Engineering Materials

Atoms and Bonding

 Atom
• Consists of electron, proton and neutron.
• Protons and neutrons remain in cluster called nucleus
• Electrons surround the nucleus

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 Atom
• Each atom is characterized by Atomic number which
is the number of protons in the nucleus.
• In a neutral atom number of electron is same as
number of proton.
• For a given element, number of proton for all atoms
is same whereas number of neutron may vary.
• Two atoms having same number of protons but
different number of neutron are called isotopes of
each other.

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 Atom
• The atomic mass of a specific atom may be expressed
as the sum of the masses of protons and neutrons
within the nucleus.
• The atomic weight of an element corresponds to the
weighted average of the atomic masses of the atom’s
naturally occurring isotopes.
• Atomic mass unit (amu) may be used for
computations of atomic weight
• 1 amu is 1/12th atomic mass of the most common
isotope of carbon

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 ELECTRONS IN ATOMS
Atomic Models

• Predicted by quantum mechanics

• Bohr atomic model

•Electron revolves around nucleus in discrete

orbitals
•Energy of electron is quantized

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 Advancement in quantum mechanics

• Wave Mechanics: Schrodinger equation.

• Electron behaves like both particles and wave
• Position of electron is given by probability of
finding electron around nucleus at a given
location (Called electron clouds)

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 Quantum numbers
• Principal quantum number (n)
• Angular momentum quantum number
(subshell) (l=0,1,2…n-1)
• Magnetic quantum number (m=-l,..-1,0,1,..+l)
• Spin quantum number (s=-1/2, +1/2)

(n, l, m, s)
Energy of electron can be caculated.
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0 0
0 0
1 -1,0,+1
0 0
1 -1,0,+1
2 2

0 0
1 -1,0,+1
2 -2,-1,0,+1,+2
3 -3,-2-1,0,1,2,3

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 Electron Configurations
• Pauli’s Exclusion Principle: This principle
stipulates that each electron state can hold no
more than two electrons.
• Electrons fill up the lowest possible energy
states in the electron shells and subshells, two
electrons (having opposite spins) per state.
• Atom having electrons with lowest possible
energy states is called ground state

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 Electron Configurations
• Valence electrons are those that occupy the
outermost shell
• Valence electrons participate in the bonding
between atoms to form atomic and molecular
aggregates
• Many of the physical and chemical properties
of solids are based on these valence electrons

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The Periodic Table

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 The Periodic Table
• Group 0 are the inert gases
• The Group VIIA elements (F, Cl, Br, I, and At) are
called the halogens
• Groups IA and IIA are the alkali and the alkaline
earth metals (Li, Na, K, Be, Mg, Ca, etc.)
• Groups IIIB through IIB, are termed the
transition metals, which have partially filled d
electron states

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• Groups IIIA, IVA, and VA (B, Si, Ge, As, etc.)
display characteristics intermediate between
the metals and nonmetals

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 Atomic Bonding in Solids

Bond Length

Bonding energy

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 PRIMARY INTERATOMIC BONDS
Ionic Bonding :
• Generally formed of metals (IA,IIA,IIA) and
non-metals (VA,VIA,VIIA)
• Metal loose one electron from valence shell
and being accepted by non-metal
• Positive ion (cation) and negative ion (anion)
attract each other by electrostatic attraction
(Coulomb Force)

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 PRIMARY INTERATOMIC BONDS
Ionic Bonding :

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 PRIMARY INTERATOMIC BONDS
Ionic Bonding :
• Solid at ambient temperature
• Hard and brittle
• Relatively high melting and boiling point
• Conducts electricity as molten liquids or
dissolved in water

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 PRIMARY INTERATOMIC BONDS
Covalent Bonding:
• Generally between non-metal and non-metal
• Sharing of electrons between atoms
• Bonding between same element or element
close to each other in periodic table

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 PRIMARY INTERATOMIC BONDS
Covalent Bonding:

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 PRIMARY INTERATOMIC BONDS
Covalent Bonding:
• Low melting and boiling point
• At ambient temperature may exists as solid,
liquid or gas
• Soft or brittle solids
• Poor electrical and thermal conductivity

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 PRIMARY INTERATOMIC BONDS
• It is possible to have interatomic bonds that
are partially ionic and partially covalent, and,
in fact, very few compounds exhibit pure ionic
or covalent bonding.
• The degree of either bond type depends on
the relative positions of the constituent atoms
in the periodic table or the difference in their
electronegativities

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 PRIMARY INTERATOMIC BONDS
Metallic Bonding:
• Found in metals and their alloys
• Valence electrons of metals can be modeled
as sea of electrons
• Metallic binding is attraction between free
floating valence electrons and positive
charged metal ions

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PRIMARY INTERATOMIC BONDS

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 PRIMARY INTERATOMIC BONDS
Metallic Bonding:
• High melting and boiling points
• Conducts electricity and heat
• Hard and dense
• Ductile and malleable
• Optical and magnetic properties

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Secondary bonding/ Van der wall forces

• Due to dipole
• Between:
Induced dipole-induced dipole
Induced dipole-permanent dipole
Permanent dipole-permanent dipole

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Secondary bonding/ Van der wall forces

Induced dipole

Permanent dipole

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