Connection Performance in Steel–Concrete Composite Truss

Bridge Structures
Guo-an Yin1; Fa-xing Ding2; Hai-bo Wang3; Yu Bai4; and Xue-mei Liu5

Abstract: Connections for steel–concrete composite trusses (SCCTs) for bridge applications were investigated. Eight specimens on a scale
of 1/3 of the actual bridge were tested under static loading using connections with different gusset plates, including rectangular (RGP), p shape
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(PSGP), and J shape (JSGP). A detailed account of the design considerations, loading procedure, and experimental parameters is provided. A
three-dimensional (3D) finite-element (FE) model was developed to analyze the mechanical behavior of these three composite truss connec-
tions. The results of the FE analysis were in good agreement with the experimental results. Both indicated excellent mechanical behavior for
the investigated composite truss connections, with sufficient safety factors. The minimum yielding, cracking, and ultimate loads obtained
from specimens were 2.65, 2.21, and 3.87 times the design load (907 kN), respectively. All specimens underwent considerable deformation,
thereby suggesting satisfactory ductility. The presented overall investigation may provide a reference for the design and construction of com-
posite joints in composite truss bridges. DOI: 10.1061/(ASCE)BE.1943-5592.0001006. © 2016 American Society of Civil Engineers.
Author keywords: Composite truss bridge; Connection; Finite-element analysis; Failure models; Ultimate bearing capacity.

Introduction significantly depended on the rigidity and arrangement of the shear

Steel–concrete composite truss (SCCT) structures have been
developed and increasingly used in bridge constructions in recent
years. Structurally, SCCT bridges possess the merits of long span
and high stiffness and load capacity. Only their top chord and
web members are made of steel; the bottom chords are made of
prestressed concrete. The structural simplicity and architectural
elegance of such bridges, together with their low maintenance
and construction costs, satisfy various requirements of modern
bridges in cities.
Studies and practices have been reported with consideration of
such advantages. Nie and Zhu (2014) provided a reliable and
powerful tool (beam-truss model) for the design analysis of com-
posite box-girder bridge. On the basis of previous experimental
research (Machacek and Cudejko 2009), a numerical analysis and a
Eurocode 4 (EN 1994-2) (Hicks 2014) approach to the distribution
of longitudinal shear flow along the interface between steel and con-
crete of SCCT bridges were studied by Machacek and Cudejko
(2011). The nonlinear distribution of the longitudinal shear
1
Ph.D. Candidate, School of Civil Engineering, Central South Univ.,
Changsha 410075, People’s Republic of China. E-mail: 124812242@csu
.edu.cn
2
Professor, School of Civil Engineering, Central South Univ.,
Changsha 410075, People’s Republic of China. E-mail: dinfaxin@csu
.edu.cn
3
Associate Professor, School of Civil Engineering, Central South
Univ., Changsha 410075, People’s Republic of China (corresponding
author). E-mail: haibarg@163.com
4
Associate Professor, Dept. of Civil Engineering, Monash Univ.,
Clayton, VIC 3800, Australia. E-mail: Yu.Bai@monash.edu
5
Lecturer, School of Civil Engineering and Built Environment,
Queensland Univ. of Technology, Brisbane, QLD 4001, Australia. E-mail:
x51.liu@qut.edu.au
Note. This manuscript was submitted on May 10, 2016; approved on
September 5, 2016; published online on November 3, 2016. Discussion
period open until April 3, 2017; separate discussions must be submitted
for individual papers. This paper is part of the Journal of Bridge
Engineering, © ASCE, ISSN 1084-0702.
connectors above truss nodes. Fatigue tests involving different
shear connector types were conducted by Liu et al. (2013). Their
results showed that the deflection of the composite joints increased
almost linearly with the applied load, even after a certain number of
repeated loading cycles, but the stiffness reduced gradually. With
regard to connections in SCCT bridges, two 1/3-scale composite
joints were tested by Zhou and He (2012a, b). That study focused
primarily on mechanical behavior, and the results indicated that the
connections in the design were associated with sufficient bearing
capacity and a high safety factor. An analytical model was devel-
oped by Fan et al. (2015) to estimate the shear capacity of three-
dimensional (3D) composite joints of concrete-filled tubular (CFT)
columns and steel beams subjected to shear forces in two plans. The
proposed 3D composite joints showed good agreement with the
experimental results in a shear-deformation relationship and ulti-
mate shear capacities. Kim et al. (2016) fabricated a bridge model
with a span length of 30 m to assess the effect of composite chords
on the flexural behavior of the girder. Wei et al. (2014) conducted
an experiment on the in-plane mechanical behavior of the steel
truss web–RC composite arch subjected to the unsymmetrical con-
centrated loads and found that double N-shaped webs might be the
most conductive to the stiffness and bearing capacity of the com-
posite arches and require comparatively less steel. Cha et al. (2014)
investigated the redundancy of a full-scale 45.72-m (150-ft) truss
bridge structure by conducting controlled fracture tests in the field.
The results indicated that the truss bridge structure had significant
member-level and system-level redundancies to prevent failure or
collapse of the structure caused by failure of a fracture critical
member. Bouchair et al. (2012) investigated the influence of the
size of shear connectors, the material characteristics, and the top
chord section on the behavior of composite trusses. They found
that the top chord section had considerable effects on the shear
forces in the connectors. Gong and Agrawal (2014) presented
detailed research on numerical simulation of the entire process of
the fire on the Ed Koch Queensboro Bridge in New York City, and
an effective approach for the fire–structure interaction modeling
and simulation. Koyama (2003) introduced SCCT structures for
bridge applications in Japan. Of particular interest, Furuichi et al.

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Fig. 1. Layout of the bridge (units are millimeters): (a) rendering of Guangzhou-Foshan intercity railway bridge; (b) elevation view; (c) cross section
at midspan
(2001) conducted various experiments and analyses on joints for
steel box sections, and those joints were applied in the first com-
posite truss bridge (Kinokawa Viaduct) in Japan.
SCCT structures with a prestressed concrete box girder and
hollow circular sections as steel web members were first applied
on the Beijing-Zhengzhou highway/railway bridge in 2005. In
2009, a few SCCT structures were used in the Xi’an-Pingliang
railway, Lanzhou-Xinjiang railway, and Datong-Xi’an high-speed
railway for bridge applications. Zhou and He (2012a, b) conducted
many experimental and analytical studies of SCCT bridges to facili-
tate the construction of the Houhecun Bridge, Mawu Jinghe Bridge,
and the Taiyu Bridge, considering long spans and heavy railway
loads between Xi’an and Pingliang. High safety factors and ductility
along with satisfaction of the design requirements were demon-
strated for the investigated structures based on reported results.
The effectiveness of connections at the steel–concrete interface
plays a key role in steel and concrete composite structures.
Moreover, high stiffness and load capacity are necessary for con-
nections used in such composite truss bridges. Furthermore, the
© ASCE
J. Bridge Eng., 04016126
construction of such composite connections for connecting the truss
diagonals and concrete slab is a technical challenge, for which the
complex force transfer and stress distribution at the connection
locations must be fully understood. For the development of the
composite truss bridges used in the Guangzhou-Foshan intercity
railway, three forms of composite truss connections were proposed
by the authors for determining optimal design according to the
design principles of steel trusses (Ministry of Housing and Urban-
Rural Development of the People’s Republic of China 2003;
Brockenbrough and Merritt 1999; AASHTO 2010), the forms being
rectangular (RGP), p shape (PSGP), and J shape (JSGP). In addi-
tion, a proof test of three designing schemes for engineering appli-
cations was conducted at Central South University (Hunan, China).
This paper first introduces the background and the design concept
of a SCCT bridge with a double-deck system for such engineering
applications. Nine connection specimens were tested under static
loading to study their mechanical responses in terms of deforma-
tion, failure modes, and stress and strain distribution. Detailed
finite-element (FE) models of the connection specimens were
04016126-2 J. Bridge Eng.
 Fig. 2. Illustration of standard loading
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Fig. 3. RGP specimens (units are millimeters): (a) structural configu- Fig. 4. JSGP specimens (units are millimeters): (a) structural configu-
ration and geometry; (b) components in 3D diagram ration and geometry; (b) components in 3D diagram

further established, and the modeling results after experimental
validation are presented. Such experimental and numerical inves-
tigations of the proposed joint forms for SCCT bridges may pro-
vide a solid reference for design and construction.
Bridge Description
The intercity railway bridge was constructed in the railway line
between Guangzhou and Foshan over the Zhen-Beicun interchange
of the Chencun underground station. Because of the bridge location
in an urban area, line elevation, urban landscape, and construction
noise control had to be taken into consideration. Through compara-
tive study of several design schemes, a composite truss bridge sys-
tem was selected with a span 52.0 m long and 16.65 m wide. The
bridge structural system consisted of a composite prestressed steel–
concrete channel girder as the bottom chord, a rectangular cross
section of steel as the top chord, and steel top bracing and web
members as shown in Fig. 1(a). A Bailey beam support system was
applied in the main girder construction. The bridge deck carried two
ballasted railway tracks, and the structural form of the bottom chord
was a J shape. The main truss system was a triangle truss 9.0 m in
height and 10.0 m in spacing, as shown in Fig. 1(b). The center
thickness of the bridge deck was 0.35 m with a two-way cross slope
of 2% on the top surface, as shown in Fig. 1(c). The standard live
load (ZC) of an intercity railroad in China (Ministry of
Communications of the People’s Republic of China 2014) was 60%
of that specified by the International Union of Railways (UIC) [UIC
776-1R (UIC 1994)]. The dynamic coefficients were 1.03 for con-
crete members and 1.2 for steel. The standard load application of
ZC is shown in Fig. 2. The numbers of perfobond-rib (PBL) shear
connectors were designed based on the AASHTO LRFD bridge
design specifications (AASHTO 2010). It was anticipated that the
bridge would be completed in late 2016, presenting the longest span

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Fig. 5. PSGP specimens (units are millimeters): (a) structural configu-

ration and geometry; (b) components in 3D diagram

and the widest deck for double-track railway bridges in China. The
bridge would also be the first application of such a SCCT structural
system for intercity railway bridges in China.
The structural performance of composite truss bridges depends
largely on the effectiveness of the joints at the interface of the con-
crete composite chord and web members. Therefore, two specific
requirements must be satisfied for the design of such composite
joints: (1) the composite truss joint should have sufficient loading
capacity and ductility, and (2) cracks should not occur in the serv-
iceability state.
In general, composite truss joints may consist of steel web
members, a RC bottom chord, and perfobond-rib (PBL) shear
connectors connecting gusset plates with a concrete chord. Three
composite truss joints (coded RGP, PSGP, and JSGP) specifically
designed for the bridges are shown in Figs. 3–5. In the RGP speci-
mens (Fig. 3), a part of the gusset plate is embedded in a concrete
chord with connection to the concrete using PBL shear connec-
tors. The gusset plate outside the concrete is then used for connec-
tion to the steel web members. In addition, the gusset plate is con-
nected to the web members by M20 high-strength bolts (HST)
and the connecting plates. In the JSGP (Fig. 4) and PSGP (Fig. 5)
specimens, the gusset plate is completely embedded within the
concrete chord member and is connected to the web members by
welding. The gusset plates of PSGP and JSGP have similar out-
line dimensions. The main difference is the number of PBL shear
connections and the assembly approach of the gusset plates, as
indicated in Figs. 4 and 5.
Fig. 6. Gusset plate used in RGP specimens (units are millimeters):
(a) elevation view; (b) cross section
Unlike the PSGP and JSGP specimens, the RGP specimen
uses only high-strength bolts to connect the gusset plate to the
web members on site. This is convenient for construction and
effective for potential future replacement of steel web members.
However, corrosion and maintenance of exposed steel web mem-
bers and gusset plates would need further attention. It has been
reported that PSGP and JSGP specimens can have a similar or
higher ultimate bearing capacity than RGP specimens (Zhou and
He 2012a, b), but transportation constraints due to large geometry
are a challenge.
Experimental Investigations
Specimens
Specimens were designed to study the connection performance
of the joints at the end of the composite truss structures with
maximum forces. The maximum axial force of the actual bridge
is approximately 8,100 kN. Considering the ultimate bearing

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Fig. 7. Gusset plate used in PSGP specimens (units are millimeters):
(a) elevation view; (b) cross section
capacity (5,000 kN) of the reaction wall, and given reliable
results to fully understand the performance of composite joints
in a truss bridge, three forms of composite joint specimens were
reduced to a scale of 1/3 of the actual structure. Nine specimens
were fabricated and prepared to investigate their mechanical
behavior under static loads. For the first batch of specimens
(RGP-1, PSGP-1, and JSGP-1), the thickness of steel truss web
members was 12 mm. This thickness became 22 mm for the sec-
ond (RGP-2, PSGP-2, and JSGP-2) and third (RGP-3, PSGP-3,
and JSGP-3) batches of specimens. Specimen JSGP-3 could not
be assembled and tested because of a manufacturer error; there-
fore, only eight specimens were actually tested in the next sec-
tion. Each joint form had two additional specimens for the sec-
ond and third batches of specimens. The rectangular hollow
truss web members (183
217
12 or 22 mm) with a length of
1,211 mm for the RGP specimens and 1,167 mm for the PSGP
and JSGP specimens were connected to a RC chord (833
517
mm) 3,520 mm in length. In the concrete chord, longitudinal
reinforcing bars 12 mm in diameter and a reinforcing stirrup 8
mm in diameter were installed. Holes were drilled on the gusset
plate to ensure strength of the bond between the concrete and the
plate. Strengthening reinforcements ran through the holes to
form PBL shear connectors, which carried the load transferred
from the chord. For the gusset plates, two steel plates 12 mm in
thickness created by welding several ribbed stiffeners formed
the RGP connection (Fig. 6). Fig. 7 shows the detailed configu-
ration of the PSGP connection with two p -shaped steel plates
(33 mm thick) welded to two ear plates. In the JSGP connection,
as shown in Fig. 8, four J-shaped steel plates 33 mm thick are
welded to four ear plates and installed using 48 high-strength
bolts (M20) and four connecting plates.
© ASCE 04016126-5
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Fig. 8. Gusset plate used in JSGP specimens (units are millimeters):
(a) elevation view; (b) connecting plate; (c) cross section
Materials
Q345 steel was used for the truss web members, connection plates,
and gusset plates. HRB400 steel was used for reinforcing bars and
PBL connectors in the concrete chord. The normal tensile strength
of Q345 and HRB400 steel is 345 and 400 MPa, respectively.
Tensile coupling tests were carried out for the structural steel and
reinforcing bars according to GB/T 228-2010 (Ministry of Housing
and Urban-Rural Development of the People’s Republic of China
2010). As shown in Table 1, the average yield strength, tensile
strength, and Young’s modulus of Q345 steel are 405.0 MPa,
583.0 MPa, and 204.7 GPa, respectively. The average yield
strength, tensile strength, and Young’s modulus of HRB400 steel
are 567.4 MPa, 627.8 MPa, and 202.5 GPa, respectively. The ma-
terial properties of the concrete (C50) were obtained by testing
standard cubes (150
150
150 mm) after 28 days of curing, and
the normal compressive strength of concrete for the test specimens
was 50 MPa. The average compressive strength and Young’s mod-
ulus of the cubes are 53.0 MPa and 32.6 GPa, respectively.
Experimental Setup and Instrumentation
The experimental setup is shown in Fig. 9. A ground-anchored
groove and reaction wall were used for loading purposes. To ensure
axial movement of the specimen (in the horizontal direction) during
the loading process, vertical bracings with a lateral pulley device
were provided at both ends of the chord, as shown in Fig. 9. A
5,000-kN jack was used to apply load horizontally at one end of the
J. Bridge Eng.
 Table 1. Mechanical Properties of Materials

Member Material Es or Ec (GPa) fy (MPa) fu or fcu (MPa) vs or vc

Chord C50 32.6 N/A 53 0.2
Gusset plate, ear plate Q345qE 203 420 607 0.3
Web Q345qE 205 420 607 0.3
Connection plate Q345qE 206 375 535 0.3
Rebar HRB400 202 556 603.1 0.285
PBL shear connector HRB400 203 578.7 652.4 0.285
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Fig. 9. Experimental setup

concrete chord. To achieve better uniform stress distribution at the
loading location, a 40-mm-thick steel plate was installed there.
Before testing, preloading was conducted to make sure that all
instrumentation functioned well. Testing was then started under a
load-control mode with multistep loading scheme. When the load
was within the range of 0–2,000 kN, a loading step of 400 kN was
adopted. When the load was within 2,000–3,000 kN, the loading
step was 200 kN. When the load was further increased to above
3,000 kN, the loading step was reduced to 100 kN. Many strain
gauges (e.g., G1) and rosettes (e.g., R1) were bonded to the concrete
chord, gusset plates, and tensile or compressive web member, as
shown in Fig. 10. The strain rosette consisted of three strain gauges
at 0, 45, and 90°. The loading for each load step lasted for approxi-
mately 2 min, and the data-acquisition system collected data at each
loading step. Considering the bearing capacity (5,000 kN) of the
reaction wall, the maximum horizontal loading capacity in the tests
was 4,700 kN.
Experimental Results
Load-Displacement Relationship
The relationship between load and horizontal displacement of the
tested specimens is presented in Fig. 11. The displacement increases
linearly along with the applied load from the beginning to a certain
loading level. For RGP specimens, as shown in Fig. 11(a), the three
curves show a similar trend up to approximately 3,000 kN. RGP-1
began to yield when the load increased to 3,200 kN, and its capacity
was therefore assessed as 3,500 kN. In comparison to RGP-1 with a
thickness of 12 mm for the web member, specimens RGP-2 and
RGP-3, with thicker web members (22 mm), had higher ultimate
capacities close to 4,500 kN. A turning point was also observed in
the load-displacement curve of RGP-3 at approximately 3,200 kN,
when the load suddenly decreased to 2,400 kN. This occurred
mainly because of failure of the bolted friction.
Specimens with JSGP and PSGP exhibited similar trends, as
shown in Fig. 11(b and c). Again, specimens JSGP-2, PSGP-2, and
PSGP-3, having a thicker web member (22 mm), demonstrated a
higher load capacity than specimens JSGP-1 and PSGP-1, with a
lower web member thickness of 12 mm. The latter showed a clear
yielding stage at a load level of 3,500 kN. The maximum load
capacity of JSGP-2, PSGP-2, and PSGP-3 was above 4,500 kN, and
their load-displacement curves appeared still in the elastic stage. No
obvious buckling was observed in specimens JSGP-2, PSGP-2, and
PSGP-3, for which loading was stopped manually because of the
capacity limitation of the reaction wall.
Table 2 shows the characteristic loads during the experiments,
including cracking, yielding, and ultimate loads. The minimum
value for the ratio of yielding to design load (Ny/Ns) was 2.65

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Fig. 10. Instrumentation for strain gauges and dial gauges (units are millimeters): (a) RGP specimens; (b) PSGP or JSGP specimens; (c) RGP gusset
plate; (d) JSGP gusset plate; (e) PSGP gusset plate

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Fig. 11. Load-displacement curves: (a) RGP specimens; (b) JSGP specimens; (c) PSGP specimens

Table 2. Major Experimental Characteristics for Steel–Concrete Table 3. Structural Stiffness of Connection Specimens
Composite Joint Specimens
Specimen EI (
104 kN/m)
Characteristic load
RGP-1 11.84
Specimen Nc (kN) Nc/Ns Ny (kN) Ny/Ns Nu (kN) Nu/Ns Nu/Ny RGP-2 14.47
RGP-1 N/A N/A 3,200 3.54 3,500 3.87 1.09 RGP-3 14.51
RGP-2 N/A N/A 3,400 3.76 4,200 4.64 1.24 JSGP-1 12.59
RGP-3 N/A N/A 3,400 3.76 4,500 4.97 1.32 JSGP-2 18.00
JSGP-1 N/A N/A 2,500 2.76 3,500 3.87 1.40 PSGP-1 19.12
JSGP-2 2,000 2.21 4,200 4.64 >4,700 >5.19 >1.12 PSGP-2 25.15
PSGP-1 N/A N/A 2,400 2.65 3,500 3.87 1.46 PSGP-3 28.82
PSGP-2 3,500 3.87 3,400 3.76 >4,700 >5.19 >1.38
PSGP-3 4,100 4.53 3,900 4.31 >4,700 >5.19 >1.21 Load-Strain Curves
Note: Nc = cracking load; Ns = design load (907 kN); Ny and Nu = yield Strain gauges were arranged on the surface of the concrete chord, as
and ultimate loads, respectively. shown in Fig. 10. The average strain results of each section of the
concrete chord are depicted in Fig. 12. Section I was under axial
(Specimen PSGP-1), and the minimum value for the ratio of ulti- load, and the strains at that location in all specimens had maximum
mate load to design load (Nu/Ns) was 3.87. With the increase in values ranging from –441 to –188 m « . Gauging points in Section II
thickness of the truss members from 12 mm (the first batch of speci- were associated with the tensile web member. The value of this
mens) to 22 mm (the second and third batches of specimens), the section was obviously lower than that of Section I, from –188 to –
yield and ultimate loads increased accordingly, and the ratio of ulti- 101 m « for Specimen JSGP-1, as an example. The average strains
mate load to yield load (Nu/Ny) improved from 1.09 to 1.32 for of Section III, located at the center of the concrete chord, were
Specimens RGP-1 and RGP-3 as examples. Thus, a thicker web close to 0. The average strains of Sections IV and V were less
plate provides greater assurance that yielding will be the controlling than 6100 m « . The rapid decrease in the average strain of the
failure mechanism. concrete chord along the loading direction and the increase in the
The joint stiffness (EI) was determined as the yielding load over strain of the PBL shear connectors with increasing load [e.g., for
the corresponding displacement, and the results are shown in Specimen RGP, as shown in Fig. 12(d)] suggest that the horizon-
Table 3. These results indicate that joint stiffness was improved with tal load was effectively transferred from the concrete chord to the
the increase in the thickness of web members from 12 to 22 mm. For gusset plate by the PBL shear connectors.
example, joint stiffness increased from 11.84
104 kN/m in Strain rosettes consisting of three strain gauges at 0, 45, and 90°
Specimen RGP-1 to 14.51
104 kN/m in Specimen RGP-3. were installed on the steel web members (Fig. 10). Fig. 13 shows

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Fig. 12. Strain results measured from RC concrete: (a) RGP specimens; (b) JSGP specimens; (c) PSGP specimens; (d) strain results of PBL shear
connectors of RGP specimens

Fig. 13. Load-strain curves of steel web members: (a) RGP specimens; (b) JSGP specimens; (c) PSGP specimens

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Fig. 14. Load-stress curves of gusset plates: (a) T20 of RGP specimens; (b) T10 of RGP specimens; (c) JSGP specimens; (d) PSGP specimens
the corresponding strain results, which indicate noticeable yield
platforms for Specimens RGP-1, JSGP-1, and PSGP-1 at approxi-
mately 3,200 kN. After that, strain begins to increase rapidly as the
load sustained increases, with local buckling of the web members
under compression. The maximum strain value for Specimen JSGP-
2 was –2,293 m « , as identified from Fig. 13(b), which was slightly
greater than the yield strain (–2,039 m« ), suggesting that the web
members of these specimens were still within their elastic stage. A
rapid decrease in strain can be seen in Fig. 13(a) for Specimen RGP-
3 at approximately 3,200 kN (corresponding to 80–95% of the yield
load). This phenomenon was caused mainly by the failure of bolted
friction, which was also observed in the load and displacement
[Fig. 11(a)] response described previously. Nevertheless, the curve
slope of Specimen RGP-3 did not change after this failure.
Fig. 14 presents the load–Mises stress (s s) curves of the gusset
plates of all tested specimens with the layouts of the strain gauge
positions shown in Figs. 10(c–e). According to the results from
material testing, the steel yield and ultimate stress were 420 and
607 MPa, respectively. For the parts of the gusset plate embedded
in the concrete chord, Figs. 14(b–d) show that the maximum stress
value of those embedded gusset plates was 196 MPa for Specimen
PSGP-3, which is still within its elastic stage. However, a yield
platform of exposed gusset plates of RGP specimens was
observed from Strain Gauge T20 [Fig. 14(a)] at approximately
3,800 kN for Specimen RGP-2 and 4,200 kN for Specimen
RGP-3. Furthermore, the stress value at Strain Gauge T20 reached
(>2,000 MPa) beyond the ultimate value of steel (607 MPa) when
© ASCE 04016126-10
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the load approached ultimate bearing capacity (approximately
4,500 kN). This occurred mainly because of the stress concentra-
tion at such locations.
Experimental Observations and Failure Modes
As expected, the first batch of specimens failed with obvious buck-
ling deformation formed in the web members. In Specimens RGP-2
and RGP-3, buckling and fracturing at the junction between the gus-
set plate and the compression web member were identified after the
loading. The failure modes of three specimens (JSGP-2, PSGP-2,
and PSGP-3) from the second batch were familiar, mainly including
concrete failure with cracks in the joint zone. The failure procedures
and modes are shown in Table 4 and Figs. 15–17 for Specimens
RGP, JSGP, and PSGP, respectively.
In the RGP specimens, during the initial stage of loading, no no-
ticeable deformation of steel was observed. When the imposed load
reached 80–95% of the yield load, high-strength bolts lost friction
and produced a loud noise because of the relative displacement
between the gusset plate and web members. When the imposed load
exceeded 90% of the ultimate bearing capacity, local buckling of
the plates of the web members of RGP-1 was noticed, and large
fracture deformation could also be observed at the gusset plates of
Specimens RGP-2 and RGP-3. At the maximum load, the measured
maximum fracture distance was approximately 20 mm, and no con-
crete cracking was observed in the loading process for Specimens
RGP-1, RGP-2, and RGP-3.
J. Bridge Eng.
 In the JSGP joint specimens, no perceptible deformation was
observed until 3,100 kN. After that, slight outward buckling of the
compressive truss members was observed [e.g., in Specimen
JSGP-1, as shown in Fig. 16(a)]. Specimen JSGP-1 lost all bear-
ing capacity due to instability when the load was increased to
3,500 kN. Crack initiation, distribution, and propagation on the
surface of the concrete chord were recorded after 2,000 kN and
first in Section III, as shown in Figs. 16(b and c) for Specimen
JSGP-2, where the corresponding load level and cracking loca-
tions are indicated. The cracks developed slowly, and the width
of all the cracks was quite small, with the maximum value less
than 0.40 mm. Moreover, almost all of the cracks closed after
unloading.
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Specimens PSGP-2 and PSGP-3. Fig. 17(c) shows that the first con-
crete crack occurred in Specimen PSGP-2 at approximately 3,800
kN, which was larger than that in Specimen JSGP-2 (at 2,000 kN).
The number of cracks and their lengths also appeared less than those
in Specimen JSGP-2. All of the crack widths were small and virtu-
ally closed after unloading. The maximum crack width was not
greater than 0.3 mm.
FE Modeling
Material Models
The concrete damaged plasticity model and Willam-Warnke five-

In the PSGP joint specimens, the failure modes and the experi-
mental observations were similar to those in the JSGP specimens, parameter failure criteria in Abaqus (SIMULIA 2003) were used in
i.e., compressive web members showed local buckling in Specimen the FE modeling for the concrete. The relevant parameters used for
PSGP-1, and concrete failure with cracks was observed in this material model are defined according to Ding et al. (2011).
Those parameters were also validated by experimental results in
Ding et al. (2011), in which the adopted stress-strain relationships
of concrete in compression and tension are applicable for concrete,
with strength ranging from 20 to 140 MPa.
An elastic-plastic model, considering von Mises yielding cri-
teria, Prandtl-Reuss flow rule, and isotropic strain hardening,
was used to describe the constitutive behavior of the steel. The
corresponding stress-strain relationship is defined as follows:
8
>
> Es ɛi ɛi  ɛy
<
fs ɛy < ɛi  ɛst
si ¼ (1)
>
> f þ 0:46%Es ðɛi  ɛst Þ ɛst < ɛi  ɛu
: s
fu ɛi > ɛu

where s i = equivalent stress of steel; fs = yield strength; fu = ulti-

mate strength with a value of 1.5fs; Es = elastic modulus with a value
of 2.06
105 MPa; Est = hardening modulus, defined as 0.46% of
Es; « L = equivalent strain; « y = yield strain; « st = hardening strain
with a value of 12« y; and « u = ultimate strain, which is described by
« u = « st þ 0.5 fs/(0.46% of Es), where « u = 120« y.

Fig. 15. Failure modes observed for RGP specimens: (a) local buck-
ling of steel web member; (b) fracture of gusset plate
FE Modeling
FE models were established using Abaqus (SIMULIA 2003) to
simulate the mechanical responses of the specimens, as shown in
Fig. 18. UX, UY, and UZ are the displacements along the corre-
sponding direction, respectively. UR1 is the x-axis rotate, and
UR2 is the y-axis rotate. Eight-node reduced integral format 3D
solid elements (C3D8R) were used to model the concrete chord,
joint plate, ear plate, PBL shear connectors, and web members.
The longitudinal bars were modeled by 3D linear truss elements
(T3D2). Eight-node 3D conforming elements (C3D8I) were
adopted for the bolts. Meshing technology including structured
and sweep mesh (SIMULIA 2003) was used in the model. The

Table 4. Failure Procedures and Modes of Specimens

Specimen Failure procedures and modes

RGP-1 Failure of bolted friction (2,600 kN) ! local bucking of the compressive web member (3,500 kN)
RGP-2 Failure of bolted friction (2,800 kN) ! fracture at the gusset plates (4,200 kN)
RGP-3 Failure of bolted friction (3,200 kN) ! fracture at the gusset plates (4,500 kN)
JSGP-1 Local bucking of the compressive web members (3,500 kN)
JSGP-2 Concrete cracking (from 2,000 to 4,600 kN)
PSGP-1 Local bucking of the compressive web members (3,500 kN)
PSGP-2 Concrete cracking (from 3,500 to 4,600 kN)
PSGP-3 Concrete cracking (from 4,100 to 4,600 kN)

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Fig. 16. Failure modes observed for JSGP specimens: (a) local buck-
ling of steel web member; (b) concrete cracking of JSGP-2; (c) cracking
loads and pattern
mesh size of the concrete chord was 50 mm, that of the joint plate
was 25 mm, and that of the web members was 20 mm.
To simulate welding between steel web members and ear
plates, and between ear plates and gusset plates, the constraint
type was all ties. Because tie constraint can couple six degrees
of freedom between two separate surfaces so that no relative
motion occurs between them, PBL shear connectors were em-
bedded into the concrete. The nodal translational degrees of
freedom for the PBL connectors were coupled with the nodes of
solid elements of the concrete to allow the PBL connectors and
solid elements of the concrete to work together. Embedded con-
straints were also implemented to model the constraint between the
concrete chord and the longitudinal rebars. Bond-slip between the
reinforcement bars and concrete was neglected. In the FE models,
friction between connecting plates and gusset plates, bolts and con-
necting plates, and bolts and web members was taken into consid-
eration, and the friction coefficient was taken as 0.5 as an empirical
value.
© ASCE 04016126-12
J. Bridge Eng., 04016126
Fig. 17. Failure modes observed for PSGP specimens: (a) local buck-
ling of steel web member; (b) concrete cracking of PSGP-2; (c) crack
development process of PSGP-2
Comparison and Discussion of Results
The failure modes identified from FE modeling are presented
in Fig. 19(a) for Specimen RGP-2 and in Fig. 19(b) for
Specimen RGP-1. The resulting slippage failure and local
buckling are well supported by the experimental observations
shown in Fig. 15. Fig. 11 compares the load-displacement curves
from FE and experimental results, indicating good agreement.
The yield point calculated from FE modeling was slightly higher
than the experimental result for Specimen JSGP-1. This was
presumably because the gaps between assembly parts (such as
gusset plates and concrete chord) were not taken into account.
According to the FE results, the ultimate bearing capacity of
Specimen PSGP-2 was approximately 5,800 kN when ear plate
failure occurred, and that for Specimen JSGP-2 was approxi-
mately 5,300 kN.
von Mises stress contours of the gusset plates under the maxi-
mum load are shown in Fig. 20 for the first and second batches of
specimens. It can be seen that the stress levels of the parts of the
gusset plates embedded in the concrete chord were low (less than
200 MPa) for all tested specimens. The stress contours present a
layered distribution, and the stress values show a gradual
decrease along the direction of loading. The maximum stress is
located in the junction between the web members and gusset
plate, as shown in Fig. 20(b), as a result of stress concentration
there. More specifically, in the RGP specimens, the maximum
stress value was 353 MPa for RGP-1 (less than the yield stress of
420 MPa, still within the elastic stage). In Specimen RGP-2, the
maximum stress value in the junction between the web members
and gusset plate exceeded the ultimate strength (607 MPa) of the
gusset plate, leading to failure of the gusset plate, consistent with
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Fig. 18. FE models of connection specimens: (a) RGP specimens;
(b) JSGP or PSGP specimens
the experimental results [Fig. 14(a)]. Specimens JSGP and PSGP
showed similar stress distributions [Figs. 20(c–f)]. Local stress
concentration appeared in the ear plate where the section thick-
ness changed from 30 to 12 mm and the maximum stress value
reached approximately 470 MPa. Similar stress levels occurred in
Specimens JSGP-1 and PSGP-1 and in Specimens JSGP-2 and
PSGP-2. However, they were associated with different ultimate
bearing capacities (i.e., 3,500 kN for Specimen PSGP-1 and
5,800 kN for Specimen PSGP-2). This result demonstrates that
the increase in thickness of the web members from 12 to 22 mm
improved the ultimate bearing capacity by achieving full capacity
of the gusset plates.
Conclusions
The connection performance of SCCT bridge structures was inves-
tigated through experimental studies and FE modeling. Three con-
nection forms were examined through nine scaled specimens.
Failure modes, load capacity, and stress and strain distribution were
obtained for evaluation of the mechanical performance of the con-
nections and their structural safety. The following conclusions can
be drawn from this work:
1. Experimental results indicated satisfactory performance of
the connection specimens under static loading. In the nine
© ASCE 04016126-13
J. Bridge Eng., 04016126
Fig. 19. Failure modes indicated by FE results: (a) fracture of gusset
plates; (b) local buckling of steel web members
tested specimens, the experimental cracking load was at
least 2.21 times the design load, and the ultimate load was
at least 3.87 times the design load. Given the same design
parameters, the PSGP and JSGP specimens showed higher
load capacity, joint stiffness, and ductility than the RGP
specimens.
2. In the experiments, a noise was heard when the load reached
80–95% of the yield load for the RGP specimens, as a result of
the failure of bolted friction. The minimum cracking load was
2.21 times the design load (907 kN), indicating that no concrete
cracks occurred in the serviceability stage. The experimental
results further indicated that the thickness of steel web members
played an important role in the ultimate load capacity.
Meanwhile, a thicker web plate provides greater assurance that
yielding will be the controlling failure mechanism. When the
thickness was increased from 12 mm in the first batch of speci-
mens to 22 mm in the second and third batches, the joint stiffness
improved by at least 23%.
3. FE models of the connection specimens showed satisfactory
agreement with the experimental results for the observed fail-
ure modes and load-displacement responses. The validated FE
results further clarified the locations of stress concentration.
Such stresses could lead to steel yielding and further failure at
the junction between the gusset plate and web members in RGP
specimens.
4. On the basis of the experimental results and FE analysis, the
decrease in the average strain of the concrete chord along the
loading direction and the increase in the strain of PBL shear
connectors with the increase in load indicated that the PBL
shear connectors could transfer loads effectively.
Acknowledgments
This research was financially supported by the National Natural
Science Foundation of China (Grants 50908230 and 51578548)
and the Innovative Research Project in Central South University
(Grant 2016zzts071).
J. Bridge Eng.
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Fig. 20. Von Mises stress contours for gusset plates (units are pascals): (a) Specimen RGP-1; (b) Specimen RGP-2; (c) Specimen JRGP-1;
(d) Specimen JRGP-2; (e) Specimen PSGP-1; (f) Specimen PSGP-2

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Fig. 20. (Continued.)

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