1

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 GENERAL

Cold-formed steel (CFS) section is the term used for products which are

made by rolling or pressing thin gauges of steel sheets into goods. CFS goods

are created by the working of thin steel sheets using stamping, rolling or presses

to deform the steel sheets into a proper product which are usable. In the

construction industry of steel, both the structural as well as the non-structural

parts are formed using the thin gauges of steel sheets. The building materials

can be of columns, studs, beams, floor decking, built up sections and other any

parts of the structure.

CFS construction materials differ in many respects than other steel

construction materials like hot rolled steel. The manufacturing of CFS products

occurs at the room temperature with the use of rolling/pressing. The buckling

property is used to analyze the strength of elements. The construction practices

are just like the timber framing where the assembling stud frame using the

screws.

The applications of CFS members includes the buildings, bridges, car

bodies, storage tanks, highway products, railway coaches, transmission towers,

drainage facilities, etc.

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The thin-walled steel members are of having the thicknesses usually

having 0.4 mm to 7 mm. The steel plates and steel bars of thickness 25.4 mm

can be made into the cold formed structural shapes. The yield strength of steel

sheets used in the CFS construction process should be of at least 280MPa as

there is a trend to use the steel sheets of more yield strength.

There is a change in the mechanical properties of steel material due to the

cold working material as it is formed using pressing. The yield strength and

ultimate strength of the steel section which is formed from steel plates/sheets

are increased. The coating of zinc or galvanizing is made to protect the cold-

formed steel sections and this provides the protection against the corrosion in

the environment. The thickness of 0.04 mm coating is usually made for internal

environment. If the moisture is present for a longer period of time then the

thicker coat is provided for more protection.

In comparison to the hot rolled section with the cold rolled sections, CFS

have more moment of inertia and section modulus in x-direction and y-

direction, therefore the load carrying capacity and moment resisting capacity are

higher.
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1.2 ADVANTAGES OF COLD-FORMED STEEL MEMBERS

There are many advantages of the cold-formed steel members as compared to

other members are follows:

1. Members are light in weight.

2. Sections have High strength and stiffness.

3. The erection and installation procedure is very easy.

4. The conventional connection methods like riveting, bolting or welding

can be used.

5. The construction process does not need any kind of formwork.

6. The desired shape and desired length are obtained by prefabrication

process.

7. The transportation cost is lower as the lightweight sections are available.

8. The recycling of this type of material is possible easily.

9. The termite-proof and rot proof sections are prefabricated.

10. As compared to the hot rolled section the greater moment carrying

capacity is possible due to the thinner wall sections

1.3 TYPES OF COLD-FORMED STEEL SECTIONS

Cold-formed steel elements are having types of stiffened or un-stiffened.

The stiffened elements obtained by an element supported by webs along both

longitudinal edges.
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While the un-stiffened element is obtained when the element supported

along any one longitudinal edge only and the other edge can have the

displacement.

The intermittently stiffened element is made by thin element divided into

two or more narrow sub-elements and this is prefabricated by the introducing

intermediate stiffeners in the rolling process.

If the stiffener is adequate then, in that case, the edge stiffened element

will be treated as the local buckling coefficient value of 4.0. While if the edge

found to be inadequate or partially adequate then, in that case, its effectiveness

is disregarded and the element is regarded as un-stiffened.

1.4 LIGHT GAUGE COLUMNS

The light gauge columns and compression members may be made of any

of the cross sections. The light gauge columns and compression members may

also be made of several other shapes.

The classification of column sections done according to whether the

column sections are

a. Composed entirely of stiffened elements,

b. Entirely of un-stiffened elements,

c. Combination of both types of elements.

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1.5 CROSS SECTIONAL DIMENSIONS OF THE SPECIMENS

The various cross sections of the cold formed steel sections like single
channel, built up box and built up I-section are used for in this study.

Built up Box section is formed from two identical lipped channel sections
connected front to front.

In this study, intermediate fasteners were used to connect the flanges of

the front to front channels to form the built up box sections.

Built up I-section is formed from two identical lipped channel sections

are connected back to back.

The columns were tested with fixed ended conditions.

The experimental test comprised of 18 specimens subdivided into two

different columns height: 500mm and 1500 mm.

The following cross sections are used as per IS 811: 1975

Specimen H (mm) B (mm) C (mm) R (mm) T (mm)

Single channel 100 40 10 2.4 1.6

Built up Box section 100 40 10 2.4 1.6

Built up I-section 100 40 10 2.4 1.6

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Fig1: Single Channel section Fig2: Built up box section

Fig3: Built up I- section

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1.6 DIFFERENT FAILURE MODES

The strength of column of thin plates is defined as load carrying capacity of the
member governing by one or combination of following types of failure:

1. Crushing

2. Local buckling of thin plate elements of the section over short length of

column.

3. Over all or primary column buckling by bending in lateral direction over

the unsupported length of the column.

4. Torsional buckling or twisting of the section about a longitudinal axis.

1.7 CRUSHING FAILURE OF COLUMNS

The crushing failure of columns may occur only in very short columns, in

which their slenderness ratio is less than 20.

The thickness of plate elements is such that the local buckling does not

take place the cursing of column starts when the compressive stress becomes

equal to the yield stress of the material.

Generally the crushing failure of light gauge columns and compression

members does not occur.

1.8 LOCAL BUCKLING FAILURE OF COLUMNS

Local buckling is an extremely important phenomenon of cold formed

sections. A thin element may invariably buckle before yield. The pure local
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buckling failure of columns may occur only in very short column for which the

slenderness ratio is more than 20.

The initial local buckling may occur for columns of intermediate length

for which the slenderness ratio varies approximately from 20 to 120, at loads

less than ultimate load.

The final failure of column would occur due to combined effects of local

buckling and overall primary column buckling.

When one edge of the steel plate is free to move while the other edge is

supported then the plate buckles at considerably lower load and the value of ‘K’

reduces to 0.425. This property shows that the plates with the free edges could

not perform properly under local buckling.

To avoid the local buckling of CFS sections, the free edges are provided

with a lip and that will be constrained to remain straight and shall not be able to

free to move.

1.9 TORSIONAL FLEXURAL BUCKLING

In cases, where, the bending and twisting occur simultaneously and where

the shear centre, does not coincide with the centroid, the buckling failure is

actually a combination of torsion and bending.

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It is note that the most probable buckling mode is still that occurring at

the tangent modulus Euler – load because of later bending about the x-or y-axis.

There occur three critical values of axial load; bending about either principal

axis and twisting about the longitudinal axis.

On wide flanges torsional buckling may be important on sections with

extra wide flanges and short lengths.

1.10 EFFECTIVE LENGTH OF LIGHT GAUGE STEEL

COMPRESSION MEMBERS

The effective length of light gauge steel compression members and

columns for different end conditions are same as those for hot rolled steel

sections except for columns fixed at both ends.

For the light gauge columns and compression members, fixed at both

ends the effective length is taken as 0.75 times the actual length.

For the continuous compression chords of trusses with the rigid welded

connections at the panel points, the valued of the effective length to be used

calculating the l/r in the plane of the truss is 0.75 of the distance between the

panel points.

For the compression chords of trusses with the bolted connections, the

effective length shall be taken as the distance between the panel points.
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1.11 OBJECTIVES

 The main objective of this research on experimentally and numerically

investigates axial capacity of cold formed steel section.

 The mechanical testing of metal as per IS 1608: 2005 like Tensile coupon

test and Geometrical Imperfection will be conducted for determine the

Material Properties of the section like Modulus of Elasticity and Yield

stress.

 To estimate the ultimate strength of the section using AISI and IS

Standard.

 To study the behaviour of the cold formed single, built up and composite

compression member is carried out.

 To study the axial – load relationship and possible failure modes of the

members under static loading will be investigated.

 To compare the test result and FEA result with design strength using AISI

and IS standard.
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CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 GENERAL
Significant literatures have been collected to the present study. The

collection of literatures helps in knowing the current research status and state of

knowledge about the project and also it gives more ideas about the types of tests

to be conducted.

2.2 LITERATURE SURVEY

2.2.1 COLD FORMED STEEL BUILT UP I-SECTION

T.A. Stone et al (2005) investigated on Behavior of cold formed

steel built up I sections and to assess the current design provisions of the North

American Specification for the Design of Cold-Formed Steel Structural

Members. Typical applications include framing for windows, doorways, shear

walls, and multi-story cold-formed steel framed buildings in which the lower

floor utilizes built-up studs to carry the load. The built-up studs in this study

consisted of two C-sections oriented back-to-back forming an I-shaped cross-

section. For each specimen, the studs were connected to each other with two

self-drilling screws spaced at a set interval. A cold-formed steel track section

was connected running perpendicular to each end of the built-up stud with a

single self drilling screw through each flange of the C-sections. The purpose of

the track section was to keep the ends of the studs together and represents a
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common end attachment. As a result of the investigation, they are suggested

current design requirements were found to be conservative in predicting the

ultimate capacity of built-up studs.

Ben Young et al (2012) investigated on Compression tests of cold

formed steel I-shaped open sections with edge and web stiffeners and test

specimens were firstly brake-pressed from high strength zinc-coated steel sheets

and then two of the same members were connected back-to-back by self-tapping

screws to form an I-shaped section with edge and web stiffeners. They are

conducted the members had nominal thicknesses of 0.48, 1.0 and 1.2 mm. They

are used different column length of the test specimens varied from 300 to 3200

mm with an increment of approximately 600 mm. The column specimens were

compressed between fixed ends. Tensile coupon tests were also conducted to

obtain the material properties at both flat and corner portions of the sections.

Initial local and overall geometric imperfections were measured. The columns

were failed by local, distortional, flexural buckling and the interaction of these

buckling modes. The failure modes and ultimate strengths of the column

specimens were presented. The direct strength method in the North American

Specification and the Australian/New Zealand Standard was used to calculate

the design strengths of the I-shaped open section columns. The appropriateness

of the direct strength method for I-shaped open sections with edge and web

stiffeners was evaluated. They are investigated the reliability of the direct

strength method for the I-shaped open sections was evaluated using reliability
 13

analysis. It is shown that the direct strength method can be used for cold-formed

steel I-shaped open sections with edge and web stiffeners.

Yuanqi Li et al (2014) investigated on Ultimate load carrying capacity of

cold formed thin walled columns with built up box and I section under axial

compression. They have conducted a series of axially compressed tests on built

up box section members composed of two C- section by self- drilling screws at

flanges are conducted. The difference of global, local and distortional buckling

behaviours between members with built up and single sections are investigated.

They are analyzed the effects of installation error and fastener spacing on

ultimate load carrying capacity of built up members. A strength estimation

method for built up members under axial compression is proposed based on the

experimental investigation as well as some existing experiments and

corresponding numerical analysis. Finally they are predicted capacity obtained

by using the proposed strength estimation method is compared with

experimental result and the nominal axial strength determined according to the

AISI provisions, by which the suitability and accuracy of the proposed strength

estimation method have been established.

Andrei Crisan et al (2014) Calibration of design formula for buckling

strength of built up back to back cold formed steel members in compression and

they are study on Previous research on specimens in compression, made by

Rondal and Niazi (1992, 1993) based on the formulas given by Johnston (1971)
 14

for spaced hot-rolled columns in which the battens (e.g. stitches) are attached to

the chords by hinged connections, have provided recommendations to calculate

the buckling resistance of such cold-formed built-up members; these are the

only existing design recommendations for such specimens. Dubina et al.

(2002b) reconfirmed, via numerical investigations, the analytical formula

proposed by Rondal and Niazzi. In case of members in bending there are no

particular design rules excepting the fact the distances between stitches must be

appropriately sized in order to comply with built-up section conditions. Three

types of back-to-back lipped channel cross-sections will be investigated, e.g. (a)

back-to-back cold-formed steel columns connected with bolts; (b) back-to-back

cold-formed steel columns connected with bolts and gussets; (c) back-to-back

cold formed steel columns connected with bolts, using stitches.

Vijayananda.S et al (2016) study on Effect of spacers on Ultimate

strength and behavior of cold formed steel built up columns and they are

presents the results of a numerical and theoretical study on the cold-formed steel

built-up sections under axial compression, to explore the buckling Behaviour

and ultimate capacity of built-up sections. The built-up sections have been

formed by two identical lipped channels placed back to back connect by using

spacers. The Finite element model is developed by using the ABAQUS

software. They are developed numerical model is verified against the

experimental results published in the literature. After validation, the parametric

study is conducted by varying the overall slenderness, depth, and number of

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spacers. They are suggested that column strength obtained from numerical

analysis are compared with the strength predicted by using the Direct Strength

Method (DSM) and Effective Width Method (EWM) as per North American

Specifications (AISI-S100:2007) for cold-formed steel members.

Yan Lu et al (2017) studied on Experimental Investigation and novel

direct strength method for cold formed built up I section columns. They are

predicted the ultimate strength of the cold-formed built-up I-section columns

affected by local, distortional, global and in particular by the local-distortional

(LD) interactive and local-distortional-global (LDG) interactive buckling

modes. For this purpose, a total of 18 single C-section columns and 18 built-up

I-section columns were tested under uniaxial compression load, respectively.

The cross-sectional dimension, the thickness and the length of the tested

members were varied in the test so as to cover a wide range of local, distortional

and overall slenderness. It was shown in the test that noticeable LD interaction

was observed for a built-up column with short length as well as LDG interaction

for a built-up column with intermediate length. Due to the clear evidence

obtained in the test that LD and LDG interactions cause substantial ultimate

strength erosion in cold-formed built-up I-section column, a novel direct

strength based method was proposed in this paper to quantify such an erosion

effect. The validity of the proposed method was then verified by comparing the

results obtained from the proposed method with the test results in this paper as

well as several other test results in the literature. The comparison results proved
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that the proposed method can be used successfully in estimating the ultimate

strength of cold-formed built-up I-section column affected by pure buckling

mode as well as interactive buckling mode.

K. Roy et al (2017) studied on effect of screw spacing on behaviour of

axially loaded back to back cold formed steel built up channel sections and

tested 30 experimental result of CFS channel built up columns. According to

experimental test they are subdivided into four category based on height of the

column like 300, 500, 1000 and 2000mm. The columns were tested with pin

ended conditions. They have done tensile coupons test were carried out to

determine the material properties like young’s modulus and yield stress of the

Channel sections. They are applied load of 600KN Capacity axially to the

specimens using Universal Testing Machine and done the measurement of

initial geometric imperfections of the specimens using LVDT records the

reading at every 20mm along the length of the sections. They have compare test

result against FEA using ABAQUS software up to 144 models used to perform

a parametric study. It deals with the column strengths predicted from the FEA

were compared with the design strength calculated using AISI and AS/NZ

Standard.
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David et al (2018) conducted on Experimental study on the composite

action in sheathed and bare built up cold formed steel columns and reports on

experiments addressing the buckling and collapse behaviour of common built-

up cold formed steel (CFS) columns. The built-up column consists of two

individual CFS lipped channels placed back-to back and connected at the web

using two self-drilling screw fasteners at specified spacing along the column

length. The experiments aim to quantify ultimate strength, composite action,

member end fixity, and buckling interactions and collapse behavior for common

built-up CFS members. The testing also explicitly explores the effect of

sheathing, as typically employed in cold-formed steel framing, on the response.

The experiments provide benchmarks for design that include specific

considerations for both thin-walled buckling and fastener behavior. A total of 17

monotonic, concentric compression tests with a column length of 1.83m (6 ft)

are completed with an array of position transducers monitoring displacements at

key locations. Tests are conducted with the built-up member seated in CFS

tracks. Results indicate a large range of deformation behavior, with local global

interaction and flexural-torsional modes common in many of the unsheathed

specimens. Columns sheathed with oriented strand board on both flanges

behave as braced against global buckling in the plane of the wall, and local

buckling induced failures prevail. The end condition for the tested built-up

members seated in track is determined to be semi-rigid, but generally closer to

fixed than pinned.

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K.Roy et al (B) (2018) study on Experimental investigation into the

behaviour of Back to Back Gapped Built up cold formed steel channel sections

under compression and they are discussed in Current guidance by the direct

strength method in the AISI Specification and the Australian/New Zealand

Standard does not include the gap between the back-to-back channels, thus not

being able to predict the axial capacities of these sections accurately. In the

literature, very few results have been reported for such columns and specially

investigated the effect of link-channel ’ s spacing on axial strength of such

columns. This issue is addressed herein. They are conducted the Forty new

experimental results are reported, conducted on back-to-back gapped built-up

cold-formed steel channel-sections, covering stub to slender columns. Axial

capacity of the columns, load-axial shortening, load-axial strain, failure modes

and deformed shapes were observed and reported in this paper. Also, the effect

of link-channels spacing on axial strength is investigated. Test strengths are

compared against the design strengths calculated in accordance with AISI and

Australian/New Zealand standard for cold-formed steel structures. It is shown

that the design standards can be conservative by as much as 53%, while

predicting axial strength of such columns. Therefore, a modification to the non-

dimensional slenderness, that considers the gap, is proposed which leads the

design standards being within 5% conservative to the test results.

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K.Roy et al (A) (2018) conducted on non linear behaviour of back to

back gapped built up cold formed steel channel section under compression.

They are tested forty experimental tests are reported and sub divided into four

different column height. All columns with pin ended except stub column. It

deals with longitudinal spacing of link channel were observed. They are

conducted tensile coupons test for determine the material properties of untested

specimens. In experiment test shown strength of built up section were reduced

significantly for all columns with two or three intermediate link channel. They

are used five strain gauges to determine axial strain at mid length and end of all

columns. They are investigated the effect of increase in the vertical spacing of

link channel in all columns. They are comparing the experimental strength with

the design strength calculated in accordance with AISI and AS/NZ DSM and

M-DSM. At conclusions the failure modes, Load –axial shortens; Load-axial

strain and deformed shapes at failure are studied. They are also investigated

effect of gap and link channel spacing on the axial strength of the various

columns. They are concluded also both the test and FEA result were as much as

53% higher than design strength with Non-dimensional Slenderness (λc) of such

columns. They are recommended to use λc,GAP while calculating the axial

strength of back to back gapped built up CFS columns.

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K. Roy et al (2018) investigated on Effect of thickness on behaviour of

axially loaded back to back cold formed steel built up channel sections. They

have conducted 60 Experimental test performed on channel sections under axial

compression. They are determining the axial strength of columns using

Modified slenderness ratio method by AISI and AS/NZ Standard. They have

done tensile coupons test to measure the material properties of the sections.

They are developed finite element model includes modelling of web fasteners,

material Non-linearity and geometric imperfections using ABAQUS and done

experimental test and FE Strength compared against design strength. They are

used two different sections on labelling of C75 and C90 with four different

column heights like 300, 500, 1000 and 2000mm. They are concluded column

failed by overall buckling but are un-conservative for columns failed mainly by

local buckling by around 12%. They are suggested to improve design rules were

proposed for back to back built up channel section subjected to axial

compression. They are currently investigate the effect of different cross section

and arrangement of screws for CFS built up columns under axial and eccentric

load to develop a new direct strength method for estimate axial strength of

column.
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2.2.2 COLD FORMED BUILT – UP BOX SHAPED CLOSED SECTION

Jessica whittle and Chris Ramseyer (2008) studied on buckling

capacities of axially loaded, cold formed, built up channels. They are

investigated over 150 experimental compression tests on closed section, built up

members formed of intermediately welded C-channels. They are created

specimens are involves two lipped C – channels welded together at the top and

bottom with 50.8 mm long welds and at intermediate location along the member

with 25.4 mm long welds to form a closed box section. They have used three

different thickness of member like 1.626 mm, 2.032 mm and 2.54 mm. They are

studied on buckling capacities, axial shortening and lateral displacement of the

specimens during the laboratory testing. They are used two strain gauges for

recorded of member’s lateral movement and axial shortening of the column

under loading. They are used data acquisition system to gather the raw data and

using of lab view program graphically displayed the data during testing. They

have used callipers and micrometer to measure dimensions of channel like lip

length, side length and thickness. They are concluded using of modified

slenderness ratio the result will be 70% conservative on average compared to

experimental buckling capacities for all built up members and the unity check

for this specimen is 0.98 – 2.5 with values. The unit values are greater than 1.0

representing conservatively designed members.

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M. Ranjith and G. Aruna (2016) described the Study on behaviour of cold

formed built-up compression member. They are investigated the Cold formed

built – up box shaped closed section was tested under axial compression and the

ends of columns were simulated as hinged ends with varying lengths and fixed

thickness. The failure modes of the columns involved local buckling,

distortional buckling of the webs, and flexural buckling. The test strengths were

compared with strength values obtained from theoretical and numerical results.

Following are the decisions have been made. Buckling mode prediction from

numerical results (ANSYS 12.0) was compared with experimental buckling

modes When the slenderness ratio (L/r ratio) increases the ultimate load

carrying capacity of the specimens have been decreased. Ultimate load carrying

capacity is inversely proportional to slenderness ratio (L/r ratio). When the D/t

ratio increases the ultimate load carrying capacity of the specimens has been

increased. With larger area , the failure is initiated by distortional buckling. For

the intermediate column distortional buckling is the dominant failure.

Manikandan. P et al (2016) described the Behaviour of Partially Closed

Stiffened Cold-Formed Steel Compression Member. They have conducted a

series of axially compressed tests on built up box section members composed of

two C- section by self- drilling screws at flanges are conducted. The difference

of global, local and distortional buckling behaviours between members with

built up and single sections are investigated. They are analyzed the effects of

installation error and fastener spacing on ultimate load carrying capacity of built
 23

up members. A strength estimation method for built up members under axial

compression is proposed based on the experimental investigation as well as

some existing experiments and corresponding numerical analysis. Finally they

are predicted capacity obtained by using the proposed strength estimation

method is compared with experimental result and the nominal axial strength

determined according to the AISI provisions, by which the suitability and

accuracy of the proposed strength estimation method have been established.

Based on the results presented herein, it looks reasonable to draw out the

following conclusions. The developed finite element model efficiently

simulated the buckling behaviour of axially loaded intermediate stiffened

partially closed complex channel section. The open column fails by pure

distortional buckling whereas due to the provisions of spacer plates the partially

closed column fails by mixed local and flexural torsional buckling. The spacer

plate improves the torsional rigidity and increases the stiffness of the section.

Thickness, depth and spacing of spacer plates significantly affect the overall

performance of the sections. For partially closed, intermediate stiffened

complex channel section, the ratio of the centre-to-centre distance of the spacer

plate to the length of the column (C/L) and spacer plate slenderness (d/b)

appears to have a predominant effect on column strength up to a value of 0.25

and 0.158, respectively. Beyond this range, the rate of increase in the column

strength is marginally compared to open section, because C/L ratio increases

more than 0.25 increases the buckling length of the section between the spacer
 24

plates and reduces the load sharing between them. Similarly, spacer plate

slenderness (d/b) increases more than 0.158, the magnitude of increase in

column strength is very minimum because local buckling occurs at earlier. Test

results of the open column section are compared with the current design

guidelines available for the cold formed steel structures. The evaluation shows

that direct strength method and North American Iron and Steel Institute

specification are conservative, whereas Indian standard is un-conservative.

K Roy et al (A) (2019) studied on Experimental and numerical

investigation into the behaviour of face to face built up cold formed steel

channel sections under compression. They are presented the results of 36

experimental tests, conducted on face-to face built-up cold-formed steel

channel-sections covering a wide range of slenderness from stub to slender

columns. A nonlinear finite element model is then described that shows good

agreement with the experimental results. The finite element model includes

material non-linearity, initial imperfections and modelling of intermediate

fasteners. Both finite element and experimental results are compared against the

design strengths calculated in accordance with the American Iron and Steel

Institute (AISI), Australian and New Zealand Standards (AS/NZS) and Euro

code (EN 1993-1-3). The verified finite element model is used for the purposes

of a parametric study comprising 90 models. The effect of fastener spacing on

the axial strength was investigated. From the results of experiments and finite

element investigations, it is shown that the design in accordance with the AISI
 25

& AS/NZS and Euro code (EN 1993-1-3) is generally conservative by around

15%, however, AISI & AS/NZS and Euro code (EN 1993-1-3) can be un-

conservative by 8% on average for face-to-face built-up columns failed through

local buckling.

K. Roy et al (2019) investigates the Experimental and numerical

investigations on the axial capacity of cold-formed steel built-up box sections

are formed through two identical lipped channels connected at their flanges with

self-drilling screws. In such an arrangement, independent buckling of the

individual channels is prevented by the screws. They have done the tests for

different values of slenderness from short to slender columns. They are

investigated 16 experimental tests are reported. Of these, 8 tests were conducted

on built-up CFS box sections and the remaining 8 tests were conducted on

single channel sections. They are studied the Load-axial shortening relationship,

and failure modes are discussed for built-up columns. Nonlinear finite element

(FE) models were developed for built-up CFS box sections and single channels.

FE models considered material nonlinearities, initial imperfections and

modeling of intermediate fasteners. FE results showed good agreement against

the test results. They are conducted both FEA and test results were compared

against the design strength calculated in accordance with the American Iron and

Steel Institute (AISI) and Australian and New Zealand Standards (AS/NZS).

From the comparison, they are concluded that the AISI & AS/NZS are
 26

conservative by around 17% while determining the axial capacity of such built-

up CFS box columns.

2.2.3 COLD FORMED STEEL SECTION BATTENED COLUMNS

Ellobody et at (2015) study on Nonlinear behaviour of built up cold

formed steel section battened columns and tested with pin ended and consisted

of two cold-formed steel channels placed back-to-back and were connected

using batten plates. Nonlinear 3-D finite element models were developed to

simulate the structural performance of the axially loaded columns. The

nonlinear material properties of flat and corner portions of the channels, initial

geometric imperfections, actual geometries and boundary conditions were

carefully considered in the models. The finite element models were verified

against tests, recently conducted and reported by the authors, on the same form

of construction. The column strengths, failure modes, deformed shapes at

failure, load lateral displacement and load-axial strain relationships were

predicted from the finite element analyses and compared well against the test

results. In addition, the validated finite element models were used to perform an

extensive parametric study investigating different parameters affecting the

behaviour of the columns comprising different slenderness, column lengths,

cross-section geometries, steel strengths, spacing between channels and

different batten plates spacing. Furthermore, the column strengths predicted in

the parametric study were compared with design strengths calculated using the
 27

North American Specification, Australian/New Zealand Standard and European

Code for cold-formed steel columns.

2.2.4 COLD FORMED MULTI LIMBS BUILT UP SECTION

Fang fang Liao et al (2016) conducted on Compression test and analysis

of multi-limbs built-up cold-formed steel stub columns. They are used the

Multi-limbs built-up cold-formed steel stub column is a main structural member

consisting of a single C-shaped and U-shaped basic component connected by

self-drilling screws. Axial compression bearing capacity tests and finite element

analysis of nine multi-limbs built–up cold–formed steel stub columns with three

different section forms were conducted in this paper. The results of finite

element analysis are close to the test results, which verify the accuracy of the

finite element analysis. In order to study the influence of width–thickness ratio

and screw spacing on the bearing capacity of the build-up column, the

parametric analysis was carried out on the maximum width–thickness ratio of

the plates and the screw spacing. The results show that the failure modes of all

specimens are local buckling and distortional buckling. Multi-limbs built–up

cold–formed steel stub columns consisting of a few basic components can work

in harmony, the integral behaviour is desirable. The axial load bearing capacity

of the multi-limbs built-up section stub column increases when the maximum

width–thickness ratio of the plates decreases; the screw spacing has a little

impact on the ultimate axial compressive capacity and the buckling capacity of

the multi-limbs built-up cold-formed steel stub columns. They are conclude the
 28

failure modes of multi-limbs built-up cold-formed steel stub column specimens

are local buckling and distortional buckling. According to the test results, it can

be obtained that multi-limb built–up cold–formed steel stub columns consisting

of a few basic components can work in harmony, the integral behaviour is

desirable. Two specimens with section 1were connected by self-drilling screws

to generate the specimen with section 3. The test bearing capacity of the

specimen with section 3 are basically less than or equal to double of the test

bearing capacity of the specimen with section 1. The load-axial displacement

curves, local buckling critical loads, ultimate loads, and the failure modes of the

specimens analyzed by ANSYS were compared with the test results, which

proves the accuracy of ANSYS finite element analysis. Maximum width–

thickness ratio of the plates is the major factor influencing the ultimate bearing

capacity, buckling bearing capacity, and stiffness of multi-limbs built-up stub

column. There are great differences between the buckling bearing capacity of

the columns with section 1, section 2 and section 3. With the decrease of the

plate thickness, width–thickness ratio of the plates increased and the buckling

bearing capacity decreased obviously. The screw spacing has no impact on the

ultimate axial compression bearing capacity, the buckling bearing capacity and

stiffness of the multi-limbs built-up cold-formed steel stub columns.

 29

2.2.5 Cold formed Single channel section

Jun ye et al (2018) conducted on Experimental Investigation of local

flexural interactive buckling of cold formed steel channel columns. They are

studied the interaction of local and overall flexural buckling in cold-formed

steel (CFS) plain and lipped channels under axial compression. The results were

further used to verify the accuracy of the current design procedures in Euro

code 3, as well as to evaluate the effectiveness of a previously proposed

optimisation methodology. They are used total of 36 axial compression tests on

CFS channels with three different lengths (1 m, 1.5m and 2 m) and four

different cross-sections were conducted under a concentrically applied load and

pin-ended boundary conditions. The initial geometric imperfections of the

specimens were measured using a specially designed set-up with laser

displacement transducers. They are conducted Material tests were also carried

out to determine the tensile properties of the flat parts of the cross sections, as

well as the cold-worked corner regions. A comparison between the

experimental results and the Euro code 3 predictions showed that the effective

width approach combined with the P–M interaction equation proposed in Euro

code 3 to take into account the shift of the effective centroid consistently

provided safe results. They are suggested that Euro code 3 procedures were also

quite conservative in predicting the capacity pertaining to local global

interaction buckling, especially for plain channels. Furthermore, the

 30

experimental data confirmed the results of an optimisation study and

demonstrated that the optimised CFS columns exhibited a capacity which was

up to 26% higher than the standard channel with the same amount of material

taken as a starting point.

SUMMARY

From the literature survey they are investigated the behaviour of cold formed

single and various built up compression section. They are determined the

material properties of CFS like Modulus of Elasticity and Yield stress using

Tensile coupons test as per British standard of testing and Materials. They are

conducted a test of axial and eccentric compression on section to determine the

load carrying capacity. The columns were tested with Fixed or Pin ended

condition. They are compared the test strength with obtained from the un-

factored design strengths calculated in accordance with the AISI Specifications

and Australia/New Zealand standard. Different failure modes were observed

with varying length of the columns. The finite element models were used to

perform a parametric study using ABAQUS or ANSYS.

 31

CHAPTER 3

METHODOLOGY

3.1 GENERAL

Significant literatures have been collected relevant to proposed area of project

work. Based on the literature review the work to be carried out.
 32

METHODOLOGY

LITERATURE SURVEY

MANUAL DESIGN CALCULATION

AND SELECTION OF MATERIALS

MATERIAL COLLECTION

SPECIMEN PREPARATION

BUILTUP SECTION COMPOSITE SECTION

EXPERIMENTAL STUDY

COMPRESSIVE BEHAVIOUR COMPRESSIVE BEHAVIOUR

(AXIAL LOADING) (ECCENTRIC LOADING)

ANALYTICAL STUDY

RESULT AND DISCUSSION

CONCLUSION
 33

CHAPTER 4

FUTURE WORK

WORK TO BE DONE

 To compute the theoretical design strength using AISI and IS Standard.

 To find out the material properties and imperfection test of untested

specimen.

 Fabrication of cold formed steel section.

 Testing of cold formed steel section.

 To develop FEA model using ANSYS software.

 To compare the test result with theoretical and Numerical investigation

using ANSYS Software.

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CHAPTER 5

CONCLUSION

Cold rolled sections are used in India for purlins, girts, wind bracings,

and roof truss, wall frames and portal frames.

Cold formed steel sections are most efficiently used with structures of

moderate loads and span, in which circumstances they can be cheaper than hot

rolled members and easy to construct because of its light weight and rigidity.

The use of built up cold formed steel sections are becoming popular

because of its superior strength to self weight ratios and economic design.

The American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI) prescribe the modified

slenderness approach to determine the axial strength of cold formed steel

columns.

From the literature survey to understand the behaviour of single and built

up cold formed steel section.

 35

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 36

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 37

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