Bab 2 Chapter 2

Term, Symbol Formula Unit

Displacement, s s= m

s=

Velocity, v v=s/t ms-1

v2=u2 + 2as

Acceleration, a a= ms-2

Weight, W W=mg N

Momentum, p = kgms-1

Elastic Momentum 1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v2

Inelastic Momentum 1u1 + m2u2 = (m1 + m2) v

Explosion 0 = m1v1 + m2v2

Impulse, Ft = Nm

Force, F net = a N

net = F1 + F2

Impulsive Force, F =

1. GENERAL PHYSICS

1.1 Measurement

PHYSICAL QUANTITIES

Physical Quantity = quantity that is measurable

Base Quantity = physical quantity that cannot be

defined by any other physical term (unit).

TeTELeM

Temperature | Time | Electric Current | Length | Mass

Kelvin (K) | Second (s) | Ampere (A) | Metre (m) | Kilogram (kg)

Derived Quantity = combination of physical

quantity that are derived from base quantity(unit).

= Physical quantity which has

magnitude only.

Vector Quantity = Physical quantity which has

magnitude and direction.

Consistency = Register same reading.

Accuracy = Register reading close to actual value.

Sensitivity = Ability to respond to small changes.

Vernier Callipers = Measure object with

STANDARD FORM
A X 10 n dimension of 12cm and 0.01cm accuracy.

if n = positive = large value

5 x 103 = 5 000 7.2 x 107 = 72 000 000

5 x 103 = 5 kilo 7.2 x 107 = 72 x 106 = 72 Mega

if n = negative = small value

5 x 10-3 = 0.005 7.2 x 10-7 = 0.000 000 72

5 x 10-3 = 5 milli 7.2 x 10-7 = 0.72 x 10-6 = 0.72 micro

1.2 Instrument
Type of error:

o Systematic errors (instrument)

Incorrect calibration

Zero error

o Random errors

Parallax error (observer's eye)

Natural error (wind, light)

Wrong technique
Micrometer Screw Gauge = Measure object with

dimension of 0.10 25 mm and 0.01mm accuracy.

3.34

2. FORCES AND MOTION Deceleration or negative acceleration means the

2.1 Kinematics
velocity of a body is decreasing

LINEAR MOTIONS
A curved speed time graph means changing

Distance is the total path taken (m)

acceleration.
ACCELERATION BY GRAVITY

Speed is the rate of change of distance in

meters/second(ms-1). An object in free-fall near to the Earth has a

constant acceleration caused by gravity due to the

=
vitational field.

Displacement is the distance between initial and g= 9.8 or 10 ms-2

final destination (m).

MASS AND WEIGHT
Velocity is the rate of change of displacement in

meters/second (ms-1). Mass: A measure of matter in a body (kg).

Velocity = Weight is the force of gravity on a body as a result

of its mass measured in Newton (N).

V=d/t (ms-1) (N) = (kg) (ms-2)

4m W=mg

state of motion.

Higher the mass, the greater is the inertia.

MOMENTUM

4m Momentum: product of mass and velocity

DistanceAC = AB + BC = 3 + 4 = 7m
=

DisplacementAC= Shortest Distance= =5m

Principle of conservation of momentum:

AB+BC+CD+AD = 3+4+3+4 = 14m

Total momentum of a system is constant if no
AC + (-AC) = 5 5 = 0m

external force acts on the system.

Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity in Elastic Momentum: two objects move apart after

meters/second (ms-2). a collision.

a= s= 1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v2

s= v2=u2 + 2as Inelastic Momentum: two objects move together

after a collision.
1u1 + m2u2 = (m1 + m2) v

DISPLACEMENT TIME GRAPHS

Explosion: two objects are together before a

collision and move apart after a collision.

0 = m1v1 + m2v2

Impulse: product of force and time or change in

momentum (Nm)

=
= = = Velocity (m/s)

2.2 Dynamics

VELOCITY TIME GRAPHS FORCES

Force: product of mass and acceleration, N

(Newton).

= a

The resultant force, Fnet is the difference in

magnitude of force in the direction of the greatest.

net = F1 + F2

= = Acceleration (m/s2)

Area under the line equals to the distance F1 F2

travelled net = F1 + (-F2) F1 F2

Positive acceleration means the velocity of a

body is increasing. net = a

E (J) = x Mass x Velocity2

Every object continues in its state of rest of uniform

speed in a straight line unless acted by an external force. k = mv2

(Stubborn)
(J)

The net force of an object is directly proportional to the

Ep =
acceleration. (F=ma)

Third Law:

For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.

(What you give is what you get)

Impulsive Force: rate of change momentum

The shorter the stoppage time, the higher is the

impulsive force.

WORK DONE (ENERGY)

Work Done: product of force & displacement in Elastic Potential Energy: Energy stored in a spring when

Joule (J). it is extended or compressed (J).

D ( )= (N) Displacement(m) Elastic Potential E (J),

Eep = kx 2
= s (Force on flat surface)

k spring constant (Nm-1), x extension (m)

= s cos (Force at an angle from Surface)

Work is done whenever a force makes something EFFICIENCY

move. Efficiency: percentage of useful output to the

Energy: amount of work and its measured in supply input.

Joules (J). = %
Principle of conservation of energy:

Energy cannot be created or destroyed but can change = %

form from one to another.

Energy can be in the form of:

Due to position

Chapter 3 : Gravitation

G r a v i t a t i o n al G m 1m 2 G r a v i t a t i o n al Mass of the Earth /

f o r ce F= r 2 a c c e l e r a t i on Sun 4 2r3

M= G T2
Object

r F ;r F

m F ;m F

Orbital period

C e n t r i p e t al f o r c e in second

m C e n t r i p e t al

a c c e l e r a t i on

m v2 v

F= r F v2

a =

r
m F ;m F

v F ;v F

v a ;v a
r F ;r F r

r a ;r a

F =W

Kepler 1s t L aw Kepler 2nd La w Kepler 3rd La w

All planets move in A line that connects a planet to the Sun Square of orbital period of any planet is directly

sweeps out equal areas in equal times. proportional to the cube of the radius of its orbit

elliptical orbits with the

Sun at one focus.

Area 1 = Area 2 2
3
Time A to B = Time C to D T

1
= r 1

M a n - m a d e S a t e l l i t e s Speed CD > Speed AB 2 3

T2 r2

Geostationary Non-geostationary Escape Velocity, vesc

Above same location Above different location minimum velocity needed by an object on

the surface of the Earth to overcome

Direction same as Earth rotation Direction same or different from gravitational force and escape to outer

Earth space
Orbital period = 24 hours Orbital period 24 hours

V esc= 2G M
communication satellite Earth imaging, GPS, weather forecast

MEASAT TiungSAT, RazakSAT, Pipit, ISS r

Linear Velocity

V= GM

1) When the linear speed is low

2) When linear speed is high enough r

4. HEAT SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY

Heat capacity: Amount of heat needed to

Heat Energy: form of energy that flow due to raise the temperature of substance by 1oC.

difference in temperature.

(Number of how much energy flow out or in). Specific heat capacity: Amount of heat

Temperature: measure of average kinetic needed to raise the temperature of 1kg

energy per molecule in a substance. substance by 1oC (Jkg-1 oC-1).

(Number of how much Ek in a molecule). Heat Energy (J) = mass (kg) x Specific heat

Thermal Equilibrium: a state in which capacity (Jkg-1 oC-1) x

- No net heat flow between two objects Q = mc

in contact, c = longer time to heat or cool

c = shorter time to heat up or cooled.

- Final temperature of two objects are

equal. Based on Principle of Conversation of Energy:

Temperature unit conversion: Degree

Electrical Energy
Celsius, oC to Kelvin, K. is the number on oC. Heat Energy

0oC = + 273 K

Q = Pt

TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT

Mercury Thermometer: Instrument to

Kinetic Energy

determine temperature based on the Heat Energy

expansion of mercury with temperature.

= mv2

Mercury thermometer: k

- Good heat conductor

- High boiling point Potential Energy Heat Energy

- Expand uniformly when heated

- Opaque Ep =mgh

Sensitivity of mercury can be increased by:

- Finer capillary tube = T , V

accommodate space, more sensitive

to temperature change.

- Smaller bulb = Contain less mercury.

Absorbs heat faster, more responsive

to temperature change.
- Glass bulb with a thinner wall = Enable

quick heat transfer. More sensitive to

temperature change.

Mercury calibration:

Temperature, x 100 oC

Alcohol Thermometer: Instrument to

determine temperature based on the

expansion of alcohol with temperature below

freezing temperature.

SPECIFIC LATENT HEAT GAS LAWS

Specific Latent heat of fusion, lf: heat : For a gas with fixed mass and

needed to change 1 kg of substance from solid temperature, the pressure and volume are

to liquid phase without temperature change inversely proportional.

(J kg-1).

Specific Latent heat of vaporisation, lv: heat

needed to change 1 kg of substance from solid

to liquid phase without temperature change P ,V

(J kg-1). P1V1 = P2V2

Latent heat: Amount of heat required to

change phase (e.g. solid

Heat Energy (J) = mass (kg) x Specific latent : For a gas with fixed mass and

heat capacity (Jkg-1) pressure, the temperature and volume are

Q = ml directly proportional.

T ,V

A-B (solid), C-D (liquid), E-F (gas) Gay- Law: For a gas with fixed mass

and volume, the pressure and temperature

= heat is used to increase particle movement

= heat changes temperature are directly proportional.

= temperature change P ,T

Q = mc =

B-C (solid+ liquid), D-E (liquid + gas)

= heat is used to break bond between particle

= No temperature change

Q = ml

5. WAVE

Wave: transport of energy via oscillation.

Type of wave: Direction of

1. Transverse Wave = Particles of medium propagation

vibrates in the direction perpendicular to the

direction of wave propagation. Wavefront

2. Longitudinal Wave = Particles of medium

vibrates in the direction parallel to the direction Wavefront

of wave propagation. Direction of propagation

REFLECTION OF WAVES

Amplitude, a: maximum displacement of a particle

from its rest position.

Energy , amplitude .

1 oscillation: cycles between starting and returning

points
(crest to crest or trough to trough).

Wavelength, : distance for 1 oscillation. Wave characteristics

Period, T (s): Time taken for 1 oscillation. Incidence angle = reflected angle
no change

Frequency, f (Hz): Numbers of complete oscillation in 1

second. f no change

Speed, v no change
T= (s)

- Time Graph v= (ms-1)

REFRACTION OF WAVES
- Distance Graph Refraction: Change in direction of propagation of

wave caused by the change in the velocity of waves

when the travel from one medium to another.

Wave characteristics

Angle change

change

Speed, v
f
change
no change

Damping = Reduction in amplitude in an oscillating

system due to loss of energy (frequency is constant).

Natural frequency = Frequency of oscillating system

without external forces.

Resonance
=When a periodic force oscillates with frequency equals

to natural frequency of another system

= system oscillates with maximum amplitude. layer of air right above ground is layer of air right above ground is
warmer cooler

Wavefronts
sound moves faster in warm air sound moves slower in cold air
=Lines connecting wave of one crest with crest (or

trough-trough) of other waves sound is refracted upward sound is refracted downward

= and is perpendicular to the wave propagation sound not clear to observer. sound clearer to observer.

v=f (ms-1)

DIFFRACTION OF WAVES

Diffraction: Spreading of waves when the waves

propagate through a slit or side of a barrier.

Wave characteristics
Amplitude change

no change

Speed, v no change

f no change

More diffracted Less diffracted

Narrower barrier Wider barrier

Size of

barrier

Narrower slit Wider slit

Size of

slit

= (m)

a = distance of separation between the two coherent

Longer wavelength Shorter wavelength sources

Wave
length
x = distance of separation between the two adjacent nodal

or antinodal lines
D = perpendicular distance between the source and

position where x is measured

ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

INTERFERENCE OF WAVES

Principles of superposition of waves:

When two waves overlap, the resultant displacement is

the sum of individual displacements of the two waves.

Interference of waves:

Superposition of two or more waves from a coherent

source of wave.
Coherent waves:

same frequency, phase difference is constant.

Characteristics of electromagnetic waves

transverse wave

does not require medium for propagation

can propagate through vacuum

speed is 3x108 ms-1 in vacuum, slower in other

medium

undergoes reflection, refraction, diffraction and

interference

EM wave: Electric and magnetic fields oscillate

perpendicularly to one another.

Radio Micro IR Visible UV X-ray Gamma

6. LIGHT Convex mirror: rays converge to a virtual

focal point (virtual = inside mirror)

LIGHT REFLECTION

Law of reflection of light: Focal point = F

- Angle of incidence, i = Angle of reflection, r. Focal length = f (- cm)

- Incident ray, reflected ray and normal lie in the

Drawing concave mirror image

same plane (or same point)

Characteristics of reflected image on plane

mirror:

- Virtual

- Upright

- Lateral Inverted. Characteristics of reflected image on convex

- Same distance from mirror. mirror: Always VIRTUAL, UPRIGHT, DIMINISH

Concave mirror: rays converge to a real focal LIGHT REFRACTION

point (real = outside mirror) Refraction: Change in direction or bending of

light when light travel into another medium.

Focal point = F

Focal length = f

(+ cm)

Drawing concave mirror image

Light travels from less dense to denser (A-B)

Characteristics of reflected image on - Speed of light decreases

concave mirror: - Light bends towards normal

Light travels from denser to less dense (C-D)

- Speed of light increases

- Light bends away from normal

Law of reflection of light:

- The value of is constant.

- Incident ray, reflected ray and normal lie in

the same plane (or same point)

Refractive index: ratio of the speed of light in

vacuum to the speed of light in medium.

Refractive index, n =

n=

Real depth and apparent depth:

- Real depth = distance of object from

water surface.

- Apparent depth = distance of image

from water surface.

Refractive index, n = ,

n=

Rules of lens ray diagram:

TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION AND

CRITICAL ANGLE

Total internal reflection:

total reflection of light at the boundary of two

mediums, when incident angle of denser

medium, i is bigger than critical angle, c (i > c).

Critical angle: is the incident angle of denser

medium forming refracted ray along the

boundary of two medium, (i = c when r = 90°). Lens equation:

Refractive index, n =
+ =

n=

Lens symbol & sign:

Positive Negative

u Real object Virtual object

v Real image Virtual image

f Convex lens Concave lens

(i < c) (i = c, r = 90°) (i > c)

Linear magnification = quantity that

measures the ratio of image height to object

LENSES height.

Convex lenses = refract incident light and

converge to a real focal point. m= =

Microscope Telescope

Similarities

Uses 2 convex lenses

Final Image: Virtual, inverted

Differences

Concave lenses = refract incident light and Focal Length fo < fe fo > fe

diverge from a virtual focal point. Distance

between the D > fo + fe D = fo + fe

lens

= o× e
Magnification M=

Characteristic real, inverted, real,

of first image magnified inverted,

diminished

Lens Power: reciprocal of the focal length,

dioptre, (D).

Lens Power (D) =

when f in m, when f in cm

P= or P=

Think Globally, Act Locally

Rumus bagi indeks biasan, n

Formula for refractive index, n

i ° = sudut tuju, incident angle D = dalam nyata, real depth

n=
r ° = sudut pembiasan, refracted angle d = dalam ketara, apparent depth

nr = indeks pembiasan medium terbias c = laju cahaya dalam vakum , speed

of light in vacuum (3 × 108 ms-1)

refractive index of a refracted medium

n=

ni = indeks pembiasan medium tuju v = laju cahaya dalam medium,

refractive index of an incident medium velocity of light in a medium

n= c ° = sudut genting, critical angle

~6~

Think Globally, Act Locally

6.3 Pembentukan Imej oleh Kanta

Image Formation by Lenses

Pusat optik, O: Titik di pusat kanta. Cahaya tidak dibiaskan.

Paksi utama: Garis lurus melalui O dan pusat kelengkungan kedua-

dua permukaan kanta.

Paksi kanta: Garis lurus melalui O dan bersudut tepat dengan paksi

utama.

Titik fokus, F: Titk pada paksi utama. Untuk cembung, cahaya akan

menumpu. Untuk cekung, cahaya mencapah dari titik ini.

Jarak objek, u: Jarak antara objek dan O.

jarak imej, v: Jarak antara imej dan O.

Panjang fokus, f: Jarak antara F dan O.

Optical centre, O: Point at centre of lens. Light passing O is not

refracted.

Principal axis: Straight line through O and centre of curvature of

both surfaces of lens.

Axis of lens: Straight line through O and perpendicular to principal

axis.

Focal point, F: Point on principal axis. For convex, light converge at

this point after passes lens. For concave, light appears to diverge

from this point.

Object distance, u: Distance between object and O.

Image distance, v: Distance between image and O.

Focal length, f: Distance between F and O.

~ 13 ~

Think Globally, Act Locally

Cara menentukan imej yang terhasil:

Ways to determine the image formed:

Gambar rajah sinar untuk kanta cembung (Ciri-ciri imej kanta cembung = imej cermin cekung)

Ray diagrams for convex lens (Characteristics of image = image of concave mirror)

u <f u=f

Ciri-ciri imej: Ciri-ciri imej:

Characteristics of image: Characteristics of image:

2f> u> f u = 2f

Ciri-ciri imej: Ciri-ciri imej:

Characteristics of image: Characteristics of image:

u> 2f u> 2f (infiniti)

Ciri-ciri imej: Ciri-ciri imej:

Characteristics of image: Characteristics of image:

~ 14 ~

Think Globally, Act Locally

Gambar rajah sinar untuk kanta cekung (Ciri-ciri imej kanta cekung = imej cermin cembung)

Ray diagrams for concave lens (Characteristics of image = image of convex mirror)

Ciri-ciri imej: Ciri-ciri imej:

Characteristics of image: Characteristics of image:

Untuk kanta cembung, convex lens:

Ciri-ciri imej, Characteristics of image

Sifat

Maya, virtual Nyata, real

Feature

Kedudukan Songsang, Tegak

Position Inverted Upright

Untuk kanta cekung, concave lens: M T K Saiz imej Diperbesar Sama saiz Diperkecil

Image size Diminished Same size Magnified

~ 15 ~

Think Globally, Act Locally

6.5 Peralatan Optik

Optical Instruments

Mikroskop / Microscope Teleskop/ Telescope

Melihat dan mengenal pasti spesimen

Melihat mikroorganisma Mengkaji jasad samawi

Observe Microorganism
yang kecil
Study celestial objects

Observe and identify tiny specimen

Mikroskop majmuk vs Teleskop / Compound microscope vs. telescope

Persamaan / Similarities

Dua kanta cembung / Two convex lenses

Imej akhir: maya, songsang, dibesarkan/ Final image: virtual, inverted, magnified

Perbezaan / Differences

Aspek/ Aspects Mikroskop/ Microscope Teleskop / Telescope

Jenis kanta / Type of lens

2 kanta berkuasa tinggi 1 kuasa tinggi (kanta mata),

(panjang fokus pendek) 1 kuasa rendah (objek)

2 high-powered lens (short focal length) 1 high-powered (eyepiece short f),

1 low-powered (objective long f)

panjang fokus kanta objektif < kanta mata panjang fokus kanta objektif > kanta mata

Panjang focus/ Focal Length

( fo > fe )
( fo < fe )

focal length of objective lens < eyepiece focal length of objective lens > eyepiece

( fo < fe ) ( fo > fe )

Ciri-ciri imej pertama

nyata, songsang, dibesarkan nyata, songsang, dikecilkan

(objek kanta mata)

Characteristic of first image real, inverted, magnified real, inverted, diminished

(object of the eyepiece)

Antara titik fokus dan pusat optik kanta mata

Kedudukan imej yang pertama

Between focal point and optical centre of
Di titik fokus kedua-dua kanta

Position of the first image eyepiece At the focal point of both lens

~ 17 ~

Think Globally, Act Locally

Perbezaan / Differences
Kedudukan imej akhir Berhampiran dengan mata Infiniti

Position of the final image Close to the eye Infinity

Jarak antara kanta

D > fo + fe D = fo + fe

Distance between the lens

Pembesaran
Magnification
= fo × fe =

~ 18 ~

Think Globally, Act Locally

Cermin cekung / Concave mirror Cermin cembung / Convex mirror

Paksi utama: Garis lurus melalui C dan kutub cermin sfera, P.

Principal axis: Straight line through C and pole of spherical mirror, P

Pusat kelengkungan, C: Pusat sfera yang menghasilkan cermin cekung atau cembung.

Centre of curvature, C: Centre of sphere which produces concave or convex mirror.

Jejari kelengkungan, r: Jarak antara kutub, P dan pusat kelengkungan, C.

Radius of curvature, r: Distance between pole, P and centre, C.

Titik fokus, F: Titik pada paksi utama. Untuk cermin cekung, cahaya menumpu pada titik ini. Untuk cembung, cahaya seolah-

olah mencapah dari titik ini.

Focal point, F: Point on principal axis. For concave mirror, light converge at this point. For convex, light appears to diverge

from this point.

Jarak objek, u: Jarak antara objek dan P.

Object distance, u: Distance between object and P.

Jarak imej, v: Jarak antara imej dan P.

Image distance, v: Distance between image and P.

Panjang fokus, f: Jarak antara F dan P.

Focal length, f: Distance between F and P.

~ 23 ~

Think Globally, Act Locally

Gambar rajah sinar untuk cerming cekung (Ciri-ciri imej cermin cekung = imej kanta cembung)

Ray diagrams for concave mirror (Image characteristics = image of convex lens)

u <f u=f

Ciri-ciri imej: Ciri-ciri imej:

Characteristics of image: Characteristics of image:

f <u <2f u = 2f

Ciri-ciri imej: Ciri-ciri imej:

Characteristics of image: Characteristics of image:

u> 2f u> 2f (infiniti)

Ciri-ciri imej: Ciri-ciri imej:

Characteristics of image: Characteristics of image:

~ 24 ~

Think Globally, Act Locally

F C F C

Ciri- iri i j Ciri- iri i j

Characteristics of image: Characteristics of image:

Aplikasi Cermin Cekung dalam Kehidupan Harian / Applications of Concave Mirrors in Daily Life
Cermin solek Cermin pergigian Pemantul lampu hadapan kereta

cermin parabola

Hasilkan imej yang dibesarkan Hasilkan imej tegak dan dibesarkan

mengekalkan keamatan cahaya
Untuk bersolek Untuk memeriksa gigi

pada jarak jauh

Aplikasi Cermin Cembung dalam Kehidupan Harian / Applications of Convex Mirrors in Daily Life

Cermin keselamatan jalan Cermin keselamatan dalam bangunan Cermin pandang belakang kenderaan

menyediakan medan penglihatan

Diletakkan di selekoh tajam jalan luas

untuk pengawasan
Memperluaskan medan penglihatan membolehkan pemandu untuk
medan penglihatan yang luas

pemandu melihat kenderaan yang datang dari

belakang

~ 25 ~

SPM QUESTIONS -

Tips to score

~ 35 ~
Tips to score

~ 36 ~
Tips to score

~ 37 ~