the frequency of an event grounded on how numerous analogous cases are brought to mind.
In 1973, Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman studied and marked it the" vacuity heuristic".
An vacuity heuristic is a internal roadway that depends
on immediate exemplifications that come to
a given person's mind when assessing a specific conception, system or decision. People tend
to use a doable fact to base their beliefs about a comparably remote conception. There
has been important exploration done with this heuristic, but studies on
the issue are still questionable with regard to the beginning process. Studies illustrate that
manipulations intended to increase the private experience of ease of recall are also likely to
affect the quantum of recall. This makes it delicate to determine whether
the attained estimates of liability, or typicality are grounded on actors' phenomenal gests or
on a prejudiced sample of recalled information.
Practical implications. difficulty in breaking old habits - learning new practices implies some
kind of investment or effort which is the reason why people tend to stick to routines or habit
Speedy responses that are often required in question and answer situations lead to students
often relying on familiar solution strategies.
Data science - new technologies and methods emerge often but concern is that trending
methods may cloud our judgement. New tools and ideas seems attractive but doesn’t allow to
look for alternative options
Programming- Einstellung poses problems because programmers tend to utilize familiar and
possibly ineffective solutions
Doctor’s diagnosis biases – overlook beyond the current trending illness
Importance of change in mindset and reimagining the use of resources can help to overcome
functional fixedness and promote creative problem-solving.
Inferences from observations related to problem solving – strategy used by subject and post
task. inferences and its relation to Einstellung Effect

Recent research
The Relationship Between the Einstellung Effect and Business Opportunity Identification
Rashmi Sahai and Michael frese. (2019) shoed that Individual differences in business
opportunity identification are investigated using the Einstellung theory. Einstellung is the
practise of relying on existing cognitive frames even when they are no longer useful. This
study looked at the link between people's inclination for setting goals and the amount and
innovativeness of business prospects they found. Our findings imply that the Einstellung
effect was adversely connected to the amount of opportunities people identified as well as
their innovativeness. These findings suggest that relying on current cognitive frameworks on
a regular basis can have detrimental repercussions for the crucial entrepreneurial skill of
opportunity identification.
Suggestions: experimenter can use time as dependent variable
Think aloud while solving.

PTQs

Plagiarism report