01 Energy Band and Semiconductors

Chapter
Energy Band And

Charge Carrier In
Semiconductor 1
Introduction
In this chapter we will study about semiconductor materials, band diagram in solids, fermi energy
levels, doping of semiconductor, type of semiconductors, semiconductor in equilibrium.
1.1 Semiconductor Materials

Semiconductor are group of material having conductivities between those of metals and insulators. Two
general classification of semiconductors are the elemental semiconductor materials, found in group IV of the
periodic table, and the compound semiconductor material, most of which are formed by combination of group
III and V elements.Semiconductors can also be formed by combining elements of group II and VI. Some examples
of semiconductor material are
• Elemental semiconductor : Silicon, Germanium
• Compound semiconductor : Aluminium Phosphide,
Aluminium Arsenide,
Gallium Phosphide,
Galium Ansenide,
Indium Phosphide.
Type of Solids
Amorphous, single crystal, pholycrystalline are three general type of solids. each type is characterised by
size of an ordered region within the material. An ordered region is a spatial volume in which atoms or melecules
have regular geometric arrangement or periodicity. In amorphous solids the ordered arrangement is only within
a few atoms or molecules, while in polycrystalline material has high degree of order over many atoms and
molecules. These ordered region are also called single crystal region or grains and these grains are seperated by
grain boundaries.
Note: The advantage of single crystal material is that in general their electrical properties are superior to that of
non-single crystal material, since grain boundaries tend to degrade the electrical characteristics.
Space Lattice
The single crystal solid has regular geometry and periodicity in the atomic arrangement. A group of
atoms is repeated at regular interval in each of the three to form the single crystal. The periodic arrangement of
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2 Electronic Devices and Circuits
atom in crystal is called lattice.
1.2 Energy Band in Solids

In an atom we have electrons and the property of each electron is described in terms of it’s quantum
number
Principal Quantum number (n) : It describe the shell in which electron is present
Orbital momentum quantum number (Azimuthal quantum number) ( l ) : Varies from
0, 1, 2, …, n – 1
Orbital magnetic quantum number (me) : Varies from 0, 1, 2, … l.
Magnetic spin quantum number (ms) : It’s value can be 1/2.
The Pauli’s exclusion principale states that no two electron in a system (in an atom) can have same set
of quantum numbers. Each electron will have different quantum numbers and discrete energy inside an atom.
Note: In an atom the energy of electron is quantized.

Now consider the case when N atoms are bought close to each other to form a solid. When atoms are far
away from each other they do not interact with each other and they have electrons with discrete energy levels
and each atom follow pauli’s exclusion principle seperately. For example in silicon and germanium
Si(14) = 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p2
and Ge(32) = 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p6, 4s2, 3d10, 4p2
Thus when atoms are far away from each other then electrons in atom of silicon and germanium are
distributed as shown above. Now as ‘N’ atoms are brought close to each other then they start interacting with
each other. For example when N silicon atoms are brought close to each other then the electrons in the outer
most shell the 3rd shell will interact initially and electrons in 2nd and 1st shell will not be effected.
According to the Pauli’s exclusion principle the joining of the atoms to form a system (crystal) do not
alter the total number of quantum states regardless of the size. However, since no two electrons can have same
quantum number, thus the discrete energy level will split into band of energies in order that each electron can
occupy a distinct quantum state.
To understand how the discrete energy level is splitting into energy band let us take an example of
hydrogen atom with single electron in only one shell. Suppose we form a crystal using 1019 hydrogen atom, when
the atoms are far away from each other and they are not interacting then they can have same quantum states
and approximately same discrete energy level. But when they are brought close to each other then to follow
pauli’s exclusion principle the splitting of initial quantized energy level into band of discrete energy levels since
1019 electrons in crystal cannot have same energy thus we get energy band in the crystal or solid. This effect is
shown in Fig 1.1, where ro represent the equilibrium interatomic distance in the crystal.
Electron energy
r0 Interatomic distance
Fig 1.1 : The splitting of an energy state into a band of allowed energies.

Energy band and Charge Carrier in Semiconductor 3
In the above case we took example of hydrogen which is single electron atom, coming back to crystal
formed by silicon:-
We saw that initially outermost shell (3rd) of atoms will interact and 3rd shell of one atom has 8 states
(3s 2 states, 3p 6 states) so N atoms when brought close to each other then splitting of 3rd shell lead to
splitting of 8N states. When atoms are brought more close to each other then splitting of n = 2 and n = 1 shell
will also take place. The splitting of these discrete energy level is shown in Fig. 1.2.
The splitting is more complicated than as shown in Fig. 1.2, generally only 3rd shell split and the actual
splitting of 3rd shell in silicon is shown is Fig. 1.3.
n=3
Electron energy
n=2
n=1
r0 Interatomic distance
Fig 1.2 : Schematic showing the splitting of three energy states into allowed bands of energies
4N states
0N electrons
6N states
2N electrons
3p
Electron energy
Eg
4N states 3s
4N electrons 2N states
2N electrons
ao r
Fig 1.3 : The splitting of the 3s and 3p states of silicon into the allowed and forbidden energy bands
In fig. 1.3 we can see that out of 8N states in 3rd shell 4N states go in low energy and 4N states gain
higher energy level. Since at 0 K electrons have low energy so the 4N electrons (4 electrons in 3rd shell of each
atom and N atoms) will try to go in low energy state and thus we get all 4N states filled in low energy level and
all 4N states at high energy level are empty .
From Fig. 1.3 we get one more information, a0 is the equilibrium interatomic distance and at this
distance we get band splitting such that the band at higher energy level is called conduction band and it is
completely empty and band at lower energy level is called valence band and it is completely filled, band gap in
Eg. The band gap Eg is the gap between top of valence band and bottom of conduction band.
REMEMBER Stable inter atomic distance is that distance where only outermost shell of atom will split, for
example here stable interatomic dustance is distance where the 3rd shell of Si atom will split
and if we keep as reducing the interatomic distance then 2nd shell will also split and it is not
stable interatomic distance

1.3 Electrical Conduction in Solids

Let us under stand how bond model and energy band are related to each other
1.3.1 The Energy Band and The Bond Model

In the previous discussion we have seen that the bandgap between the two energy bands conduction
band and valence band is Eg.
Case 1. Semiconductor at T = 0 K
At T = 0 K there is no energy in the crystal and all electron of crystal go and settle in the valence
band.Since for semiconductor number of electron is 4N and number of states available in valence band is also
4N . Thus valence band is completely full and conduction band is completely empty. If we look at this situation
through band model then it is similar to that is shown in Fig. 1.4. Here at T = 0 K all the electrons in system are
in their lowest state and are directly involved in covalent bonding. Thus even if we apply electric field across the
semiconductor at T = 0 K no current will flow
Fig 1.4 : Two-dimensional representation of the covalent bonding in a semiconductor at T = 0K
I= 0
Semiconductor
T=0K
V volts
Fig 1.5 : Semiconductor at 0 K do not allow any current to flow as no carrier is free
Thus no electron is free in the bond model as all electrons are involved in covalent bond of Si at 0 K and
in band model conduction band is completely empty and valence band is completely filled. Thus when electric
field is applied we always assume the movement of electrons will take place inside the band only. Thus drift
current flow due to flow of carriers within band only that is movement of carriers inside valance band and
conduction band only.
Note: Eg is band gap, Ec is minimum energy in conduction band, Ev is maximum energy in valence band. Ec, Ev,
Eg have unit of ev (electron volt). Electron volt is unit of energy.

Conduction
Band Completely empty
Ec
Eg
Ev
Valence
Band Completely filled
Fig 1.6 : Line representation of energy band at T = 0 K.
REMEMBER Concept to be remembered: When ever electric field is applied then due to electric field the
carriers or electrons can move intra band or inside band only to flow current and not inter band.
That is electrons can move withing valence band or within conduction band only due to electric
field and not from valence band to conduction band and vice-versa. Current will be generated
through semiconductor by intra band movement of electron only.
Now when elecric field is applied in semiconductor then electrons present in valence band cannot move
and there are no electrons in conduction band thus no current will flow though semiconductor.
Case 2: At T > 0 K
When temperature of crystal is greater than 0 K then electrons present in valence band will get some
energy and few electrons will get enough energy such that it overcome band gap and move from valence band to
conduction band and thus electron moving from valence band to conduction band leave behind an empty space
in valence band and fill empty space in conduction band. This movement of electron from valence band to
conduction band can be modelled as bond breaking in bond model. When temperature is increased then the
atoms start vibrating and the covalent band between atoms break and breaking of covalent bond release an
electron and an empty space. The released electron is negatively charged and empty space effectively get
positive charge of magnitude equal to that of negative charge on electron to maintain charge neutrality.
Thus movement of electron from valence band to conduction band can be modelled as breaking of
covalent bonds. Now at T > 0 K the conduction band is not completely empty and valance band is not completely
filled and now if we apply electric field across the semiconductor then the electrons can move intraband and
produce non zero current.The breaking of covalent bond and jumping of electron from valence band to conduction
band produce free electron which make semiconductor conductive.
–
e
Fig 1.6 : (a) Two-dimensional representation of the breaking of a covalent bond

Conduction
Band
Ec
Eg
Ev
Valence
Band
Fig 1.7 : Line representation of band diagram at T > 0 K.
Note: • At T = 0 K the semiconductor act as an insulator and I = 0 for any amount of voltage applied across the
semiconductor bar
• At T = 0 K the semiconductor is obviously neutral (zero charge)
• At T > 0 K few electrons have become free by breaking covalent bond but when electron become free then
it leave behind a positively charged ion behind and still neutrality of semiconductor is maintained even at
T > 0 K.
• As temperature is increased further more and more covalent bond will break and more electrons will be
generated and conductivity of semiconductor will increase
• Due to increase in temperature the movement of electron is inter band if energy obtained by electron is
greater than equal to Eg but if energy of electron is low, less than Eg then electron will keep vibrating within
the present band and these vibration are not in a particular direction so current produced due to these
random vibration will be zero.
From the above discussion the question arises that as we keep on increasing temperature then covalent
bonds will keep on breaking and at a particular temperature all covalent bonas will break but this is wrong
because there are two random process that are taking place simultaneously that is generation and recombination.
Generation means breaking of covalent bond modelled as movement of electron from valence band to conduction
bond and recombination is another random process that take place with generation that is when a free electron
in crystal come in close proximity with the empty state of the silicon ion (which was created after bond breaking
and the free electron fill the empty state and reform covalent bond. Thus recombination is modelled as movement
of electron from conduction band to valence band.
At a constant temperature number of electrons in conduction band and empty states in valance band
remain constant due to generation and recombination process running together.
REMEMBER When temperature of crystal is increased then electrons will vibrate randomly and equivalently
no current will flow and if electric field is also applied in semiconductor when T > 0 K then
current will flow because the electrons will move in a particular direction.
We can also relate this bond breaking to the E versus k energy bands. Fig 1.8 (a) shows the E versus
k(wave number) diagram of the conduction and valence bands at T = 0 K. The energy states in the valence band
are completely full and the states in the conduction band are empty. Fig 1.8 (b) shows these same bands for T >
0 K, in which some electrons have gained enough energy to jump to the conduction band and have left empty
states in the valence band. We are assuming at this point that no external forces are applied so the electron and
“empty state” distributions are symmetrical with k.

E E
k k
(a) (b)
Fig 1.8 : The E versus k diagram of the conduction and volence bands of a semiconductor at (a) T = 0 K, and
(b) T > 0 K
1.3.2 Drift Current

Current always flow due to net flow of charge, if we have collection of positively charged ions with a
volume density N(cm–3), each ion has a charge of q and net average drift velocity vd(cm/s) then drift current
density would be
J = qNvd A/cm2 …(1.1)
If instead of average drift velocity we consider individual ion velocity then
N
J q v di …(1.2)
i 1
Since electrons have charge thus electron movement in conduction band will give rise to current. When
no external field is applied then the E – k plot will be symmetric as shown in Fig 1.8 (b) which show that number
of electrons with positive momentum (k) is same as that of number of electron with negative momentum and net
drift current density due to these electron will be zero. This was obvious result as no external force is applied.
If a net force is applied or some electric field is applied then the E – k plot will not be symmetric
anymore, and total momentum will also be non zero and drift current density will also be non zero. The electron
distribution will be seen as shown in Fig. 1.9 which show that now net momentum exist.
We may write the drift current density due to the motion of electrons as
n
J e vi
i 1
where e is the magnitude of the electronic charge and n is the number of electrons per unit volume in
the conduction band. Again, the summation is taken over a unit volume so the current density is A/cm2. We may
note from above equation that the current is directly related to the electron velocity; that is, the current is
related to how well the electron can move in the crystal.
Fig 1.9 : The asymmetric distribution of electrons in the E vursus k diagram when an external force is applied.

1.3.3 Concept of holes

We saw that when electrons move from valence band to conduction band then they leave behind empty
spaces in valence band. When we apply electric field now electrons will move as shown in Fig. 1.10. The figure
show top layer of valence band with few empty spaces and electric field is applied.
Electric Field
Fig 1.10 : Movement of electrons in valence band

We can see that movement of electron is valance band, apposite to direction of electric field. When
electron move from it’s location and move to an empty space then it leave behind an empty space. From above
figures we can see that the movement of electrons which are negatively charged particles can be viewed as
movement of empty spaces (holes) in direction of electric field.Thus we can say that movement of electrons in
valence band can be seen as movement of holes and since movement of holes is in direction of electric filed we
can say that holes act as positively charged particles.
Note: Thus when electric field is applied then electrons will flow in conduction band and holes will flow in
valance band to contribute to current flowing.
1.3.4 Electron Effective Mass

The movement of electron in lattice will be different from that of an electron in free space. In addition to
an externally applied force there are internal forces in the crystal due to positively charged ions or protons and
negatively charged electrons. Thus
Ftotal = Fext + Fint = ma …(1.3)
where Ftotal, Fext, and Fint are the total force, the externally applied force, and the internal forces,
respectively, acting on a particle in a crystal. The parameter a is the acceleration and m is the rest mass of the
particle.
Since it is difficult to take into account all of the interal forces, we will write the equation
Fext = m * a …(1.4)
where the acceleration a is now directly related to the external force. The parameter m*, called the
effective mass, takes into account the particle mass and also takes into account the effect of the internal forces.
We can relate effective mass of an electron in a crystal to the E versus k curves. To begin, we consider
case of a free electron whose E versus k curve are as shown in Fig. 1.11.
K
K= 0
Fig 1.11 : Evs k plot

The momentum (p) is given by

p k
p2
and E
2m
2 2
k
E
2m
where k is wave number, is normalised plank constant. Taking 2nd derivative of above equation with
respect to k we have
d2 E 2
dk 2 m
1 d2 E 1
…(1.5)
2
dk 2
m
The second derivative of E with respect to k is inversely proportional to the mass of the particle. For the
case of a free electron, the mass is a constant (nonrelativistic effect), so the second derivative function is a
d2 E
constant. We may also note from Fig. 1.11 that is a positive quantity, which implies that the mass of the
dk 2
electron is also a positive quantity.
If we apply an electric field to the free electron and use Newton’s classical equation of motion, we can
write
F = ma = –eE …(1.6)
where a is the acceleration, E is the applied electric field, and e is the magnitude of the electronic
charge. Solving for the acceleration, we have
E
a …(1.7)
m
The motion of the free electron is in the opposite direction to the applied electric field because of the
negative charge.
We may now apply the results to the electron in the bottom of an allowed energy band. Consider the
allowed energy band in Fig. 1.12(a). The energy near the bottom of this energy band may be approximated by a
parabola, just as that of a free particle. We may write.
E – Ec = C1(k)2
Parabolic
E approximation E
EC
EC
k Parabolic k
approximation
k=0 k k=0 k
(a) (b)
Fig 1.12 : (a) The conduction band in reduced k space, and the parabolic approximation
(b) The valence band in reduced k space, and the parabolic approximation.
The energy Ec is the energy at the bottom of the band. Since E > Ec, the parameter C1 is a positive

quantity.
Taking the second derivative of E with respect to k, we obtain
d2 E
= 2C1 …(1.9)
dk 2
We may put above equation in the form
1 d2 E 2C1
…(1.10)
2
h dk 2
h2
h2
Comparing Eq. (1.5) with Eq. (1.10), we may equate to the mass of the particle. However, the
2C1
curvature of the curve in Fig. 1.12 (a) will not, in general, be the same as the curvature of the free-particle
curve. We may write.
1 d2 E 2C1 1
2 …(1.11)
2
h dk 2
h m*
where m* is called the effective mass. Since C1 > 0, we have that m* > 0 also,
If we apply an electric field to the electron in the bottom of the allowed energy band, we may write the
acceleration as
eE
a …(1.12)
m*n
where mn* is the effective mass of the electron. The effective mass mn* of the electron near the bottom of
the conduction band is a constant.
1.3.5 Hole Effective Mass

In valence band the current flow is effectively due to movement of holes and if we assume that drift
velocity of hole is vi then current density will be
J e vi …(1.13)
i
Note: Obviously the E – k plot of valence band will be symmetric when no electric field is applied and total
momentum will be zero, as shown in Fig 1.8 (b)
The vi in the summation of eq. (1.13) is related to how well this positively charged particle moves in the
semiconductor. Now consider an electron near the top of the allowed energy band shown in Fig 1.13 (b). The
energy near the top of the allowed energy band may again be approximated by a parabola so that we may write
(E – Ev) = –C2(k)2 …(1.14)
The energy Ev is the energy at the top of the energy band. Since E < Ev for electrons in this band, then
the parameter C2 must be a positive quanity.
E E
k k
(a) (b)
Fig 1.13 : (a) valence band with conventional electron-filled states and empty states
(b) Concept of positive charges occupying the original empty states.

And proceeding in a similar fashion, we can write

1 d2 E 2C2 1
2 …(1.15)
2
h dk 2
h m*
where m* is again an effective mass. We have argued that C2 is a positive quantity, which now implies
that m* is a negative quantity. An electron moving near the top of an allowed energy band behaves as if it has a
negative mass.
If we again consider an electron near the top of an allowed energy band and use Newton’s force equation
for an applied electric field, we will have
F = m*a = –eE …(1.16)
However, m* is now a negative quantity, so we may write
eE eE
a …(1.17)
| m*| | m*|
An electron moving near the top of an allowed energy band moves in the same direction as the applied
electric field.
Thus particle moving in valence band has property that it move in direction of electric field. So it can
have two properties.
1. Positive charge and positive effective mass
2. negative charge and negative effective mass
REMEMBER The net motion of electrons in a nearly full band can be described by considering just the empty
states, provided that a positive electronic charge is associated with each state and that the m*
from Eq. (1.15) is associated with each state. We now can model this band as having particles
with a positive electronic charge and a positive effective mass. The density of these particles in
the valence band is the same as the density of empty electronic energy states. This new particle
*
is the hole. The hole, then, has a positive effective mass denoted by m p and a positive electronic
charge, so it will move in the same direction as an applied field.
1.3.6 Comparison between holes and electrons

We have already seen that current will be produced due to motion of electrons in conduction band and
holes in valence band. Motion of electrons in valence band is modelled as motion of positively charged holes.
The effective mass of electron is mn* and effective mass show how much acceleration will the charged particle
will experience.
Fext = m*a
Since electron moving in conduction band has lot of empty space and free to move but electron moving
in valence band which is modelled is hole moves in a crowded region thus motion in valence band will be more
restrictive. Thus for same external force holes will experience less acceleration thus
*
mn* < m p …(1.18)
Note: effective mass of electron will be less than effective mass of holes.
Example 1.1
There are two semiconductor material whose E – k curve shown. Find whose effective mass
of electron will be more than that of other.

E
Semiconductor 1
Semiconductor 2
Ec
K
Solution 1.1
We know that
1 1 d2 E
m* 2
dk 2
we can see that
d2 E d2 E
dk 2 semiconductor 1 dk 2 semiconductor 2
Thus m*n1 m*n2
1.4 Metal, Insulators, and semiconductors

Each crystal has its own energy-band structure. We noted that the splitting of the energy stages in
silicon, for example, to form the valence and conduction bands, was complex. Complex band splitting occurs in
other crystal trading to large variation in band structures between various solids and to a wide range of electrical
characteristics observed in these various materials. We can qualitatively begin to understand some basic
differences in electrical characteristics caused by variations in band structure by considering some simplified
energy bands.
There are several possible energy-band conditions to consider. Fig 1.14(a) shows an allowed energy
band that is completely empty of electrons. If an electric field is applied, there are no particles to move, so there
will be no current. Fig 1.14(b) shows another allowed energy band whose energy states are completely full of
electrons. We argued in the previous section that a completely full energy band will also not give rise to a
current. A material that has energy bands either completely empty or completely fill is an insulator. The resistivity
of an insulator is very large or, conversely, the conductivity of an insulator is very small. There are essentially no
charged particles that can contribute to a drift current. Fig 1.14(c) shows a simplified energy-band diagram of
an insulator. The band gap energy Eg of an insulator is usually on the order of 2.5 to 6 eV or larger, so that at
room temperature, there are essentially no electrons in the conduction band and the valence band remains
completely full. There are very few thermally generated electrons and holes in an insulator.
Conduction
band
(full)
Allowed Allowed
energy energy Eg
band band Valence
(empty) (full) band
(full)
(a) (b) (c)

Fig 1.14 : Allowed energy bands showing (a) an empty band, (b) a completely full band, and
(c) the bondgap energy between the two allowed bands.

Fig 1.15(a) shows an energy band with relatively few electrons near the bottom of the band. Now, if an
electric field is applied, the electrons can gain energy, move to higher energy states, and move through the
crystal. The net flow of charge is a current. Fig 1.15(b) shows an allowed energy band that is almost full of
electrons, which means that we can consider the holes in this band. If an electric field is applied, the holes can
move and give rise to a current. Fig 1.15(c) shows the simplified energy-band diagram for this case. The band
gap energy may be on the order of 1 eV. This energy-band diagram represents a semiconductor for T > 0K. The
resistivity of a semiconductor, as we will see in the next chapter, can be controlled and varied over many orders
of magnitude.
The characteristics of a metal include a very low resistivity. The energy-band diagram for a metal may be
in one of two forms. Fig 1.16(a) shows the case of a partially full band in which there are many electrons
available for conduction, so that the material can exhibit a large electrical conductivity. Fig 1.16(b) shows
another possible energy-band diagram of a metal. The band splitting into allowed and forbidden energy bands is
a complex phenomenon and Fig. 1.16(b) shows a case in which the conduction and valence bands overlap and
the equilibrium interatomic distance. As in the case shown in Fig.1.16(a), there are large numbers of electrons
as well as large numbers of empty energy states into which the electrons can move, so this material can be
exhibit a very high electrical conductivity.
Conduction
band
(almost full)
Allowed Allowed
Electrons Eg Empty
energy band energy band states
(almost (almost Valence
empty) full) band
(almost full)
(a) (b) (c)
Fig 1.15 : Allowed energy bands showing (a) an almost empty band, (b) an almost full band, and
(c) the bandgap energy between the two allowed bands.
Partially
filled
band
Upper band
full Lower Electrons
band band
(a) (b)
Fig 1.16 : Two possible energy bands of a metal showing

(a) a partially filled band, and (b) overlapping allowed energy bands
1.5 Direct and indirect band gap semiconductor material
From Fig 1.17(a) show the E versus k diagram for GaAs. The valence band maxima and conduction
band minima occur at same value of k, that is at k = 0. The semiconductor material in which the maxima of
valence band and minima of conduction band occur at same value of k are called direct-band gap semiconductor
materials. In such semiconductors the transition between the two allowed bands can take place with no change
in crystal momentum. The Fig 1.17(b) show that E versus k diagram for silicon, here the maxima of valence
band and minima of conduction band donot occur at same value of k. The definition of band gap remain same, Eg

is equal to difference between minima of conduction band and maxima of valence band. The semiconductor
material in which the maxima of valence band and minima of conduction band donot occur at same value of k
are called indirect band gap semicoductor material. In these semiconductors the transition between the two
allowed bands will take place by change of momentum, for conservation of momentum it is obvious that interaction
with crystal will take place.
4 4
GaAs Conduction Si Conduction
band band
3 3
2 2
E = 0.31
Energy (eV)
Energy (eV)
1 1
Eg
Eg
0 0
–1 –1
Valence Valence
band band
–2 –2
[111] 0 [100] [111] 0 [100]
k k
(a) (b)
Fig 1.17 : Energy band structures of (a) GaAs, and (b) Si
E E
Et
Eg h = Eg h = Eg
K K
(a) (b)
Fig 1.18 : Simpler diagram of (a) direct, and (b) indirect bandgap semiconductor

1.6 Effect of temperature on band gap

From the band and bond modelling we have seen that creating a free electron need movement of electron
from valence band to conduction band which is modelled as breaking of the covalent band. Thus we can say that
band gap Eg is directly proportional to band energy. That is stronger the band more energy is required to break
it which can be modelled as higher band gap Eg. As the temperature increases the atoms gain energy and they
start vibrating at it’s location and make the bond with other atoms weak thus it can be modelled in band diagram
as decrease in band gap with rise in temperature.
Note: Both germanium and silicon from covalent band in the crystal. The size of germanium atom is greater than
size of silicon atom thus the covalent bond of Ge atom will be weak with respect to covalent bond of Si. Thus
bandgap of germanium (EgGe) will be less than band gap of silicon (ESi)
The band gap of germanium and silicon
EgGe EgSi
at 0 K 0.7 & 5 eV 1.21 eV
at 300 K 0.73 eV 1.1 eV
EgGe(T) = Ego – 2.4 × 10–4 T
EgSi(T) = Ego – 3.6 × 10–4 T
(In both the equation T is temperature in kelvin)
1.7 Density of states function

We have already discussed that current flow in semiconductor is by flow of electrons in conduction band
and flow of holes in valence band. To describe the current voltage characteristic of the semiconductor devices it
is very important to determine the number of electrons and holes in semiconductor that are available for
conduction.
To determine the number of electrons in conduction band and number of holes in valence band we will
first of all determine the number of quantum states in conduction band and valence band. We know that only
one electron can occupy a given quantum state.
When we discussed the splitting of energy levels into bands of allowed and forbidden energies, we
indicated that the band of allowed energies was actually made up of discrete energy levels. We must determine
the density of these allowed energy states as a function of energy in order to calculate the electron and hole
concentrations.
Note: To determine number of electrons in conduction band we will first of all determine the density of states as
function of energy and then we determine probability of existence of electron as a function of energy. Multiplying
these two will give number of electron as a function of energy and if we integrate this over whole conduction band
we can get number of electrons in conduction band.
Similarly we can also find number of holes in valence band.
The analogy to understand the note write above:-
The conduction band is same as class room with chairs placed in number of rows, similarly conduction
band has states at each discrete energy level. So each row in a classroom is energy level and each row has
different number of chairs similar to each energy level has different number of quantum states which is defined
by density of states. If we know probability of presence of a student at each quantum state we can easily find
number of students in class room. Similarly if we know probability of existence of electron at each quantum state
we can find number of electron in conduction band.

The density of quantum states per unit volume of the crystal is defined as
4 (2 m)3/2
g (E) E …(1.19)
h3
The density of quantum states is a function of energy E. As the energy of this free electron becomes
small, the number of available quantum states decreases. This density function is really a double density, in that
the units are given in terms of states per unit energy per unit volume.
Example 1.2
To calculate the density of states per unit volume over a particular energy range.
Consider the density of states for a free electron given by Eq.(1.19). Calculate the density of
states per unit volume with energies between 0 and 1 eV.
Solution 1.2
The volume density of quantum states, from Eq. (1.19), is
1 eV 1eV
4 (2 m)3/2
N g( E)dE EdE
0 h3 0
4 (2 m)3/2 2 3/2
N E
h3 3
The density of states is now
4 [2(9.11 10 31 )]3/2 2 19 3/2
N (1.6 10 ) 4.5 1027 m 3
(6.625 10 34 )3 3
or N = 4.5 × 1021 states/cm3

p2 2 2
k
The equation (1.19) show the density of states in a crystal, where Energy E . In semiconductor
2m 2m
the energy E is given by
2 2
k
E Ec …(1.20)
2 m*n
where Ec is the bottome edge of the conduction band and mn* is the electron effective mass. Equation
(1.20) may be rewritten to give
h2 k 2
E – Ec
2 m*n
The general form of the E versus k relation for an electron in the bottom of a conduction band is the
same as the free electron, except the mass is replaced by the effective mass.
Thus we can write the density of allowed electronic energy states in conduction band as
4 (2 m*n )3/2
gc(E ) E Ec …(1.22)
h3
The above equation is value for E > Ec. Similarly we can get the density of states in valence band
4 (2 m*p )3/2
g v( E ) Ev E …(1.23)
h3

equation (1.23) is valid for E < Ev.
E gc(E)
gv (E)
g(E)
Fig 1.19 : The density of energy states in the conduction band and the density
of energy states in the valence band as a function of energy.
Figure 1.19 show plot of density of states in conduction and valence band. Ideally the forbidden band has
no states for Ev < E < Ec. The gc(E) and gv(E) are not symmetric because m*n m*p .
Thus no carrier can exist inside forbidden band gap.
Note: The density of states in conduction band increases as Energy increase and density of states in valence band
increases as energy decreases. The explaination to equation (1.19) is given by quantum physics and no need of this
for GATE or ESE
1.8 Fermi-Dirac Probability function
The fermi-dirac function defines the probability of existence of electron in the quantum states at energy
E. The fermi dirac function
N( E) 1
fF ( E) …(1.24)
g( E) E EF
1 exp
kT
where EF is called the fermi energy T is temperature in kelvin. The number density N(E) is the number
of particles per unit volume per unit energy and g(E) is the number of quantum states per unit volume per unit
energy. Another interpretation of the distribution function is that fF(E) is the ratio of filled to total quantum
states at any energy E.
T
Note: kT is equal to , where T is in kelvin
11600
1.8.1 The fermi Energy level and distribution function.
Case 1 : T = 0 K
( E EF )
The fermi dirac function is fF(E) and at T = 0 K if we take E < EF then exp will become
kT
( E EF )
exp(– ) = 0. Thus fF(E) = 1 for E < EF. Now if we take E > EF and T = 0 K then exp will become
kT
exp(– ) = , thus fF(E) = 0 for E > EF.
Thus Fermi-Dirac distribution function for T = 0 K is plotted in Fig. 1.20. This result shows that, for

T = 0K, the electrons are in their lowest possible energy states. The probability of a quantum state being
occupied is unit for E < EF and the probability of a state being occupied is zero for E > EF. All electrons have
energies below the Fermi energy at T = 0 K.
Note: Thus at T = 0 K the maximum energy acquired by electron is EF. One definition of fermi energy level is that
it is the maximum energy acquired by electron in crystal at T = 0 K. Thus if vmax is maximum velocity of electron
1 2 2EF
at T = 0 K then at T = 0K mvmax EF , vmax .
2 m
Fig 1.21 shows discrete energy levels of a particular system as well as the number of available quantum
states at each energy. If we assume, for this case, that the system contains 13 electrons, then Fig.1.21 shows
how these electrons are distributed among the various quantum states at T = 0 K. The electrons will be in the
lowest possible energy state, so the probability of a quantum state being occupied in energy levels E1 through E4
is unity, and the probability of a quantum state being occupied in energy level E5 is zero. The Fermi energy, for
this case, must be above E4 but less than E5. The Fermi energy determines the statistical distribution of electrons
and does not have to correspond to an allowed energy level.
E5
fF(E)
E4
1.0
E3
E2
O E EF E1
Fig1.20 The fermi probability function Fig1.21 Discrete energy states and quantum
versus energy for T = 0K states for a particular syste
Note: Suppose in a question density of states g(E) is given and N0 is number of electrons in the system. Then at
T = 0 K all electrons will have energy below EF and probability to find electron for E < EF is 1. Thus to find EF we
can use the formulae
EF
N0 g( E)dE
0
Consider the situation when the temperature increases above T = 0 K. electrons gain a certain amount
of thermal energy so that some electrons can jump to higher energy levels. Which means that the distribution
electrons among the available energy states will change. Figure 1.22 shows the same discrete energy levels and
quantum states as in Fig. 1.20. The distribution of electrons among the quantum states has changed from the
T = 0 K case. Two electrons from the E4 level have gained enough energy to jump to E5, and one electron from
E3 has jumped to E4. As the temperature changes, the distribution of electrons versus energy changes.
The change in the electron distribution among energy levels for T > 0 K can be seen by plotting the
Fermi-Dirac distribution function. If we let E = EF and T > 0 K, then Eq. 1.24 becomes
1 1 1
fF(E = EF)
1 exp(0) 1 1 2

1
The probability of a state being occupied at E = EF is . Figure 1.23 shows the Fermi-Dirac distribution
2
function plotted for several temperatures, assuming the Fermi energy is independent of temperature.
E5
E4
E3
E2
E1
Fig.1.22 : Discrete energy states and quantum states for the same system shown in Fig. 1.21 for T > 0 K
T = T2 > T1
1.0 T = T1
fF = (E)
T=0
1
2
O E EF
Fig.1.23 : The Fermi probability function versus energy for different temperatures
We can see that for temperatures above absolute zero, there is a nonzero probability that some energy
states above EF will be occupied by electrons and some energy states below EF will be empty. This result again
means that some electrons have jumped to higher energy levels with increasing thermal energy.
REMEMBER Another definition of fermi energy level: The energy level at which probability of finding an
electron is 0.5 at all temperature greater than 0 K.
Example 1.3
To calculate the probability that an energy state above E F is occupied by an electron.

Let T = 300 K . Determine the probability that an energy level 3 kT above the Fermi energy
is occupied by an electron.
Solution 1.3
We can write
1 1
fF(E)
E EF 3kT
1 exp 1 exp
kT kT
which becomes
1
fF(E) 0.0474 4.74%
1 20.09

Example 1.4
To determine the temperature at which there is a 1 percent probability that an energy state
is empty.
Assume that the Fermi energy level for a particular material is 6.25 eV and that the electrons
in this material follow the Fermi-Dirac distribution function. Calculate the temperature at
which there is a 1 percent probability that a state 0.30 eV below the Fermi energy level will
not contain an electron.
Solution 1.4
The probability that a state is empty is
1
1 – fF(E) 1
E EF
1 exp
kT
Then
1
0.01 1
5.95 6.25
1 exp
kT
Solving for kT, we find kT = 0.06529 eV, so that the temperature is T = 756 K.
Since probability to find electron at an energy level E is fF(E) thus probability of finding an empty state
or hole will be 1 – fF(E). Figure 1.24 show fF(E) and 1 – fF(E) and we can see that these are symmetric about EF.
For E – EF >> kT the equation (1.24) can be approximated (because exponential term in denominator will be
much greater than 1)
1 ( E EF )
fF(E) 1 exp …(1.25)
E EF kT
1 exp
kT
fF( E) 1 – fF(E)
1.0
1
2
0 E EF
Fig.1.24 : The probability of a state being occupied, f F (E), and the probability of a state being empty, 1 – f F (E)
Using equation (1.24) we can find probability of finding an empty state.
Thus is
1
1 – fF(E) 1
E EF
1 exp
kT

E EF
exp
kT
1 – fF(E) …(1.26)
E EF
1 exp
kT
E EF
1 – fF(E) exp
kT
E EF
Equation (1.26) show probability of finding an empty state, for E E F exp will be very small
kT
so denominator can be approximated to 1. Thus we can approximate equation (1.26) to equation (1.27).
1.9 Charge Carriers in Semiconductors

In this section we will study the equilibrium distribution of electrons and holes. The system at equilibrium
means thermal equilibrium where no external forces such as voltages, electric field, magnetic field, or temperate
gradient are acting on the system. All the properties of system are independent in this case.
We have also seen that current flow in semiconductor due to flow of electrons in conduction band and
holes in valence band and to find the number of carriers we need density of states and a probability function.
The Fermi Energy (EF) and semiconductor at T = 0 K

At T = 0 K we know that all electrons are present inside the valence band and there is no empty space
in valence band and conduction band in empty. Thus using the definition that at T = 0 K EF is that energy level
below which probability of finding an electron is 1. Thus using these two information we can say that at T = 0 K
Fermi energy level will exist some where between EC and Ev.
Conduction
band
Forbidden EF can be
band present anywhere
Valence
band
Fig.1.24 : Semiconductor and Fermi energy level at T = 0 K
Note: The Fermi energy donot need to correspond to an allowed energy
The Fermi energy (EF) and semiconductor at T > 0 K

When temperature increase the covalent band break and it produces electron and holes, thus in a pure
semiconductor or in ideal intrinsic semiconductor (semiconductor with no impurity atom and no lattice defect
in the crystal) the number of electrons and number of holes will be same. If we assume effective mass of hole
same as effective mass of electron then the density of state function in conduction band gc(E) will be symmetric
about midgap energy (energy mid way between Ec and Ev). The distribution of electron in conduction band is
given by the density of allowed quantum states times the probability that state is occupied by an electron. That
is

n(E) = gc(E) fF(E) …(1.28)

and integrating n(E) over whole conduction band give us total number of electron in conduction band.
Similarly, the distribution of holes in valence band is the density of allowed quantum states in valence
band times the probability that state is not occupied by an electron. That is
p (E ) = gv(E) [1 – fF(E)] …(1.29)
The equation (1.29) is integrated over entire valence band to find total number of holes in valence band.
We know that the function fF(E) for E > EF is symmetrical to function [1 – fF(E)] for E < EF about the
energy E = EF, thus to get gc(E).fF(E) and gv(E)(1– fF(E)) same (same number of holes and electrons) the fermi
energy level EF must be at midgap energy.
The n0 and p0 equations

Figure 1.25 show the density of state function and Fermi-Dirac function and their product to find n(E)
and p(E).
E
gc(E)fF(E) = n(E)
gc(E)
Ec
Area = n0 = electron concentration
fF(E)
EF
gv(E)(1 – fF(E)) = p(E)
Ev
gv(E)
Area = p0 = hole concentration
fF(E) = 0 fF(E) = 1
Fig.1.25 : Density of states functions, Fermi-Dirac probability function, and areas
representing electron and hole concentrations for the case when E F is near the midgap energy.
The equation for thermal-equilibrium concentration of electrons may be found be integrating Eq. (1.28)
over the conduction band energy, or
n0 gc( E) fF ( E)dE …(1.30)
The lower limit of integration is Ec and the upper limit of integration should be the top of the allowed
conduction band energy. However, since the Fermi probability function rapidly approaches zero with increasing
energy as indicated in Fig.(1.25) we can take the upper limit of integration to be infinity.
Since electron exist for E > Ec and EF exist in forbidden band, if Ec – EF >> kT then E – EF >> kT thus
we can approximate Fermi function and write equation (1.30) as
4 (2 m*n )3/2 ( E EF )
n0 3
E Ec exp dE
Ec h kT

Solving this we get

3/2
2 m*nkT ( Ec EF )
n0 2 2
exp …(1.31)
h kT
3/2
2 m*nkT
If we write 2 = Nc then
h2
( Ec EF )
n0 Nc exp
kT
E Ec
Nc exp F …(1.32)
kT
Here Nc is effective density of states, we can see that in Fig 1.25 all the states present in conduction
band are not useful, only few for which fF(E) is non zero are useful, thus we get this parameter Nc which is called
effective density of states.
REMEMBER Most of the times it is difficult to remember equation (1.32). One way to learn this is that Nc is
very large value and n0 is always smaller than Nc thus we have to multiply Nc with value less
Ec EF E Ec
than 1. Now the doubt is inside the exp we have or F , generally EF is below Ec
kT kT
and to get value of exp less than 1, term inside exp should be negative thus we must have
( EF
Ec )
. Thus thermal equilibrium concentration of electron in conduction band is
kT
E Ec
n0 Nc exp F .
kT
Example 1.5
Calculate the probability that a state in the conduction band is occupied by an electron and
calculate the thermal equilibrium electron concentration in silicon at T = 300 K .
Assume the Fermi energy is 0.25 eV below the conduction band. The value of N c for silicon
at T = 300 K is N c = 2.8 × 10 19 cm –3 .
Solution 1.5
So the probability that an energy state at E = Ec is occupied by an electron is given by
1 ( Ec EF )
fF(Ec) exp
Ec EF kT
1 exp
kT
0.25 5
or fF(Ec) exp 6.43 10
0.0259
The electron concentration is given by
( Ec EF ) 0.25
n0 Nc exp (2.8 1019 )exp
kT 0.0259
or cm–3
n0 = 1.8 × 1015
The thermal-equilibrium concentration of holes in the valence band is found by integrating Eq. 1.29
over the valence band energy, or
P0 g v ( E )[1 f F ( E )]dE …(1.33)

We may not that
1
1 – fF(E) …(1.34)
E E
1 exp F
kT
For energy states in the valence band, E < Ev. If (EF – Ev) >> kT (the Fermi function is still assumed
to be within the bandgap), then we have a slightly different form of the Boltzmann approximation. Equation
(1.34) may be written as
1 ( EF E)
1 – fF(E) exp …(1.35)
EF E kT
1 exp
kT
we find the thermal-equilibrium concentration of holes in the valence band is

Ev
4 (2 m*p )3/2 ( EF E)
p0 3
Ev E exp dE …(1.36)
h kT
Thus we get
3/2
2 m*p kT ( EF Ev )
p0 2
exp …(1.37)
h kT
We may define a parameter Nv as

3/2
2 m*pkT
Nv …(1.38)
h2
which is called the effective density of states function in the valence band. The thermal-equilibrium
concentration of holes in the valence band may now be written as
( EF Ev )
p0 Nv exp …(1.39)
kT
REMEMBER • To learn equation (1.39), Nv is very large and p0 is small so we need negative value inside exp,
E EF
generally EF is greater than Ev. So the term will be exp v . Thus thermal equilibrium
kT
concentration of holes in valence band is
Ev EF
p0 Nv exp
kT
• Nc and Nv are proportional to T3/2 which show that as temperature will increase Nc, Nv the
effective density of states will increase because the fermi function will change with temperature
as shown in Fig. 1.26, more states will have non zero probability.
• n0 and p0 are constant values at a fixed temperature that means at a constant temperature
number of electrons and holes remain constant. This is because both recombination and
generation take place simultaneously and at fixed temperature (thermal equilibrium) rate of
recombination = rate of generation.

Example 1.6
Calculate the thermal equilibrium hole concentration in silicon at T = 400 K .

Assume that the Fermi energy is 0.27 eV above the valence band energy. The value of N v for
silicon at T = 300 K is N v = 1.04 × 10 19 cm –3 .
Solution 1.6
The parameter values at T = 400 K are found as
3/2
400
Nv (1.04 1019 ) 1.60 1019 cm 3
300
and
400
kT (0.0259) 0.03453 eV
300
The hole concentration is then
p0 ( EF Ev ) 0.27
Nv exp (1.60 1019 )exp
kT 0.03453
or
p 0 = 6.43 × 1015 cm–3
gc(E)
Ec
T1 T2
EF
Ev
gv(E)
fF(E) = 0 fF(E) = 1
Fig.1.26 : Density of states functions, Fermi-Dirac probability, at different temperatures T 2 > T 1 .
1.9.1 The intrinsic Carrier Concentration

In intrinsic semiconductor the concentration of electrons in the conduction band is equal to the
concentration of holes in the valence band. We may denote ni and pi as the electron and hole concentration in
intrinsic semiconductor. However ni = pi so normally we simply use the parameter ni as the intrinsic carrier
concentration, which refer to either the intrinsic electron or hole concentration. The fermi level for the intrinsic
semiconductor is called intrinsic fermi energy or EF = EFi
Thus we can write
( Ec EFi )
n0 ni Nc exp …(1.40)
kT
and
( EFi Ev )
p0 pi ni Nv exp …(1.41)
kT

If we take the product of Eqs. (1.40) and (1.41), we obtain

( Ec EFi ) ( EFi Ev )
ni2 NcNv exp exp …(1.42)
kT kT
or
(E c Ev ) Eg
ni2 N c N v exp N c N v exp
kT kT
where Eg is the bandgap energy. For a given semiconductor material at a constant temperature, the
value of ni is a constant, and independent of the Fermi energy.
3/2 3/2
2 m*nkT 2 m*p kT Eg
ni2 2 2
2 2
exp
h h kT
Thus ni2 T 3 and ni T 3/2 .
Example 1.7
To calculate the intrinsic carrier concentration in gallium arsenide at T = 300 K and at

T = 450 K .The values of N c and N v at 300 K for gallium arsenide are 4.7 × 10 17 cm –3 and
7.0 × 10 18 cm –3 , respectively. Both N c and N v vary as T 3/2 . Assume the bandgap energy of
gallium arsenide is 1.42 eV and does not vary with temperature over this range.
Solution 1.7
The value of kT at 450 K is
450
kT (0.0259) 0.03885 eV
300
Using Eq. (1.43), we find for T = 300 K
1.42
ni2 (4.7 1017 )(7.0 1018 )exp 5.09 1012
0.0259
so that
ni = 2.26 × 106 cm–3
At T = 450 K, we find
3
ni2 450 1.42
( 4.7 101 7 )(7.0 1018 ) exp 1.48 10 2 1
30 0 0 .03 885
so that
ni = 3.85 × 1010 cm–3
1.9.2 The intrinsic Fermi-Level position
We have qualitatively argued that the Fermi energy level is located near the center of the forbidden
bandgap for the intrinsic semiconductor. We can specifically calculate the intrinsic Fermi-level position. Since
the electron and hole concentrations are equal we have
( Ec EFi ) ( EFi Ev )
Nc exp Nv exp …(1.44)
kT kT
If we take the natural log of both sides of this equation and solve for EFi, we obtain
1 1 N
( Ec Ev )
EFi kT v …(1.45)
2 2 Nc
From the definitions for Nc and Nv Eq. (1.45) may be written as

1 3 m*p
EFi ( Ec Ev ) kT * …(1.46)
2 4 mn
1
The first term, ( Ec Ev ), is the energy exactly midway between Ec and Ev, or the midgap energy. Wee
2
can define
1
( Ec Ev ) = Emidgap
2
so that
3 m*p
EFi – Emidgap kT * …(1.47)
4 mn
If the electron and hole effective masses are equal so that m*p m*n , then the intrinsic Fermi level is
exactly in the center of the bandgap. If m*p m*n , the intrinsic Fermi level is slightly above the center, and if
m*p m*n , it is slightly below the center of the bandgap. The density of states function is directly related to the
carrier effective mass; thus a larger effective mass means a larger density of states function. The intrinsic Fermi
level must shift away from the band with the larger density of states in order to maintain equal numbers of
electrons and holes.
REMEMBER We generally write formulae of ni as

Eg
ni AT3/2 exp
2kT
where A is any constant value
We can see that in intrinsic semiconductor the number of electrons and holes will increase with
temperature with factor of T3/2.
1.10 Dopant Atoms and Energy levels.
The most important property of semiconductor is that we can change the conductivity of semiconductor
material by adding small, controlled amounts of specific dopant, or impurity atoms.These doped semiconductors
are called extrinsic semiconductors. Generally doping is done by adding atoms of group III and group V elements.
1.10.1 Doping with Group 5 Elements

In a pure silicon crystal each silicon atom form four covalent bond with neighbouring four silicon atoms
and thus when phosphorous atoms are added as substitutional impurities then they replace silicon atom. Since
phosphorous atoms has 5 valence electrons four of these will contribute to the covalent bonding with silicon
atom leaving the 5th electron loosely bound to phosphorous atom.
Note: Thus 5th electron of phosphorous atom do not form any covalent bond thus it is loosely bound than other
electrons as all other form covalent bond.
The silicon lattice with phosphorous atom is shown in Fig 1.27

Si Si Si Si Si Si
Si Si Si Si B Si
e–
Si Si p Si Si Si
Si Si Si Si Si Si
Fig.1.27 : Silicon lattice with phosphorous atom impurity
Doped semiconductor at T = 0 K
At very low temperature no covalent bond is broken and the 5th electron of phosphorous atom (the
donor electron) is bound to the phosphorous atom. It is clear that to make this donor electron free the amount
of energy required is less than the energy required to break the covalent bond, also the freeing of 5th phosphorous
electron will create only free electron and no holes in valence bond.
Note: • Thus at 0 K the doped semiconductor act as an insulator as still no free carrier exist
• energy required to elevate the donor electron into the conduction band require less energy than energy
required for breaking covalent bond
• breaking of covalent bond create hole in valence bond and electron in conduction band, but donor
electron produce only electron in conduction bond.
The above explaination is modelled in band diagram as shown in Fig 1.28. Since donor electron need
very less energy to go into conduction band thus all the donor electrons are shown by a discrete energy level Ed.
Ed is the energy state of the donor electron.
Conduction band – – –
Ec Ec
Electron energy
Electron energy
Ed + + + Ed
Ev Ev
Valence band
(a) (b)
Fig.1.28 : The energy-band diagram showing (a) the discrete donor energy state, and
(b) the effect of a donor state being ionized
If a small amount of energy, such as thermal energy, is added to the donor electron, it can be elevated
into the conduction band, leaving behind a positively charged phosphorus ion. The electron in the conduction
band can now move through the crystal generating a current, while the positively charged ion is fixed in the
crystal. This type of impurity atom donates an electron to the conduction band and so is called a donor impurity
atom. The donor impurity atoms add electrons to the conduction band without creating holes in the valence
band. The resulting material is referred to as an n-type semiconductor (n for the negatively charged electron).
Extrinsic semiconductor doped with donor impurities

• At T = 0 K, since no thermal energy is present in the semiconductor, no free carrier. All the donor
atoms (phosphorous atoms) have 5th electron intact. That is all donor electrons are present at Ed

energy level.
• Now as temperature is increased the donor impurities get ionised and conduction band start getting
donor electrons and donor impurities convert into donor ions with positive charge. (Thus extrinsic
semiconductor is still neutral at T = 0 K and T > 0 K)
• At T = 300 K (room temperature) we assume that all impurity atoms are ionised and all donor
electrons are present in conduction band. Since breaking of covalent bond also take place at
T = 300 K, so very few electrons in conduction band will be because of bond breaking, thus number
of holes in valence band will also be very less.
Thus in n type semiconductors at room temperature in conduction band concentration of electrons
will be higher than concentration of holes in valence band.
REMEMBER • If semiconductor is group IV element then group V elements are donor impurities as number
of valence electrons are greater in impurity atoms than the number of valence electrons in
atoms of semiconductor
• Impurities with higher number of valence electrons than the valence electrons of atoms of
semiconductor, act as donor impurities.
In n type semiconductors the density of electrons in conduction band is greater than density of holes in
valence band. Since density of states gc(E) and gv(E) will not change due to doping, the change that will occur
is in fermi energy level,
Since
n(E) = fF(E)gc(E)
and p (E ) = gv(E)(1 – fF(E))
in intrinsic semiconductor EF = EFi and n(E) = p(E), for higher number of electrons in n type
semiconductor it is obvious that Fermi energy level will be greater than EFi then only number of electrons will be
greater than number of holes as shown in Fig 1.29
E
gc(E)
Ec
Area = n0 = electron concentration
EF
fF(E)
Efi
Ev
gv(E)
Area = p0 = hole concentration
fF(E) = 0 fF(E) = 1
Fig.1.29 : Density of states functions, Fermi-Dirac probability function, and areas representing
electron and hole concentrations for the case when E F is above the intrinsic Fermi energy

The equations for n0 and p0, thermal equilibrium concentration of electrons and holes in conduction
band and valence band:-
EF Ec
n0 Nc exp
kT
Ev EF
and p0 Nv exp
kT
will be valid in extrinsic semiconductor.
Note: From the above equations we can see that when EF = EFi then n0 = p0 = ni and when EF > EFi then n0 >
p0 and when EF < EFi then p0 > n0.
From above equations we can see that

Ev Ec
n 0p 0 NcNv exp
kT
Eg
NcNv exp
kT
n 0p 0 ni2 …(1.48)
REMEMBER • equation (1.48) is called mass action law, the product of concentration of electron in
conductionband and concentration of hole in valence band is equal to square of intrinsic
concentrations of semiconductor.
• The mass action law is valid in semiconductor at thermal equilibrium.
Charge carriers concentration in conduction band of n type semiconductor

In extrinsic semiconductor, concentration of electron and hole are
n0 = Due to ionisation of impurity atoms process (1) + Breaking of Covalent Bond process (2)
p0 = Breaking of Covalent Bond Process (2)
• At temperature T = 0K both process (1) and Process (2) are inactive so n0 = p0 = 0
• As temperature is increased from 0 K to 300 K the process (1) dominate over process (2) and most
of n0 is due to ionisation of impurity atoms thus n0 > p0.
• At T = 300 K (room temperature) we assume all the impurity atoms are ionised and if ND is
ni2
concentrations of impurity atoms and ND >> ni then n0 = ND and p0 .
ND
• When temperature is increased above T = 300 K then process (1) stops and process (2) is active
and with rise in temperature more covalent bonds break and produce more and more electrons and
holes thus n0, p0 keep increasing, but we assume that n0 remain constant equal to ND because
concentration of electron due to process (2) is still less.
• But after T = 600 K the concentration of electron due to process (2) dominate and we can neglect
all electrons due to process (1). Thus after 600K n0 = p0 and extrinsic semiconductor start acting
as intrinsic semiconductor. The concentration of electrons in conduction band with respect to
temperature is

Concentration of electrons
in conduction band
Intrinsic
extrinsic
ND
ni
Partially
Ionised
T
O
300 K 600 K
Fig.1.30 : Concentration of electrons in conduction band with respect to temperature.
Note: Temperature above which extrinsic semiconductor act as intrinsic semiconductor is called curie temperature.
Fermi level in n type semiconductor

• At T = 0 K since no electrons are present inside conduction band, Ed energy level and valence band
are completely filled. The definition of EF is that energy level below and above which probability to
find electron is 1 and 0 respectively at T = 0 K. Thus Fermi level should be between Ec and Ed at
T = 0 K.
• As temperature is increased the Fermi level will move toward centre of forbidden band or EFi. For
T = 300K n0 > p0 thus EF > EFi but at and above 600K the EF will coincide with EFi as extrinsic
semiconductor will act as intrinsic semicoductor.
Example 1.9
Consider a silicon semiconductor with n i = 1.5 × 10 10 cm –3 doped with donor atoms with
concentration N D = 1 × 10 15 cm –3 . The find number of electrons and holes in silicon at
300 K .
Solution 1.9
Since ND >> ni thus
n0 = ND = 1 × 1015 cm–3
ni2 (1.5 1010 )2
and p0 2.25 105 cm 3
ND 1 1015
Note: From above example 1.9 we can see that intrinsic semiconductor at 300 K will have n0 = p0 = 1.5×1010 cm–3,
but doped semiconductor has lesser concentration of holes than the intrinsic semiconductor because number of
electrons is large due to which more holes will recombine giving less holes than that of intrinsic semiconductor.
1.10.2 Doping with group 3 elements

Now consider adding a group III element, such as boron, as a substitutional impurity to silicon The
group III element has three valence electrons, which are all taken up in the covalent bonding. As shown in
Fig. 1.31(a) one covalent bonding position appears to be empty. If an election were to occupy this "empty”
position, its energy would have to be greater than that of the valence electrons, since the net charge state of the
boron atom would now be negative. However, the election occupying this "empty" position does not have sufficient

energy to be in the conduction band, so its energy is far smaller than the conduction-band energy. Fig 1.31(b)
shows how valence electrons may gain a small amount of thermal energy and move about in the crystal The
"empty" position associated with the boron atom becomes occupied, and other valence electron positions become
vacated. These other vacated electron positions can be thought of as holes in the semiconductor material.
Si Si Si Si Si Si Si Si Si Si Si Si
Si Si Si Si B Si Si Si Si Si e B Si
Si Si Si Si Si Si Si Si Si Si Si Si
Si Si Si Si Si Si Si Si Si e Si Si Si
(a) (b)
Fig.1.31 : Two-dimensional representation of a silicon lattice (a) doped with a boron atom, and
(b) showing the ionization of the boron atom resulting in a hole
Fig 1.32 shows the expected energy state of the “empty” position and also the formation of a hole in the
valence band. The hole can move through the crystal generating a current, while the negatively charged boron
atom is fixed in the crystal. The group III atom accepts an electron from the valence band and so is referred to
as an acceptor impurity atom. The acceptor atom can generate holes in the valence band without generating
electrons in the conduction band. This type of semiconductor material is referred to as a p-type material (p for
the positively charged hole).
Conduction band
Ec Ec
Electron energy
Electron energy
– – –
Ea Ea
Ev + + + Ev
Valence band
(a) (b)
Fig.1.32 : The energy-band diagram showing (a) the discrete acceptor energy state, and
(b) the effect of an acceptor state being ionized
The pure single-crystal semiconductor material is called an intrinsic material. Adding controlled amounts
of dopant atoms, either donors or acceptors, creates a material called an extrinsic semiconductor An extrinsic
semiconductor will have either a preponderance of electrons (n type) or a preponderance of holes (p type).
Note: • At T = 0 K the doped semiconductor has no carriers and act as insulator

• When temperature is increased the electrons will move from valence band to acceptor energy level, this
transition need very less energy and produce only holes in valence band
• The impurity atoms which gets electron become negatively charged ion.
• Breaking of covalent bond create hole and electron but acceptor atom ionisation only produce hole.

Extrinsic semiconductor doped with acceptor impurities

• At T = 0 K, there are no carriers in semiconductor, no free carrier. All the acceptor atoms are
unionised and Ea acceptor energy level are completely empty.
• As temperature is increased the electrons from valence band gain some energy and occupy empty
state in acceptor energy level and leave behind holes in valence band.
• At room temperature T = 300 K we assume all acceptor atoms are ionised that is all states at Ea
energy level are filled. If NA is concentration of acceptor atoms and NA >> ni then we assume
concentration of holes in valence band will be p0 = NA because holes produced due to bond breaking
will be very less and concentration of electrons n0 will be very small because electrons are produced
only by bond breaking.
n12 n12
n0
p0 NA
Thus in p type semiconductor at room temperature concentration of electrons in conduction band will
be less than concentration of holes in valence band
REMEMBER • If semiconductor is group IV element then group III elements are acceptor impurities as
number of valence electrons are less in impurity atoms than the number of valence electrons
in atom of semiconductor
• Impurities with lesser number of valence electrons than the valence electrons of atoms of
semiconductor, act as acceptor impurities.
In p type semiconductor the density of electrons in conduction band is less than the density of holes in
valence band. Thus Fermi level EF will be below EFi as shown in Fig 1.33. The equations for n0 and p0 are valid
here also
E
gc(E)
Ec
fF(E) Area = no = electron concentration
Efi
EF
Ev
gv(E)
Area =po = hole concentration
fF(E) = 0 fF(E) = 1
Fig.1.33 : Density of states functions, Fermi-Dirac probability function, and areas representing
electron and hole concentrations for the case when E F is below the intrinsic Fermi energy

EF Ec
n0 Nc exp
kT
E EF
and p0 Nv exp v
kT
2
and n 0p 0 n1
REMEMBER mass action law is valid in both n and p type semiconductor at thermal equilibrium.
Charge carrier concentrations in valence band of p type semiconductor

In extrinsic semiconductor, concentration of electron and hole are
n0 = Breaking of covalent Bond Process (2)
p 0 = Due to ionisation of impurity atoms Process (1) +
Breaking of covalent Bond Process (2)
• At, temperature T = 0K both process (1) and (2) are inactive so n0 = p0 = 0
• As temperature is increased from 0 K to 300 K the process (1) dominate over process (2) and most
of p0 is due to ionisation of impurity atoms and very few are due to covalent bond breaking.
Thus p0 > n0.
• At T = 300 K (room temperature) we assume all the impurity atoms are ionised and if NA is
n12
concentration of impurity atoms and NA >> ni then p0 = NA and n0
NA
• When temperature is increased above 300 K then process (1) stops and process (2) is active and
with rise in temperature more covalent bonds break and produce more and more electron-hole
pair, but we assume that p0 remain equal to NA because concentration of hole due to process (2) is
still less.
• But for temperature greater than 600K the concentration of holes due to process (2) dominate and
we neglect all holes due to process (1). Thus after 600K p0 = n0 and extrinsic semiconductor start
acting as intrinsic semiconductor.
The concentration of carriers in valence band with respect to temperature is
Concentration of holes
in valence band
Intrinsic
extrinsic
NA
Partially ni
Ionised
T
O
300 K 600 K
Fig.1.34 : Concentration of holes in valence band with respect to temperature

Fermi level in p type semiconductor

• At T = 0K the states at acceptor energy level will be completely empty and fermi energy level EF at
T = 0 K is such that below EF probability to find electron is 1 and above EF probability to find
electron is 0. Thus EF will be between Ev and Ea.
• For T < 600 K since p0 > n0 so EF < EFi and for T > 600 K the semiconductor become intrinsic
semiconductor thus EF = EFi.
REMEMBER In extrinsic semiconductor as temperature increases Fermi level move toward centre of forbidden
band.
1.10.3 n0 and p0 equations in another format

We know that
EF Ec
n0 Nc exp
kT
E EF
and p0 Nv exp v
kT
Eg
and ni2 NcNv exp
kT
Using all these equations we can get
EF EFi
n0 ni exp …(1.49)
kT
EFi EF
and p0 ni exp …(1.50)
kT
REMEMBER To learn equations (1.49) and (1.50), as we know that in n type semiconductor n0 > ni and
EF > EFi and p0 < ni. Thus in equation (1.49) inside exp the term should be positive that is
EF – EFi and in equation (1.50) inside exp the term should be negative EFi – EF.
1.10.4 Case of Incomplete ionisation

We have already discussed the Fermi-Dirac distribution function, which gives the probability that a
particular energy state will be occupied by an electron. We need to reconsider this function and apply the
probability statistics to the donor and acceptor energy states.
Suppose we have Ni electrons and gi quantum states, where the subscript i indicates the ith energy
level. There are gi ways of choosing where to put the first particle. Each donor level has two possible spin
orientations for the donor electron; thus each donor level has two quantum states. The insertion of an electron
into one quantum state, however, precludes putting an electron into the second quantum stale. By adding one
electron, the vacancy requirement of the atom is satisfied, and the addition of a second electron in the donor
level is not possible. The distribution function of donor electrons in the donor energy states is then slightly
different than the Fermi-Dirac function.
The probability function of electrons occupying the donor state is
Nd
nd …(1.51)
1 E EF
1 exp d
2 kT

where nd is the density of electrons occupying the donor level and Ed is the energy of the donor level.
1 1
The factor in this equation is a direct result of the spin factor just mentioned. The factor is sometimes
2 2
written as 1/g, where g is called a degeneracy factor.
Equation (1.51) can also be written in the form
nd Nd Nd …(1.52)
where Nd is the concentration of ionized donors. In many applications, we will be interested more in
the concentration of ionized donors than in the concentration of electrons remaining in the donor states.
If we do the same type of analysis for acceptor atoms, we obtain the expression
Na
pa Na Na …(1.53)
1 E Ea
1 exp F
g kT
where Na is the concentration of acceptor atoms, Ea is the acceptor energy level, pa is the concentration
of holes in the acceptor states, and Na is the concentration of ionized acceptors. A hole in an acceptor state
corresponds to an acceptor atom that is neutrally charged and still has an “empty” bonding position. The
parameter g is, again, a degeneracy factor. The ground state degeneracy factor g is normally taken as four for the
acceptor level in silicon and gallium arsenide because of the detailed band structure.
If in a question percentage ionisation is given then
% Ionisation
Nd Nd …(1.54)
100
% Ionisation
and Na Na …(1.55)
100
1.10.5 Complete Ionisation and Freeze out

The probability function for electrons in the donor energy state assuming that (Ed – EF) >> kT is given
as
Nd ( Ed EF )
nd 2Nd exp …(1.54)
1 E EF kT
exp d
2 kT
If (Ed – EF) >> kT, then the Boltzmann approximation is also valid for the electrons in the conduction
band so that,
( Ec EF )
n0 Nc exp
kT
We can determine the relative number of electrons in the donor state compared with the total number
of electrons; therefore we can consider the ratio of electrons in the donor state to the total number of electrons
in the conduction band plus donor state. Thus

( Ed EF )
2Nd exp
nd kT
…(1.55)
nd n0 ( Ed EF ) ( Ec EF )
2Nd exp Nc exp
kT kT
The Fermi energy cancels out of this expression. Dividing by the numerator term, we obtain
nd 1
nd n0 Nc (Ec Ed )
1 exp
2N d kT
The factor (Ec – Ed) is just the ionization energy of the donor electrons.
REMEMBER At room temperature we assume complete ionisation and at 0 K the condition is of complete
freeze out.
Example 1.10
To determine the fraction of total electrons still in the donor states at T = 300 K if E d is
0.045 ev below E c .
Consider phosphorus doping in silicon, for T = 300 K , at a concentration N d = 10 15 cm –3 .
Solution 1.10
we find
nd 1
19
0.0041 0.41%
n0 nd 2.8 10 0.045
1 16
exp
2(10 ) 0.0259
Example 1.11
To determine the temperature at which 90 percent of acceptor atoms are ionized.

Consider p -type silicon doped with boron at a concentration of N a = 10 16 cm –3 and E a is
0.045ev above E v .
Solution 1.11
Find the ratio of holes in the acceptor state to the total number of holes in the valence band plus acceptor
state. Taking into account the Boltzmann approximation and assuming the degeneracy factor is g = 4, we
write
pa 1
p0 pa Nv ( Ea Ev )
1 exp
4Na kT
For 90 percent ionization,
pa 1
0.10
p0 pa T
3/2
(1.04 1019 )
300 0.045
1 exp
4(1016 ) T
0.0259
300
Using trial and error, we find that T = 193 K.

1.11 Charge Neutrality

In thermal equilibrium, the semiconductor crystal is electrically neutral. The electrons are distributed
among the various energy states, creating negative and positive charges, but the net charge density is zero. This
charge-neutrality condition is used to determine the thermal-equilibrium electron and hole concentrations as a
function of the impurity doping concentration. We will define a compensated semiconductor and then determine
the electron and hole concentrations as a function of the donor and acceptor concentrations.
1.11.1 Compensated Semiconductors

A Compensated semiconductor is one that contains both donor and acceptor impurity atoms in the
same region. A compensated semiconductor can be formed, for example, by diffusing acceptor impurities into
an n-type material, or by diffusing donor impurities into a p-type material. An n-type compensated semiconductor
occurs when Nd > Na and a p-type compensated semiconductor occurs when Na > Nd . If Na = Nd, we have a
completely compensated semiconductor that has, as we will show, the characteristics of an intrinsic material.
Compensated semiconductors are created quite naturally during device fabrication as we will see later.
1.11.2 Equilibrium Electron and Hole Concentrations

In a compensated semiconductor when both donor and acceptor impurity atoms are added to the same
region then the donors or acceptors can ionized or un-inonized, electrons and holes will be due to ionized
carriers and due to thermal generation. If no is total concentration of electrons and po is total concentration of
holes. The parameter nd is the concentration of electrons in the donor energy states so ionized donors are
N d = Nd nd
and pa is the concentration of holes in the acceptor states thus ionized acceptors are
N a = Na pa
The charge neutrality condition is expressed by equating the denisty of negative charges to the density
of positive charges. We then have
n0 Na p0 Nd …(1.56)
or
n0 + (Na – pa) = p0 + (Nd – nd) …(1.56)
where n0 and p0 are the thermal-equilibrium concentrations of electrons and holes in the conduction
band and valence band, respectively. The parameter nd is the concentration of electrons in the donor energy
states, so Nd Nd nd is the concentration of positively charged donor states. Similarly, pa is the concentration
of holes in the acceptor states, so Na Na pa is the concentration of negatively charged acceptor states. We
e
have expressions for n0, p0, nd, and pa in terms of the Fermi energy and temperature.
If we assume complete ionization, nd and pa are both zero, and Eq. (1.57) becomes
n0 + Na = p0 + Nd …(1.58)
ni2
If we express p0 as , then Eq. (1.55) can be written as
n0
ni2
n0 + Na Nd …(1.59)
n0
which in turn can be written as

n02 ( Nd Na )n0 ni2 = 0 …(1.60)

The electron concentration n0 can be determined using the quadratic Formula, or
2
( Nd Na ) Nd Na
n0 ni2 …(1.61)
2 2
The positive sign in the quadratic formula must be used, since, in the limit of an intrinsic semiconductor
when Na = Nd = 0, the electron concentration must be a positive quantity, or n0 = ni.
Equation (1.61) is used to calculate the electron concentration in an n-type semiconductor, or when
Nd > Na. Although Eq.(1.161) was derived for a compensated semiconductor, the equation is also valid for
Na = 0.
Example 1.12
To determine the thermal equilibrium electron and hole concentrations for a given doping
concentration.
Consider an n -type silicon semiconductor at T = 300 K in which N d = 10 16 cm –3 and
N a = 0. The intrinsic carrier concentration is assumed to be n i = 1.5 × 10 10 cm –3 .
Solution 1.5
The majority carrier electron concentration is (by equation (1.61))
2
1016 1016
n0 (1.5 1010 )2 1016 cm 3
2 2
The minority carrier hole concentration is found as
ni2 (1.5 1010 )2
p0 2.25 104 cm 3
n0 1 1016
Example 1.13
To calculate the thermal-equilibrium electron and hole concentrations in a germanium sample

for a given doping density.
Consider a germanium sample at T = 300 K in which N d = 5 × 10 13 cm –3 and N a = 0.
Assume that n i = 2.4 × 10 13 cm –3 .
Solution 1.13
Again, from Eq.(1.61), the majority carrier electron concentration is
2
5 1013 5 1013
n0 (2.4 1013 )2 5.97 1013 cm 3
2 2
The minority carrier hole concentration is
ni2 (2.4 1013 )2
p0 9.65 1012 cm 3
n0 5.97 1013
ni2
Note: If the semicoductor is doped with donor impurity concentration Nd. If Nd > ni then n0 Nd and p0 .
Nd
ni2
If Nd ni then to find n0 we use equation 1.61 and p0 .
n0

ni2
If we reconsider Eq.(1.58) and express n0 as , then we have
p0
ni2
Na = p0 + Nd
p0
which we can write as
p02 ( Na Nd )p0 n2 = 0 …(1.63)

Using the quadratic formula, the hole concentration is given by
2
Na Nd Na Nd
p0 ni2 …(1.64)
2 2
where the positive sign, again, must be used. Equation (1.64) is used to calculate the thermal-equilibrium
majority carrier hole concentration in a p-type semiconductor, or when Na > Nd. This equation also applies for
Nd = 0.
Thus we can have 8 cases in semiconductors.
Case 1 : n type semiconductor (Nd >> ni)
ni2
Here n0 = Nd and p0
ND
Case 2 : p type semiconductor (Na >> ni)
ni2
Here p0 = NA and n0
NA
Case 3 : n type semiconductor (Nd is of order of ni)
To find n0 we use equation (1.61) with Na = 0, we get
2
Nd Nd
n0 ni2
2 2
ni2
and p0
n0
Case 4 : p type semiconductor (Na is of order of ni)
To find p0 we use equation (1.64) with Nd = 0, we get
2
Na 2 Na
p0 ni
2 2
ni2
and n0
p0
Case 5 : Compensated n type semiconductor (Na, Nd >> ni)
It is n type because ND > NA and
n0 = ND – NA

ni2
and p0
n0
Case 6 : Compensated p type semiconductor (Na, Nd >> ni)
It is p type because NA > NA and
p 0 = NA – ND
ni2
and n0
p0
Case 7 : Compensated n type semiconductor (Na, Nd are of order of ni)
In n type compensated semiconductor Nd > Na.
To find n0 we use equation (1.61)
2
Nd Na Nd Na
n0 ni2
2 2
ni2
and p0
n0
Case 8 : Compensated p type semiconductor (Na, Nd are of order of ni)

In p type compensated semiconductor Na > Nd.
To find p0 we use equation (1.64)
2
Na Nd Na Nd
p0 ni2
2 2
ni2
and n0
p0
Example 1.14
To calculate the thermal-equilibrium electron and hole concentrations in a compensated p-

type semiconductor.
Consi der a si li con semi conductor at T = 300 K in which N a = 10 16 cm –3 and
N d = 3 × 10 15 cm –3 . Assume ni = 1.5 × 10 10 cm –3 .
Solution 1.14
Since Na > Nd, the compensated semiconductor is p-type and the thermal-equilibrium majority carrier
hole concentration is given by Eq. (1.64) as
2
1016 3 105 1016 3 1015
p0 (1.5 1010 )2
2 2
so that
p 0 = 7 × 1015 cm–3
The minority carrier electron concentration is
ni2 (1.5 1010 )2
n0 3.21 104 cm 3
p0 7 1015

1.12 Position of Fermi level

We have already discussed the position of Fermi level in all cases we will just summarise few formulae
and results.
EF Ec
Using n0 Nc exp
kT
In n type semiconductor n0 Nd
Nc
Ec – EF kT ln …(1.65)
Nd
Similarly in p type semiconductor, where p0 Na
Ev EF
p0 Nv exp
kT
Nv
EF – Ev kT ln …(1.66)
Na
The distance between the bottom of the conduction band and the Fermi energy is a logarithmic function
of the donor concentration. As the donor concentration increases, the Fermi level moves closer to the conduction
band. Conversely, if the Fermi level moves closer to the conduction band, then the electron concentration in the
conduction band is increasing. We may note that if we have a compensated semiconductor, then the Nd term in
Eq. (1.65) is simply replaced by Nd – Na, or the net effective donor concentration.
Similarly in p type semiconductors
The distance between the Fermi level and the top of the valence-band energy for a p-type semiconductor
is a logarithmic function of acceptor concentration; as the acceptor concentration increases, the Fermi level
moves closer to the valence band. Again, if we have a compensated p-type semiconductor, then the Na term in
Eq.(1.66) is replaced by Na – Nd, or the net effective acceptor concentration.
Example 1.15
To determine the required donor impurity concentration to obtain a specified Fermi energy.
Silicon at T = 300 K contains an acceptor impurity concentration of N a = 10 16 cm –3 .
Determin the concentration of donor impurity atoms that must be added so that the silicon
is n type and the Fermi energy is 0.20 eV below the conduction band edge.
Solution 1.5
From Eq.(1.65), we have
Nc
Ec – EF kT ln
Nd Na
which can be rewritten as
( Ec EF )
Nd – Na Nc exp
kT
Then
0.20
Nd – Na 2.8 1019 exp 1.24 1016 cm 3
0.0259
or
Nd = 1.24 × 1016 + Na = 2.24 × 1016 cm–3

Another way of writing equation for Fermi level is using

EF EFi
n0 ni exp
kT
n0
EF – EFi kT ln …(1.67)
ni
and
EFi EF
p0 ni exp
kT
p0
EFi – EF kT ln …(1.68)
ni
Note: From equation (1.67) and (1.68) we can see that for n0 > ni i.e. for n type semiconductor EF > EFi and for
intrinsic semiconductor n0 = ni that is EF = EFi and when n0 < ni i.e. for p type semiconductor EF < EFi.
1.12.1 Variation of EF with doping concentration

We may plot the position of the Fermi energy level as a function of the doping concentration. Fig 1.36
shows the Fermi energy level as a function of donor concentration (n-type) and as a function of acceptor
concentration (p-type) for silicon at T = 300 K. As the doping levels increase, the Fermi energy level moves
closer to the conduction band for the n-type material and closer to the valence band for the p-type material.
Nd(cm–3)
1012 1013 1014 1015 1016 1017 1018
Ec
n type
Efi
p type
Ev
1012 1013 1014 1015 1016 1017 1018
Na(cm ) –3
Fig.1.36 : Position of Fermi level as a function of donor concentration (n type and acceptor concentration (p
type )
1.13 Comparison between Silicon and Germanium

• The conductiviy of holes and electrons in germanium is more than that of conductivity of holes and
electrons is silicon
• Germanium has higher speed of operation thus used for high frequency
• Mobility T–m
where m is a constant
for Ge : m = 1.66 for electrons
: m = 2.33 for holes
for Si : m = 2.5 for electrons

: m = 2.7 for holes

• Operating temperature of Si is –60°C to 175°C and for Ge is –60°C to 75°C
• Standard doping concentration
1. Moderate doping 1 : (106 to 108)
2. lightly doped 1 : 1011
3. heavily doped 1 : 103
The above doping concentration ratio is ratio of doping concentration and density of atoms is semiconductor.
For example if doping is done as 1 : 103 and in silicon has density of atoms as 1 × 1022 atoms/cc then
doping density is 1 × 109 atoms/cc
Thus
Total number of atoms

Doping density Impurity ratio
cc
1.14 Degenerate and Nondegenerate Semiconductors

In our discussion of adding dopant atoms to a semiconductor, we have implicitly assumed that the
concentration of dopant atoms added is small when compared to the density of host or semiconductor atoms.
The small number of impurity atoms are spread far enough apart so that there is no interaction between donor
electrons, for example, in an n-type material. The few impurity atoms were so widely spaced throughout the
sample, we can say that no charge transport could take place within the donor or acceptor levels. We have
assumed that the impurities introduce discrete, noninteracting donor energy states in the n-type semiconductor
and discrete, noninteracting acceptor states in the p-type semiconductor. These types of semiconductors are
referred to as nondegenerate semiconductors.
If the impurity concentration increases, the distance between the impurity atoms decreases and a point
will be reached when donor electrons, for example, will begin to interact with each other. When this occurs, the
single discrete donor energy will split into a band of energies. As the donor concentration further increases, the
band of donor states widens and may overlap the bottom of the conduction band. This overlap occurs when the
donor concentration becomes comparable with the effective density of states. When the concentration of electrons
in the conduction band exceeds the density of states Nc the Fermi energy lies within the conduction band. This
type of semiconductor is called a degenerate n-type semiconductor.
In a similar way, as the acceptor doping concentration increases in a p-type semiconductor, the discrete
acceptor energy states will split into a band of energies and may overlap the top of the valence band. The Fermi
energy will lie in the valence band when the concentration of holes exceeds the density of states Nv. This type of
semiconductor is called a degenerate p-type semiconductor.
Schematic models of the energy-band diagrams for a degenerate n-type and degenerate p-type
semiconductor are shown in Fig.1.37. The energy states below EF are mostly filled with electrons and the energy
states above EF are mostly empty. In the degenerate n-type semiconductor, the states between EF and Ec are
mostly filled with electrons; thus, the electron concentration in the conduction band is very large. Similarly, in
the degenerate p-type semiconductor, the energy states between Ev and EF are mostly empty; thus, the hole
concentration in the valence band is very large.

Conduction band Conduction band

EF Ec
Electron energy
Electron energy
Ec
Filled states Empty states
(electrons) (holes)
Ev
Ev EF
Valence band Valence band
(a) (b)
Fig.1.37 : Simplified energy-band diagrams for degenerately doped (a) n-type, and (b) p-type semiconductors.
Example 1.16
A pure semiconductor germanium is doped with donor impurities to extent of 1 : 107 .

Calculate
( a ) donor concentration ( N d )
( b ) electron and hole concentration
let total number of atoms = 4.421×10 22 /cc, n i = 2.5×10 13 /cc.
Solution 1.16
(a) Nd = No. of atoms × impurity ratio
= 4.421×1015/cc
(b) n0 ND = 4.421×1015/cc
ni2
and p
n
(2.5 1013 )2
p
4.421 1015
p = 1.41×1011/cc
Example 1.17
A pure semiconductor doped with impurity to extent of 4 impurity ( N a ) atoms per every
million atoms of semiconductor. Find electron and hole concentration in semiconductor.
( n i = 1.5×10 10 /cc and number of atoms = 5×10 22 /cc)
Solution 1.17
Here doping
4
Na 5 1022 2×1017/cc
106
and p Na
ni2 (1.5 1010 )2
n 1.125×103/cc
p 2 1017
1.14 Important Properties and Standard constants

Following are some important properties and standard values used in determination of semiconductor
parameters in the exercises of the chapter.
Table 1.1: Some standard constants

A vogadro’s number NA = 6.02 × 10+23 atoms per gram molecular weight
Boltzmann’s Constant k = 1.38 × 10–23 J/K = 8.62 × 10–5 eV/K
Electronic Charge (Magnitude) e = 1.60 × 10–19 C
Free Electron Rest Mass m0 = 9.11 × 10–31 kg
Permeability of Free space 0 = 4 × 10–7 H/m
Permittivity of Free Space e0 = 8.85 × 10–14 F/cm = 8.85 × 10–12 F/m
Plank’s Constant h = 6.625 × 10–34 J – s = 4.135 × 10–15 eV – s
kT
Thermal Voltage (T = 300 K) Vt 0.0259 volt, kT 0.0259 eV
e
Table 1.2: Properties of Silicon, Galium Arsenide, and Germanium ( T = 300 K )

Atoms (cm–3) 5.0 × 1022 4.42 × 1022 4.42 × 1022
Dielectric Constant 11.7 13.1 16.0
Bandgap Energy (eV) 1.12 1.42 0.66
Effective Density of States in 2.8 × 1019 4.7 × 1017 1.04 × 1019
Conduction Band, Nc(cm–3)
Effective Density of States in Valence 1.04 × 1019 7.0 × 1018 6.0 × 1018
Band, Nv(cm–3)
Intrinsic Carrier Concentration (cm–3) 1.5 × 1010 1.8 × 106 2.4 × 1013
Electron Mobility, n (cm2/V – s) 1350 8500 3900
Hole Mobility, 2/V
p(cm – s) 480 400 1900
Effective Mass (Density of States) 1.08 0.067 0.55

level dominates in heavily doped n-type
material? In heavily doped p-type material?
(b) Determine the electron and hole concentrations
and the location of the Fermi level in
1 Subjective Practice Problems (i) an n-type sample doped at Nd = 1017 cm–3

and (ii) in a p -type sample doped at
Na = 1017 cm–3.
(c) Determine the Fermi level position if no dopant
1 . Two semiconductor materials have exactly the same
atoms are added. Is the material n-type, p-type,
properties except that material A has a bandgap or intrinsic?
energy of 1.0 eV and material B has a bandgap energy
of 1.2 eV. Determine the ratio of ni of material A to 7 . An unknown semiconductor has Eg = 1.1 eV and
that of material B for T = 300 K. Nc = Nv. It is doped with 1015 cm–3 donors, where
the donor level is 0.2 eV below Ec. Given that EF is
2 . The electron concentration in silicon at T = 300 K 0.25 eV below Ec, calculate ni and the concentration
is n0 = 5 × 104 cm–3. of electrons and holes in the semiconductor at
(a) Determine p0. Is this n- or p-type material? 300 K.
(b) Determine the position of the Fermi level with
respect to the intrinsic Fermi level. 8 . (a) A Si sample is doped with 1016 cm–3 boron atoms
and a certain number of shallow donors. The Fermi
3 . Determine the values of n0 and p0 for silicon at
level is 0.36 eV above Ei at 300 K. What is the donor
T = 300 K if the Fermi energy is 0.22 eV above the
concentration Nd?
valence band energy.
(b) A Si sample contains 1016 cm–3 In acceptor atoms
4 . In silicon at T = 300 K, we have experimentally and a certain number of shallow donors. The In
acceptor level is 0.16 eV above Ev, and EF is
found that n0 = 4.5 × 104 cm–3 and
0.26 eV above Ev at 300 K. How many (cm–3) In
Nd = 5 × 1015 cm–3. atoms are un-ionized.
(a) Is the material n type of p type?
(b) Determine the majority and minority carrier 9 . Consider the following conduction band energy E
concentrations. vs. wave vector kx direction relation.
(c) What types and concentrations of impurity atoms (a) Which energy valley has the greater effective
exist in the material?
mass in the x-direction mx (circle one)? -valley/
5 . Silicon atoms, at a concentration of 1010 cm–3, are X-valley
added to gallium arsenide. Assume that the silicon (b) Consider two electrons, one each located at the
atoms act as fully ionized dopant atoms and that positions of the heavy crosses. Which has the
5 percent of the concentration added replace gallium greater velocity magnitude (circle one)?
atoms and 95 percent replace arsenide atoms. The one in the -valley/The one in the
Let T = 300 K. X-valley
(a) Determine the donor and acceptor concentration E
(b) Calculate the electron and hole concentrations X-valley
and the position of the Fermi level with respect
E0
to EFi
6 . Defects in a semiconductor material introduce -valley E0

allowed energy states within the forbidden bandgap.
Assume that a particular defect in silicon introduces
two discrete levels: a donor level 0.25 eV above the
top of the valence band, and an acceptor level 0.65 10. (a) The equilibrium band diagram for a doped direct
eV above the top of the valence band. The charge gap semiconductor is shown below. Is it n-type,
state of each defect is a function of the position of p-type, or unknown? Circle one below.
the Fermi level. n -type/ p -type/not enough information provide
(a) Sketch the charge density of each defect as the
Fermi level moves from Ev to Ec. Which defect

Conduction (a) 0.0290 eV below the centre

band edge Ec
Donor level Ed (b) 0.0128 eV above the centre
(c) 0.0128 eV below the centre
(d) 0.0290 eV above the centre
intrinsic 14. Two initially identical samples A and B of pure

Fermi level Ei germanium are doped with donors to concentrations
of 1 × 1020 and 3 × 1020 respectively. If the hole
concentration in A is 9 × 10 12, then the hole
Acceptor level Ea Fermi level EF concentration in B at the same temperature will be
(a) 3 × 1012 m–3 (b) 7 × 1012 m–3
valence band edge Ev
(c) 11 × 1012 m–3 (d) 27 × 1012 m–3
(b) Based on the band diagram oppsite (Ei is in the Common Data for Q. 15 and 16
middle of the gap), would you expect that the
The electron concentration in silicon at T = 300 K is
conduction band density of states effective mass
is greater than, equal to, or smaller than the n0 = 5 × 104 cm–3
valence band effective mass? Circle one: 15. What will be the hole concentration (in cm–3) in
Greater than/equal/smaller than silicon?
(c) What, if any, of the following conditions by (a) 9 × 1015 (b) 3 × 109
themselves could lead to the above band (c) 4.5 × 10 15 (d) 3 × 105
diagram? Circle each correct answer.
(a) very high temperature 16. The material is
(b) very high acceptor doping (a) p-type (b) n-type
(c) very low acceptro doping (c) intrinsic (d) can’t be determined
11. What is the difference between density of states of Common Data for Q. 17 and 18
effective density of states, and why is the letter such Consider Ec – EF = 0.25 eV in gallium arsenide (GaAs)
a useful concept? at T = 400 K.
17. What will be the electron and hole concentrations

in the material at T = 400 K?
n0 (in cm–3) p0 (in cm–3)
1 Objective Practice Problems (a) 2.27 × 10 4
(b) 2.13 × 1015 cm–3

14
(c) 5.19 × 10 cm –3
2.12 × 1015
2.27 × 104
2.08 × 104
12. A piece of intrinsic silicon at room temperature is (d) 2.08 × 10 4 5.19 × 1014
kept at thermal equilibrium. The position of some
18. If the value of n0, obtained in above questions
random level Ex is to be fixed at 0.9 eV above the
remains constant then, what will be the hole
valence band edge. The doping concentration such
concentration at T = 300 K?
that the probability of capture of an energy state by
(a) 7 × 10–3 cm–3 (b) 9.67 × 10–3 cm–3
an electron at Ex is 50% is _______ × 1016 cm–3? –3 –3
(c) 96.7 × 10 cm (d) 2.08 × 104 cm–3
13. Given the effective masses of holes and electrons in
19. Assume that gallium arsenide has dopant
silicon respectively as
concentrations of N d = 1 × 10 13 cm –3 and
m*p 0.56 m0 , m*n 1.08m0 Na = 2.5 × 1013 cm–3 at T = 300 K. The material is
What will be the position of the intrinsic Fermi energy (a) p-type with p0 = 1.5 × 1013 cm–3, n0 = 0.215 cm–3
level with respect to the center of the bandgap for (b) p-type with p0 = 0.216 cm–3, n0 = 1.5 × 1013 cm–3
the semiconductor at T = 300 K? (c) n-type with p0 = 0.216 cm–3, n0 = 1.5 × 1013 cm–3
(d) n-type with p0 = 1.5 × 1013 cm–3, n0 = 0.215 cm–3

20. A particular semiconductor material is doped at Common Data for Q. 25 and 26
Nd = 2 × 1013 cm–3, Na = 0, and the intrinsic carrier
For a particular semiconductor, the effective mass of
concentration is ni = 2 × 1013 cm–3. The thermal
equilibrium majority and minority carrier electron is m*n = 1.4 m (where m is electron mass at
concentrations will be, respectively (Assume rest)
complete ionization) 25. What is the effective density of states in the
(a) p0 = 1.23 × 1013 cm–3, n0 = 0.216 cm–3 conduction band at T = 300° K.
(b) p0 = 0.216 cm–3, n0 = 3.24 × 1013 cm–3 (a) 4.15 × 1025 m–3 (b) 2.08 × 1025 m–3
(c) p0 = 1.23 × 1013 cm–3, n0 = 3.24 × 1013 cm–3 (c) 4.27 × 1026 m–3 (d) 4.15 × 1020 cm–3
(d) p0 = 3.24 × 1013 cm–3, n0 = 1.23 × 1013 cm–3
26. If Ec – EF = 0.25 eV at T = 300° K, then what is the
21. The doping concentrations in silicon semiconductor concentration of electrons in the semiconductor?
are N d = N a = 10 15 cm –3 . What will be the (a) 1.33 × 1021 m–3 (b) 2.67 × 1021 m–3
concentrations of n0 and p 0 in the material at 15
(c) 2.67 × 10 cm –3 (d) 2.67 × 1022 m–3
T = 300 K?
n0 (in cm–3) p0 (in cm–3) 27. The effective masses of electron and hole in
*
(a) 1015 1015 germanium are m*n = 0.55 m and mp = 0.37 m
10
(b) 2.25 × 10 cm –3 1015 (where m is the electron rest mass) what will be the
(c) 1.5 × 10 10 1.5 × 1010 position of the intrinsic Fermi energy level with
(d) 1015 2.25 × 1010 cm–3 respect to the centre of the bandgap for the
22. Consider germanium at T = 300 K with doping Germanium semiconductor at T = 300 K?
concentrations of Nd = 1014 cm–3 and Na = 0. What (a) 0.0154 eV above the centre
will be the position of Fermi energy level with respect (b) 0.0154 eV below the centre
to the intrinsic Fermi level for these doping (c) 0.0077 eV above the centre
concentrations? (d) 0.0077 eV above the centre
(a) 0.1855 eV below the intrinsic fermi level Common Data for Q. 28 and 29
(b) 0.0382 eV above the intrinsic Fermi level
(c) 0.0382 eV below the intrinsic Fermi level For a particular material, N c = 1.5 × 10 18 cm –3 ,
(d) 0.1855 eV above the intrinsic Fermi level Nv = 1.3 × 1019 cm–3 and bandgap EG = 1.43 eV at
T = 300° K.
23. If silicon is doped with phosphorus atoms at a
concentration of 1015 cm–3 then, what will be the 28. What is the position of the Fermi level with respect
position of the Fermi level with respect to the intrinsic to the top of the valence band Ev?
Fermi level in silicon at T = 300 K? (a) 0.028 eV above the valence band edge Ev
(a) 0.1855 eV below the intrinsic fermi level (b) 0.743 eV below the valence band edge Ev
(b) 0.2877 eV above the intrinsic Fermi level (c) 0.028 eV below the valence band edge Ev
(c) 0.2877 eV below the intrinsic Fermi level (d) 0.743 eV above the valence band edge Ev
(d) 0.1855 eV above the intrinsic Fermi level 29. What is the position of the Fermi level with respect
24. Gallium arsenide at T = 300 K contains accepter to the conduction band edge Ec?
impurity atoms at a density of 1015 cm–3. Additional (a) 0.687 eV above Ec
impurity atoms are to be added so that the Fermi (b) 0.687 eV below Ec
level is 0.45 eV below the intrinsic level. The (c) 0.743 eV below Ec
concentration and type of additional impurity atoms (d) 0.743 eV above Ec
will be respectively 30. Which of the following sketches best decribes the
(a) Na = 9.368 × 1014 cm–3, acceptor DN versum ND dependence of electrons in silicon at
(b) Na = 6.32 × 1013 cm–3, acceptor room temperature?
(c) Nd = 9.368 × 1014 cm–3, donor
(d) Nd = 6.32 × 1013 cm–3, donor

DN of intrinsic silicon (Eg) = 1.1 eV.
33. What is the type of semiconductors if the probability

(a) of capture of an energy state by an electron at Ex is
50%.
(a) p-type, non degenerate
ND
(b) n-type, non degenerate
DN (c) p-type, degenerate
(d) n-type, degenerate
(b) 34. What is the doping concentration

(a) 1.725 × 1016 cm–3
(b) 1.725 × 1020 cm–3
ND (c) 2.879 × 1019 cm–3
(d) 2.879 × 1016 cm–3
DN
35. A silicon semiconductor has the dopant
concentrations Nd = 0, Na = 1014 cm–3. The thermal
(c) equilibrium electron concentration in the material
at T = 400 K will be _______ × 1010 cm–3
ND
Common Data for Q. 36 and 37
DN Silicon at T = 300 K is doped with acceptor atoms at a

concentration of Na = 7 × 1015 cm–3.
(d) 36. The difference between Fermi energy and valence
band energy, EF – Ev equals to _______ eV.
ND 37. The concentration of additional acceptor atoms that
must be added to move the Fermi level a distance
Common Data for Q. 31 and 32 kT closer to the valence-band edge will be _______
At room temperature (T = 300 K), the probability that × 1016 cm–3.
an energy state in the conduction band edge (Ec) of silicon 38. In an n-type silicon, the donor concentration is 1
is 10–4. atom per 2 × 108 silicon atoms. Assume that the
31. The type of semiconductor is effective mass of the electron equals the true mass
(a) n-type (b) p-type and the density of atoms in the silicon is 5 × 1022
(c) intrinsic (d) can’t be determine atoms/cm3. At what temperature (in °K) will the Fermi
level coincide with the edge of the conduction band?
32. Assume the effective density of states function
Nc,v = 2.86 × 1019 cm–3. What is the value of doping 39. For a non-degenerate semiconductor, the peak in
concentration? the electron distribution versus energy inside the
(a) ND – NA = 1.26 × 1010 cm–3 conduction band occurs at Ec + KT/2. What is the
(b) NA – ND = 1.26 × 1010 cm–3 ratio of the electron population in a non-degenerate
(c) ND – NA = 2.8 × 1015 cm–3 semiconductor at E = Ec + 5 KT to the electron
(d) NA – ND = 2.8 × 1015 cm–3 population at the peak energy?
Common Data for Q. 33 and 34
A piece of intrinsic silicon at room temperature is kept at

thermal equilibrium. The position of energy level, Ex is
set exactly 0.6 eV above the intrinsic level and band gap

01 Energy Band and Semiconductors

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01 Energy Band and Semiconductors

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Chapter

Energy Band And

1.1 Semiconductor Materials

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atom in crystal is called lattice.

1.2 Energy Band in Solids

Note: In an atom the energy of electron is quantized.

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1.3 Electrical Conduction in Solids

1.3.1 The Energy Band and The Bond Model

Fig 1.4 : Two-dimensional representation of the covalent bonding in a semiconductor at T = 0K

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Fig 1.6 : Line representation of energy band at T = 0 K.

Fig 1.6 : (a) Two-dimensional representation of the breaking of a covalent bond

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Fig 1.7 : Line representation of band diagram at T > 0 K.

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1.3.2 Drift Current

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1.3.3 Concept of holes

Fig 1.10 : Movement of electrons in valence band

1.3.4 Electron Effective Mass

Fig 1.11 : Evs k plot

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1.3.5 Hole Effective Mass

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And proceeding in a similar fashion, we can write

1.3.6 Comparison between holes and electrons

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1.4 Metal, Insulators, and semiconductors

(a) (b) (c)

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(a) (b) (c)

Fig 1.16 : Two possible energy bands of a metal showing

1.5 Direct and indirect band gap semiconductor material

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1.6 Effect of temperature on band gap

1.7 Density of states function

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or N = 4.5 × 1021 states/cm3

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equation (1.23) is valid for E < Ev.

1.8 Fermi-Dirac Probability function

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To calculate the probability that an energy state above E F is occupied by an electron.

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1.9 Charge Carriers in Semiconductors

The Fermi Energy (EF) and semiconductor at T = 0 K

Fig.1.24 : Semiconductor and Fermi energy level at T = 0 K

Note: The Fermi energy donot need to correspond to an allowed energy

The Fermi energy (EF) and semiconductor at T > 0 K

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n(E) = gc(E) fF(E) …(1.28)

The n0 and p0 equations

gv(E)(1 – fF(E)) = p(E)

Area = p0 = hole concentration

n0 gc( E) fF ( E)dE …(1.30)

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Solving this we get