JAPANESE OCCUPATION

From Colonizer to Liberator: How U.S. Colonialism Succeeded in reinventing itself After the Pacific War
Key Terms:
Colonizer- a country that sends settlers to a place and establishes political control over it.
Liberation- the act of setting someone free from imprisonment, slavery, or oppression; release.
(Liberator-person)
Guerilla- a member of a small independent group taking part in irregular fighting, typically against larger
regular forces.
Acculturated- taking in a different culture, typically the dominant one
Topic Outline:
 The Colonization of the United States of America
 The Pacific War and Japanese occupation
 Liberation: The return of the Americans
 Independence of the Republic of the Philippines

THE COLONIZATION OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

Treaty of Paris (1998) -Spain sold Philippines to America for 20 million dollars.
1902 Kahapon, ngayon at Bukas -Filipino plavwright Aurelio Tolentino, in his 1902 allegorical play
Kahapon Ngayon at Bukas, satirizes the new colonizers through his characters, Bagongsibol, Malaynatin
at Haringbata.
In 1934 -The U.S. Senate legislated the Philippine colony into a Commonwealth.

THE PACIFIC WAR AND JAPANESE OCCUPATION

1941
 The Pacific War broke out and Filipinos spent three years of the transition period under the
Japanese imperial forces
 driven out the Americans under Gen. Douglas MacArthur
 nationwide guerrilla movement
Three Years without God
 lived in fear, hunger and instability
 “Evacuate”
 Extreme economic hardships
Political Repression
 Incarceration, torture and execution
 Takeover of private property
LIBERATION: THE RETURN OF THE AMERICANS
20 October 1944 - In a dramatic radio address, MacArthur announced, "People of the Philippines, I have
returned!
The Liberation
 the return of the colonizing forces was seen as “liberation” rather than a return to captivity
 given the agony Filipinos had had to endure under the Japanese, this transformed the return of
the colonial power into a liberator
Acculturated as Westerners by American popular culture
 Movies, magazines, comic books, phonograph records, and even candy bars
 American customs, food, fashion, and entertainment
Sergio Osmeña and Manuel Roxas
  Not quite happy with the performance of Sergio Osmefia, MacArthur picked his friend Manuel
Roxas to be the next leader
 Roxas rode on it to victory over Osmefia
 Roxas would pay back MacArthur
 Our safest course and I believe it true for the rest of the world as well, is in the glistening wake
of America whose sure advance with mighty prow breaks for smaller craft the waves of fear. "
 of Commodore Julius C. Edelstein of the U.S. Navy was Roxas's speech writer.

INDEPENDENCE OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES

July 4, 1946
 Recognition of the independence of the Republic of the Philippines
 Relinquishment of the American Rule
 Manuel Roxas as the president of the Republic of the Philippines
Philippine Civil Affairs Unit (PCAU) -functioned as a relief agency that extended help, in the form of
foodstuffs and medicine
Counter-Intelligence Corps (CIC)
 unit that saw to security matters.
 it was the body tasked with ascertaining the political acceptability
 jurisdiction over prisoners charged with the crime of collaboration
Bell Trade Relations Act -which provided for free trade relations between the United States and the
Philippines
Tydings Rehabilitation Act -which set aside $620 million to defray the cost of rebuilding infrastructure
destroyed by the war
Manipulatory Politics
 Political maneuvering was to be pursued in the subsequent cases of Philippines-American
relations.
 Administration of President
 President Elpido Quirino Administration- unable to suppress the Communist insurgency
 Appointing of Ramon Magsaysay as Secretary of National Defense
 Myron Cowen, Leland Hobbs, Edward Lansdale
1950
 the morale of the army was high and with improved intelligence work
 succeeded in capturing the top leaders of the Hukbalahap movement and of the Partido
Komunista ng Pilipinas
 Magsaysay was on his way to achieving the status of a living hero
1953
 Magsaysay ran against Elpidio Quirino and won a landslide victory of 69 percent of the total
number of votes cast.
 steadfast pro American stance in the ideological standoff between that country and the Soviet
Union
Cold War
 cornered the Philippines into taking the side of the United States
 The Chinese Revolution advancement
Committee on Anti-Filipino Activities (CAFA)
 were aimed at intellectuals who might pursue the left path of the dead and jailed membership
of the Hukbalahap and of the Partido Komunista ng Pilipinas.
 counterpart of McCarthy's House Un—American Activities Committee (HUAC)
1957 Anti -Subversion Act
 was passed by Congress and it succeeded in planting enough fear among university intellectuals
to keep them quiet.
 Intellectual suppression was abetted by one's religious affiliation
CIC as protector -asserted itself vis-ä vis the United States' efforts to keep the Philippines within its circle
of allies
Popular Images of America
 the title of a conference in Honolulu, Hawaii, where a paper on the images of America
 1946 and 1961, America was perceived as friend, ally, and liberator
 1961 onward, the stories began to reflect the sentiments of nationalist activists
 1946 stories, the return of the Americans was much awaited was greeted with joy
 1951 America was seen as a place where Filipinos could obtain a liberating education
 1966, the positive image of America was being viewed through more realistic eyes, with
allusions to colonial mentality
 1971, the depiction of America had begun to reflect a certain degree of politicization
among the writers
CREATION OF MEDIA
 Commercial television 1953
- the shows it brought into Filipino households came mainly from the United States
 Print form
- glossy magazines and fashion and mail—order catalogues
 1960
- an American resident opened a television station and hosted a live children's program.
- Uncle Bob.
 Jesuit Fr. James B. Reuter
- who introduced many pioneer Filipino practitioners of the craft to drama production
 Radio
- introduced Joan Page to Filipino audiences as a pert American girl who was to endear
herself to listeners as a comedian
 Tagalog films.
- At a time when a written screenplay was a rarity in the Philippine movie industry, an
American by the name of Rolf Bayer found a special niche in Tagalog films
- Lamberto V. Avellana
 Fr. John Delaney, S.J.
- was not a media man, but his presence in the pulpit as an American commanded attention
 1940s and the 1950s - Music
- were years of unrelenting Americanization in Philippine society
- Music played over the radio
- Jo Stafford, Perry Como, Bing Crosby, Frank Sinatra, Nat King Cole, Doris Day, and Elvis
Presley
 Movie houses
- reserved exclusively for the exhibition of American movies, with only two first—run theaters
showing Tagalog films
- John Wayne, Errol Flynn, Tyron ? Power, Audrey Hepburn, Grace Kelly, Doris Day, Sandra
Dee, and in later times, James Dean and Marlon Brando
- The culture that enshrined Americans as saviors and protectors in the imagination of Filipino
moviegoers grew out of the "gratitude" implied in postwar films
 1946
- eight movies produced by the revived local film industry
- So Long, America, I'll Be Seeing You, Everywhere, Victory Joe, Honeymoon, Hanggang Pier
(No Farther than the Pier)
 Movies glorifying the heroism of Filipino
- Showcasing Filipino guerrillas who fought side by side with American soldiers in the final
showdown with the Japanese
- Death March, The Voice of Freedom, Maynila and Intramuros
National identity formation in a Philippine public elementary school (1982—1983)
- A study by a doctoral student, Maria Luisa Canieso—Doronila
- may serve as a gauge of the ravages visited on the-sensibility of-young
- expose the colonial character of the Philippine educational system that had only served to
make young Filipinos want to be, first, American, and second, Japanese. To be Filipino was
only a third choice.
TEST OF WILLS DIPLOMACY BETWEEN JAPAN AND LAUREL GOVERNMENT

October 1943 - Japan decided to grant the archipelago the “honor of Independence”, after pushing for a
constitution and the establishment of a government under President Jose P. Laurel.

 Although the Second World War was still on, the Japanese Military Forces continued to occupy
the Philippines and controlled its key sources.

December 8, 1941 - The outbreak of the Second World War ended, what was called the peacetime by
those who experienced the war.

 Before the war, the Philippines had been promised independence by the United States and had
entered a transitional government phase known as the Philippine Commonwealth.

RELATIONS UNDER MILITARY ADMINISTRATION

January 2, 1942 - Japan's military advanced into the Philippines was initially shift with Manila, taken by
its forces.

 One of the priorities of the Japanese military officers was to establish a local administrative
body staffed with Filipinos.

Maj. Gen. Maeda Masami

 Chief of staff of the Japanese 14th Army (who had been in the Philippines as an agent in the
1920s).
 Together with some prayer word diplomatic officials such as Consul Nihro, Katsumi and Kihara
Jitaro, they approached power Filipino officials.

Philippine Executive Commission - was formed by the Filipino commonwealth officials who had
remained in Manila.

The relationship between the Japanese military administration and the Philippine Executive Commission
was a superior- inferior relationship.

Murata Shozo - A civilian advisor, was assigned to the Japanese occupation Army to serve as a balance
to the military character of the Japanese military administration.

Marquis Tokugawa Yorisada - head of the Philippine Association of Japan.

THE DECISION FOR INDEPENDENCE

October 1943 - The independence that Japan granted the Philippines in this year was subject to many
conditions.

The Japanese decision to end dependence to the Philippines sprang from various motives:

1. To show the world Japan's benevolence.

2. To win the loyalty of the Filipinos, who the Japanese realized had fought for independence for
so long; and
3. To transfer to Filipino hands, the witty-gritty of administration, while maintaining the Japanese
military presence and control of strategic resources.

January 21, 1942 - Prime Minister General Tojo Hideki announced to the Japanese Diet that if
the Filipinos came to understand Japan's real intentions and cooperated sincerely with Japan.
Nippon will gladly enable them to enjoy the honor of independence.

PREPARING FOR INDEPENDENCE

May 5, 1943 - General Tojo visited Manila without prior notice. In order to inspect the condition of
Japanese forces and the military administration in the Philippines. Tojo said that Japan will only give
independence if there is peace and order.
Central Pacification Committee - This was created with Laurel as head. To show its strength and make a
mockery of the Japanese sponsored move, the markings guerrillas attempted to assassinate Laurel as he
played at the Wack Wack Golf Course. He was shot and wounded.

June 16, 1943 - Tojo announced to the 82nd Japanese Diet: “juncture we wish to go a step further and
declare that we will accord the owner of independence to the Philippines in the course of the current
year”.

DEBATE OVER THE CONSTITUTION

Lt. Gen. Kuroda Shigenori

 Commander in chief of the Japanese Army in the Philippines.

 He ordered the creation of a Preparatory Commission for Philippine Independence (PCPI). Laurel
was the elected president of the PCPI.

June 19, 1943 - A massive gratitude rally was held at the Luneta urged on by the Japanese to manifest
the gratitude of Filipino people at Tojo’s assurance that Japan would grant independence to the
Philippines within the year.

Col. Utsonomiya Nokata

 chief of the General Affairs Bureau of the Military Administration and assigned to liaison with
the PCPI.
 Ordered the PCP I to draft a constitution under the guiding principle that “The new Philippines
will, as an integral and organic unit of the Greater East Asia Co-prosperity sphere, contribute to
the creation of a new world order based on moral justice”.

August 1, 1943 - Burma was declared independent by Japan. The fact that Burma was granted this honor
before the Philippines was embarrassing to military administration in the Philippines, which then pushed
harder for independence.

Jose Yulo – a member of the PCPI tried to keep out anything specifically anti- American in the
constitution.

Manuel Roxas - suggested that only the PCPI President and Secretary signed the documents as the final
sign of recalcitrance.

September 25, 1943. The National Assembly was chosen and it elected Laurel as the President of the
Philippines.

THE REPUBLIC INAUGURATED, PACT OF ALLIANCE FORGED

October 14, 1943 - The Japanese declared the Philippines Independent and announced the withdrawal
of the Japanese military Administration, which governed the Philippines since January 1942.

 In the ceremonies held in front of the legislative building, the military administration was
officially terminated and the Philippines was proclaimed independent.
 The Japanese flag was lowered and the Philippine flag was hoisted to the tune of the Philippine
national anthem (which had been banned since 1942).
 The national symbols: Flag, Anthem, the government, and technically recognition by some
countries.

Claro M. Recto – became the minister of foreign affairs.

Although the Japan had publicly declared the Philippines Independent, they made sure that the
Philippines was still tide to Japan.

The Pact of Alliance has three articles:

I. There shall be between the high contracting parties, perpetual relocations of good neighbors
and amity, on the basis of mutual respect of sovereignty and territories.
II. The high contracting parties shall closely cooperate on matters, political, economic and military
for the successful prosecution of the World of Greater Asia.
III. The high contradicting parties shall closely cooperate with each other for the establishment of
Greater Asia.

On October 20,1943
 - National Assembly in its first act, created the Ministry of Foreign Affairs
- Recto had been appointed Minister the day before
- Emilio Abello was appointed Vice Minister of Foreign Affairs

On October 25

- Vargas erstwhile chairman of the Executive Commission, was appointed Ambassador

Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary of the Philippines to Japan

Recto as foreign minister gave speeches on various occasions as befitting his role. He spoke on Greater
East Asia War Day (December 8), Kigen Setsu (Japan’s Foundation Day, 11 February), and other official
Japanese holidays

- Recto on his appointment said that the “Philippine nation” was young and weak

Other officials of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs were appointed in early 1944. Appointed effective 11
February were Teodoro Evanglista and Querube Makalintal as counsellors Salvador P. Lopez, press
publications officer; Francisco M. Africa, consultant on international cultural relations; Mauro Calingo
and Jesus P. Morfe, secretaries of the ministry

On December 8 1943, Recto was asked to give an address on the air on the occasion of the third
anniversary of the outbreak of the war.

- The Japanese tried to censor his speech, he retorded, “Am I Foreign Minister of a Sovereign
Republic? Yes or No? In the affirmative case, I only recognize as my superior the President of our
Republic.” He was able to deliver the speech as he intended to without censorship
- He was again invited to deliver a speech on the anniversary of the war, he was prevented from
broadcasting when he refused to submit to censorship (A Written speech, however, was
published in the next day’s newspaper)

October 5 1943

- Murata Shozo, previously chief civilian adviser to the Japanese Military Administration, was
officially appointed as Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary of Japan to the Philippines
by the emperor.

October 26

- The embassy formally opened on 26 October, at the former U.S. High Commissioner’s residence

Murata formally presented his credentials to Laurel on the morning of 29 November 1943 – the first
such an event ever happened in Philippine history.

Vargas was appointed ambassador to Tokyo in October 1943

- In a press statement he said that he looked forward to his mission, guided by amity and alliance
between two country. He also looked at himself as the ambassador of goodwill form the Filipino
people to Japanese people

The embassy was opened only on February 10 1944, when Vargas and his staff arrived in Tokyo. Vargas
presented his credentials to the emperors on 29 February 1944

November 1943

- Laurel attended the first inter-Asian conference of heads of state when Japanese invited him
and other Asian leaders to Tokyo for the Greater East Asia Conference
- In the conference, the Philippines and the other Asian countries were accorded the honors of
independent countries

Laurel signed the Joint Declaration was produced for the conference: A declaration which would ensure
the stability of the region; fraternize and respect each other’s independence; enhance the culture and
civilization of Greater East Asia; accentuate economic development in the region; and promote cultural
intercourse.

April 1944
 - Laurel sent a “Gratitude Mission” to Tokyo, headed by Aquino, the Speaker of the National
Assembly. The mission was superficially supposed to thank Japan for the honor of
independence, and thus set Japan at ease regarding Philippine aspirations.
Missions
1. To express to the Japanese emperor the gratitude of all Filipinos for everything Japan had
given the Philippines, especially “political freedom”; and
2. To enable Filipinos to get into closer contact with the Japanese government, develop mutual
understanding, and make Greater East Asia more real.

April 29 1944,

Aquino said that said that the goals of the mission had been successfully achieved, and that the
members of the mission were convinced of Japanese strength, unity, and solidarity.

April 30

- From Tokyo, the group went to Manchukuo, arriving In the capital, Hsingking. The next day the
mission met the emperor and prime minister of Manchukuo.
- The mission noted sad conditions there a stark glimpse of what might happen to the Philippines
if the Japanese were allowed to continue to rule.
- What the mission saw in Manchukuo was not what was described in the published glowing
reports, and presaged what might happen to the Philippines if the Japanese continued to rule.
- Two members of the mission did not join the group to Manchukuo. They were minister of
Finance Antonio de las Alas and the Secretary of the mission, Andres V. Castillo.

In February, an act had been passed authorizing the creation of a central bank. It would handle
finances and could issue money, would remove the dependence on Japanese banks and on the
military money circulated thus far

- Aoki was at first hesitant to allow the printing of new bills, saying that this action would mean
lack of trust in the military money. Eventually, he agreed to the withdrawal of all military bills
and establishment of the bank, provided the bank would supply Japanese banks funds as may
needed by the Japanese in the Philippines.
- With the new pesos, Aoki also conceded to the exchange rate of one yen to one peso.

As the war turned worse for Japan, its demands on the Republic increased. These demands included
labor for constructing airfields and the use of private homes for Japanese troops passing through or
reinforcing the Japanese garrisons in the Philippines.

- Because of the Secret Agreement which stated that the Philippines would provide “all kinds of
facilities for the military actions to be undertaken by Japan”
- “closely collaborate with each other to safeguard the territorial integrity and independence of
the Philippines.
- The system fell apart late in 1944

June 20 1944

- One particular letter from Recto to Lt Gen. Wachi Takaji (Chief of staff of that Japanese
Fourteenth Army). In this letter Recto explained that he wanted to exchange views with
“complete frankness on a subject which, I am sure is as close to your heart as it is to mine
- The question of improving further the relations between the Filipinos and the Japanese,
enhancing Filipino faith in the republic, and strengthening Filipino loyalty to our common use.
- Recto noted that “the importance of the subject is such that continued silence and inaction
would constitute a virtual betrayal of my people’s highest interest as well as the common
interest of your country and mine, a culpable omission to do a necessary though painful duty”.
- Recto said that the Republic had failed to win over the majority of Filipinos. This was not
because the Philippine government was not doing anything; it was the actions of the Japanese
soldiers and individual Japanese that caused the lack of trust.

September 21 1944

- U.S carrier-based planes raided Manila for the first time since 1942. This time there was no
evading the declaration of war: The capital of the Republic had been bombed. The Japanese
presented Laurel with a draft statement declaring martial law and emphasized that the
declaration of war could no longer be delayed.
 - Laurel declared martial law and after, discussing the problem with his cabinet, decided to
proclaim a state of war against the United States and its allies. The proclamation of a “state of
war” was but passive recognition of reality, and Laurel quickly clarified that there would be no
conscription of Filipinos.
- No Filipino would be made to fight on the side of Japanese which would gave the proclamation
no practical meaning
- Under martial law, Laurel changed the seven administrative districts created in August into
military districts, with the commissioners becoming military governors.

Laurel and his party left Malacañang of Baguio on December 21 1944. The Japanese left him with
little choice, but Laurel was determined to at least stay on the Philippines soil.

- He wrote a letter to General Yamashita explaining his side should push come to shove; he never
actually delivered it.
- A skeleton government was left in Manila to continue whatever functions it still could preform
- Local governments continued on, facing stronger and stronger Japanese demands, until either
the Japanese withdrew, with the guerillas or the Americans takin over or, the Japanese
retaliated, pushing the people and fighting before the Americans or the guerillas could take
over.
- Despite his desire to stay in the Philippines soil, Laurel was forced by the Japanese to leave for
Japan. Orders from Tokyo insisted that Laurel and his cabinet go to Japan so that there would be
a government in exile.

Laurel, his immediate family and few cabinet ministers, who had volunteered to go, left Baguio for
Tuguegarao and left the Philippines and flew to Japan via Taiwan on 22 March 1945.

- By this time the Commonwealth government had been reestablished in Manila. The second
republic now existed only on paper, and did little while in Japan

When the war ended on 15 August 1945, Laurel still following formal protocol, officially and
formally dissolved the republic on 17 August 1945.

- The Laurel government had tried to use independence, which the Japanese had foisted on the
Philippines as propaganda and a strategic ploy, to push Filipino interest and lessen the hold of
Japan on the Philippines.
- They had limited success because the Japanese military still held all the strings-strategic
economic resources such as fuel, transportation, and communication, weapons and
ammunition.
- Through the Pact of Alliance, the Republic was also tied to Japan and had to allow Japanese
equal rights as Filipinos.
- The Japanese opted to keep the diplomatic front open to strengthen the Laurel administration
and try to show that the Philippines was sovereign. The diplomats, however, were not effective
at controlling the Japanese military even in the country’s capital.

When the war reached the Philippines in the late 1944, diplomacy took a back seat to military
exigencies.

Many of those who had served in the Ministry of Foreign Affairs became active players in Philippine
foreign policy and foreign relations after the war, after they had cleared the charges of collaboration

Laurel became senator after the war was involved in diplomatic negotiations with the Americans
another Countries in 1950s.

Recto became head of the foreign relations committee of the Philippine Senate and lambasted the
mendicant, pro-American stance it was taking in the 1950s

S.P, Lopez became secretary of Foreign AFFAIRS IN THE 1960s, and most of the other wartime
members also saw service with the postwar Department of Foreign Affairs.