Experimental Validation of Replaceable Shear Links for

Eccentrically Braced Steel Frames

Nabil Mansour1; Constantin Christopoulos, M.ASCE2; and Robert Tremblay3

Abstract: In the current design of steel eccentrically braced frames (EBFs), the yielding link is coupled with the floor beam. This often
results in oversized link elements, which leads to overdesigned structures and foundations. In addition, the beams are expected to sustain
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significant damage through repeated inelastic deformations under design-level earthquakes, and thus the structure may require extensive
repair or replacement. These drawbacks can be mitigated by designing EBFs with replaceable shear links. Two different replaceable link
types with alternate section profiles, connection configurations, welding details, and intermediate stiffener spacings were tested. A total of 13
cyclic quasi-static full-scale cyclic tests were performed, including tests on EBFs with replaceable shear links, to study their inelastic seismic
performance. The links exhibited a very good ductile behavior, developing stable and repeatable yielding. Additional inelastic rotation
capacity can be achieved with bolted replaceable links when bolt bearing deformations are allowed to occur. The on-site replaceability of
the link sections is confirmed even in the presence of residual deformations of 0.5% drift. DOI: 10.1061/(ASCE)ST.1943-541X.0000350.
© 2011 American Society of Civil Engineers.
CE Database subject headings: Steel frames; Bolted connections; Inelasticity; Rotation; Beams.
Author keywords: Aftershocks; Eccentrically braced steel frames; Shear link; Bolted connection; Replaceable link; Inelastic rotations;
Bearing.

Introduction
Eccentrically braced frames (EBFs) are seismic lateral load-
resisting systems that include a ductile, energy dissipating portion
in the beam elements, referred to as the link. The design of an
EBF depends on defining the strength, stiffness, and ductility of
the system, which are closely related to the link size, length, and
detailing. In current design [e.g., AISC 2005; Canadian Standards
Association (CSA) 2009], the link is part of the floor beam, and
therefore, the floor beam must be designed not only to yield in
the link region, but also to resist forces due to the strain hardening
of the link region in the portions of the floor beam that are located
outside the link. Balancing these requirements can be an iterative
and exacting process often resulting in oversized link elements,
which leads to larger force demands on all the other EBF members,
including the braces, columns, floor diaphragms, connections, and
foundations. Ultimately this results in overdesigned structures and
increased overall costs. In addition, the beam can sustain significant
damage due to repeated inelastic deformation and localized buck-
ling in the link region during a design-level earthquake. Because
the cumulative inelastic deformations imposed on the structure dur-
ing an earthquake are unknown, it is difficult to assess the extent of
damage, especially when no visible signs of this are apparent, and
1
Senior Structural Engineer, Dialog, Toronto, ON, Canada; formerly,
Ph.D. Candidate, Univ. of Toronto.
2
Associate Professor, Dept. of Civil Engineering, Univ. of Toronto, ON,
Canada (corresponding author). E-mail: c.christopoulos@utoronto.ca
3
Professor, Dept. of Civil, Geological and Mining Engineering, École
Polytechnique, Montréal, Canada.
Note. This manuscript was submitted on April 18, 2010; approved on
November 30, 2010; published online on September 15, 2011. Discussion
period open until March 1, 2012; separate discussions must be submitted
for individual papers. This paper is part of the Journal of Structural En-
gineering, Vol. 137, No. 10, October 1, 2011. ©ASCE, ISSN 0733-9445/
2011/10-1141–1152/$25.00.
thus the structure’s ability to provide an adequate level of safety for
any subsequent loading is uncertain. Furthermore, repair of the link
can be very difficult, disruptive, and costly.
The design of EBFs with replaceable links addresses these
drawbacks and optimizes the design by decoupling the yielding
link from the rest of the structure. Using the replaceable link con-
cept, the designer has greater flexibility to choose a section for the
yielding link that best meets the required strength without automati-
cally changing the floor beam section. The stiffness and fundamen-
tal period of vibration of EBFs are largely controlled by the link
length, and EBFs with short links, preferred for their more stable
shear yielding behavior (Engelhardt and Popov 1989), result in
stiffer structures, which attract larger base shear forces. By decou-
pling the replaceable link from the floor beam, the link length is no
longer defined by the distance between the eccentric braces, and
thus EBFs with larger door or corridor openings can be designed,
while still ensuring that a short shear critical link behavior is
achieved. Because the inelastic deformation will be concentrated
only within the link, damaged links can be quickly inspected and
replaced following a major earthquake, significantly minimizing
the disruption time of the structure and extending its life span.
Furthermore, the use of replaceable links allows for the welding
of critical elements, such as the brace connections, to be performed
in the shop, considerably improving construction quality and
reducing erection time. Fig. 1 illustrates an EBF designed accord-
ing to this replaceable link concept. The shaded portions of the
structure represent elements spanning multiple stories that can
be fabricated in the shop, shipped, and assembled on site through
the bolting of the replaceable links. Multiple modules fabricated in
the shop can be spliced, as illustrated in the figure, to construct
taller buildings. In addition, replaceable links made from built-up
sections with relatively thin webs and thick flanges can be used to
further optimize the design. Links made of steel grades with lower
yielding strengths than the surrounding frame members can also
represent a desirable and practical option.

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Fig. 1. Replaceable link concept frame
Past studies by Popov and Engelhardt (1988) and Kasai and
Popov (1986) have demonstrated the excellent seismic performance
of EBFs and provided invaluable data essential to establishing a
cohesive design procedure. Ghobarah and Ramadan (1994) exam-
ined end-plate connections of shear links connected to columns in
EBFs under cyclic loading. Okazaki and Engelhardt (2007) further
examined link-to-column connections in EBFs and the behavior of
link beams constructed of ASTM A992 steel now commonly used
in North America. In quasi-cyclic tests carried out in Europe on
bare steel links built from W-shapes with flush end-plate bolted
connections, Stratan and Dubina (2004) and Dubina et al. (2008)
showed that well-proportioned replaceable links can exhibit high
ductility capacity, but further attention to the connection design
was needed. Full-scale testing of built-up shear links as energy
dissipators for the seismic protection of the San Francisco
Oakland Bay Bridge with bolted end connections was presented by
McDaniel et al. (2003).
This paper presents an experimental research program that was
conducted at the University of Toronto (UT) and École Polytech-
nique of Montreal (EPM) to develop and assess the design of
replaceable links for EBFs built with steels used in North American
practice. Two link designs were examined: W-shapes with bolted
end-plate connections and back-to-back C-shapes with bolted or
welded web connections. The test program included cyclic tests
on both individual link specimens and full-scale eccentrically
braced frame subassemblages. Subassemblage specimens with a
composite floor slab were studied, and axial load effects on link
response could be examined. The design of the replaceable link
test specimens is presented in this paper, highlighting elements
in the design procedure that differ from traditional EBF design.
The testing procedures are discussed, followed by an overview
of the test results. Key observations are presented that pertain to
the shear yielding behavior of the replaceable links and the influ-
ence of the connection behavior on the response of the double
channel web-connected links, as well as the connection rigidity,
bolt slippage, and bearing deformations on the overall link hyster-
etic response. The experimental performance of the full-scale EBF
with replaceable links is then presented to evaluate the global
response of the frame and assess the influence of a composite floor
slab on the link behavior. The ability to replace the damaged link by
means of either a bolted web connection or a welded web connec-
tion is also investigated.
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J. Struct. Eng., 2011, 137(10): 1141-1152
Design of Replaceable Link Specimens
Two types of replaceable link configurations with alternate link-to-
beam connections were tested. The first type is fabricated from a
W-section welded to unstiffened end plates, which are bolted to the
floor beam end plates, as shown in Fig. 2(a). This link type is sim-
ilar to those tested by Stratan and Dubina (2004). The second re-
placeable link type, similar to that suggested by Balut and Gioncu
(2003) as an improved reduced beam section solution for moment
resisting frames, has not been tested before. It consists of two chan-
nel sections, back-to-back, connected to the web of the floor beam
through an eccentrically loaded bolted or welded web connection,
as shown in Fig. 2(b). The specifications of each specimen, includ-
ing the primary features of the link-to-beam connection, link
length, and link stiffener spacing are summarized in Table 1. The
specimens were designed as shear critical links according to the
Canadian Standard CAN/CSA-S16-09 (CSA 2009). The specimens
that were studied are representative of the links at the second floor
of a five-story EBF frame, designed according to the 2005 National
Building Code of Canada (NBCC) [National Research Council of
Canada (NRCC) 2005] specified seismic loads, representative of a
high seismic area in British Columbia, Canada. As indicated in the
table, the 13 specimens are categorized into three groups: (1) links
with end-plate connections, (2) back-to-back double channel links
with bolted web connections, and (3) a back-to-back double chan-
nel link with welded web connections.
All the links met Class 1 section requirements
pffiffiffiffiffi for the web and
pffiffiffiffiffi
flanges, h=w ≤ ð1;100= F y Þ and b=t ≤ ð200= F y Þ, respectively
(in metric units). All link specimens, with exception of UT-1, were
fabricated from CSA G40.21-350W grade steel, which met the re-
quirements of ASTM A992 steel. Specimen UT-1 was fabricated of
CSA G40.21-300W grade steel. All welding on the test specimens
was done using the flux cored arc welding (FCAW) process with
E491T-CSA/CWB series (E71T-AWS) electrodes, which are com-
parable in toughness of weld metal to E7018 stick electrodes used
in shielded metal arc welding (SMAW). All bolted connections
used 25.4 mm (1 in.) A490 bolts.
The link is first selected by calculating the required shear area to
resist the imposed shear in the link due to story shears and frame
geometry. The link plastic shear resistance, V p , given in Clause
27.7.2 of CSA-S16 (2009) is
V p ¼ 0:55wdF y ð1Þ
where w = web thickness; d = overall depth; and F y = yield stress
of the link web. The steel sections are selected primarily based on
optimizing the required shear area, i.e., minimizing wd. Stocky and
wide sections typically used for columns with compact flanges and
sufficient bending capacity are preferred to develop shear yielding
of the section under ultimate loads.
Defining the link length is the second step. In traditional design
of EBFs, in which the link is part of the floor beam, the link length
is the distance between the eccentric braces and is often chosen to
accommodate the size of the corridor opening required by the
architect based on building usage. Shorter links that yield in shear
(where e < 1:6M p =V p ) are preferred because these have a more
stable energy dissipation mechanism and a more predictable
postyield behavior than the longer links that yield in flexure
(Engelhardt and Popov 1989). In the case of EBFs designed with
replaceable links, the opening size, e0 , is decoupled from the link
length, e, as shown in Fig. 1; and thus the length of the link that
governs its response is no longer dependent on the required open-
ing size. However, the floor beam segment between the link ends
and the brace connections must be designed to resist the required
strength based on the link ultimate strength.
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Fig. 2. Replaceable link specimens: (a) end-plate connected; (b) web connected

Table 1. Test Specimens

Link length
Intermediate Web connection Normalized bolt
Group Specimen Section e (mm) e=ðM p =V p Þ stiffeners reinforcement plate bearing stress
End-plate connection UT-3A W360 × 101 900 1.16 3 at 200 mm None —
UT-3B W360 × 101 900 1.16 3 at 200 mm None —
EPM-11A W360 × 72 800 1.60 3 at 200 mm None —
EPM-11B W360 × 72 800 1.60 3 at 200 mm None —
Bolted web connection UT-1A C310 × 31 680 1.04 4 at 200 mm 6.35 mm 1:66F u
UT-1B C310 × 31 680 1.04 4 at 200 mm 6.35 mm 1:70F u
UT-2A Cut W310 × 39 680 1.03 4 at 200 mm None 2:95F u
UT-2B Cut W310 × 39 680 1.03 4 at 200 mm 6.35 mm 1:65F u
EPM-12 Cut W250 × 24 680 1.40 5 at 150 mm 6.35 mm 1:41F u
EPM-13 Cut W250 × 24 680 1.40 7 at 99 mm 6.35 mm 1:51F u
EPM-14 Cut W250 × 24 680 1.40 7 at 99 mm 6.35 mm —
EPM-16 Cut W250 × 24 680 1.40 5 at 150 mm 4.76 mm 1:61F u
Welded web connection EPM-15 Cut W250 × 24 590 1.23 5 at 150 mm 6.35 mm —

was connected to 30-mm-thick end plates using complete joint

End-Plate-Connected Links
Link specimens UT-3 and EPM-11 were fabricated from W-
sections welded to end plates and bolted to the floor beam end
plates, as shown in Figs. 3(a) and 3(b). The end plates had lengths
and widths equal to the floor beam dimensions. Link UT-3
penetration (CJP) welds, where weld access holes were provided.
Specimen EPM-11 was welded to 28.6-mm-thick end plates using
partial joint penetration (PJP) groove welds with reinforcement
fillet welds to connect the link flanges (without weld access holes)
and fillet welds to connect the web. The stiffener welds were

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Fig. 3. End-plate-connected replaceable links: (a) UT-3; (b) EPM-11
terminated at a distance of five times the link web thickness from
the k-line of the link cross section, as recommended by Okazaki
and Engelhardt (2005). Sets of two identical specimens were tested
to assess the replaceability of the links and the performance of the
replaced link in comparison to the original link.
For the replaceable links to achieve satisfactory performance,
the link-to-beam connections must be able to transfer the forces
generated by the fully yielded and strain-hardened links. The depth
of the floor beam must also account for erection tolerances to ac-
commodate the bolting operation in the field. The probable moment
and shear demand on the connection of shear yielding links can be
calculated as follows:
M f
conn ¼ M f
link end ¼ 1:3Ry V p e=2; V f
conn ¼ 1:3Ry V p
ð2Þ
where Ry accounts for the probable yield stress exceeding the mini-
mum specified value, and 1.3 accounts for the increase in stresses
attributed to strain hardening of the link yielding in shear. To allow
for the placement of the floor deck on top of the floor beam, the
link-to-beam connections are sized such that the end plates are
flush with the floor beam section. Furthermore, because the link
section depth is less than the floor beam depth, the link is not
connected to the floor slab, allowing for replacement of the link.
The end-plate link connections were designed as welded end-plate
moment connections based on the recommendations provided by
the Canadian Institute of Steel Construction (CISC) (2005).
To ensure that the frame can be repaired with minimal effort,
the floor beams, braces, columns, and their connections must be
designed to remain essentially linear elastic when the yielding links
achieve their overstrength capacities. The code does not require a
moment connection between the brace and the floor beam. How-
ever, in practice, the connection between the brace and the floor
beam is typically capable of transferring bending moments. From
elastic computer modeling analysis, it was determined that 10–15%
of the link end moment is transferred to the brace. Hence, the floor
beam outside the link may be designed for 90% of the moment
at the beam-to-brace connection. The probable moment and shear
demand on the floor beam can be calculated as follows:
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J. Struct. Eng., 2011, 137(10): 1141-1152
M f
beam ¼ 0:9 × ð1:3Ry V p Þe0 =2; V f
beam ¼ 1:3Ry V p ð3Þ
M f
beam may be larger than M f
link end because it is calculated based
on the distance between the eccentric braces, e0 , not the link shear
length e.
Web-Connected Links
The remaining nine link specimens were all double channel back-
to-back sections. With the exception of UT-1, the link specimens
were fabricated from W-sections that had the flange on one side
saw-cut flush with the web to create channel sections. This provides
a greater range of channel sections for the design of the links. To
optimize the shear area, sections with relatively thin webs, corre-
sponding to thin flanges, were selected. It was thus necessary to add
top and bottom flange reinforcement plates to increase the flexural
resistance of the double channel links to ensure a shear yielding
dominant behavior. This is shown in Table 1, in which the values
of the ratio e=ðM p =V p Þ are all less than 1.6.
Based on the observed experimental results and analyses of the
strains along the link length, it was concluded that the link shear
length of the web bolted channel links would be defined as the
distance between the first row of bolts on either end, as shown in
Fig. 4. These replaceable links are connected to the web of the floor
beam through eccentrically loaded bolted connections. The depth
of the floor beam must allow for the link to fit into the beam. The
eccentric connections of the bolted web links were designed using
the method of instantaneous center (IC) of rotation with the load-
deformation relationship developed by Kulak et al. (1987), assum-
ing a shear force equivalent to 1:3Ry V p applied with an eccentricity
equal to the distance between the center of connection rotation and
the link midspan.
To investigate the bolt bearing deformation in the link connec-
tion and its effect on the total link rotation, the allowable bearing
stress considered in the design was varied between 1.41 up to 2.95
times F u . Because the expected link shear force for each set of
identical link specimens is the same, the bolt bearing stress was
modified by changing the thickness of the added web reinforce-
ment plate. Values of the bearing stress for each specimen are listed
in Table 1. These are based on the load at the most stressed corner
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Fig. 4. Bolted web-connected replaceable links, EPM-12
bolt, determined using the IC method and considering the maxi-
mum measured link shear, V max and the link axial load. The bearing
stress is calculated by dividing the maximum bolt load by the bear-
ing area (bolt diameter times total link thickness at connection)
and is normalized with respect to the material nominal tensile stress
F u , equal to 450 MPa. This investigation was initiated based
on preliminary observations in the test program (Mansour et al.
2006), in which specimen UT-2A, which had no web reinforce-
ment, failed at the connection due to excessive bolt-hole ovalization
(the bolt-hole size increased to 1.5 times its initial diameter), at
γp ¼ 0:066 rad. Specimen UT-2A represents the minimum thick-
ness at the connection of a web bolted link. To ensure a linear elas-
tic response of the floor beam web at the connection, the allowable
bearing stress at the most stressed bolt location should be limited to
0:80F u . This is achieved by welding a reinforcement plate to the
floor beam web.
Furthermore, a critical section was defined across the first row
of bolts, where the link shear resistance is reduced due to the bolt
holes. Thus the resistance of the net shear area should also be
checked to ensure that it is capable of resisting the link shear:
V r; conn ¼ 0:60ϕAnv F u > 1:3Ry V p ð4Þ
where Anv = net shear connection area; F u = steel tensile stress; and
ϕ = 0.9 for steel. To meet these two limit state requirements, a
reinforcement plate was welded onto the link web at the connec-
tion, as shown in Fig. 4, for all the specimens except UT-2A (see
Table 1).
The web-connected links were also provided with angles
welded to the top and bottom flanges. As illustrated in Fig. 4, the
angles were positioned such that they could be bolted back-to-back
upon assembling the links to ensure that the two channel sections,
with a gap between them equal to the floor beam web thickness,
would act as one unit, thus reducing the possibility of lateral tor-
sional buckling. Guidance for determining the spacing of these
angles was obtained from the research performed by Kim et al.
(2003), which suggested using a clear spacing not exceeding twice
the channel flange width.
Although the web bolted channel replaceable links require
additional fabrication steps to those required for the end-plate-
connected links, they are easier and faster to erect onto the floor
beams. Furthermore, it is foreseeable to use web-connected links
to upgrade or retrofit existing EBF systems because minimal site
preparation and modification of the existing steel is required.
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Loading Protocol
The loading protocol specified in Appendix S6.3 of the 2005 AISC
seismic provisions (AISC 2005) was used in all the tests. Accep-
tance criteria for links are based on inelastic link rotation as defined
in both CSA-S16 (2009) and AISC (2005). The inelastic link
rotation, γp , was evaluated by removing the contributions of the
elastic response of the link rotation. Both codes specify that a shear
yielding link (e < 1:6M p =V p ) should be capable of developing an
inelastic rotation of 0.08 rad. The inelastic rotation capacity of the
link specimens was defined by AISC (2005) as the maximum level
of inelastic rotation sustained for at least one full cycle of loading
prior to the link shear strength dropping below the nominal link
shear strength. Here, the nominal strength was evaluated based
on nominal section dimensions and nominal yield strength of
350 MPa.
Test Results
Table 2 summarizes the test results, listing the maximum measured
inelastic link rotations, γp ; maximum link shear force and over-
strength value, the maximum measured total frame story drift, θ;
the inelastic story drift, θp ; the connection contribution to the total
link rotation, Γconn ; and a brief description of the controlling failure
mode for each specimen. All the specimens, with exception of
UT-2A, exceeded the inelastic link rotation angle of 0.08 rad (the
full hysteretic responses of all the specimens are shown in Fig. 6).
UT Test Setup and Results
The first six link specimens, tested at UT, were designed and tested
as a proof of concept and to verify that the replaceable links de-
signed according to the procedure outlined can achieve the required
ductility capacity of 0.08 rad plastic link rotation, as specified by
CSA-S16 (2009). A test setup, shown in Fig. 5, was devised to
subject the link to a constant shear force along its length, equal
reverse curvature bending moment at its ends, and no axial force,
similar to that experienced by the link in the example building, as
shown in Fig. 1. The measured link shear force is equal to the load
applied by the MTS Systems Corp. test machine. Connection per-
formance of the web bolted channel links was studied to identify
the primary factors that contribute to the link rotation capacity and
to assess the effects of bolt slippage on the overall performance.
 Table 2. Summary of Test Results
Frame drift (percentage) Link shear (kN)
Group Specimen γp θ θp Γconn V max V max =V n Failure mechanism
End-plate connection UT-3A 0.104 N/A N/A None 1,274 1.39 Fracture of web initiating at weld access hole
UT-3B 0.105 N/A N/A None 1,279 1.40 Fracture of web initiating at weld access hole
EPM-11A 0.095 1.52 1.12 None 1,120 N/Ab Fracture of top flange near weld
EPM-11B 0.112 1.71 1.40 None 1,170 N/Ab Fracture of web at stiffener weld
Bolted web connection UT-1A 0.125 N/A N/A 0.18 1,438 1.48 Cracks in link web at intermediate stiffener;
test terminated before link failure
UT-1B 0.166 N/A N/A 0.27 1,478 1.52 Fracture of web at stiffener weld
UT-2A 0.066 N/A N/A 0.60 1,132 1.21 Fracture of link at web connection
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UT-2B 0.102 N/A N/A N/Aa 1,311 1.40 Exceed test setup deformation limits
EPM-12 0.106 1.32 1.12 0.04 916 1.58 Fracture of web at stiffener weld
EPM-13 0.104 1.18 0.85 0.09 976 1.68 Fracture of link at web connection
EPM-14 0.103 1.37 1.06 0.05 1108 N/Ac Fracture of web at stiffener weld
EPM-16 0.125 1.54 1.31 0.17 890 1.53 Fracture of web at stiffener weld
Welded web connection EPM-15 0.087 N/A N/A None 855 1.47 Fracture of web at stiffener weld
a
Shear rotation data acquisition was stopped prior to test end.
b
No coupon results.
c
Shear force transferred in link and slab.

severing of the web vertically along the end-plate interface.

Fig. 5. Test setup at University of Toronto
The capacity of the welded end plates to sustain and transfer high
end moments and shear was also assessed.
The behavior of the end-plate-connected links closely re-
sembled that of traditional chevron EBFs. The response of the
replacement link UT-3B was identical to the original link UT-3A,
as shown in Fig. 6(a). Both specimens displayed full hysteretic
curves up to and exceeding γp ¼ 0:08 rad. Specimens UT-3A
and 3B, which had CJP welds for the flanges and webs with an
access-hole detail, failed by fracture of the web initiating at the
weld access hole, as shown in Fig. 7(a). Initial cracks were ob-
served at the corner of the web at the peak of the negative excursion
of Cycle 36 (0.07 rad link rotation). These cracks propagated hori-
zontally, running parallel to the flange, and they were accompanied
by pronounced inelastic web buckling. This ultimately led to the
Although the use of CJP welds prevented fracture in the welds,
the access holes reduced the link shear area to 90% of the total
web area, which likely caused higher localized stresses and initial
cracking. However, even with this reduction in the web area, the
maximum link shear obtained was 1.4 times the plastic shear
strength determined using the actual web yield stress.
The response of the web-connected links was different from that
of the end-plate-connected links. The web link connection is ini-
tially rigid because of the pretensioned bolts, until it slips and the
bolts bear onto the link web. As the link shear is increased, the bolts
bear more, and localized yielding and ovalization of the bolt holes
occurs. When the loading is reversed, the connection behaves in a
rigid way again until it reaches the connection slip resistance. The
bolts then slip again and move in the now-deformed and ovalized
bolt holes with no increase in the link shear beyond that provided
by the connection slip resistance. Once bearing of the bolts is
reactivated on the opposite side of the bolt hole, the load rapidly
increases up to the levels corresponding to the yielding of the link
web. This explains the pinching in the hysteresis of the web-
connected links, as shown in Figs. 6(c) and 6(d). Furthermore,
because of these increased inelastic connection rotations, the
web-connected links were able to achieve larger link rotations
than the end-plate-connected links. As shown in Fig. 6(c), link
Specimen UT-1B completed a full cycle at 0.17 rad inelastic link
rotation, more than double the maximum link rotation required by
CSA-S16.
EPM Test Setup and Results
Having proved that the replaceable links achieve the required
ductility capacity, the findings from the six specimens tested at
UT were incorporated to enhance the design of the following seven
specimens tested at EPM. The intent of this second phase of testing
was to evaluate the global performance of EBFs equipped with
replaceable links within a frame and to assess the proposed re-
placement processes in conditions similar to those that would be
encountered in a real building. The behavior of the EBF with a
composite concrete floor deck was also evaluated in Specimens
EPM-14 and 16.

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Fig. 6. Plastic link rotation versus link shear for all specimens: (a) 3A and 3B; (b) 11A and 11B; (c) 1A and 1B; (d) 2A and 2B; (e) 12; (f) 13; (g) 14;
(h) 16; (i) 15

The test setup is shown in Fig. 8. The test frame was designed to
represent the first story of a five-story EBF frame designed accord-
ing to the 2005 NBCC (NRCC 2005) specified seismic loads,
representative of a high seismic area in British Columbia, Canada.
The test frame was 7.5 m wide by 4.5 m high and had e0 = 1.10 m to
accommodate a large corridor opening measuring 2:44 × 2:74 m
(8 × 9 ft). The opening would have been restricted to 0.8 m had
a standard EBF design been used. Simple shear beam-to-column
connections were used for the floor beams. The total lateral load
was applied onto the floor beam by 2 × 1;000 kN MTS actuators
reacting onto the strong wall. The actuators pushed and pulled on
the EBF frame, imposing predetermined cyclic shear deformations
on the link. The frame columns were truly pin-connected at their
base such that the loading system subjected the link to constant
shear along its length, V link , and reverse curvature bending, where
V link ¼ F actuator ðh=LÞ ð5Þ
where h = frame height of 4.5 m; and L = frame width of 7.5 m. The
test was controlled by the link rotation, measured by the tangential
displacement between the ends of the floor beams nearest to the
link specimens, which were instrumented.
Past test programs have focused on links subjected to pure shear
forces, with no or limited axial force imposed on the link. In this
test program the two actuators were connected to the floor beam at
a point located on one side of the link, and half of the applied
actuator load was therefore transferred axially through the link.

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J. Struct. Eng., 2011, 137(10): 1141-1152

Downloaded from ascelibrary.org by Tarumanagara University on 10/15/15. Copyright ASCE. For personal use only; all rights reserved.
Fig. 7. End-plate-connected link Specimens UT-3B and EPM-11A at failure (images by the authors)
Fig. 8. Test setup at École Polytechnique of Montreal (image by the authors)
This represents the worst-case axial loading scenario that can be
imposed on an EBF link, such as would be encountered at the ends
of braced column lines in buildings. For the frame aspect ratio
h=L ¼ 0:6, the axial load was equal to 83% of the link shear
V link . The maximum axial tensile load imposed in the tests reached
26% of the link axial yield strength for Specimens EPM-11A and
11B. Lateral bracing was provided at the top and bottom flanges of
the floor beams, at the two ends of the link. The columns were also
laterally braced near the beam-to-column joints, as shown in Fig. 8.
End-plate-connected link Specimens EPM-11A and 11B had
PJP welds connecting the flanges to the end plates without an
access-hole detail and fillet welds to connect the link webs. Be-
cause of the large axial demand on the link flanges from both the
moment and the additional axial load, signs of early flange yielding
accompanied web yielding. The links were subjected to tension
when deforming toward peak negative rotations. As Specimen
EPM-11A was loaded toward the tension (negative) excursion of
Cycle 39 (0.11 rad link rotation), it fractured at the top flange near
the end of the groove weld, completely severing the top flange, as
shown in Fig. 7(b). Factors that contributed to this are the large
plastic strain demands at that location, the large axial stresses de-
veloped, the high degree of constraint due to the presence of the end
plate and the welds, and the heat-affected zone brittleness near the
flange-to-end-plate weld. Specimen EPM-11B performed better,
exhibiting a more stable failure mechanism in the web accompa-
nied with more visible inelastic web buckling. Web fracture initi-
ated at the bottom end of the link web middle stiffener, at the point
1148 / JOURNAL OF STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING © ASCE / OCTOBER 2011
J. Struct. Eng., 2011, 137(10): 1141-1152
of termination of the fillet welds connecting the stiffeners to the link
web. Past the 0.11 rad cycle, the crack was observed to propagate
vertically through the web, along the length of the intermediate
stiffener weld. The load dropped by 22% before the test was ended.
The web-connected link specimens achieved rotations greater
than the code requirement, as listed in Table 2. However, the
EPM specimens were not able to achieve the large 0.17 rad link
rotations that were achieved by Specimen UT-1B. This is in part
because of a relatively stiffer reinforcement web connection plate
and the reduced link shear capacity due to the applied axial load.
Although bolt bearing deformation did occur, the localized bolt-
hole yielding and ovalization was not as pronounced as what was
observed in the UT tests. This is shown by the reduced pinching of
the EPM link rotation hysteresis plots when compared to the UT
specimens, as seen in Fig. 6.
The values measured for the inelastic story drifts, θp , listed in
Table 2, approximately match those calculated from the measured
inelastic link rotation, assuming a rigid plastic frame mechanism,
using the following relation:
θp ¼ γp ðe=LÞ ð6Þ
where e = length of the shear link listed in Table 1. These drift
values compare well with the peak drifts ranging from 1.0–1.5%
computed for 3- and 10-story EBFs under design level (10% in
50 years) ground motions in the United States (Chao and Goel
2006) and exceed those computed for three-story EBFs designed
 according to current Canadian practice, which were found to be less
than 0.9% under seismic motions, matching the 2% in 50 years
hazard in western Canada (Rozon et al. 2008).
Discussion of Test Results
Based on the test results alone, it is difficult to assess which weld-
ing procedure is more suitable for connecting the link to the end
plates because all four links achieved link rotation values greater
than 0.08 rad. Although the specimens were designed as shear criti-
cal, the flexural demands on the link ends were greater than pre-
dicted because the shear overstrength values were larger than that
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specified by the code. This is most evident in Specimens EPM-11A
and 11B, where the ratio e=ðM p =V p Þ is 1.6, at the edge of the
intermediate link length range where both shear and flexural behav-
iors govern the response. Considering the reduction and saving in
the fabrication time and cost involved in the preparation required
for the PJP welds when compared to CJP welds, it is suggested that
using PJP welds to connect the link flanges and fillet welds for
the web would be adequate to ensure the desired shear critical
response. It is further recommended that when using PJP welds,
which are not designed to transfer M p, that link lengths be limited
to 1:4M p =V p to reduce the flexural demand on the connections.
Nonetheless, CJP weld may be used in the connections of the
end-plate links when lengths of 1:6M p =V p are required.
As noted previously, the rotation of the web-bolted connection
was significant in the overall link performance. Fig. 9 illustrates
how the connection rotation and the shear panel rotation contribute
to the total link rotation. Instrumentation was placed to measure the
total and shear panel link rotations and the connection rotations.
The web connection contributions to the total link rotations,
Γconn , listed in Table 2, were calculated at the 0.09 rad cycle as
follows:
Γconn ¼ 1
ðγshear; cycle =γcycle Þ
where γcycle = total link rotation completed in one cycle; and
γshear; cycle = shear panel rotation in one cycle. The component of
the connection rotation was on average 16% of the link rotation.
Specimen UT-2A, which did not have a web reinforcement plate,
experienced excessive bolt-hole ovalization that resulted in 60% of
the total link rotation taking place in the connection. This indicates
the direct correlation between the bolt bearing stress, governed
by the plate thickness of the web connection, and the degree to
which the connection rotation contributes to the overall link rota-
tion. For thinner web connection plates, the bolt bearing stress is
greater, which results in more localized yielding in the bolt-holes.
Fig. 9. Contribution of connection rotation to total link rotation
JOURNAL OF STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING © ASCE / OCTOBER 2011 / 1149
J. Struct. Eng., 2011, 137(10): 1141-1152
This increases the slip distance and produces more connection ro-
tation, and thereby more pronounced pinching. This is also evident
when comparing the results of Specimens EPM-12 and 16. The two
specimens are identical with exception of these two differences: the
first was varying the bolt bearing stress by changing the thickness
of the web reinforcement plates, which were equal to 6.35 and
4.76 mm for EPM-12 and 16 respectively; and the second was that
because EPM-16 was the fourth specimen tested, the floor beam
bolt-holes of the link connections were slightly elongated due to
prior bearing deformations, which in turn increased the bolt slip
range. As seen in Fig. 10 (which only illustrates the last few cycles
for clarity), EPM-16 was capable of sustaining a maximum value of
γp of 0.125 rad compared to 0.104 rad for EPM-12 because of the
increased connection contribution. Measured at the 0.09 rad cycle,
Γconn was 0.17 compared to 0.05 for Speciments EPM-16 and 12,
respectively, showing a three-fold increase in the connection rota-
tion. These observations indicate that the designer has the ability to
choose between a more flexible connection, with thinner web
reinforcement plates and possible oversizing of the link bolt holes,
thus attaining larger link rotations, versus a stiffer connection with
lower maximum link rotations but fuller hysteretic response.
A notable feature of the web-connected links was that the
majority of the specimens exhibited web fracture as the controlling
failure mode. The link web fractures initiated at top and bottom
ends of the link web middle stiffeners (nearer to the link midspan),
at the point of termination of the fillet welds connecting the stiff-
eners to the link web. Ultimately, the growth of these fractures led
to a reduction of the link shear resistance. Specimen UT-1B pro-
vides an example of a specimen that failed because of this type of
fracture. Fig. 11 shows the specimen after testing, and pronounced
inelastic web buckling and fractures running diagonally across the
web are visible.
Specimens UT-1 and 2 and EPM-12, 15, and 16 had stiffeners
spaced at 1.5 times the spacing required by both CSA-S16 and
ð7Þ AISC (2005). These specimens developed inelastic link rotations
greater than the required 0.08 rad and failed due to fracture
of the link web. These test results suggest that the shear link stiff-
ener spacing requirements in CSA-S16 and AISC (2005) are
conservative. This observation was also noted by Okazaki and
Engelhardt (2007).
The link overstrength values obtained for each specimen are
presented in Table 2. This table lists the ratio V max =V n , where
Fig. 10. Effect of web connection thickness on hysteretic response
 Fig. 11. Web bolted link Specimen UT-1B at failure (images by the authors)
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V max = maximum shear force measured in a given test; and V n =

plastic strength of the link. It is calculated per CSA-S16 and AISC
(2005) as the smaller of V p or 2M p =e, where V p and M p are com-
puted by using the actual measured dimensions and actual mea-
sured yield strengths of the test sections. The UT links were
subjected to pure shear forces, with no axial force imposed on
the link. The average overstrength for Specimens UT-1, 2, and 3
of 1.43 is comparable the average of 1.41 measured in links made
of A992 steel that were tested by Okazaki and Engelhardt (2007).
For the EPM web-connected specimens, EPM-12, 13, 15, and 16,
the average overstrength of the peak shear forces under tension was
1.57 and 1.34 under compression; note the asymmetry in link
shears shown in Figs. 6(b), 6(e), and 6(f). This difference can
be attributed to the influence of the axial loading on the shear buck-
ling resistance. The overall average of the EPM links was 1.45,
which is similar to the recorded value of 1.43 for the UT links.
The web-connected link peak shear forces averaged 5% higher than
those measured for the end-plate-connected links. The measured Fig. 12. Main transverse cracks on the top of the concrete floor slab
web yield strength, when compared to the nominal yield strength
of 350 MPa, was 1.2 times greater, on average, which exceeds the
assumed value of Ry ¼ 1:1 specified in the CSA-S16 and 2005
AISC design provisions.

Effect of Composite Floor on Link and Frame Behavior

Link Specimens EPM-14 and 16 were tested as part of the eccentri-
cally braced steel frame with a composite steel deck on top of the
floor beams. The 2.5-m-wide cast-in-place composite floor slab,
representative of a typical floor slab, was 76 mm thick and poured
over a Canam P-2436 76-mm-deep steel deck with trapezoidal
flutes spaced 300 mm on center running perpendicular to the beam.
The deck sheet was 0.91 mm thick (20 gauge) and made of galvan-
ized (Z275) ASTM A653 steel. The composite action was achieved
through 70 mm (2.75 in.) headed studs welded onto the top flange
of the floor beams at every flute.
Initial transverse cracks in the slab were observed at the end of
Cycle 18 (0.0075 rad link rotation) at the first line of studs on either
side of the link. New cracks appeared as the load was continued, Fig. 13. Web bolted replacement link EPM-16 at a frame drift of
and widening of the existing cracks and concrete spalling were also 1.62% and γp ¼ 0:151 rad (images by the authors)
observed. Fig. 12 shows the crack pattern at the end of Cycle 40
(0.13 rad link rotation). During testing, it was observed that the
concrete slab was pulling out from the steel deck, as shown in able to sustain link rotations with a reduced link shear up to
Fig. 13. Upon further inspection, it was evident that the slab pulled 0.148 rad. This indicates that the slab did not restrain the link from
out from its connection to the top of the welded studs, leaving a achieving large shear deformations.
cone of concrete still intact and connected to the base of the studs Before replacing the link it was necessary to repair the slab. The
and the floor beam. The shear transferred across the link Specimen floor beams were not designed considering the increase in moment
EPM-14 and concrete slab was greater than the shear recorded for capacity that is achieved due to composite action, and the replace-
the identical link Specimen EPM-12, which was tested with the able links were not connected to the floor slab. Thus the primary
bare steel frame only. As shown in Fig. 6(g), Speciment EPM-14 concern for repair was not the strength of the slab in flexure but to
displayed a full hysteretic response up to γp ¼ 0:103 rad and was ensure that the mechanism by which inertia forces were transmitted

1150 / JOURNAL OF STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING © ASCE / OCTOBER 2011

J. Struct. Eng., 2011, 137(10): 1141-1152

 from the slab to the lateral load-resisting EBF system was rehabili-
tated. Based on recommendations in the ACI Repair Application
Procedures (ACI 2005a, b), the most severely damaged concrete
was removed, exposing the studs. Repair was then done using a
self-compacting, flowable, cement-based concrete mix, Sikacrete-
08 SCC. Repair of the main transverse cracks that were present on
the top surface of the concrete slab was performed using a superlow
viscosity injection resin, Sikadur 52.
The concrete failed in the new repaired concrete and not the
substrate. From these observations, it can be concluded that the
repair methods were sufficient to retrofit the slab-to-shear stud
connection. In the tests, it was also observed that less bending
in the slab occurred at the beam ends closer to the columns, and
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subsequently no cracking developed. It is thus recommended to
place enough studs to transfer the floor shear force at the beam
ends, so that the slab diaphragm action is guaranteed even after a
large seismic event, when the slab connection to the studs closer to
the link may have been damaged.
Replaceability of Shear Links
Sets of two identical specimens were tested for each link type
to assess the replaceability of the links and the performance of
the replaced link in comparison to the original link. In particular,
Specimens EPM-15 and 16 were designed and tested to assess the
performance of an EBF that is repaired by replacing the yielded
deformed link EPM-14 after experiencing significant seismic
events. Before replacing the links, the frame was purposely held
at a residual drift of 0.5%. Studies by McCormick et al. (2008)
indicated that a 0.5% residual drift represents a limit beyond which
it is more economical to rebuild a structure than it is to repair it.
Although not verified in this study and not reported in any other
study, it is expected that the residual drifts for the EBF systems will
not differ significantly from the reported values for buckling re-
strained brace (BRB) systems with similar hysteretic responses.
Kiggins and Uang (2006) report residual drifts equal to 0.39 and
0.29% for three- and six-story BRB frames, respectively, subjected
to a set of design-basis earthquake (DBE) ground motion records.
More recently, Erochko et al. (2011) developed a relation between
peak and residual drifts. Results from their numerical models in-
dicated that peak drifts corresponding to a 0.5% mean residual drift
Fig. 14. Welded replacement link EPM-15: (a) welding procedure; (b) link at γp ¼ 0:087 rad (image by the authors)
JOURNAL OF STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING © ASCE / OCTOBER 2011 / 1151
J. Struct. Eng., 2011, 137(10): 1141-1152
level are 1.1% for short BRB frames (4–6 stories) and 0.9% for
taller BRB frames (10–12 stories).
Two replacement procedures were investigated: bolted web con-
nections and welded web connections. Replacement link Specimen
EPM-16 had bolted web connections, for which all the bolt holes
except the central one were postdrilled to match the geometric con-
figuration of the floor beam bolt holes that corresponded to the
frame’s permanent residual story drift of 0.5% that was present
at the end of the EPM-14 test. The replacement link performed
well, as shown in Fig. 13 in which the deformed eccentrically
braced frame system (EPM-16) is shown at 1.62% story drift,
which corresponds to 0.151 rad of plastic link rotation. The second
replacement Specimen EPM-15 was connected by welding the link
web and flanges to the floor beam web, as shown in Fig. 14(a). This
was investigated as an alternative to the bolted connection because
no alignment of the bolt holes of the link-to-beam is required.
Welding was done in the laboratory, with the steel deck kept in
place over the floor beams, to simulate realistic constraints that
would be expected in the field with respect to the space available
for the welder to work in. As shown in the hysteretic response of
Specimen EPM-15 in Fig. 6(i), there was no pinching because of
the rigid welded detailing, which did not allow for rotations to take
place in the connections. No signs of yielding were observed in the
welded link-to-floor beam connections, as shown in Fig. 14(b),
indicating that the design and application of the welds were more
than adequate to transfer the connection loads. The reduced link
length and fixed-end connections lead to early shear yielding of
the link, and a reduced final inelastic link rotation capacity of
0.087 rad. Although both procedures proved feasible, the welded
technique provided greater flexibility and ease to position the
replacement link. Fillet welding on-site was more than adequate
to create a full-strength fully rigid end connection.
In the test program, replacement of end-plate-connected links
required realignment of the test frame to its plumb position before
the link specimens could be fitted between the floor beams. This
could prove very difficult, if not impossible, to achieve in a real
building. However, sizing the link to be shorter by a few milli-
meters and filling the gap between the link end plate and floor beam
end plate with shims is possible. Tests have been conducted by
Sumner (2003) using beams fabricated 4.8 mm (3=16 in:) short
 with the gaps filled with finger shims, and no adverse consequences
or differences in connection behavior were observed.
Conclusion
A method for designing EBFs with replaceable shear links has been
developed and experimentally validated. The method allows for the
uncoupling of the yielding element from the main floor beams to
optimize the design of the links and the EBF. The concept also
allows for wider clearance for openings or circulation while still
achieving a desirable link shear yielding inelastic response. Results
of the test program summarized in this paper show that replaceable
links achieve and exceed the ductility acceptance criteria of
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0.08 rad inelastic link rotation prescribed by both the Canadian
Standard CAN/CSA-S16-09 (CSA 2009) and 2005 AISC seismic
provisions (AISC 2005).
End-plate shear replaceable links display a consistent full hys-
teretic response up to γp ¼ 0:104 rad. The link shear overstrength
is 1.40 on average. Under a combined shear and axial tensile load,
the link peak shear forces increase by up to 12% when compared
with those subjected to a similar compressive axial load. Neither
the connection configuration nor the presence of axial load has
an adverse effect on the link rotation capacity. It is suggested to
use PJP welds to connect the link flanges to the end plates and limit
the link length to 1:4M p =V p . Replaceable links with web-bolted
connections exhibit a more pinched response, but because of
the connection rotations, they are able to sustain larger inelastic
link rotations, on average γp ¼ 0:119 rad and a maximum of
γp ¼ 0:166 rad. The average overstrength of the peak shear forces
is 1.57 under axial tension, 1.34 under compression, and 1.47 under
pure shear. The connection rotation is achieved by allowing for
localized bearing deformations around the bolt holes in the web
connection. However, this should be well controlled to limit the
pinching in the link hysteretic response and to avoid failure at
the connection. Web reinforcement plates, welded all around at the
connection, should be used to control the bolt bearing stresses. Top
and bottom flange reinforcement plates should be added to ensure a
shear yielding dominant behavior.
The shear transferred across the link and concrete slab is greater
by 14% than the shear resisted by the bare steel link specimen. The
presence of the composite concrete slab does not restrain the link
from achieving large shear deformations. The on-site replaceability
of the link sections is confirmed even in the presence of residual
deformations of 0.5% drift with bolted and welded web connec-
tions. The welded technique provides greater flexibility and ease
to position the replacement link. The web-connected C-section
links are easier to handle and erect.
Acknowledgments
Financial support for this study was provided by the National
Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC)
under the Collaborative Research and Development Grant Pro-
gram, the Steel Structures Education Foundation (SSEF), and
the Canadian Institute of Steel Construction (CISC). Test speci-
mens were fabricated and donated by Walters Inc., Hamilton,
Ontario, ADF Group Inc., Terrebonne, Quebec, and Constructions
Beauce-Atlas, Quebec, Canada. This in-kind support is kindly ap-
preciated and gratefully acknowledged. The authors also express
their appreciation to the technical staff of the Structural Testing
Facility at the University of Toronto and the Hydro-Quebec
Structures Laboratories at École Polytechnique in Montreal for
their invaluable assistance in the test program.
1152 / JOURNAL OF STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING © ASCE / OCTOBER 2011
J. Struct. Eng., 2011, 137(10): 1141-1152
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