3.

3 MATRIX POLYNOMIAL

Consider a polynomial f (x) in x of degree m, say

f (x) = a0 xm + a1 xm−1 + · · · + am−1 x + am

By f(A) we mean the polynomial

f (A) = a0 Am + a1 Am−1 + · · · + am−1 A + am I

where A is nxn and I is identity matrix.

we say A is a root (or zero) of f(x) if f(A)=0

Example
 3.3.1
1 2
Let A=  and let (i) g(x) = 2x2 − 3x + 7 then
 
3 4
 2      
1 2  1 2  1 0 18 14
g(A) = 2   −3 +7 = 
       
3 4 3 4 0 1 21 39

If f (x) = x2 − 5x − 2,then
 2      
1 2  1 2  1 0 0 0
f (A) =   −5 −2 = 
       
3 4 3 4 0 1 0 0

=⇒ A is a zero of f (x)

Theorem 3.3.2 (Cayley Hamilton Theorem)

A square matrix satisfies its own characteristic equation.
i.e. if f(x) is the characteristic equation of matix A the f(A)=0.

e.g. Take f(x) as the characteristic polynomial of matrix A above, then f(A)=0.
Theorem 3.3.3
If k1 , k2 , . . . kn are the eigenvalues of A and f(A) is a polynomial in A, then the eignvalues of f(A) are

f (k1 ), f (k2 ) . . . , f (kn )

Example
 3.3.4
0 −1
If A=


1 −1
(i) Find the characteristics equation of A
 2

(ii) Show that A3 = I

(iii) Find A10 + 2A8 + 2A + I
Solution

(i)
   
 
 0 −1
 x 0


f (x) = |A − xIn | = 

−
  


 1 −1 0 x 

 
 
−x −1 
 
=   = x(x + 1) + 1

 1 −1 − x
 
= x2 + x + 1

is the caharacteristic equation of A.

(ii) By Cayley Hamilton theorem,

f (A) = A2 + A + I = 0

To show that

A3 = I ⇐⇒ A3 − I = 0

By expansion
A3 − I = (A − I)(A2 + A + I)

= (A − I).0 = 0

i.e
A3 − I = 0 =⇒ A3 = I

(iii)Now,

A10 + 2A8 + 2A + I
 3

= (A3 )3 A + 2(A3 )2 A2 + 2A + I

= I 3 A + 2I 2 A2 + 2A + I

= A + 2A2 + 2A + I

= 2(A2 + A + I) + A − I

= 2.0 + A −
I     
0 −1 1 0 1 −1
= A−I = 

−
 
=
 


1 −1 0 1 1 −2

Example 3.3.5 Show that if A2 + A + I = 0. Then A is non-singular and hence express A−1 in powers of A
Solution

By definition, A is non-singular if there exists a matrix B such that

AB = BA = I

From the given equation: A2 + A + I = 0, we have,

−A2 − A = I

A(−A − I) = I

=⇒ B = −A − I = A−1

Since AB = I =⇒ B = A−1
Thus
A(−A − I) = (−A − I)A = I

∴ A is non-singular and A−1 = −A − I

Theorem 3.3.6
Let f and g be polynomials over K, and let A be an n-square matrix over K, then
(i) ( f + g)(A) = f (A) + g(A)

(ii) ( f g)(A) = f (A).g(A)

(iii) (α f )(A) = α f (A) for any scalar α ∈ K
(iv) f (A).g(A) = g(A). f (A).

Remark
In our discussion of matrix polynomials above, we have seen that there are non-zero polynomials f (x) for
 4

which f (A) = 0 e.g. the characteristic polynomial of A. We now consider among these, those of lowest

degree and choose one whose leading co-efficient is perpendicular, i.e. choose one which is ”monic”.
such a polynomial m(x) exist and is unique, and we call it ”minimum polynomial”.
Definition 3.3.7

The minimal polynomial m(x) of an n-square matrix A over a field K is the monic polynomial of least
degree over K such that m(x)=0
Theorem 3.3.8

The minimum polynomial m(x) of A divides every polynomial which has A as a zero.
In particular, m(x) divides the characteristic polynomial of A.
Theorem 3.3.9

(a) The characteristic polynomial and the minimum polynomial of a matrix A have the same irreducible
factors. Consquently, equivalent to Theorem 3.1.1 we have:
(b) A scalar λ is an eigenvalue for a matrix A if and only if λ is a root of the minimum polynomial of A.

NOTE
From the results above, we understand that the following statements are equivalent
(i) λ is an eigenvalue

(ii) λ is a root of the characteristic polynomial of A

(iii) λ is a root of the minimum polynomial of A
Example 3.3.10

Find the minimum polynomial of the matrix

 
2 1 0 0
 
 
0 2 0 0
 
A=



0 0 2 0
 
 
 
0 0 0 5

Solution: The characteristic polynomial of A is

X(λ ) = |A − λ I| = (λ − 2)3 (λ − 5)

=⇒ (λ − 2) and (λ − 5)

must be factor of the minimal polynomial m(λ ) (from Therom 3.3.9) but m(λ ) must divide X(λ ) (Theorem
3.3.8)
 5

Thus, m(λ ) must be any of the following

M1 (λ ) = (λ − 2)(λ − 5)
M2 (λ ) = (λ − 2)2 (λ − 5)
M3 (λ ) = (λ − 2)3 (λ − 5)

but M(A) = 0 by definition, hence check:

M1 (A) 6= 0, M2 = 0, M3 (A) = X(A) = 0 (Caylay Hamilton theorem). Consequently, the minimal polyno-
mial of A is M2 (λ ) = (λ − 2)2 (λ − 5)

EXERCISES
1. Given A as the matrix in above example, and

(i) f (x) = x2 − 7x + 10 Find f(A).

(ii) f (x) = x3 − 9x2 + 24x find f(A)
2. Given that  
1 −1 −1
 
 
A=
1 −2 1 

 
 
0 1 3

(a) Verify whether or not A3 + 4A2 + A − I = 0

(b) Obtain (i) the eigenvalueS of A (ii) the minimum polynomial of A.
 6

MODULE 4

4.1 BILINEAR AND QUADRATIC FORMS

A bilinear function (or form) φ , say, defined on F m × F n is an expression of the form ∑ ai j xi x j where each
i, j
term is a product of the scalar ai j ∈ K and the xi , x j components of a variable vector X in F m and Y in F n .

φ is a function in the sense that for any specific (numerical) X and Y we obtain a scalar value

φ (X,Y ) = ∑ ai j xi y j .......(4.1)
i, j

Example 4.1.1
Given m = 3, n = 2 and

φ (X,Y ) = 2x1 y1 + x1 y2 − x2 y1 − 3x2 y2 − x3 y1 + 4x3 y2

then we have

φ ((1, 2, −1), (−1, 3)) = 2(1)(−1) + (1)(3) − 2(−1) − 3(2)(3) − (−1)(−1) + 4(−1)(3)

= −28

Remarks: The Coefficients ai j are from the matrix A = (ai j ) called ”the matrix of φ ” relative to the

standard basis of F m and F n . Hence, ∑ ai j Xi X j can be written as X T AY , where X T represents rows and Y
represents columns in φ . Obviously, φ and A determine each other, we call (4.1) ”The bilinear polynomial”
corresponding to A.

Example 4.1.2
In terms of the matrix  
2 2
 
 
A = −1 −3


 
 
−1 4

we have the example above as:

 
2 2  
  y
T
   1
φ (X,Y ) = X AY = (x1 , x2 , x3 ) 
 −1 −3  
 
  y
  2
−1 4
 7

i.e.  
y1 
φ (X,Y ) = X T AY = (2x1 − x2 − x3 , x1 − 3x2 + 4x3 ) 
 

y2

= 2x1 y1 − x2 y1 − x3 y1 + x1 y2 − 3x2 y2 + 4x3 y2

Definition 4.1.3
Let U and V be vectors spaces over a field K of dimension m and n respectively. A bilinear function φ on

U and V (or on UxV) is a function that assign to each ordered pair (u, v) where u ∈ U, v ∈ V, a scalar value
φ (u, v) such that the linearity relations:
(i) φ (u1 + u2 , v) = φ (u1 , v) + φ (u2 , v) and

(ii)φ (u, v1 + v2 ) = φ (u, v1 ) + φ (u, v2 )

(iii) φ (ru, v) = rφ (u, v), r ∈ K

hold for all vectors u, u1 , u2 ∈ U and v, v1 , v2 ∈ V

Or shortened (i) φ (αu1 + β u2 , v) = αφ (u1 , v) + β φ (u2 , v)
(ii)φ (u, αv1 + β v2 ) = αφ (u, v1 ) + β φ (u, v2 ) ∀α, β ∈ K

Definition 4.1.4
A quadratic function (or form) Q is a fuction from u to F of the form
Q(u) = φ (u, u)

for suitable bilinear function φ on u.

Remarks
Essentially, the definition is saying that by setting X = Y on the bilinear form X T AY , we obtain a quadtric

form
Q(x) = X T AX = ∑ Xi X j
i, j

(which is a sum of square xi2 and products xi x j , i 6= j with scalar ai j ). Thus, Q is determined by φ .

Conversely, if φ (or A) is symmetric, then φ (or A) is determined by Q. That is, given a quadratic expres-
sion Q(x) we can read off uniquely a symmetric matrix so that the expression equals X 0 AX. This is done
by the so called POLARISATION formula: φ (u, v) = 12 [Q(u + v) − Q(u) − Q(v)] provided 1 + 1 6= 0 in K.

This means that a term like 5x2 x3 has to be split (or thought of) as 52 x2 x3 = 52 x2 x3 given rise to the entries
5 5
2 and 2 at the coordinates(2,3) and (3,2) positions.
Example 4.1.5 The quadractic form

(i)Q = x12 − 18x1 x2 + 5x22

 8

is given in X 0 AX to be

  
 1 −9 x1 
= (x1 , x2 ) 

 
 
−9 5 x2

(ii) Q = x12 + x22 + 2x32 − 2x1 x3 − 2x2 x3 is given as

  
1 0 −1 x1 
  
  
= (x1 , x2 , x3 )  0
 1 −1 x2 
 
  
  
−1 −1 2 x3

Definition 4.1.6
A real quadratic form Q is said to be Non-Negative Definte (NND) if Q≥ 0 for all x1 , x2 . . . , xn ∈ R if Q=0
only when x1 = x2 = . . . = xn = 0 If also then Q is said to be Positive Definite . In general, Q is positive

Definite if Q > 0 for non-zero x1 , x2 . . . , xn

Example 4.1.7
If Q = x12 + x22 + 2x32 − 2x1 x3 − 2x2 x3 , show that Q is Non-Negative Definite.

Solution
Q = (x1 − x3 )2 + x22 − 2x2 x3 + x32

= (x1 − x3 )2 + (x2 − x3 )2 ≥ 0 ∀x1 , x2 , x3

Q = 0 =⇒ (x1 − x3 )2 + (x2 − x3 )2 = 0

=⇒ x1 = x3 and x2 = x3

∴ Q is not Positive Definite since x1 = x2 = x3 = 1 will make Q=0, hence be zero for Q to be zero, There-
fore Q is not Positive definite.

Example 4.1.8
If Q = x12 − 4x1 x2 + 5x22 , is Q positive Definite?
Solution:

Q = (x1 − 2x2 )2 + x22 ≥ 0 for real x1 , x2

∴ Q is Negative Definite.
Now Q=0 =⇒ (x1 − 2x2 )2 + x22 = 0

=⇒ (x1 − 2x2 )2 = 0 and x22 = 0

 9

=⇒ x1 = 2X2 and x2 = 0
=⇒ x1 = x2 = 0 ∴ Q is Positive Definite.

Exercises

1. Show tha Q = x12 − 18x1 x2 + 5x22 is not positive definite

 
1 2 
2. Let V be a vector space of 2x2 matrices over ℜ. Let M =  , and let φ (A, B) = tr(AT MB)
 
3 5
where ”tr” denotes trace of the matrix.

(i) Show that φ is a bilinear form on 

V.       
 
1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
 
(ii) Find the matrix of φ in the basis  , , ,
       
 
 0 0
 0 0 1 0 0 1 

3. Find the symmetric matrix belonging to

(i) q(x, y, z) = 2x2 − 8xy + y2 − 16xz + 14yz + 5z2
(ii) q(x1 , x2 , x3 ) = x12 − x1 x3 + x22

(iii) q(x, y, z) = xy + y2 4xz + z2

4. Determine which of the following are biliniear form given that u = (x1 , x2 ), v = (y1 , y2 )

(i) φ (u, v) = 2x1 y2 − 3x2 y1

(ii) φ (u, v) = x1 + y2
(iii) φ (u, v) = 3x2 y2

(iv) φ (u, v) = x1 x2 + y1 y2
(v) φ (u, v) = 1
(vi) φ (u, v) = 0

5. Let the bilinear form on ℜ2 defined by φ ((x1 , x2 ), (y1 , y2 )) = 3x1 y1 − 2x1 y1 + 4x2 y1 − x2 y2
(i) Find the matrix A of φ in the basis {u1 = (1, 1), u2 = (1, 2)}

(ii) Find the matrix B of φ in the basis {v1 = (1, −1), v2 = (3, 1)}

Example 4.1.9 Let φ be the form on R2 defined by

φ ((x1 , x2 ), (y1 , y2 )) = 2x1 y1 − 3x1 y2 + x2 y2

(i) Find the matrix A of φ in the basis {u1 = (1, 0), u2 = (1, 1)}
(ii) Find the matrix B of φ in the basis {v1 = (2, 1), v2 = (1, −1)}
 10

Solution

(i) Let A = (ai j ) where φ (ui , u j ) = ai j then

a11 = φ (u1 , u1 ) = φ ((1, 0), (1, 0)) = 2 − 0 + 0 = 2
a12 = φ (u1 , u2 ) = φ ((1, 0), (1, 1)) = 2 − 3 + 0 = −1

a11 = φ (u2 , u1 ) = φ ((1, 1), (1, 0)) = 2 − 0 + 0 = 2

= φ ((1, 1), (1, 1)) = 2 − 3 + 1 = 0
a11 = φ(u2 , u2 ) 

2 −1
∴A=  is the matrix of φ in the basis {u1 , u2 }
 
2 0
(ii) Let B=(bi j ) where bi j = φ (vi , v j ) then
b11 = φ (v1 , v1 ) = φ ((2, 1), (2, 1)) = 8 − 6 + 1 = 3

b12 = φ (v1 , v2 ) = φ ((2, 1), (1, −1)) = 4 + 6 − 1 = 9

b21 = φ (v2 , v1 ) = φ ((1, −1), (2, 1)) = 4 − 3 − 1 = 0
) = φ ((1, −1), (1, −1)) = 2
b22 = φ(v2 , v2

3 9 
∴B=  is the matrix of φ in the basis {v1 , v2 }
 
0 2
Definition 4.1.10 A bilinear form φ on V is said to symmentric
(a) symmentric if φ (u, v) = φ (v, u) for every u,v∈ V.

(b)φ is said to be (i) alternating if φ (v, v) = 0 for every v∈ V

Now φ is alternating =⇒ φ (u + v, u + v) = 0
=⇒ φ (u, u) + φ (u, v) + φ (v, u) + φ (v, v) = 0

and so
(ii) φ (u, v) = −φ (v, u) for every u,v ∈ V. Condition (ii) is called Anti-symmentry (or skew-symmetry) and
for a field K in ehich 1+16= 0 this condition =⇒ φ (v, v) = −φ (v, v) which also imply condition (i). Hence,

in a field in which 1+16= 0 condition (i) and (ii) are equivalent.

4.2 TRANSITION MATRIX AND CONGURENCY

NOTE: If A is the matrix of φ in the origin basis, then we can find a transition matrix P from this basis to
another basis such that B = PT AP is the matrix of φ in the new basis.
Definition 4.2.1

A matrix B is said to be CONGRUENCY to a matrix A if there exists an invertible (or non-singular) matrix
 11

P such that B = PT AP.

Remarks:
The congurent matrix helps us establish how a matrix A representing a a bilinear transform is transformed
when a new basis is chosen. We find that matrices representing the same bilinear form are congurent and

we have the same rank since both P and PT are non-singular. The following theorem is applicable.
Theorem 4.2.2
Let P be the transition matrix from one basis to another. If A is the matrix of φ in the original basis the

B = PT AP
is the matrix of φ in the new basis.
Definition 4.2.3 A bilinear form φ is (i) degenerate if rankkφ <dim V

(ii) Non-degenerate if rankφ =dim V

Recall: Rankφ =Rank(A) where A is matrix representation of φ
Theorem 4.2.4

Let A be a symmetric matrix over K(in which 1+16= 0) the there exists an invertible (or non-singular)
matrix P such that PT AP is diagonal
Note:

To find the matrix P such that A is congruent to a diagonal matrix, (i) Form the block matrix (A/I)
(ii) Apply a sequence of elementary column operation till A becomes diagonal, and I yeilds PT .
Theorem 4.2.5

Let φ be a symmetric bilinear form on V over R then there exixts a basis of V in which φ is represented by
a diagonal matrix. Every other daigonal representation has the same number of M of positive entries and
the same number N of negative entries.

Note: The difference S=M-N is called the ”Signature of φ ”

φ is NND iff S=Rank(φ )
φ is P.D iff S=dim V

Example 4.2.6 For the symmetric matrix

 
 1 −3 2 
 
 
A=
−3 7 −5 

 
 
2 −5 8

Find a non-singular matrix P such that PT AP is diagonal, and obtain its signature.
 12

Solution  
 1 −3 2 : 1 0 0
 
 
(A : I) = 
 −3 7 −5 : 0 1 0 

 
 
2 −5 8 : 0 0 1
Apply R2 −→ 3R1 + R2 , R3 −→ −2R1 + R3 to (A:I) and obtain
 
1 −3 2 : 1 0 0
 
 
∼ 0 −2 1 : 3 1 0


 
 
0 1 4 : −2 0 1

Corresponding by apply C2 −→ 3C1 +C2 and C3 −→ −2C1 +C3 to (A:I)

 
1 0 0 : 1 0 0
 
 
∼ 0 −2 1 : 3 1 0


 
 
0 1 4 : −2 0 1

Next apply R3 −→ R2 + 2R3 and then C3 −→ C2 + 2C3 to get

 
1 0 0 : 1 0 0
 
 
∼ 0 −2 1 : 3 1 0


 
 
0 0 9 : −1 1 2

and then  
1 0 0 : 1 0 0
 
 
∼
 0 −2 1 : 3 1 0

 
 
0 0 18 : −1 1 2
Hence A is diagonizable as  
1 0 0 
 
T
 
P AP = 
0 −2 0 

 
 
0 0 18
where  
1 3 −1
 
 
P=
 0 1 1 

 
 
0 0 2
 13

∴ Signature S of A is given as 2-1=1.

ASSIGNMENT

2
x2
1. An ellipse is in standard position to the coordinates if the equation a2
+ by2 = 1 can be expressed as
  
1
 a2 0  x 
(x, y) 

  = 1
 
1
0 b2
y

where a, b > 0 and either a¿b, a¡b or a=b.

(a) Show that by expressing the L.H.S of the equation

5x2 + 2y2 + 4xy = 6

has the form X T AX, we can find a matrix φ which diagonalised A.

(b) by doing a change of variable X = Qy
(i) transform X T AX into Y T AY and hence

(ii) show that the given equation represent an ellipse in standard position to the axes.
(iii) Write out its major and minor axes.

2. For each of the following matrices A

(i) Find non-singular matrix P such that PT AP is diagonal.

(ii) Obtain the rank and signature in each case

 

1 1 −2 −3

 
 1 −2 3 




1 2 




1
 2 −5 −1
(a) 

 (b) −2 6 −9 (c) 
   


3 4   −2 −5 6 9 
   
3 −9 4 



−3 −1 9 11