FCE 332: STRENGTH OF MATERIALS IIB

6 SHEAR, BOND AND ANCHORAGE IN RC ELEMENTS

6.1 ELASTIC SHEAR ANALYSIS
6.1..1 Shear Stress Distribution
Consider a reinforced concrete beam loaded as shown in figure 1. The shear force and
bending moment will generally vary along the length, depending on the load system. For a
small elemental length of the beam δx located at distance x from the left-hand support, the
shear forces, bending moments and stresses acting on it are as shown in figure 2.
w/unit length

x δx reinforcement
L

Figure 1 Loaded rc beam

w / unit length
fc 0 1 2 0 (fc+δ fc)

Fc V (V+ δV) (Fc+ δ Fc)

x M (M+ δM)
z N/A z

Fs A (Fs+ δ Fs)
1 2
0 δx reinforcement 0
Bending stresses Bending stresses
on face 1 - 1 on face 2 - 2
Figure 2 Elastic stresses and forces on elemental beam length
Loaded RC beam
Considering moment equilibrium of the element about point A for the system of shear forces
and moments,

Thus

At the limit

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b
Area A′ 0
Area A′

N/A
N/A
b′
0
Cross-section Shear stress distribution
Figure 3(a) General elastic cross-section Figure 3(b) Rectangular rc Beam

For a general cross-section shape of a beam made of a homogeneous elastic material shown
in figure 3(a), the elastic shear stress at a distance y′ from the neutral axis of bending is

Where is the shaded area in the section at distance y′, whose centroid is located at distance
from the neutral axis. I is the moment of inertia about the neutral axis and is the width
of the section at distance y′.
The maximum shear stress occurs at the neutral axis. For the rectangular rc section of
width b shown in figure 3(b),

Now, from the stress diagrams shown in figure 2 and elastic theory of bending for rectangular
sections,
thus
Substituting for I in eqn. (iii) above,

Eqn. (iv) is applicable in rc beams above the neutral axis where the concrete is in
compression. Below the neutral axis the concrete is cracked and the resultant tensile force on
the elemental length δx at distance y below the neutral axis is δFs. If the shear stress at y is v,
then from equilibrium of forces,

But also , i.e.

Thus equating the expressions for ,

Thus

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This is the same expression as eqn. (iv), which means that below the neutral axis, the shear
stress remains constant at the maximum value. The shape of the elastic shear stress
distribution in a rectangular reinforced concrete beam is therefore as shown in figure 3(b).
The above analysis assumes that shear forces V and act on vertical faces 1-1 and 2-
2 of the elemental length , which is clearly not possible if the concrete is cracked in tension
below the neutral axis. Thus eqn. (v) above only gives an approximation of the true value of
shear stress. In between the cracks that may occur below the neutral axis, the probable mode
of shear transfer is through diagonal compression in the concrete as shown in figure 4.

compression zone
δFc
N/A
Tension
zone Concrete “strut”
δFs
in compression

Reinforcement δx
Crack
Figure 4 Probable mechanism of shear transfer in cracked rc beam
6.1..2 Diagonal Tension due to Shear
Consider the beam shown in figure 5. Due to bending and shear under load the element
ABCD, originally rectangular in shape, is distorted into a rhombus. Thus the diagonal length
AD increases, while the opposite diagonal BC decreases in length due to shear distortion.
This indicates the presence of tension along AD and compression along BC in the material of
the beam. Such shear distortion is highest at locations of high shear forces, such as points of
support or applied concentrated loads in a beam.
In general, a beam will be subjected to bending and shear stresses at any given section along
the length. Elastic theory of analysis for combined stresses, such as Mohr’s circle of stresses,
may be used to evaluate principle stresses for any element of beam subjected to both shear
and normal bending stresses. For a beam made of elastic homogeneous material, the variation
of principal compressive and tensile stresses may be plotted as “contours” as shown in figure
6, each curve representing equal values of principal stresses.
For a concrete element located at A along the neutral axis for bending in the beam in figure 6,
a diagonal crack would form along X - X when the principal tensile stress , where
is the tensile splitting strength of concrete (figure 7(a)). At B, above the neutral axis, the
presence of bending compression stress increases the principle compressive stress , but
decreases the principal tensile stress (figure 7(b)). At C, below the neutral axis, the
presence of bending tensile stress increases and decreases and therefore near-
vertical flexural cracks would form when near the centre of the beam where bending
moment is highest (figure 7(c)).
In a reinforced concrete beam, the condition at C is resisted by the main tension
reinforcement for bending provided near the bottom. The condition at A may result in
diagonal cracking (along X - X in figure 7(a)) at regions of high shear (points of support and
locations of high concentrated loads), leading to shear failure if no tension reinforcement is
present in the direction of the principal tensile stress (i.e. perpendicular to the potential
diagonal crack).

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Load
A
B Initial beam
position

C D
deformed beam
under load
Figure 5 Shear deformation in elastic beam

Load
Z
0 fc,max 0
B
+

A N/A vmax

-
C
ft,max 0 0
Z
Bending stresses Shear stresses
Principal tensile stresses
Section Z - Z stress distributions
Principal compressive stresses

Figure 6 Variation of principal stresses in elastic beam

potential potential
shear crack flexural crack
X
(a) At A (b) At B (c) At C

Figure 7 Orientation of principal stresses

Design for shear aims at preventing shear failure due to principal diagonal tension cracking
and shear reinforcement is provided to carry such tensile stresses within the depth of the
beam.

6.2 ULTIMATE SHEAR ANALYSIS

6.2..1 Interaction of Bending and Shear Stresses
At ultimate limit state conditions, high shear stresses can decrease the flexural capacity of a
beam, but experiments have shown that the effect of bending stresses on shear strength is
minimal and may be ignored in design. In practice, designs for bending and shear are treated
separately.

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6.2..2 Failure Modes of Beams Without Shear Reinforcement

The manner in which a beam fails in shear is greatly influenced by the shear span to depth
ratio as defined in figure 8.

Load
Vcz

d diagonal crack Va diagonal crack

Shear span av Main reinforcement Vd

Main reinforcement
L Vc
Figure 8 Shear failure in rc beam Figure 9 Shear resistance mechanism

(i) Diagonal tension/splitting and shear-bond/tension failure.

These are the most common failure modes for normal shallow beams with .
At the higher end of the range, an initial inclined flexural crack forming at the bottom near
the support progresses upwards as the load increases. When the crack penetrates the
compression zone above the neutral axis, the beam finally splits into two along the diagonal
path. This referred to as diagonal tension/splitting failure.
At the lower end of the range, the initial inclined crack may not progress much further
upwards but instead propagates towards the support, parallel to and along the main tension
reinforcement at the bottom, as the load is increased. The beam finally fails when the bond
between the main reinforcement and the concrete is destroyed. This referred to as shear-
bond/tension failure.
(ii) Shear-compression and constrained shear failure.
These modes of failure occur in deeper beams with . In this case, an independent
diagonal crack initially forms at about a third-height of the beam, As the load is increased, the
crack progresses towards the compression region until failure occurs suddenly by crushing of
concrete in the compression region (shear-compression failure). For deep beams in which
, the initial diagonal crack simultaneously progresses upwards and downwards
along the diagonal path until failure eventually occurs as a result of concrete crushing
suddenly at either or both ends of the diagonal crack in the support or load zones
(constrained shear failure).
Shear failures may occur suddenly and explosively, especially in deep beams, with little or no
warning. Therefore flexural elements are generally designed to fail in flexures first before
reaching the ultimate shear load.
6.2..3 Shear Strength of Beams Without Shear Reinforcement
The shear resistance mechanism along the path of a potential diagonal failure crack in a
shallow beam has three components of resistance as shown in figure 9. Consider free-body
vertical equilibrium of the shaded segment of the beam in figure 9. The total shear resistance
is given by

Where

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is the shear resistance of uncracked concrete in compression zone (20-40% contribution)

is the vertical component of resistance due to aggregate interlock (35-50% contribution)
is the shear resistance due to dowel action in main reinforcement for bending (15-25%)
Factors that influence shear resistance
(i) Concrete strength
Shear resistance of concrete is proportional to characteristic compression strength fcu.
Therefore factors that affect strength similarly affect shear resistance.
(ii) Reinforcement type and quantity
Shear resistance is proportional to the quantity of main reinforcement. Deformed or ribbed
bars provide better bond resistance and therefore improve the shear resistance.
(iii) Aggregate properties
Coarse aggregate that is angular or irregular in shape and that also has rough texture results in
better aggregate interlock than smooth, rounded aggregate. Shear resistance is also positively
influenced by aggregate crushing strength. Well graded aggregates also ensure better
compaction and therefore strength.
(iv) Size of element
Deeper beams are proportionately weaker than shallow beam. A shallow beam is likely to
have better compacted concrete and less variation in quality through the depth.
Design codes of practice give formulae for shear strength of concrete derived empirically
from experimental research which take into account all the above factors. Table 3.8 of BS
8110-1 gives eqn. (1) below for design shear strength of a rectangular concrete beam with no
shear reinforcement.

Provided that

; ;

Terms in the eqn. (1) have the usual meaning and the partial factor of safety for concrete
shear strength . For flanged beams, is the width of the rib.
For design to EC2, see section 6.2.2 of the code.
6.2..4 Shear Reinforcement
When the applied shear force additional resistance is provided by shear
reinforcement, so that

The most efficient orientation of shear reinforcement would be in the direction of the
principal tensile stresses, i.e. perpendicular to the potential diagonal shear crack. This
direction, however, varies as seen in figure in figure 6. In practice, shear reinforcement is
provided either in the form of vertical links or bars inclined at an angle to the
horizontal as shown in figure 10.

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It should be noted that shear reinforcement is only mobilised after cracks form in the concrete
and only links or inclined bars crossing the cracks are stressed in tension.
b
Inclined bars
A
d′
d
Potential
links
α shear crack

Main bars Section A - A A Main bars

Support Support
(a) Inclined shear reinforcement (b) Vertical shear links
Figure 10 Shear reinforcement in rc beam
6.2..5 Resistance of Shear Reinforcement - Truss Analogy
Shear reinforcement acts together with concrete in compression to resist shear. The analogy
of a simple truss system is used to conceptualize the mechanism of resistance. In this “truss”
system, the shear reinforcement are the internal “ties”; main reinforcement for bending make
the bottom “tie” and concrete in compression provides the internal “struts” as shown in figure
11.

Concrete struts internal steel ties

d′
C C
C - compression
C T T C d T - tension
C
30° T α T α T

Potential crack Main steel tie

Ls Ls
Support
Figure 11 Shear resistance “truss”

The geometry of the truss is such that the internal struts and ties are inclined at angles and
α, respectively, both of which are . The horizontal spacing of the internal truss
members is

The maximum spacing occurs when both and α are 45° and .
In shallow beams, the diagonal failure cracks tend to form at an angle of about 30° to the
horizontal. Therefore if at least one inclined bar is to cross the path of such a crack as shown
in figure 11, the maximum spacing of inclined bars is

BS 8110-1 requires that in order to guarantee that this happens.

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The shear resistance of an inclined bar is the vertical component of the design tension
capacity of the bar. If the design strength of the bar is 0.87fyb and its area is Asb, then the shear
resistance is

If other inclined bars of the same cross-section area are placed within the length at a
spacing sb, then a system of overlapping trusses can be imagined. The number of bars
crossing the potential diagonal crack is . Thus the total design ultimate shear
resistance of inclined bars is given by

i.e.

For a system of vertical links, and the maximum spacing occurs when and
. BS 8110-1 requires that in order to guarantee that at least one
vertical link crosses the path of a potential diagonal shear crack. If the design strength is ,
spacing is sv and the cross-section area of each link is , the design ultimate shear
resistance of links is

i.e.

Taking ,

Since , shear strength of links

BS 8110-1 Table 3.7 gives eqn. (4) below for the area of links required to resist the shear
force ,

Commonly, two-legged links are used and therefore is the cross-section area of both
vertical legs.
6.2..6 Detailing Requirements (BS 8110-1)
1) Provide at least minimum shear reinforcement with resistance N/mm2, i.e.

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This prevents premature yielding of shear steel after formation of inclined cracks and
ensures ductile failure at ULS.
Links are necessary to hold main longitudinal reinforcement in correct position within
formwork when concreting. They also help to control thermal and shrinkage cracking.
2) Maximum spacing of inclined or bent-up bars . For links .
This ensures that at least one inclined bar or link crosses the path of a potential diagonal
shear crack.
3) The applied design ultimate shear stress or N/mm2, irrespective of
the amount of shear reinforcement provided. This ensures that brittle failure does not
occur through diagonal compression of concrete. If this limit is exceeded, the beam
dimensions b or d should be increased accordingly.
4) When inclined or bent-up bars are used for shear resistance, they should be symmetrically
bent in the cross-section and at least 50% of the shear resistance required should be
provided by vertical links. Links provide confinement of bent-up bars which tend to push
outwards at the bends under high stresses. Links also improve shear strength of concrete
due to the confining action and, hence, improve ductility.
Example 1
The simply supported rc beam shown in figure 12 has two layers of main reinforcement for
bending, vertically bundled together, each comprising of 2 no. 16 mm dia. ribbed bars. Layer
2 is curtailed (cut off) near the ends where the bars are no longer required to resist bending
moments, while layer 1continues to the supports. 8 mm dia. mild steel links are provided @
150 mm centres in the support regions to resist shear.
Determine the design ultimate shear capacity of the beam at support regions. Material
properties are: fcu = 25 N/mm2; fy = 500 N/mm2; fyv = 250 N/mm2.

Load
A 2 no 12 mm bars 3 300

50 3
w
450

8 mm dia. links
@150 mm c/c 2
50 1
w
w
2 no 16 mm A 2 no 16 mm All dimensions in mm
Support bars 1 bars 2 Section A - A
Support
Figure 12 Example 1
Solution
1) Obtain design ultimate concrete shear resistance Vc
(Refer to eqn. (1) or Table 3.8, BS8110-1)
Main steel area at support regions (layer 1)

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Effective depth of layer 1,

Using eqn. (1)

Also from Table 3.8, for and , by interpolation.

Thus shear resistance of concrete without shear reinforcement is

2) Obtain design ultimate shear resistance of links Vs

Area of two vertical legs of each link

From eqn. (3)

3) Obtain the overall design ultimate shear resistance V

Check the limit or N/mm2

⸫
Example 2
In the beam of example 1, layer 2 of main bars is bent-up at angle α = 45° to provide
additional shear resistance near the supports, while layer 1 continues to the supports as shown
in figure 13.
Determine the design ultimate shear capacity of the beam at support regions.

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Load 2 no 12 mm bars 3

2 no 16 mm bars 2
bent up
α

1.5d
Support Support
Figure 13 Example 2
Solution
1) Obtain the additional design ultimate shear resistance of bent-up bars Vb
(Refer to eqn. (2))
The two bars are bent at the same cross-section so that

The location of the bends from support centres is 1.5d, where d is the effective depth of the
bent layer. Therefore in eqn. (2),

from geometry,

2) Obtain the overall design ultimate shear resistance V

Check the limit or N/mm2

⸫
NOTE:
The above example shows that bent up bars are very efficient and, in this case, provide about
53% of the total shear resistance. However, use of bent-up bars should be weighed against the
complexity in bar bending and fixing geometry on site.

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6.3 BOND AND ANCHORAGE

6.3..1 Local Bond Stresses
Bond stresses are shear stresses along the interface between reinforcement bars and concrete
due to adhesion, friction and bearing (in deformed bars).
In a flexural member, the shear stresses arise from the variation of bending moment along the
member (since . Below the neutral axis, the tensile stresses due to bending are
transferred from the concrete to the reinforcement through bond resistance. These tensile
stresses vary with bending moment and are equilibrated by the bond stresses.
Consider an elemental length δx of a beam in bending shown in figure 14.

w / unit length
fc 0 0 (fc+δ fc)

Fc V (V+ δV) (Fc+ δ Fc)

x M (M+ δM)
z N/A z
fbs
Fs (Fs+ δ Fs)

0 reinforcement 0
Stresses on face 1 - 1 δx Stresses on face 2 - 2

Figure 14 Elastic stresses and forces on elemental beam length

Loaded RC beam
The change in tensile force over the length δx is δFs and the change in moment is δM. If the
lever arm is z, then

For equilibrium of forces along the reinforcement bars,

Where is the total perimeter of the reinforcement bars and is the local bond stress.
Thus

If at elastic stage, then the local bond stress at any section along the beam is

Eqn. (5) is the expression given in CP 110 (1972), the predecessor to BS 8110-1, for the
nominal flexural or local bond stress.
The local bond stress is highest at positions of maximum shear, e.g. at supports regions,
where main bending reinforcement bars may have been curtailed when no longer needed for

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bending resistance. Therefore sufficient number of tensile bars must continue through the
support to ensure that the local bond stress does not exceed the ultimate bond stress at ULS
(given as 1.7 - 2.7 N/mm2 for plain bars and 2.1 - 4.1 N/mm2 for ribbed bars). If in a given
situation the local bond stress is found to be excessive, may be increased by increasing
the number of main bars or by substituting large bars with smaller bars of equivalent area.
In the current codes of practice, local bond stress is not explicitly checked in design. Instead,
the average bond stress is checked and specified detailing rules ensure that local bond stress
is within acceptable limits.
In general, the factors that influence shear strength also influence bond stress in a similar
way, since the two are related (see previous section 6.2.3). Among such factors are:
(i) Concrete strength
(ii) Confinement of concrete by shear links
(iii) Aggregate physical properties
(iv) Cover to reinforcement
(v) Type of reinforcement
6.3..2 Average / Anchorage Bond Stresses
Consider a bar with an axial force Fs and stress fs embedded over a length L within concrete
as in figure 15.

Concrete surround

fb
Fs

fb reinforcement bar,
L
diameter D

Figure 15 Average bond stress in reinforcement bar

Let the average bond stress along the bar-concrete interface be fb (the stress actually varies
along length, especially where cracks occur in tension zones). For no slippage to occur,

i.e.

Thus the average / anchorage bond stress is given by,

Where bars are bundled together in a group, D is the effective single diameter for an
equivalent total area of the group of bars.
For safe design,

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Where N/mm2, the design ultimate anchorage bond stress.

is a bond coefficient dependent on type of bar and nature of stress (0.28 and 0.50 for plain
and ribbed bars in tension, respectively; 0.35 and 0.63 for plain and ribbed bars in
compression, respectively - see BS 8110-1, Table 3.26).
6.3..3 Anchorage Length
This is the minimum design length of bar required in order to generate a stress fs and is
obtained by inverting eqn. (6), i.e.

In order to generate the full design strength of a bar, the design ultimate anchorage bond
length is

is usually given in design tables in terms of multiples of D, e.g. for class C20/25 concrete,
ribbed bars ( N/mm2), for a bar in tension and for a bar in
compression (see BS 8110-1, Table 3.27).
Where sufficient anchorage length L is provided to resist the actual stress in the bar, the local
bond stress fbs is not critical.
In general, at a section in a member where stress is fs, the reinforcement must continue for a
length equal to the anchorage length of eqn. (7) beyond that section. If the required length
cannot be achieved in a straight length, e.g. due to lack of space at the end of a member, a
bend or hook is provided as shown in figure 16.

r
r r

(a) Standard 90° bend (b) Standard 180° hook

Figure 16 Anchorage bend and hook in reinforcement bar

6.3..4 End Anchorage

At points of theoretical zero moment, bars must extend beyond for some distance in order to
ensure that the local bond stress is within ultimate limits. BS 8110-1 specifies a minimum end
anchorage of 12 D or d , whichever greater, beyond the point of zero moment or stress (e.g.
this would be the length beyond the centreline of the support at a simply supported end of a
beam). This end anchorage can also be provided in the form of a standard hook or bend, if
space is insufficient.
6.3..5 Laps in Reinforcement
Where bars cannot be provided in single length, laps (tensile or compressive) are necessary.
Adequate length of lap must be provided to enable transfer of stresses in the bars through the

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concrete interface bond (figure 17). Due to slight eccentricity of forces at lapped sections,
bursting stresses arise in the surrounding concrete when stresses in the bars are high.
Therefore confinement of concrete by links at laps is necessary in order to prevent premature
spalling of concrete around laps. Sufficient cover to reinforcement is critical in order to
generate bond resistance in concrete. Where laps occur, larger concrete covers may be
necessary. Also lap lengths longer than the required anchorage lengths may need to be
provided (see BS 8110-1, Table 3.27).

fb
Fs Concrete surround

Fs

Lap length Reinforcement bar

Figure 17 Lap in reinforcement bars

CAUTION: THESE NOTES ARE ONLY GUIDELINES. STUDENTS MUST READ THE
RECOMMENDED REFERENCES FOR COMPREHENSIVE COVERAGE.

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