UNIVERSITY OF NAIROBI

FCE 322 FLUID MECHANICS LAB REPORT

F16/1249/2018
 HYDRAULICS LABORATORY

VENTURI METER EXPERIMENT

Introduction

A venturi meter is a device that can measure the rate of flow in a pipelines. It obeys Bernoulli’s
principle such that an increase in the velocity head of a non-compressible fluid due to an increase in
an accelerated flow will result in a corresponding reduction in piezometric head.

Objective

To confirm the expression for the discharge through a venturi meter

A1
Q=Cd
2
√ 2 g hn
A1
√{ A2 }
−1

and to determine the cd and n.

Apparatus

The experiment was carried out on a venturi meter. The meter was fixed in a 26mm diameter pipe
supplied from a constant head tank above the apparatus and had a throat diameter of 13mm. This
pipe delivered to a measuring tank.

The head difference was measured on a U tube manometer containing a red gauge fluid whose
specific gravity is given as 2.96 (S=2.96)

Method

h1 h2 hm=( h=hm( d1 d2 t(s) V Q Log Q Log h Area

h2-h1) s-1)

0.317 0.647 0.33 0.646 0.066 0.131 20.247 0.003210352 0.000364 -3.439 -0.189 0.1134
8
0.328 0.637 0.309 0.605 0.131 0.187 19.1 0.002931937 0.000332 -3.478 -0.218 0.1134
64
0.339 0.627 0.288 0.564 0.187 0.238 20.13 0.002533532 0.000287 -3.542 -0.248 0.1134
48
0.351 0.615 0.264 0.517 0.238 0.285 19.45 0.002416452 0.000274 -3.562 -0.286 0.1134
44
0.362 0.605 0.243 0.476 0.047 0.095 20.6 0.002330097 0.000264 -3.578 -0.322 0.1134
28
0.372 0.591 0.219 0.429 0.095 0.138 19.75 0.002177215 0.000247 -3.607 -0.367 0.1134
24
0.387 0.58 0.193 0.378 0.138 0.179 19.8 0.002070707 0.000235 -3.629 -0.422 0.1134
28
0.396 0.571 0.175 0.343 0.179 0.214 19.62 0.001783894 0.000202 -3.694 -0.465 0.1134
0.408 0.56 0.152 0.297 0.214 0.25 19.44 0.001851852 0.00021 -3.678 -0.526 0.1134
92
0.411 0.55 0.139 0.272 0.25 0.277 19.88 0.001358149 0.000154 -3.812 -0.565 0.1134
44
0.43 0.54 0.11
0.215 0.277 0.313 19.67 0.001830198 0.000208 -3.683 -0.666 0.1134
6
0.441 0.53 0.089 0.174 0.313 0.344 19.47 0.001592193 0.000181 -3.743 -0.758 0.1134
44
The gauge connections were first bled of air and the gauge reading of zero at zero flow was checked.
The flow was then adjusted to maximum and the head and rise in level in the measuring tank was
measured in a time of 20s. The measurement of discharge at the same head was then reported. The
whole procedure was repeated for 12 sets of measurements.

The head in meters was obtained from the formula

h=hm ( s−1)
h m being the gauge reading in meters

The discharge Q in m3/s was then calculated and a graph of log Q against log h drawn.

Results

Diameter = 38 cm

Area of measuring tank= 0.1134 m3

A graph of log h against log Q

-3.200
-0.800 -0.700 -0.600 -0.500 -0.400 -0.300 -0.200 -0.100
-3.300

-3.400

-3.500
log h

f(x) = 0.53 x − 3.4

-3.600

-3.700

-3.800

-3.900
log Q

From the graph, the value of n is

n = 0.5258

and k =- 3.4

A1
Q=C d
2
√ 2 g hn
A1
√{ A2
1 }
Q=k hn
 2

C d=¿ log-1K √{ A1
}
A2
−1

A 1 √2 g

Where A1 =5.309*10-4

A2 =1.327*10-4

g = 9.81

Therefore, C d=¿0.65;

Conclusion.

The ideal value of the coefficient of discharge should vary from 0.96-0.98 (Rajput). The value
obtained from the above experiment is lower than the expected value indicating that the actual
discharge was far much lower than the theoretical discharge. This can be attributed to the low
velocity of fluid flowing in the pipe and to major losses in the pipe.
 ORIFICE TEST EXPERIMENT

Introduction

An orifice is an opening in the wall or base of a vessel through which fluid flows. It can be used to
measure the flow rate if the geometric properties and inherent properties of the fluid are known.
These measurements are based on Bernoulli’s equation which relates the pressure and the velocity
of a fluid. An orifice is said to be discharging free if it is discharging into the atmosphere, or
submerged if it is discharging into another liquid. The orifice used for this experiment was freely
discharging. As fluid flows from an orifice, it attains a parallel form at a distance of d/2 from the
plane of the orifice. The point at which the stream lines first become parallel is known as the vena
contracta. Flow velocities and discharge calculated from the Bernoulli’s equation should be
corrected to include the effects of viscosity and energy loss by an application of a relevant coefficient
of discharge. This experiment was conducted to find the coefficient of discharge.

Objective

To confirm the expression for the flow of a circular orifice

Q=C d . A . √2 g .h n
To determine the coefficient of discharge, Cd and n.

Apparatus

 Orifice tank
 Stop watch
 Bucket
 Balance

Procedure

The pump to the overhead steady head pump was switched on and time was allowed for the tank to
fill and water to flow through the overflow. The valve to the orifice tank was opened and the head
over the orifice adjusted to 1m.

The discharge was collected for a noted time in a bucket and weighed. This was repeated for the
same head until there was agreement between the weight/time ratios. The whole procedure was
repeated 12 times at intervals of 60 mm of head.

Results

The values of Q were calculated for each reading of head and log Q was plotted against log h.

Head, Mass, Time, Area of Flow rate, Q log h log Q

h(m) kg t (s) orifice, A (m^3/s)
(m)
1 6.985 31.11 0.0000785 0.000224526 0 -3.64873
0.94 6.435 31 0.0000785 0.000207581 -0.0268721 -3.68281
0.88 5.885 29.11 0.0000785 0.000202164 -0.0555173 -3.6943
0.82 5.635 32.39 0.0000785 0.000173973 -0.0861861 -3.75952
0.76 5.207 29.53 0.0000785 0.000176329 -0.1191864 -3.75368
 0.7 5.135 30.74 0.0000785 0.000167046 -0.154902 -3.77716
0.64 5.235 30.91 0.0000785 0.000169363 -0.19382 -3.77118
0.58 5.685 35.05 0.0000785 0.000162197 -0.236572 -3.78996
0.52 5.635 35.01 0.0000785 0.000160954 -0.2839967 -3.7933
0.46 6.035 40.43 0.0000785 0.00014927 -0.3372422 -3.82603
0.4 5.885 43.78 0.0000785 0.000134422 -0.39794 -3.87153
0.34 5.71 45.52 0.0000785 0.000125439 -0.4685211 -3.90157

log Q
-3.5
-0.5 -0.45 -0.4 -0.35 -0.3 -0.25 -0.2 -0.15 -0.1 -0.05 0
-3.55
-3.6
-3.65
-3.7
log Q

f(x) = 0.47 x − 3.68

-3.75
-3.8
-3.85
-3.9
-3.95
log H

From the graph,

y = 0.472x - 3.6796

hence from the equation;

Q= kHn

n = 0.5 (slope of the graph)

k = - 3.6796 (y-intercept)

and

k =log (C d . A . √ 2 g)

10k 10−3.6796
C d= = =0.60
A . √ 2 g 0.0000785∗ √2∗9.81
C d=0.601

Discussion

The coefficient of discharge obtained is 0.601. This indicates that energy losses due to friction losses
and viscosity occurred resulting in a flow with less energy. The recommended value of the C d is,
however, between the range of 0.62-0.65.
 HEAD LOST DUE TO FRICTION IN PIPES EXPERIMENT

Introduction

Fluid flow in pipes is characterized by both major and minor losses. Major losses in pipes are due to
friction whereas minor losses in pipes are due to changes in the cross-sectional area of the pipe,
valves or bends in the pipe. The Darcy-Weisbach equation relates the head losses due to friction to
velocity and pipe length as given by:

4 fl V 2
hf=
D∗2 g
Friction factor, a dimensionless quantity is used to describe the roughness of a pipe.

Objective

To confirm the expression

4 fl V n
hf=
D∗2 g
and determine the values of f and n

Method

Two points at a distance of 2m apart were connected to a manometer with a red gauge fluid of
specific gravity of 2.97. The tubes were first bled of air. The rate of discharge was measured by
collecting the water in a measuring cylinder after a noted time interval.

The pipe was connected to a constant head tank and the water allowed to flow at maximum rate by
turning the valve. The reading on the gauge when steady was noted and so was the discharge. The
rate of discharge was measured again at the same head reading. This was repeated 12 times with
the head being reduced by approximately constant intervals

Results

Diameter of the pipe = 6.25mm

Length of the pipe = 2m

S = 2.97
h1 h2 hm hf vol(m^3) t Q Area Velocity, V log v log hf
1.195 0.54 0.655 1.29035 0.00096 20.12 4.77137E-05 0.0000307 1.554192759 0.191505 0.110708
1.171 0.565 0.606 1.19382 0.00088 18.86 4.66596E-05 0.0000307 1.519856581 0.181803 0.076939
1.151 0.587 0.564 1.11108 0.00074 16.85 4.39169E-05 0.0000307 1.43051837 0.155493 0.045745
1.131 0.607 0.524 1.03228 0.0006 14.47 4.14651E-05 0.0000307 1.35065473 0.130544 0.013798
1.111 0.624 0.487 0.95939 0.00051 12.6 4.04762E-05 0.0000307 1.318442687 0.120061 -0.018
1.091 0.643 0.448 0.88256 0.00044 10.67 4.12371E-05 0.0000307 1.34322845 0.12815 -0.05426
1.071 0.662 0.409 0.80573 0.00032 8.62 3.7123E-05 0.0000307 1.209217259 0.082504 -0.09381
1.051 0.683 0.368 0.72496 0.00024 6.78 3.53982E-05 0.0000307 1.153036811 0.061843 -0.13969
1.031 0.702 0.329 0.64813 0.00019 5.59 3.39893E-05 0.0000307 1.107142233 0.044203 -0.18834
1.011 0.716 0.295 0.58115 0.00016 4.71 3.39703E-05 0.0000307 1.106523648 0.043961 -0.23571
0.991 0.738 0.253 0.49841 0.00012 3.67 3.26975E-05 0.0000307 1.0650667 0.027377 -0.30241
0.971 0.758 0.213 0.41961 0.00005 2.1 2.38095E-05 0.0000307 0.775554521 -0.11039 -0.37715
 Graph of log hf against v

0.2

0.1
f(x) = 1.78 x − 0.25
0
-0.15 -0.1 -0.05 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25
-0.1
Log hf

-0.2

-0.3

-0.4

-0.5
Log V

From the graph, the value of f is given as -0.2538

And the value of n is given as 1.782.

Discussion

The graph is linear in nature as the two variables have a direct relationship with one another. Darcy-
Weisbach gives the value of n=2 whereas the value obtained from the experiment was 1.782. The
variation in the two values may be due to slight inaccuracies such as in the removal of the bucket
when filling in the water.
 SURGE TANK EXPERIMENT

Introduction

Surge tanks or stand pipes are used to reduce pressure surges that occur when there is a sudden
change in pressure due to a change in the rate of flow of a fluid. They also provide excess water if
there is an increased demand due to a drop in pressure. They therefore prevent damage to
downstream conduits due to high internal pressure. This damage may be caused by the water
hammer effect acting as a result of rapid opening or closing of a valve, or due to the abrupt change
of velocity of water in the conduit.

Objective

To confirm the method of calculation for determining the variation of level with time in a surge tank

Method

The expression for the head lost between the reservoir and the surge tank in terms of velocity is
given as

h f =k v n
This was first determined by taking a series of readings of the head difference and discharge and
making appropriate log plots

The surges at each of the five initial heads in the surge tanks are then recorded. Each was then
plotted on the same graph as the computed curve and the curves compared.
 Head = 120
h t periodic time, T computed h (m)
Rising 1.3 0.27 24.08 0.021179615
1.5 1.2 24.08 0.092677661
1.8 3.29 24.08 0.227715213
Falling 1.8 6.42 24.08 0.299240836
1.5 9.65 24.08 0.175707031

Head=110
h t periodic time, T computed h (m)
Rising 1.3 1.03 24.08 0.092845274
1.5 1.82 24.08 0.15987719
1.8 3.73 24.08 0.289070015
Falling 1.8 7.34 24.08 0.329120136
1.5 10.4 24.08 0.145101984

Head = 105cm
h t periodic time, T computed h (m)
Rising 1.3 0.95 24.08 0.08191062
1.5 1.51 24.08 0.128160747
1.8 3.77 24.08 0.277947752
Falling 1.8 7.19 24.08 0.31841235
1.5 10.09 24.08 0.162632198

Head = 100cm
Rising h t periodic time, T computed h (m)
1.3 1.17 24.08 0.111550098
1.5 2.78 24.08 0.246217266
Falling 1.8 4.13 24.08 0.326908624
1.8 7.47 24.08 0.344884203
1.5 10.95 24.08 0.104138364

Head = 95cm
Rising h t periodic time, T computed h (m)
1.3 1.08 24.08 0.083773764
1.5 2.02 24.08 0.151530794
Falling 1.8 4.11 24.08 0.264604429
1.8 7.6 24.08 0.276008188
1.5 10.18 24.08 0.140532797
Discharge Volume Time Initial head Area Velocity log q log v
0.00246914 30 12.15 120 0.002027 1.218123 -2.60746 0.085691
0.00286944 20 6.97 110 0.002027 1.41561 -2.5422 0.150943
0.00273973 30 10.95 100 0.002027 1.351616 -2.56229 0.130853
0.00304569 30 9.85 95 0.002027 1.502558 -2.51631 0.176831
0.00247219 20 8.09 105 0.002027 1.219629 -2.60692 0.086228

initial head = 1.20m

2
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12

initial head = 1.10 m

2
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
 initial head =1.05m
2
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12

initial head = 1m
2
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12

initial head = 0.95 m

2
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Discussion

The computed values of the surge tank heights were significantly lower than the corresponding
levels which were obtained from the experiment. This could be due to a higher pressure of the water
hammer or errors in the statistical analysis. They, however, displayed the same trend as the actual
values and showed the increase in head due to the effect of the water hammer.