ENGINEERING

MATERIAL
HANDOUT 2
Atomic Structure & interatomic bonding
 REVIEW OF ATOMIC STRUCTURE
• Electrons, Protons, Neutrons, Quantum mechanics of
atoms, Electron states, The Periodic Table
• Atomic Bonding in Solids
• Bonding Energies and Forces
• Primary Interatomic Bonds
➢
➢
➢
• Secondary Bonding (Van
❖Three types der Waals)
of Dipole Bonds
• Molecules and Molecular Solids
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Question…?

•
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Answer…

Richard Feynman
Lectures on Physics (1963)
 THE STRUCTURE OF ATOM
5

• An atom is composed of a nucleus surrounded by

electrons. The nucleus contains neutrons and positively
charged protons and carries a net positive charge. The
negatively charged electrons are held to the nucleus by
an electrostatic attraction.

• The electrical charge q carried by each electron and proton is

1.60 × 10−19 coulomb (C).
CHAPTER OUTLINE

Understanding of
interatomic bonding is the
first step towards
understanding/explaining
materials properties
REVIEW OF ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Atoms = nucleus (protons and neutrons) +
electrons
Charges:
• Electrons and protons have negative and positive charges of the
same magnitude, 1.6 × 10-19 Coulombs.
• Neutrons are electrically neutral.
Masses:
Protons and Neutrons have the same mass , 1.66 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟐𝟒 kg.
Mass of an electron is much smaller, 9.11 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑𝟏 kg and can be
neglected in calculation of atomic mass.
• The atomic mass (A) = mass of protons + mass of neutrons
• protons gives chemical identification of the element
• protons = atomic number (Z)
• neutrons defines isotope number
ELECTRONS IN ATOMS (I)
 ELECTRONS IN ATOMS (II)
•

The Number of Available Electron States in

Some of the Electron Shells and Subshells
ELECTRON ENERGY
STATES
 ELECTRONS IN ATOMS (III)
Subshells by energy:
1s,2s,2p,3s,3p,4s,3d,4s,4p,5s,4d,5p,6s,4f,…

– the
valence electrons –

Example: Iron, Z = 26: 1s 22s 22p 63s 23p 63d

64s2
 PERIODIC TABLE
•
•

•
 PERIODIC TABLE

• Elements in the same column (Elemental Group) share

similar properties. Group number indicates the number of
electrons available for bonding.
 PERIODIC TABLE - ELECTRONEGATIVITY

• Electronegativity - a measure of how willing atoms are to accept electrons

• Subshells with one electron - low electronegativity
• Subshells with one missing electron -high electropositivity
• Electronegativity increases from left to right
• Metals are electropositive – they can give up their few valence electrons to
become positively charged ions
 BONDING ENERGIES AND FORCES

•
•

•
 INTERATOMIC FORCES 20

• Here we will discuss the forces between atoms

• The forces may be both attractive and repulsive
• The net force is important to decide the bonding
strength between atoms

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BINDING ENERGY AND INTERATOMIC SPACING

• Interatomic Spacing

• The interatomic spacing in a solid metal

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THE ELECTRON VOLT (EV) – ENERGY UNIT
CONVENIENT FOR DESCRIPTION OF ATOMIC BONDING

• E=q×V
For q = 1.6 x 10-19 Coulombs V = 1 volt
1 eV = 1.6 x 10-19 J
 ATOMIC BONDING
24

I. metallic bonds;
II. covalent bonds;
III. ionic bonds; and
IV. van der Waals bonds.

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 ATOMIC BONDING
25

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 THE METALLIC BOND
26

Adapted from Fig. 2-11,

Askeland , Fulay &
Wright(6e)
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THE METALLIC BOND (CONT.)

•
•
•
•

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 COVALENT BONDING (I)
•

Formation of covalent bonds:

• Cooperative sharing of valence electrons
• Can be described by orbital overlap
• Covalent bonds are HIGHLY directional
• Bonds - in the direction of the greatest orbital overlap
• Covalent bond model: an atom can covalently bond with at most 8-N’,
• N’ = number of valence electrons
Example: Cl2 molecule. ZCl =7 (1S2 2S2 2P6 3S2 3P5) N’ = 7, 8 - N’ = 1 → can
form only one covalent bond
 COVALENT BONDING (III)
• The potential energy of a system of covalently interacting
atoms depend not only on the distances between atoms,
but also on angles between bonds…
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THE COVALENT BOND (CONT.)

Properties of covalent bonded materials:
•

•
•
•

•
•

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THE COVALENT BOND (CONT.)

•

• We cannot simply predict whether or not a material will be high

or low strength, ductile or brittle, simply based on the nature of
bonding!!!!! We need additional information on the atomic,
microstructure, and macrostructure of the material;
however, the nature of bonding does point to a trend for
materials with certain types of bonding and chemical
compositions
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 THE IONIC BOND 33

• Cation: atom that contributes the electrons left with a net positive
charge
• Anion; atom that accepts the electrons acquires a net negative
charge

Adapted from Fig. 2-14, Askeland , Fulay & Wright(6e)

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 IONIC BONDING (II)

Ionic bonds:
• very strong, • Electron transfer reduces the energy of the system of
• Non- atoms, that is, electron transfer is energetically
directional favorable
bonds Because the positively charged ion can attract
multipule negatively charged anions, the ionic bond is
nondirectional
• Note relative sizes of ions: Na shrinks and Cl expands
 VAN DER WAALS BONDING 35

• Secondary, van der Waals, or physical bonds

• Van der Waals force:

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 36

VAN DER WAALS BONDING

Van der Waals bonding is divided in to three
mechanisms:
i. London forces
ii. Keesom forces
iii. Debye forces
i. London forces: the interaction s are between two dipoles
that are induced in atoms or molecules

Adapted from Fig. 2-15, Askeland , Fulay &

Wright(6e)
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VAN DER WAALS BONDING

ii. Keesom forces:

Keesom force = hydrogen Type

bondof Van der
Waal bond

• The relatively strong Keesom force between water molecules is the

reason why surface tension and boiling point of water is much
higher than those of many organic liquids of comparable
molecular weight
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 38

VAN DER WAALS BONDING

iii. Debye force:

• General notes regarding Van der Waals bonding:

• Van der Waals bonds are secondary bonds, but the atom with in the
molecule group of atoms are joined by strong covalent or ionic bond
• Heating water to the boiling point breaks the van der Waals bonds and
changes water to steam, but much higher temperatures are required to
break the covalent bonds joining oxygen and hydrogen atoms.
• Van der Waals forces between atoms and molecules play a vital role in
determining the surface tension and boiling points of liquids
• In polymers: stronger Vander Waals forces stiffer and exhibit higher glass
temp.

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SUMMARY OF ATOMIC BONDING

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IMPORTANT PROPERTIES

I. Melting temperature
II. Elastic modulus
III. Thermal expansion coefficient

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 MELTING POINT 41

• binding energy, the(minimum)

energy required to create or break
the bond. Consequently, materials
having a high binding energy also
have a high strength and a high
melting temperature.

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 MELTING POINT
42

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MODULUS OF ELASTICITY
• the modulus of elasticity of a material

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• An interesting point that needs to be made is that not all

properties of engineered materials are microstructure
sensitive.
•

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 Young’s Modulus, E
Graphite
Metals
Ceramics Composites
Alloys
Semicond Polymers /fibers
1200
1000 Diamond
800
600
E(GPa) 400 Tungsten
Si carbide
Al oxide Carbon fibers only
Molybdenum Si nitride
Steel, Ni CFRE(|| fibers)*
200 Tantalum <111>
Platinum Si crystal
Cu alloys <100> Aramid fibers only
100 Zinc, Ti
80 Silver, Gold Glass-soda AFRE(|| fibers)*
Aluminum

109 Pa
60 Glass fibers only
Magnesium, GFRE(|| fibers)*
40 Tin
Concrete
20 GFRE* Based on data in Table B2,
CFRE*
GFRE( fibers)*
Callister 6e. Composite data
Graphite
10
8
based on
CFRE( fibers)*
6 AFRE( fibers)* reinforced epoxy with 60 vol%
Polyester
4 PET
of aligned carbon (CFRE),
PS
Epoxy only
aramid (AFRE), or glass (GFRE)
2 PC
fibers.
PP
1 HDPE
0.8
0.6 Wood( grain)
PTFE
0.4
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0.2 LDPE
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COEFFICIENT OF THERMAL EXPANSION (CTE)

•
𝛼=

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SUMMARY: BONDING, STRUCTURE, PROPERTIES

Ceramics Large bond energies
Ionic and Covalent bonds large Tm, E Small α

Metals Varying bond energy

Metallic bonding intermediate Tm, E, α

Polymers directional properties

Covalent and Secondary secondary dominates outcome
small Tm, E large α

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