F16/132033/2018

KEN MUTUI
GROUP D

FCE 322:
FLUID MECHANICS LAB REPORT
Venturi Meter experiment
Introduction
A Venturi meter is a device that converts pressure energy into kinetic energy and is used for
measuring the rate of flow of liquid through pipes. It is based on Bernoulli’s principle which
states that when the velocity head increases in an accelerated flow, there is a corresponding
reduction in piezo metric head.

Objective

The objective of the venturi meter experiment is to confirm the expression for the discharge through a
Venturi Meter,

Q= Cd A1   √2g hn
A1 2
 √( A2 ) -1

and to determine Cd and n

Apparatus

Venturi meter with throat diameter of 13mm fixed in 26mm diameter pipes supplied from constant
head tanks above apparatus

U-Tube Manometer

Measuring Tank

Procedure
First, the gauge connections are expelled of air and the gauge reading of zero at zero flow is ensured.
The flow is then adjusted to the maximum and the head and rise in level in the measuring tank and
measured time is noted. The measurement of discharge at the same head is then reported. The whole
procedure is then repeated for 12 sets of reading.

The head in meters is calculated from the formula h = h m. (s-1), hm being the gauge reading in meters.
The discharge Q in m3/sec is calculated and log Q plotted against log h.

The coefficients of discharge Cd and n are then calculated from the graph.

Results and discussion

Diameter of measuring tank= 38 cm

Area of measuring tank= 0.1134 m3

h1(cm) h2 hm d1 d2 Time(sec) h=hm(s- Log h Q = (*10-4) Log Q

(cm) 1)

63.9 32.8 0.311 6.9 13 20.44 0.610 -0.215 3.38 -3.47

62.9 33.8 0.291 13 18.5 20.27 0.570 -0.244 3.26 -3.50

61.9 34.9 0.270 18.5 23.7 20.39 0.529 -0.277 3.14 -3.50

60.9 36.2 0.247 23.7 28.3 20.41 0.484 -0.315 3.01 -3.52

59.9 36.8 0.231 28.3 32.6 20.70 0.453 -0.344 2.91 -3.54

58.9 37.2 0.217 7.0 11.4 20.65 0.425 -0.372 2.78 -3.56

57.9 39.0 0.189 11.4 15.5 20.47 0.370 -0.432 2.62 -3.58

56.9 40.1 0.168 15.5 19.0 20.39 0.329 -0.483 2.48 -3.61

55.9 41.1 0.148 19.0 22.0 20.67 0.290 -0.538 2.32 -3.63
54.9 42.1 0.128 22.0 24.8 20.28 0.251 -0.600 2.16 -3.67

53.9 43.1 0.108 24.8 28.2 20.18 0.212 -0.674 1.99 -3.70

52.9 44.1 0.088 28.2 31.1 20.00 0.172 -0.764 1.79 -3.75

Diameter of copper pipe = 26mm

Diameter of throat = 13mm

Diameter of tank = 24.8 cm

Specific gravity of fluid = 2.96

 Graph of log Q against log h
-3.3
-0.8 -0.7 -0.6 -0.5 -0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1
-3.35
-3.4
-3.45
f(x) = 0.5 x − 3.37
log Q*10-4

-3.5
-3.55
-3.6
-3.65
-3.7
-3.75
-3.8
Log h

Analysis

From the graph, the value of n is

n = 0.4974

y – intercept = -3.3679

A1 = 5.309*10-4

A2 = 1.327*10-4

Cd = 0.1735

Discussion

Coefficient of discharge should be between 0.96-0.98. our value of 0.1735 is way lower than the
expected value. This may be due to the low velocity of fluid flowing in the pipe and also due to
major losses in the pipe.
 Head lost by friction in pipes experiment
Introduction
Fluid flow in pipes is characterized by both major and minor losses. Major losses in pipes are
due to friction whereas minor losses are due to the local disturbances of the flow in conduits such
as projecting gaskets, elbows, valves and similar items. The equation below relates the head
losses due to friction to velocity and pipe length as given by:

4 fl V 2
hf=
D∗2 g
Friction factor is used to describe the roughness of a pipe.

Objective

The objective of this experiment is to confirm the expression

4 fl V 2
hf=
D∗2 g

and determine the values of f and n.

Where
hf = head loss due to friction (m)
f = coefficient of friction
d = internal diameter of the pipe (m)
g = acceleration due to gravity (m/s²)
v = mean velocity of water through the pipe (m/s)
l = length of pipe. (m)

Apparatus

U-Tube Manometer.
6.25mm diameter copper pipe.

Apparatus for measuring flow.

Method

Two points, a distance 2m apart are connected to a U-tube Manometer which may contain a red gauge
fluid of specific gravity 2.97. The tubes connecting the manometer are first expelled of air. The rate of
discharge may be measured by collecting the water in a bucket and weighing it, or by collecting the
water in a measuring cylinder. In each case, the time interval is noted.

The pipe is the connected to constant head tank and the water allowed to flow at its maximum rate by
turning the valve. The reading on the gauge when steady is noted and so is the discharge. The rate of
discharge is measured again at the same heading. This process is repeated 12 times, the head brings
reduced by approximately constant intervals to the minimum.

Results

Length of pipe = 2m

Diameter of pipe = 6.25 m

h1(cm) h2(cm) hm(m) Volume(ml Time(s) Q (*10-5 ) v(m/s) log v hf= (s-1)hm log hf
)
1.009 0.004 0.209 -0.680
101.8 91.2 0.106 880 28.41 3.09

0.972 -0.012 0.552 -0.258

101.0 73 0.28 740 24.81 2.98
0.938 -0.028 0.530 -0.276
100.0 73.1 0.269 700 24.31 2.87

0.961 -0.017 0.489 -0.311

98.9 74.1 0.248 640 21.71 2.95
0.875 -0.058 0.449 -0.348
97.9 75.1 0.228 560 20.86 2.68

0.768 -0.115 0.410 -0.387

96.9 76.1 0.208 540 22.92 2.35
0.802 -0.096 0.374 -0.427
95.9 76.9 0.190 580 23.58 2.45

0.793 -0.101 0.333 -0.478

94.9 78.0 0.169 580 25.84 2.24
0.688 -0.163 0.296 -0.529
93.9 78.9 0.150 480 22.75 2.11
 0.638 -0.195 0.256 -0.592
92.9 79.9 0.130 520 26.58 1.95
0.566 -0.255 0.217 -0.664
91.9 80.9 0.110 420 24.21 1.73

0.551 -0.259 0.179 -0.747

90.9 81.8 0.091 340 20.13 1.69

0
-0.3 -0.25 -0.2 -0.15 -0.1 -0.05 0 0.05
-0.1

-0.2

-0.3
Log hf

f(x) = 1.24 x − 0.34

-0.4

-0.5

-0.6

-0.7

-0.8
Log V

analysis

The Darcy Weisbach Equation

Log hf =log (4𝑓𝑙/2𝑑𝑔) +n log v

From the graph of log hf against log v the gradient was calculated

Gradient = Δy/Δx = 1.24

Hence n=1.2423

Y intercept = -0.3407
length of pipe, l = 2m and diameter of pipe d= 0.00625m making f the

subject of the formula

f = (0.457 ×2×0.00625×9.81)/(4×2) =0.007

Discussion

From this experiment we were able to determine the friction between the fluid and the pipe wall and
internal friction within the fluid. We were able to confirm the Darcy Weisbach Equation which is
commonly used for calculations involving frictional head loss, pipe diameter, flow rate or velocity, etc.
The friction factor, which is used in the Darcy Weisbach equation, depends upon the Reynolds number
and the pipe roughness. From the experiment we found friction factor f to be 0.007.

Conclusion
The objectives of the experiment were achieved since we were able to determine the coefficient
of friction f while the value of n was found to be 1.24, hence the equation was confirmed.

Surge tank experiment

Introduction

A surge tank is a storage tank at the downstream end of a downstream end of a closed barrage pipe that
absorbs the sudden rise in pressure. If there is an increased demand due to loss of pressure, they
provide water. They therefore prevent downstream conduits from being excessively damaged by
internal pressure.

Objective
The objective if the surge tank experiment is to confirm the method of calculation for determining the
variation of level with time in a surge tank.

Apparatus

Reservoir tank, Surge tank, Apparatus for measuring flow, Stop watches

Method

A series of readings of the head difference and discharge were taken and a graph of log h against log v is
plotted. The expression of head lost between the two tanks, in terms of velocity (h f = kvn ) was then
determined from the graph. Surges at each of 5 initial heads in the surge tank were then recorded. Each
head's values were then plotted on the same graph as the curve and the curves were compared.

Results and Discussion

Initial head: 120cm, 110cm, 105cm, 100cm and 95cm.

Initial Initial Initial Initial Initial

head=1.2m head=1.1m head=1.05m head=1.0m head=0.95m
h(m) t(sec) h(m) t(sec) h(m) t(sec) h(m) t(sec) h(m) t(sec)
1.3 0.36 1.3 0.98 1.3 1.19 1.3 1.08 1.3 1.70
1.5 1.20 1.5 1.78 1.5 1.92 1.5 2.17 1.5 2.24
1.8 3.68 1.8 4.80 1.8 4.50 1.8 4.06 1.8 4.16
1.8 6.07 1.8 6.79 1.8 6.22 1.8 7.13 1.8 7.40
1.5 9.59 1.5 10.02 1.5 14.23 1.5 10.01 1.5 10.35

Volum velocit
Max Initial     e   y    
heigh head(m Q(m^3/s
t ) hf Time(s) (m^3) ) (m^2/s) log V log hf
1.59 1.20 0.39 19.46 0.05 0.000257 0.1268 -0.8969 -0.409
1.59 1.10 0.49 16.80 0.05 0.000298 0.1471 -0.8324 -0.309
1.59 1.05 0.54 16.84 0.05 0.000297 0.1466 -0.8339 -0.268
1.59 1.00 0.59 16.89 0.05 0.000296 0.1461 -0.8353 -0.229
1.59 0.95 0.64 16.34 0.05 0.000306 0.1510 -0.8210 -0.194
 Y-Values
0
-0.91 -0.9 -0.89 -0.88 -0.87 -0.86 -0.85 -0.84 -0.83 -0.82 -0.81
-0.05

-0.1

-0.15
Axis Title

-0.2
f(x) = 2.48 x + 1.81 -0.25

-0.3

-0.35

-0.4

-0.45
Axis Title

From the graph n is obtained as 2.4796 while log k = 1.8107

Therefore k=0.2578

4 × f ×2
k= 0.2578= 2× 0.0508× 9.81

f=0.0321
 Graph of height against time for initial head =
120cm
2
1.8
1.6
1.4
Height(cm)

1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Time(s)

Graph of height against time for initial head =

110cm
2
1.8
1.6
1.4
Height(cm)

1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Time(sec)
 Graph of height against time for initial head
=105cm
200
180
160
140
Height(cm)

120
100
80
60
40
20
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Time(s)

Graph of height against time for initial head =

100cm
200
180
160
140
Height(cm)

120
100
80
60
40
20
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Time(sec)
 Graph of height against time for initial head =
95cm
200
180
160
140
Height(cm)

120
100
80
60
40
20
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Time(sec)

Discussion and conclusion

The experiment was undertaken successfully and the value of n was obtained to be 2.4796 which is
slightly above the theoretical value which is 2 and could be due to a higher pressure of the water
hammer or errors in the statistical analysis. The value of the coefficient of friction was obtained to be
0.0321 with the errors being caused by the mistiming of stopwatches or errors in rounding off figures.
There trend exhibited by the graphs of change in head against time taken could be caused by the
fluctuating nature of water in a surge tank. Meaning friction could reduce the acceleration of the water
enough to bring it to rest. All curves show a similar increase to a max level followed by a decrease.

The experiment proved that the formula mentioned in the objective is an appropriate method of
measuring variations in a surge tank and slight errors were made due to parallax during reading and
slight errors during timing.
 Orifice test experiment
Introduction
An orifice is an opening (usually round) through which fluid flows from a reservoir or through a
pipe. An orifice in a tank may be located in the side wall or in the bottom. It is used to measure
the flow rate based on Bernoulli’s equation which relates the pressure and velocity of a fluid.

Objective

The objective of this experiment is to confirm the expression for the flow through a circular orifice

Q= CdA√2g hn and to determine Cd and n.

Apparatus

Orifice tank, Stopwatch, Bucket, Balance.

Method

The overhead steady tank was supplied with water by the use of a pump and time was allowed for the
tank to fill and water to flow through the overflow. The valve o the orifice was then opened and the
head over the orifice adjusted to a maximum (about 1m). The discharge was then collected for a noted
time in a bucket and weighed. The procedure was then repeated for 12 sets of reading, at intervals of
approximately 60mm of head.

Results and discussion

Mass(kg) h(m) Log h Time(s) Q(*10-4) Log Q Volume

(*10-4)
7.310 0.1 0 33.30 2.195 -3.659 7.31
7.110 0.94 -0.0269 32.92 2.159 -3.666 7.11
7.135 0.88 -0.0555 35.70 1.998 -3.700 7.14
7.11 0.82 -0.0862 39.96 1.804 -3.744 7.11
7.535 0.76 -0.119 40.73 1.849 -3.733 7.54
7.285 0.70 -0.155 41.13 1.771 -3.752 7.29
7.035 O.64 -0.194 42.48 1.659 -3.780 7.04
7.01 0.58 -0.237 44.01 1.629 -3.788 7.01
7.135 0.52 -0.284 46.13 1.621 -3.790 7.14
7.535 0.46 -0.337 52.26 1.441 -3.841 7.54
7.535 0.40 -0.399 55.23 1.362 -3.866 7.54
7.535 0.34 -0.469 60.03 1.255 -3.901 7.54

A graph of log Q against log h

-3.5
-0.5 -0.45 -0.4 -0.35 -0.3 -0.25 -0.2 -0.15 -0.1 -0.05 0
-3.55

-3.6

-3.65
log Q*10-4

f(x) = 0.49 x − 3.67 -3.7

-3.75

-3.8

-3.85

-3.9

-3.95
Log h

From the graph, the gradient is 0.4907 and the y- intercept is -3. 6717.Change the equation

Q = CdA√2g hn into the form of y = mx +c, we get C d = 0.1956 which is not the theoretical value which is
approximated at less than 1.

Discussion

The recommended value of the coefficient of Discharger-Cd is between the range of 0.62-0.65. The
coefficient of discharge obtained is 0.1956. This indicates that energy losses due to friction losses and
viscosity occurred resulting in a flow with less energy. The variation between the two values may be due
to slight inaccuracies such as in the removal of the bucket when filling in the water.