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Abstract: This paper presents the extension of controlled rocking technology to steel bridge piers through analytical expression and finite-
element (FE) simulation. As an outcome of the rocking behavior, the seismic damage is prevented due to reduced flexural stresses in the
columns. However, local buckling can happen if the column wall thickness is too thin, which has detrimental impacts, including the loss of
self-centering ability and reduced lateral load/deformation capacity. A simple analytical method is proposed to predict the monotonic rocking
response for preliminary design purposes. When using more-detailed models and FE analysis, it is shown that localized inelastic deformations
of the column can occur upon rocking and the simple force distribution at the column base can cause an overestimation of lateral load
capacity. The use of a base plate can lead to a higher lateral load capacity and less damage to the column by improving the stress distribution
at the base of the column. To account for the base plate, previously proposed modified monolithic beam analogy (MBA) was expanded in this
study, referenced as extended MBA (EMBA) to predict the rocking column lateral load-displacement response. An optimized design can be
achieved with a lighter cross section in the upper part of the column where longitudinal straining is limited. Different axially yielding elements
comprised of tension-only, tension-compression, and buckling-restrained energy dissipators (EDs) are investigated. For EDs with comparable
force capacities, the study indicates that energy dissipation is increased from the former to the latter dissipator type, while the lateral load
capacity of the system remains almost the same. The proposed pier exhibits recentering capability, high ductility, and stable hysteretic re-
sponse with the majority of damage confined within external sacrificial elements. DOI: 10.1061/(ASCE)ST.1943-541X.0002216. © 2018
American Society of Civil Engineers.
Author keywords: Seismic; Steel bridge pier; Post-tensioned element; Rocking; Self-centering; Finite element (FE); Local buckling;
Energy dissipator.
A similar technique was adapted to concrete bridge piers the rocking pier are developed and analyzed under lateral cyclic
(Mander and Cheng 1997). To mitigate damage at the rocking inter- loading with a focus on the recentering and damage-avoidance
face, researchers have proposed using steel (Hewes and Priestley behaviors. Stress concentrations, localized deformations, and local
2002; Guerrini et al. 2015; Thonstad et al. 2017) or fiber-reinforced buckling of the tube wall near the rocking interface are studied. The
plastic (ElGawady and Sha’lan 2011; White and Palermo 2016) influence of adding three different yielding energy-dissipating el-
confinements, a steel armored interface (Palermo et al. 2007; ements at the rocking interface is examined. A description of the
Solberg et al. 2009), and fiber-reinforced concrete at potential mechanics of the proposed pier along with the analytical methods
plastic hinging locations (Billington and Yoon 2004; Trono to predict the monotonic behavior is also presented.
et al. 2015).
A large number of old and new steel bridge piers suffered dam-
age during the 1995 Kobe earthquake in Japan (Bruneau et al. Validation Study
1996). Since then, numerous studies have been done to improve
the behavior of this type of pier. Following the extensive cyclic tests The objective of the validation study presented herein is to verify
carried out by the Public Work Research Institute of Japan the capacity of the numerical model to adequately predict the yield-
(Nishikawa et al. 1996) on steel bridge columns with different con- ing and local buckling response of circular tubular steel columns
figurations, the Japan Design Specification of Highway Bridges with large diameter-to-thickness ratios.
(JRA 2000) was revised. MacRae and Kawashima (2001) tested
24 large-scale steel piers with stiffened hollow and concrete-
filled sections. Permanent residual displacements, global or local Description of the Benchmark Experiment
buckling in hollow sections, and low deformation capacity in In order to validate FE models, two tested specimens (no. 6 and
concrete-filled sections due to the concentration of plasticity in no. 8) from the study done by Nishikawa et al. (1996) were chosen.
a short length were stated as defects of such piers (MacRae and The schematic presentation of the experimental setup used by
Kawashima 2001). Aoki and Susantha (2005) investigated the ef- Nishikawa et al. (1996) is depicted in Fig. 1(a). The specimens
fect of cross-sectional aspect ratios on the behavior of rectangular consisted of a hollow circular section with an outer diameter
steel piers through an experimental work, in which failure was de- of 900 mm and a wall thickness of 16.1 and 8.7 mm for Specimens
scribed as progressive buckling at the base of all seven specimens no. 6 and no. 8, respectively. The height of the column, from
(Aoki and Susantha 2005). Failure due to local buckling has also the fixed base to the top of the cap plate, was 3,173 mm. In
Fig. 1. (a) Schematic of test specimens; (b) final configuration of Specimen no. 8 at the end of the test; and (c) final configuration of Specimen no. 8 at
the end of the FE analysis. [Reprinted (a and b) from Nishikawa et al. 1996, with permission.]
tor positioned at a height of 3,403 mm from the base. SM490 steel sensitive, for moderately thick cylinders with diameter-to-thickness
with a yield strength of 344.3 MPa and SS400 steel with a yield ratios less than 180, axisymmetric bulging due to Poisson’s effect
strength of 290 MPa, both having a Young’s modulus of 206 GPa, and radial end restraint is more significant than random imperfec-
were selected as the material for Specimen no. 6 and no. 8, respectively. tions. When buckling occurs at stresses above the yield strength,
such cylinders are not significantly affected by initial imperfections
Finite-Element Modeling Procedure (Bushnell 1989). For the columns studied herein, additional analy-
ses performed with two times the imperfection amplitude showed
To simulate the cyclic behavior of the specimens, three-
that this change had no effect on the cyclic inelastic response
dimensional FE models were developed using ANSYS Mechanical
APDL (ANSYS 2017). A detailed explanation of the generation (Fig. 2).
and analysis of the FE models, including material model, initial A mesh refinement study was conducted to select the sizes of
imperfection, element mesh, contacts, and analysis is provided elements. It was observed that the response of the piers is highly
in the following sections. It should be mentioned that residual dependent on the number of divisions along the height in the plastic
stresses due to the welding and fabrication processes were ne- hinge region (nd ). Fig. 3 shows the results of the mesh sensitivity
glected in the FE simulations. analysis in which the convergence of the mesh density is based
Kinematic hardening models are used to consider the upon the relative variation of the buckling load as the mesh is
Bauschinger effect—the fact that the elastic region in the uniaxial refined. The predicted buckling loads are higher than those of
stress-strain behavior of a metal specimen is equal to twice the the experiments, owing to the fact that the incremental (flow)
initial yield stress. Since the strain in the plastic hinge region is theory of plasticity, based on which the nonlinear solution of
expected to grow largely, a nonlinear kinematic hardening model ANSYS (2017) is programmed, overestimates the plastic buckling
(the Chaboche model) suitable for large strains was chosen. Based stress (Jones 2009). Considering the performed refinement study,
on this model, the yield surface moves nonlinearly until it reaches a along the height, fine elements with an approximate length of 15
limiting surface, after which the behavior becomes perfectly plas- and 10 mm were used near the base for Specimen no. 6 and no. 8,
tic. Herein, the Chaboche kinematic hardening model with three respectively, and gradually increased in length to 75 mm near the
back stresses was used. The required parameters, including material cap plate. The circular section of the specimens was divided into
constants (Ci ) and the rate of decrease of hardening modulus (γ i ), 160 segments along its circumference.
are listed in Table 1. To model contacts, four-node surface-to-surface contact ele-
The three-dimensional SOLID185 element, which has eight no- ments (CONTA173), which transmit pressures between surface
des, each having three transitional degrees of freedom, was used to Gauss points, were used. TARGE170 elements were used to
mesh the piers. The FE models were generated utilizing a mapped specify target surfaces. Since the components of the considered
mesh. In order to introduce initial imperfections in the FE simula- piers are welded together, the contact behavior was set to Bonded,
tions and trigger the potentiality of local buckling, small initial in which the target and contact surfaces are glued to each other
out-of-plane deformations are imposed either by applying small when contact occurs.
Fig. 2. Effect of initial out of roundness on the response of (a) Specimen no. 6; and (b) Specimen no. 8.
Fig. 4. Experimental and FE analysis load-displacement hysteretic curves for (a) Specimen no. 6; and (b) Specimen no. 8.
Fig. 5. Typical response of a rocking steel bridge pier under half-cycle lateral loading.
a seismic event can be minimized while damage is mostly confined Single-Point Rocking Method
within the EDs.
Before uplifting, the column behaves as a fixed-base column. After
Fig. 5 illustrates the typical response of a rocking steel bridge
uplifting, the lateral load-displacement behavior can be easily
pier. Since the column is compressed due to the gravity and post- determined at each drift, provided that the compressive forces are
tensioning forces, initially the pier behaves similar to a fixed base concentrated at the edge of the column, as illustrated in Fig. 6(a).
pier and deforms elastically under lateral load. With increasing lat- By taking the single-point contact as the pivot, lateral load V is
eral load, overturning moments generated at the base reduces these obtained as follows:
compressive forces until decompression occurs at the farthermost
fiber of the column. After this point, the pier begins to uplift and a
T pt d2c þ Wðd2c − ht ðθel þ θgap ÞÞ
gap opens at the rocking interface. The formation of the gap softens V¼ ð1Þ
the lateral stiffness and at the same time activates the EDs. After ht
unloading, the restoring forces close the gap and the pier returns to
its original position with the majority of damage localized in where T pt = post-tensioning force; W = total gravity loads; θgap =
the EDs. rotation due to gap opening; θel = rotation due to initial elastic
In deriving analytical equations for predicting the response of deformation before uplifting; dc = section depth of the column;
the rocking systems, the force distribution at the rocking interface and ht = distance of the rocking interface to the centroid of the
is unknown and cannot be determined using the strain compati- superstructure mass. Post-tensioning force T pt can be estimated
bility assumption, since it is not valid at the section level due using the following formula:
to the gap opening. However, if the compressive forces are as-
0.5dc θgap
sumed to be concentrated at the edge of the rocking element, T pt ¼ T 0 þ Ept Apt ð2Þ
the response can be achieved using the global equilibrium. This hc
approach is referred to herein as the single-point rocking (SPR)
method. In the case of considering distributed forces at the rocking where T 0 = initial post-tensioning force; Ept = Young’s modulus;
interface, the strain/stress profile in the compressed region can be Apt = cross-sectional area of the cable; and hc = distance of the
obtained through a member compatibility concept, known as a rocking interface to the top of the cap plate. With the assumption
monolithic beam analogy (MBA), which was first proposed by that gravity loads are applied after the initial post-tensioning, a
Pampanin et al. (2001). In this method, the strain/stress distribu- more precise equation can be derived for T pt by accounting for
tion is calculated based on an analogy between the rocking the column shortening, as follows:
element and an equivalent element with fixed ends. In the follow-
0.5dc θgap Ept Apt W
ing sections, the aforementioned methods are applied to the rock- T pt ¼ T 0 þ 1− − E A ð3Þ
ing steel bridge piers. hc Ec A c Ec Ac pt pt
Fig. 6. Deformation of a rocking bridge pier based on (a) single-point rocking; and (b) monolithic beam analogy methods.
where Ec and Ac = Young’s modulus and cross-sectional area of the Δp;fixed end ¼ ðϕ − ϕy;c Þðht − 0.5Lp;c ÞLp;c ð9Þ
column, respectively. By substituting θgap ¼ 0 in Eq. (1) and ne-
glecting P-delta effects before uplifting, the lateral load required where ϕy;c = yield curvature of the column and Lp;c = plastic hinge
to uplift the column, V up , can be approximated as follows: length. Substituting Eq. (9) into Eq. (8) and solving for ϕ gives the
maximum compressive strain εmax in the column at the rocking in-
ðT pt þ WÞdc terface as follows:
V up ≃ ð4Þ
2ht
ht θgap
εmax ¼ ϕc ¼ þ ϕy;c c ð10Þ
where T pt can be calculated using either Eq. (2) or (3). Compres- ðht − 0.5Lp;c ÞLp;c
sive force Fc at the base of the column can be obtained from the
vertical equilibrium as follows: where c = length of the region under compression and
Fc ¼ W þ T pt ð5Þ Mp;c Zc σy;c W þ T0
ϕy;c ¼ ¼ 1− ð11Þ
Ec I c Ec I c Py;c
The above equation implies that compressive force Fc is only
limited by yielding of the cable since the material nonlinearity of where M p;c = section plastic moment; Zc = plastic section modulus;
the column is not considered in developing this method. σy;c = yield stress; I c = second moment of area; and Py;c = axial
The column does not slide as long as the following equation is yield force of the column.
satisfied: After choosing a stress-strain relationship for the column
material, the stress distribution at the connection interface can be
V ≤ μðW þ T pt Þ ð6Þ determined and the section equilibrium can be achieved by using
Eq. (5), wherein compressive force Fc can be calculated by
where μ = static coefficient of friction between the column and its
Z c
underlying surface.
Fc ¼ σc ðεmax ÞdA ð12Þ
0
Monolithic Beam Analogy Method T pt is subjected to increase due to elongation and decrease due
Fig. 6(b) demonstrates two bridge piers, one of which has a fixed to column shortening, as follows:
base and the other is the same, except it is unbonded at the base. If
an equal displacement is applied at their top nodes, the pier with the ð0.5dc − cÞθgap Ept Apt W
T pt ¼ T 0 þ 1− − E A
fixed-base boundary condition deforms elastically first, and then hc Ec A c Ec Ac pt pt
plastically due to the plastic hinge formation, while in the un- ð13Þ
bonded pier, a gap opens instead of the plastic hinge formation.
For each case, the applied equal displacement can be divided into This equation is the same as Eq. (3) except that the distance
two parts as follows: 0.5dc is replaced by 0.5dc − c when determining the tendon
elongation.
Δel;fixed end þ Δp;fixed end ¼ Δel;rocking þ Δgap;rocking ð7Þ
wherein the plastic and gap opening deformations are significantly Modified MBA Method
greater than the elastic one. Assuming the elastic deformation of the
two piers is equal, then The assumption that the elastic deformation of the rocking and
fixed-base piers is equal leads to achieving a higher initial stiffness
Δp;fixed end ≈ Δgap;rocking ¼ ht θgap ð8Þ for the response of the rocking pier, since the gap opening in the
rocking pier occurs before the formation of the plastic hinge in the
in which fixed base pier. The MBA method was modified by Palermo (2004)
gap opening occurs in the rocking column. Thus preventing the out-of-plane deformation of the column near the
rocking interface.
H
Δtot ðfixed endÞ ¼ ϕ ð15Þ When having a base plate, the modified MBA method cannot be
ht used because the base plate is under flexural instead of axial strain-
ing. Therefore, to account for the presence of the base plate, the
H method is further amended, hereinafter referred to as extended
Δtot ðrockingÞ ¼ ht θgap þ ϕdec ð16Þ MBA (EMBA). Fig. 7 illustrates the free body diagram of a rocking
ht
steel pier with the base plate. At the column–base plate interface,
Equating the above equations yields a formula for the maxi-
the stress distribution in the compressive zone can be obtained
mum normal strain in the column at the rocking interface as
using either MBA or modified MBA. After gap opening, the base
follows:
plate exerts tensile stresses on the column, which is assumed as
2 linear herein, beginning just after the compressive region and end-
ht
εmax ¼ ϕc ¼ θgap þ ϕdec c ð17Þ ing at the farthermost column fiber. Since the base plate is under
H
bending in this region, at each imposed rotation, the amount of ten-
where ϕdec ¼ 2ðW þ T 0 Þ=Ec Ac dc is the decompression curva- sile stresses can be determined through the moment-rotation analy-
ture obtained by using the Euler-Bernoulli beam theory. sis of a cantilever beam having the same properties of the base plate
3. Beyond yielding rotation (θy ≤ θ). in the tension part. Then section equilibrium is checked using the
In this range, the plastic hinge forms in the fixed-base pier. following formula:
Therefore
Fc ¼ W þ T pt þ T bp ð20Þ
H Lp;c
Δtot ðfixed endÞ ¼ ϕy;c þ ðϕ − ϕy;c ÞLp;c ht − ð18Þ
ht 2 where T bp = tension forces that the base plate exerts on the column
Equating the above equation to Eq. (16) gives the maximum and can be obtained by
normal strain at the rocking interface as follows:
Z
dc
ht θgap − ðϕy;c − ϕdec Þ hHt T bp ¼ σt dA ð21Þ
εmax ¼ ϕc ¼ L þ ϕy;c c ð19Þ c
Lp;c ðht − 2p;c Þ
The steps involved in calculating the load-displacement re- It should be noted that the variation of the length of the com-
sponse are the same as the MBA, except that the maximum com- pressive region along the base plate height is neglected. By taking
pressive strain corresponding to θgap is determined based on the moment about the centroid of the compressive forces, lateral
Eq. (17) or (19). load V is obtained as follows:
d c
T pt 2 þ ccent − c þ W d2c þ ccent − c − ht ðθgap þ θel Þ þ T bp ðccent þ tcent Þ
V¼ ð22Þ
ht − tbp
where ccent and tcent = centroids of the compressive and tensile 4. In the case of having a base plate, compute the resulting tensile
stresses, respectively. Assuming the compressive forces are local- stresses by performing a moment-rotation analysis of an
ized at the edge of the column (c ¼ ccent ), the above equation is equivalent cantilever beam to the base plate and calculating
equal to Eq. (1) when there is no base plate. the required tensile stresses for the imposed rotation.
The steps required to obtain the lateral load-displacement 5. Compute the corresponding normal forces by integrating the
response are normal stresses over the respective areas, i.e., using Eqs. (12)
1. Impose rotation θgap at the rocking interface. and (21).
2. Assume an initial value for the length of the compression zone. 6. Compute the cable force using Eq. (13).
3. Compute the resulting compressive stresses using Eq. (10) 7. Check for the section equilibrium using Eq. (5) or (20).
(MBA) or Eq. (17) or (19) (modified MBA) and the assumed 8. Iterate over the compression zone length c by returning to
material model for the column. Step 2 until the section equilibrium is satisfied.
Fig. 8. Force-displacement response of Specimen no. 6-R based on the FE and analytical methods.
Fig. 9. (a) Accumulated plastic strain in Specimen no. 6-R; and (b) comparison between normal strain distribution based on the FE and analytical
methods.
profile (Ivanyi and Skaloud 1992): welded to the thinner wall column by a complete joint penetration
weld [Fig. 12(a)]. To avoid local buckling, the strain in the thinner
2πy wall can be limited through section analysis. The expected maxi-
w ¼ w0 sin ð24Þ
λy mum lateral load and cable force at the target drift can be obtained
by using the analytical model, then the length l [in Fig. 12(a)] is
where w0 = amplitude of the buckling waves; and λy = wavelength specified so that the maximum compressive strain is limited to εlim .
along the cylinder axis. Substituting Eq. (24) into Eq. (23) and min- For this specimen, choosing εlim as 0.0014 and 0.002 results in l
imizing σ yields the following equation for the wavelength: equal to 1,895 and 2,427 mm, respectively, for a target drift of 5%.
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi In the former case, the upper segment was kept elastic while in the
4 t2c d2c latter, limited yielding was allowed. In the FE model, a thickness of
λy ≃ π ð25Þ
3ð1 − ν 2 Þ 16.1 mm was used for a height of 1,500 and 1,000 mm from the
base of the column for the first and second cases, respectively. The
The above equation gives λy equal to 215 mm for Specimen no. thickness was selected the same as Specimen no. 6-R which could
8-R, suggesting that diaphragms should be placed with a distance recenter up to 5% drift without local buckling. The lateral load dis-
less than 215 mm to improve buckling strength. Hence, the arrange- placement of the reinforced specimens is shown in Fig. 12(b),
ment of diaphragms in Fig. 1(a), with the first diaphragm placed at which illustrates a self-centering behavior up to 5% drift. As indi-
900 mm from the base, has no major effect on the buckling behav- cated by this figure, limited yielding of the extreme fibers of the
ior of Specimen no. 8-R. upper segment has no effect on the response. The maximum lateral
Fig. 11 shows the comparison between the force-displacement load is higher than that predicted by modified MBA in Fig. 11,
behavior of Specimen no. 8-R with and without diaphragms, as owing to the increased wall thickness at the rocking interface.
well as the analytical model predictions. As expected, the effect
of diaphragms is negligible and local buckling developed near Specimens with Base Plate
the rocking interface, regardless of having diaphragms. The length
of the bulge due to local buckling near the base, given by the FE As discussed earlier, a base plate can be welded to the column to
analysis, is approximately 230 mm, which is close to the value pre- protect the column from the shearing forces at the rocking interface.
dicted with Eq. (25). Before the occurrence of local buckling, the A circular base plate with a diameter of 1,000 and a thickness of
specimen exhibits a self-centering behavior up to 2% drift (68 mm), 60 mm is chosen herein. The dimension of the base plate was se-
whereas its fixed-base counterpart (Specimen no. 8) had a residual lected based on initial studies such that it has enough space for
displacement of 50 mm at the same amount of drift. Because it welding requirements and does not experience severe plastic strains
at large drifts. In the FE model, the base plate was mapped meshed
using the SOLID185 elements, and the same material was used as
the column. Contacts were defined between the underlying plate
and base plate, and the base plate and column with standard
and bonded behaviors, respectively.
Fig. 13 illustrates the cyclic response of Specimen no. 6-R-BP in
addition to the analytical model predictions. The dissipated energy
can be ascribed to the yielding of the column extreme fibers due to
normal straining, as well as yielding of the base plate. Comparing
Fig. 14 with Fig. 9(a) indicates that in this case the total plastic
strain is less, owing to the protective effect of the base plate. Fur-
thermore, the maximum lateral load increased from 479 to 564 kN.
This is caused by lengthening of the compressive zone as implied
by Eq. (20). As can be observed in Fig. 13, the prediction of the
EMBA method is in good agreement with the FE results, whereas
the SPR method overpredicted the lateral load capacity for the same
aforementioned reasons.
Fig. 12. (a) Limiting strain in thinner wall; and (b) cyclic response of reinforced Specimen no. 8-R.
including tension-only (TO), tension-compression (TC), and connections with a smooth curve to avoid stress concentration
buckling-restrained (BR) bars are considered. Four bars are placed in its inner edges.
at a 45° angle from the loading direction. A diameter of 30 mm, In the FE model, the added elements were mapped meshed
fused down to 22 mm in the fuse length, was selected for the bars. using the SOLID185 elements. Contacts were defined between
Based on the previous analytical results, the minimum length of the the ED chairs, column and base plate, and also between the EDs
compressive zone is 195 mm, suggesting that the bars would be and chairs. It should be noted that the threads in the bars were not
stretched about 30 mm at 5% drift. A fuse length of 150 mm based considered in the FE models. Fig. 15(b) displays the FE model of a
on the maximum 20% elongation was chosen, with the assumption specimen with energy dissipating elements.
that the straining only occurs in the fuse length. The same material The tension-only ED involves tensile straining in its fuse length.
as the column was selected, which for each ED results in a tensile Fig. 16(a) shows the cyclic response of Specimen no. 6-R-BP in-
yield load and strength of 131 and 209 kN, respectively. The corporated such EDs along with the results of the EMBA method.
bars are fastened to the column through connections depicted in In the first cycles of loading, the plasticity spreads in the fuse length
Fig. 15(a). As force-controlled components, the connections were and following that the bar elongates. Due to the elongation, the
designed based on capacity design principles to remain elastic. The bar loses its connection with the chair at the beginning of the
connections are welded to the column as well as the base plate.
To anchor the bars at the base, the base plate is cut inside the
Fig. 15. (a) Details of ED chair; and (b) Specimen no. 6-R-BP with external EDs.
Fig. 16. Response of specimens: (a) no. 6-R-BP-TO; (b) no. 6-R-BP-TC; and (c) no. 6-R-BP-BR.
subsequent cycle. By increasing displacement, the elongated bar The degradation in the grout material behavior after the maximum
reconnects to the chair and contributes to load carrying again. This compressive stress was neglected and an elastic–perfectly plastic
might become problematic when the pier is exposed to pulse-type stress-strain relationship was adopted in the FE simulation. Then,
ground motions. In that case, if the pier experiences large amplitude the filler material was free meshed by using the SOLID285
displacements at the beginning, the bars do not participate in load elements.
carrying afterward, unless a larger displacement is applied on The results show that the type of ED has a negligible effect on
the pier. the maximum lateral load capacity. This stems from the fact that the
The results of FE and analytical methods for Specimen no. contribution of EDs in the lateral load capacity is mainly related to
6-R-BP with tension-compression EDs are shown in Fig. 16(b). their tensile rather than compressive forces. Since the tensile capac-
The tension-compression ED experiences limited compressive ity of the bar in all three types of EDs was fully mobilized, the
stresses in addition to tensile stresses since it remains connected whole system showed a maximum lateral load of about 650 kN
to its chair throughout the loading. Similar to the previous case, in each case. The ED type affects the unloading part of the force-
plasticity spreads in the fuse length and the bar elongates in the displacement behavior as is evident in Fig. 16. While unloading,
first cycles. However, while the gap is being closed at the rocking the elastic strain in the elongated bar is recovered, and depending
interface, the elongated bar takes limited compressive forces, after on the ED type, it takes some level of compression and dissipates
which it buckles, since it is not constrained. more energy.
The buckling-restrained ED is the same as the tension- Fig. 17 illustrates the cumulative dissipated energy throughout
compression ED except that it is constrained against buckling the loading cycles for the specimens equipped with three different
and, thereby, can yield both in tension and compression. Herein, types of EDs. In the first two cycles in which the energy-dissipating
the bar is confined within a tube having an outer and inner diameter elements are not fully involved, the difference between the dissi-
of 48.3 and 40.3 mm, respectively. The gap between the tube and pated energy is negligible. In the next cycles, as the plasticity ex-
bar is filled with high strength grout having 50-MPa compressive tends over the fuse length of the EDs, the dissipated energy of the
strength. In the FE model, the tube was mapped meshed as before. specimens with tension-compression and buckling-restrained EDs
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