Transportation Research Part D 56 (2017) 175–188

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Transportation Research Part D

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/trd

Linking Chinese cultural values and the adoption of electric

T
vehicles: The mediating role of ethical evaluation
⁎
Lixian Qian1, Juelin Yin1,
International Business School Suzhou, Xi’an Jiaotong-Liverpool University, 111 Ren’ai Road, Suzhou Industrial Park, Suzhou, Jiangsu Province
215123, China

AR TI CLE I NF O AB S T R A CT

Keywords: Electric vehicles (EVs) have been regarded as one of the most prominent green technologies,
Electric vehicles touted to help reduce global energy consumption and carbon emissions. China advocates the
Chinese cultural values development of EVs to address the increasing challenges of climate change, urban air pollution
Ethical evaluation and energy security, but consumers’ enthusiasm for adopting EVs remains low. In this paper, we
China
present a concept model that hypothesizes Chinese cultural values as a key to understanding
Chinese consumers’ intention to adopt EVs. Based on a nationwide online survey in China, this
study explores Chinese consumers’ attitudes toward two types of EVs—battery electric vehicles
and plug-in hybrid electric vehicles—by identifying the influence of the human–nature re-
lationship, long-term orientation, face consciousness, and risk attitude, as well as the mediating
effect of deontological ethical evaluation in decision-making. The results suggest that public
policy and social marketing efforts should pay more attention to the role of cultural values when
promoting environmentally sustainable technologies, and importantly, that the promotion efforts
should differ for different cultural elements and products with different levels of innovativeness.

1. Introduction

Automobility is amongst the most important causes of energy consumption worldwide (Urry, 2004). Petrol and diesel usage in
transportation contributes about one-sixth of global greenhouse gas emissions and the majority of urban air pollution (Fenger, 1999).
Therefore, electric vehicles (EVs), which emit considerably lower levels of CO2 than petrol cars, have been regarded as one of the
most promising green technologies, which could help reduce global carbon emissions and energy consumption (Kley et al., 2011;
Sang and Bekhet, 2015).
As part of its national sustainable development strategy, the Chinese government chose EVs, including plug-in hybrid electric
vehicles (PHEVs) and battery electric vehicles (BEVs), to address the increasing challenges of climate change, urban air pollution and
energy security (Gong et al., 2013). China aimed to produce 2 million units of EVs annually and sell, cumulatively, 500,000 units by
2015 and 5 million units by 2020 (The State Council of P.R.C., 2012). Despite the potentials for EVs to contribute substantial
environmental benefit and receive strong government support (considering purchase subsidy, infrastructure promotion, and research
and development) (Zhang et al., 2017), Chinese consumers have been hesitant to adopt EVs. The pilot EV commercialization program
initiated in early 2009 only achieved an average of 26% of its goal across 25 cities by October 2011 (Gong et al., 2013). In 2013, only
17,600 EVs were sold in China, the majority of which were buses and utility trucks, accounting for less than 0.1% of annual vehicle

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: lixian.qian@xjtlu.edu.cn (L. Qian), yinjuelin@gmail.com (J. Yin).
1
Two authors contribute equally to this research.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.trd.2017.07.029

Available online 12 August 2017

1361-9209/ © 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
L. Qian, J. Yin Transportation Research Part D 56 (2017) 175–188

sales (Wan et al., 2015). The Chinese government then implemented a wide range of incentive policies to further promote the market
of EVs (Ministry of Finance et al., 2013, 2014; The State Council of P.R.C., 2014a), which helped drive an increase in the market share
to 0.3% and 1.3% in 2014 and 2015 respectively. By the end of 2015, however, China was still failing to achieve the intended sale
target (China Association of Automobile Manufacturers, 2015, 2016).
To achieve the desired environmental benefits of EVs, it is crucial to understand key antecedents that can influence consumers’
willingness or unwillingness to adopt EVs and the related influencing mechanism. Existing research on EV adoption has focused on
the influences of product-related factors (such as purchase and running costs, vehicle performance and emission level), service factors
(such as charging infrastructure), policy factors (such as government incentives and regulations), as well as individual factors (such as
environmental awareness and technology awareness) (Cherubini et al., 2015; Potoglou and Kanaroglou, 2008; Rezvani et al., 2015).
Surprisingly, there is limited knowledge about the role of cultural values in consumers’ decision-making processes when considering
whether to purchase an EV (Lane and Potter, 2007).
Drawing on the “value-attitude-behavior” framework (Homer and Kahle, 1988) and the theory of planned behavior (Ajzen and
Madden, 1986), we investigate the cultural antecedents of EV adoption corresponding to three key attributes of EVs: environmental
friendliness, symbolism, and innovative attributes. The environmental benefits of EVs are the main motivation behind the Chinese
government’s promotion of EVs. However, the symbolic attributes of EVs may also bestow owners with desirable pro-environmental
and prosocial identity markers (Griskevicius et al., 2010). Moreover, EVs are innovative and will require major transition of the
current socio-technical system of mobility (Tyfield, 2014), so consumers tend to perceive them as cars for tomorrow (Graham-Rowe
et al., 2012).
We identify four factors that could largely correlate Chinese social and cultural values with consumer attitudes to EVs. First, the
“human–nature relationship” and “long–term orientation” (LTO), values originating from Taoism and Confucianism respectively in
Chinese culture, may influence consumer perceptions on the environmental attribute of EVs. Further, “face consciousness,” an im-
portant aspect of Chinese culture, may elucidate the importance of symbolism associated with EVs. In addition to these three Chinese
cultural values, we included “risk attitude” as another potential factor in EV adoption, that is, the impact of uncertainty on con-
sumers’ intention to adopt innovative technology.
In spite of the potentially important influence of cultural values on consumer behavior, prior studies suggest that effects of
cultural values are usually indirect and take effect via specific mediating processes (e.g., Chan and Lau, 2000; Chan, 2001; McCarty
and Shrum, 1994). The existing literature argues that when cultural values affect the ethical evaluation of sustainable consumption,
consumers are more likely to link their beliefs with behavioral intention (Lu et al., 2015); however, few studies have examined the
influence of culture on consumption sustainability via ethical evaluation (e.g. Yin et al., in press). Drawing on marketing ethics
theory, which applies ethical decision-making to marketing contexts (Hunt and Vitell, 1986, 1993), we further probe the mediating
mechanism of deontological ethical evaluation—that is, an individual’s evaluation of the inherent rightness versus wrongness of a
behavior (Hunt and Vitell, 1986, 1993)—in the influence of cultural elements on consumers’ intention to adopt EVs.
Investigation of mediating mechanisms may have important implications for understanding the influential effects of cultural
factors on environment-related consumption. Different types of EVs have different effects on energy savings and emission reduction
(Zhou et al., 2013)—BEVs are driven by a battery recharged from the electricity supply while PHEVs can be driven by an internal
combustion engine or an electric motor with a short all-electric range (Graham-Rowe et al., 2012; Schuitema et al., 2013). Therefore,
by using mediation analysis, we examined the direct only effects (i.e., no mediation), indirect only effects (i.e., full mediation), or
both direct and indirect effects (i.e., partial mediation) of various cultural factors. In particular, the mediation analysis for the effects
of environmental factors on explaining the adoption intention of each type of EV may inform the design of more effective en-
vironmental policies and social marketing campaigns to promote the adoption of EVs.
In the remaining parts of this paper, we first review the literature of EV adoption and present research hypotheses. Then we
introduce the research method and discuss our analyses of the measurement model, structural equation model, and mediation test.
Finally, we discuss the theoretical and policy implications of the results and reflect on the potential limitations of the study.

2. Literature review and research hypotheses

Understanding consumer attitudes toward EVs is essential for market development. The adoption of EVs must not only overcome
technological obstacles, but also address social, cultural and ethical challenges relating to consumers’ attitudes to achieve widespread
adoption (Heffner et al., 2007). As researchers argue, instrumental attributes may not be as important as assumed for the adoption of
sustainable or environmentally friendly innovations; instead, other less-examined environmental, symbolic, or innovative aspects
may be more important to consumers (Noppers et al., 2014). Thus, consumers’ acceptance of sustainable innovations such as EVs may
be influenced by values, emotions, lifestyle, and social networks, as well as other non-technical factors.
Given that values often translate into behaviors, it is a matter of great importance to understand whether and how values may
predict consumers’ sustainability-related attitudes and behaviors (Haws et al., 2014). Referring to the “value-attitude-behavior”
framework proposed by Homer and Kahle (1988) and the theory of planned behavior (Ajzen and Madden, 1986), our theoretical
model summarizes the hypothesized relationships among key constructs (see Fig. 1). The theory of planned behavior attempts to
explain the causal link between values, beliefs, attitudes and behavior, and proposes that when facing a behavioral choice, in-
dividuals will consider the alternatives and assess their consequences based on their beliefs and values (Ajzen, 1991). Thus, beliefs
influence intention to act, assuming that behavioral intention is a strong indicator of actual choice. Similarly, the “value-attitude-
behavior” framework stresses the importance of personal values and norms, including social value systems and ethical evaluation, in
predicting consumer behavior. Homer and Kahle (1988) argue that studies on personal values and consumer behavior tend to focus

176
L. Qian, J. Yin Transportation Research Part D 56 (2017) 175–188

Chinese Cultural Values

Human-nature
H1+
Relationship Adoption Intention

Adoption Intention
H5(a)+ to BEVs
Long-term H2+ Deontological
Orientation Evaluation
H4(a)-
H5(b)+
Adoption Intention
H3+ to PHEVs
Risk H4(b)-
Face Aversion
Consciousness

Control Variables:
Age
Gender
Education level
Household income
Tier of residential city
Household car ownership
Self-assessed knowledge on cars
Self-assessed knowledge on EVs

Fig. 1. Theoretical model.

on the relationship between single values and behaviors without considering different value dimensions within a larger theoretical
framework. They further argue for the importance of investigating mediating variables and mechanisms between values and be-
havior.
Corresponding to the environmental, symbolic, and innovative attributes of EVs, we examine the influence of three typical
Chinese cultural values, namely, the human–nature relationship, LTO, and face consciousness, as well as risk aversion, on the
adoption of EVs, and, importantly, the mediating role of deontological ethical evaluation. A thorough understanding of Chinese
culture relies on knowledge of its philosophical roots, particularly Taoism and Confucianism, reflected in advocacy for values such as
harmony, benevolence, LTO and virtue (Lau, 1992, 2001; Lin et al., 2013). Similarly, other Chinese cultural idiosyncrasies such as
“face” have also been noted in prior research on consumer behavior (Bao et al., 2003; Faure and Fang, 2008). While prior research
has suggested that environmental problems are embedded in traditional values, beliefs and attitudes of a given society (Li and Ernst,
2015), it is also important to describe how individual variations in basic value orientations within a society may relate to consumer
environmental attitudes and actions (McCarty and Shrum, 1994; Stern and Dietz, 1994).

2.1. Human–nature relationship

There is general agreement across many cultures and countries that nature has intrinsic value. Moreover, culture influences the
development and expression of values as they relate to nature (Li and Ernst, 2015), ranging from mastery over nature to harmony
with nature, or subjection to nature (Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck, 1961). The human–nature relationship focuses on how human
beings manage their relationships with nature (Hand and Van Liere, 1984). Rooted in the influential Chinese philosophy of Taoism,
Chinese people believe that each element of nature (even trees, flowers, and grass) has its own consciousness, which collectively form
the unchangeable way of nature (Chan, 2001). The Chinese cultural value of the human–nature relationship dictates that individuals’
behavior—and, collectively, the behavior of society—should be aligned with the way of nature, to achieve harmony with it.
The consequences of rapid transportation growth for climate change are apparent. Globally, transportation causes about a quarter
of the carbon dioxide emissions generated worldwide through combustion (Barkenbus, 2009). The environmental attributes of EVs
may reflect the positive outcomes of adopting and using products that are perceived to be sustainable or environmentally friendly.
Research has shown that protecting the natural environment is an important factor in some consumers’ decision-making processes.
Through an online survey of technology enthusiasts in the US, Egbue and Long (2012) found that a positive environmental image of
EVs influences consumers’ interest in it as a transportation option, despite the variation in environmental awareness and knowledge

177
L. Qian, J. Yin Transportation Research Part D 56 (2017) 175–188

among consumers. In the present study, we argue that the favorable environmental attributes of EVs are likely to lead to their
adoption, particularly among consumers who more strongly endorse the human–nature relationship (Axsen and Kurani, 2013). In
other words, we hypothesize that a consumer with more belief in human–nature harmony will generally exhibit greater desire for
more environmentally friendly products or services (in this case, the low-CO2-emitting EVs), and will gain less satisfaction from
reliance on fuel-powered vehicles. Here, we propose:

H1: The human–nature relationship is positively related to consumers’ deontological evaluation of EVs.

2.2. Long-term orientation

LTO has been described as “the fostering of virtues oriented towards future rewards, in particular, perseverance and thrift”
(Hofstede, 2001, p. 359). The conceptualization of LTO, which was first proposed by Hofstede and his colleague as the dimension of
the “Confucian dynamic” (Hofstede and Bond, 1988), is rooted in another traditional Chinese philosophy of Confucianism with
regard to “time, tradition, perseverance, and saving for the future” (Bearden et al., 2006, p. 457). Instead of only seeing the benefits of
actions for the short term and deeming actions important only for their effects in the here and now, LTO treasures the virtue of both
the past and the future (Bearden et al., 2006). We include LTO as relevant to explaining consumers’ sustainable consumption behavior
based on the temporal dimension in environmental consumption decision-making (i.e., a potential conflict between immediate and
delayed consequences) (Joireman et al., 2001). As Trudel and Cotte (2009) argue, sustainability research basically aims to under-
stand how consumer behavior is influenced by beliefs about the link between short-term actions and future generations. Most often,
pro-environmental behaviors are unlikely to benefit directly the individuals performing the behaviors and the outcomes of the
behaviors are future oriented; thus consumers with a greater extent of LTO are more likely to embrace more environmentally friendly
technology (Kim and Choi, 2005). Prior research finds that some consumers view EVs as a work-in-progress and the cars of tomorrow
(Graham-Rowe et al., 2012). We argue that LTO is helpful for understanding consumers’ intention to adopt EVs for their environ-
mental attributes. As Wilhelmsson (1998) and Joireman et al. (2001) argued, promoting a transition to sustainable consumption
depends on, among other things, wider society realizing the long-term benefits of preserving the environment. On the one hand, LTO
is often correlated with environmental responsibility and integrity (Arli and Tjiptono, 2014). Consumers with higher LTO tend to
preserve social traditions and history, and are thus likely to value environmental preservation for future generations through
adopting sustainable technology and products (Leonidou et al., 2010). On the other hand, researchers suggest that consumers scoring
high in planning and showing greater respect for tradition will exhibit higher levels of ethical values (Nevins et al., 2007; Tsui and
Windsor, 2001). Therefore, we propose:

H2: LTO is positively related to consumers’ deontological evaluation of EVs.

2.3. Face consciousness

Face consciousness is another dimension of Confucian values that may influence Chinese consumers’ decisions to adopt EVs,
particularly concerning the symbolism of EVs. As Lee (1991) notes, people from Confucian nations such as China are very concerned
about whether their behaviors will make them gain or lose “face” within their social groups. Thus, face consciousness refers to
“people’s desire to enhance, maintain, and avoid losing face” with respect to others in their social network such as family members
and friends (Bao et al., 2003, p. 736).
Prior literature has suggested that the adoption of EVs is driven by both consumers’ environmental concerns and their pro-social
considerations of image and social status (Graham-Rowe et al., 2012). Therefore, EVs do not only need to meet the functional needs of
consumers, but may also allow consumers to construct and express identity. Nevertheless, limited understanding has been achieved
on how the symbolic attribute of EVs influences consumers’ adoption intentions, particularly in a country such as China that places a
high value on face (Heffner et al., 2007).
We argue that face consciousness subjects consumers to the influence of social normative pressures, so that they are more sen-
sitive to the social signaling effect of sustainable consumption (Biswas and Roy, 2015). Consumers who are highly conscious of face
may pay close attention to managing their public image and gaining social acceptance of their pro-social or pro-environmental
actions through conveying characteristics such as “green,” “good,” or “pro-social” as consistent with community values and norms
(Hartmann and Apaolaza-Ibáñez, 2012). EV customers may gain psychological benefits from their adoption behavior, in that such
behavior can publicly demonstrate their pro-social attitude and their ability to afford the higher price of EVs (Griskevicius et al.,
2010). For example, consumers may find that adopting a perceived environmentally friendly technology such as EVs early symbolizes
a desirable social identity and creates a “feel-good factor” associated with environmental benefits (Graham-Rowe et al., 2012).
Examining the BEV driving experience of 58 UK consumers, Skippon and Garwood (2011) found that BEVs may signal openness,
conscientiousness, and agreeableness for some consumers as additional symbolic benefits beyond cost-saving and better performance.
In another qualitative study of UK consumers’ driving experience with plug-in battery and hybrid EVs, researchers identified im-
pression management as one of the main motivations to categorize potential adopters of EVs (Graham-Rowe et al., 2012). We thus
hypothesize that:

H3: Face consciousness is positively related to consumers’ deontological evaluation of EVs.

178
L. Qian, J. Yin Transportation Research Part D 56 (2017) 175–188

2.4. Risk attitude

Consumers’ risk attitude (that is, perceived uncertainty and consequences associated with consumption) may also influence
consumer decision-making, particularly involving innovative technologies, where the outcomes are uncertain and ambiguous and the
consumer holds a belief that they should be avoided (Bao et al., 2003; Hofstede and Bond, 1988). Prior research indicates that
perceived risk negatively affects consumers’ tendency to adopt innovative products or services. Alternatively, consumers may choose
to lower the perceived risk by shifting or delaying their purchase, staying with traditional brands and seeking advice and en-
dorsement from trusted parties.
EVs have been argued as a disruptive technology, because they can enable unfamiliar forms of mobility and energy consumption
(Barkenbus, 2009). Diffusion of innovation theory (Bass, 1969; Rogers, 1962) has been used to explain the adoption of EVs, in that it
is linked with consumer innovativeness, that is, consumers’ willingness to purchase new products earlier than others (Schuitema
et al., 2013). In contrast, a common obstacle to the adoption of innovative technology is perceived risk, such as economic, functional,
social, or physical risk (Ram and Sheth, 1989). As Oliver and Rosen (2010) indicated, consumers are reluctant to accept EVs, partly
because of perceived risks or uncertainty of new technologies. However, most studies that have adopted the innovation perspective of
EV adoption have not investigated the role of consumers’ attitudes toward risk, although some recent studies have discussed its
influence on the adoption of innovations (Bockarjova and Steg, 2014; Egbue and Long, 2012; Petschnig et al., 2014). Therefore, we
argue that higher levels of risk aversion may lead to lower adoption intention of EVs. Thus, we propose:

H4: Risk aversion is negatively related to the intention of consumers to adopt EVs.
H4a: Risk aversion is negatively related to the intention of consumers to adopt PHEVs.
H4b: Risk aversion is negatively related to the intention of consumers to adopt BEVs.

2.5. Deontological evaluation

Transformation toward sustainability involves a broad palette of motivations and concerns. Marketing ethics theory (Hunt and
Vitell, 1986, 1993) argues that the influence of market environmental factors, such as cultural values, on consumers’ adoption
intentions and behavior can be mediated by ethical evaluation. It may shape consumers’ preferences for one behavior over another
from the belief that it is ethically preferred. As opposed to teleological ethical theory, which focuses on justifying the rightness of
actions by their consequences, deontological ethical theory is concerned with questions of moral obligation, emphasizing the means
and motives by which actions are justified (Ferrell and Gresham, 1985; Hunt and Vitell, 1986). Deontological individuals comply
with ethical values, follow specific principles, and uphold their own rights and duties; they are more ready to learn the rules that
regulate the situations they encounter and become more sensitive to infringement of these rules (Leonidou et al., 2010).
In terms of the adoption of sustainable innovations, consumers adopting a deontological ethical approach tend to hold the belief
that it is a moral right of the natural environment to be treated fairly and consumers have a moral obligation to prevent the
environment from being polluted (Leonidou et al., 2010). Moreover, consumers who have higher levels of deontological evaluation
may be more responsive to environmental challenges and thus may exhibit greater understanding and responsibility to adopt more
sustainable consumption choices to preserve the environment (Chan et al., 2008).
Our argument about the mediating role of deontological evaluation between cultural values and intention to adopt EVs is also
aligned with the theory of planned behavior (Ajzen and Madden, 1986), which argues that consumers’ values and normative beliefs
influence their evaluation of behavioral outcomes. Therefore, in this study we argue that if consumers consider that adopting EVs is
ethically right, this evaluation is likely to be translated into behavioral intention. Here, we propose:

H5: Consumers’ deontological evaluation of EVs is positively related to their intention to adopt these types of cars.
H5a: Consumers’ deontological evaluation of EVs is positively related to their intention to adopt PHEVs.
H5b: Consumers’ deontological evaluation of EVs is positively related to their intention to adopt BEVs.

3. Methodology

3.1. Data collection and sample

We conducted a nationwide online survey in China to investigate the cultural antecedents and ethical mediator of Chinese
consumers’ adoption intention for EVs. Based on factors such as demographics, geographic proximity, consumer characteristics, and
economic development, McKinsey identified 22 city clusters (Atsmon et al., 2011) and, similarly, 25 automobile market clusters in
China (Wang et al., 2012). This study organized a team of 52 university students as survey assistants whose home cities corresponded
with market clusters across China. Fig. 2 presents a map of the urban clusters in China from which we collected data.
Before launching the formal survey, this study conducted several pilot surveys in late 2014 and early 2015 to fine-tune the
questionnaire and test the online survey instrument. We also provided training for the survey assistants to ensure they understood the
survey objectives and recruitment procedures. We emphasized that regardless of whether the household owned cars or not, they
could participate in the survey. The formal survey was implemented during the Chinese New Year Holiday in February 2015, when
the survey assistants returned to their home towns and recruited survey participants during their holiday. We used convenience
sampling in each cluster, in which the students collected data from their acquaintances, but it is worth noting that our intention was

179
L. Qian, J. Yin Transportation Research Part D 56 (2017) 175–188

Fig. 2. A cluster map of data collection.

Note: this cluster map is adapted from Atsmon et al. (2011) and Wang et al. (2012).

to collect data from a wide range of areas across China, rather than only using data from big cities (e.g., Helveston et al., 2015).
Among the collected 1300 responses, because of a number of incomplete responses, we got 948 cases used in data analyses.
Table 1 presents the basic demographical characteristics of our sample data. Compared with the national statistics, our sample
contained more male than female respondents, which is in line with Helveston et al. (2015). In general, we collected more data from
younger (i.e., aged 30 or below) and better educated (i.e., bachelor degree or above) respondents, who are found to be more likely to
adopt environmentally friendly vehicles (Plötz et al., 2014; Potoglou and Kanaroglou, 2007). Compared with the national average
income of 86,500 RMB for urban households in 2014, in our sample, only 25% of our survey participants earned a household income
of less than 100,000 RMB, which is similar to the sample feature of Hackbarth and Madlener (2013) that web-based survey could
under-sample low-income individuals. As shown in Fig. 2, we collected data from a wide range of urban clusters in China, and thus
our sample well represents different tiers of cities, ranging from Tier 1 super-large cities (i.e., with 10 million residents or more) to
Tier 6 and smaller cities (i.e., with fewer than half a million residents). Regarding household car ownership, we collected more data
from car owners (i.e., with one or more cars), while the national average car ownership in urban areas was about 25.7 cars per 100
households in 2014. The over-representing of car owners in the sample may align with previous findings that car owners are more
likely to choose to EVs than those who have not already own cars (Lieven et al., 2011; Qian and Soopramanien, 2011).

3.2. Measures

The questionnaire consisted of a list of measurement items asking for respondents’ level of agreement to each item, based on a 5-
point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree). See Appendix A for all measurement items included in this study. We
adopted measurement items for the human–nature relationship from Chan (2001), which aims to identify how people think the

180
L. Qian, J. Yin Transportation Research Part D 56 (2017) 175–188

Table 1
Description of sample data (n = 948).

Demographic characteristics Frequency Percentage National levelb

Gender
Male 528 55.70% 50.96%
Female 420 44.30% 49.04%
Age
Between 18 and 25 368 38.82% 21.58%
Between 26 and 30 93 9.81% 11.82%
Between 31 and 40 172 18.14% 24.12%
Between 41 and 50 276 29.11% 20.67%
51 and older 39 4.11% 21.81%
Education level
Junior middle school and lower 26 2.74% 49.42%
High school 110 11.60% 25.47%
Junior college 153 16.14% 13.28%
Bachelor degree 575 60.65% 10.66%
Master degree and higher 84 8.86% 1.18%
Household annual disposable income in 2014 (RMB) 86.5 K
Less than 100 K 237 25.00%
Between 100 K and 200 K 391 41.24%
Between 200 K and 300 K 139 14.66%
Between 300 K and 400 K 69 7.28%
Between 400 K and 500 K 33 3.48%
More than 500 K 79 8.33%
Tier of citya
Tier 1 (urban population ≥ 10 million) 81 8.54% 18.42%
Tier 2 (10 million > urban population ≥ 5 million) 149 15.72% 13.58%
Tier 3 (5 million > urban population ≥ 3 million) 251 26.48% 13.51%
Tier 4 (3 million > urban population ≥ 1 million) 205 21.62% 20.94%
Tier 5 (1 million > urban population ≥ 0.5 million) 151 15.93% 21.37%
Tier 6 and lower (urban population < 0.5 million) 111 11.71% 12.18%
Household car ownership 0.257c
0 car 170 17.93%
1 car 533 56.22%
2 cars 203 21.41%
3 or more cars 42 4.43%
Self-assessed knowledge on cars
1: extremely low 118 12.45%
2 208 21.94%
3 396 41.77%
4 167 17.62%
5: extremely high 59 6.22%
Self-assessed knowledge on EVs
1: never heard of them 70 7.38%
2 338 35.65%
3 390 41.14%
4 115 12.13%
5: very good knowledge about them 35 3.69%

Note:
a
The classification of city tiers follows the latest guideline from The State Council of the People’s Republic of China (2014b); the population size of each city comes
from the World Urbanization Prospects, 2014 revision (United Nations, 2014).
b
Gender, age, and education level are based on the latest Population Census of China (National Bureau of Statistics of China, 2011). Household income and car
ownership are based on the 2016 Statistical Yearbook of China (National Bureau of Statistics of China, 2016). City tiers have the same source as note a.
c
The average car ownership level in urban areas of China was about 25.7 cars per 100 households in 2014.

relationship between human beings and the nature. Sample items include: “Human beings need to understand the ways of nature and
act accordingly” and “Being the master of the world, human beings are entitled to deploy any natural resources as they like” (as a
reversed-score item). LTO is another cultural value that measures the extent of an individual’s pragmatic future-oriented perspective
(Hofstede, 1980, 1991). Long-term oriented individuals tend to exhibit proenvironmental attitudes and aim to preserve sustainable
environment for future generations (Joireman et al., 2004; Sarigöllü, 2009). This study adopted measurement items of LTO from
Leonidou et al. (2010). An example item is: “I have a duty to uphold the values and reputation of my family.” The third culture-
related construct, face-consciousness, was operationalized to measure the effect of face, particularly with respect to others in one’s
social network, in relation to personal consumption. This study adopted measures of face consciousness from Bao et al. (2003), and a
sample item is: “Name-brand purchase is a good way to distinguish people from others.” In addition, risk attitude is conceptualized to
measure consumers’ attitudes toward risks and uncertainties during the consumption process, and its measurement items were also
adopted from Bao et al. (2003). An example item for risk attitude is: “I never buy something I don’t know about at the risk of making a
mistake.” Deontological evaluation is about “the inherent righteousness of a behavior” (Hunt and Vitell, 1986, p. 6). This study adapted

181
L. Qian, J. Yin Transportation Research Part D 56 (2017) 175–188

Table 2
Descriptive Statistics and Factor Correlation and CFA Results.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

1. Human–nature relationship 0.74

2. Long-term orientation 0.66*** 0.65
3. Face consciousness −0.08 * −0.05 0.68
4. Risk aversion 0.20*** 0.20*** 0.17*** 0.54
5. Deontological evaluation 0.46 *** 0.45*** 0.06 0.12*** 0.61
6. Intention to buy PHEVs 0.11 *** 0.12*** 0.14*** −0.06 0.30*** NA
7. Intention to buy BEVs 0.05 0.12*** 0.15*** −0.06 0.27*** 0.50*** NA
Mean 4.39 4.14 2.49 3.19 3.69 2.96 2.42
Standard deviation 0.83 0.85 1.04 1.01 1.04 1.18 1.17
Composite reliability 0.89 0.79 0.87 0.70 0.83 NA NA
Cronbach’s alpha 0.87 0.79 0.86 0.70 0.82 NA NA

Note: Values on the diagonal are the AVEs.

* p < 0.05.
*** p < 0.001.

three items from Chan et al. (2008) to measure deontological evaluation of using EVs. An example item is: “It is morally right to use
EVs.”
In addition, consumers’ intention to adopt EVs was measured separately for BEVs and PHEVs, which China focuses on and thus
can benefit from various government incentive policies (The State Council of P.R.C., 2012, 2014a). Given that these two types of EVs
differ in regards to their level of innovativeness (Schuitema et al., 2013) and contribution to energy savings and emission reductions
(Zhou et al., 2013), we asked survey respondents to rate their likelihood of purchasing each type of EVs in the next five years
(1 = entirely impossible to 5 = entirely possible).

4. Analysis and results

4.1. Measurement model

As we adopted pre-existing measurement items from previous studies, confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was conducted to
evaluate their reliability and validity through AMOS v.21. First, convergence validity requires that standardized item loadings should
be 0.70 or more (Gefen et al., 2000), or at least close to 0.70 (Feng et al., 2014). In the measurement model of the present study, most
items had a standardized loading greater than 0.65, except two items in human–nature relationship (0.12 and 0.04), one item in LTO
(0.64), one item under face consciousness (0.63) and one item in risk attitude (0.56). Thus, we dropped these items from the
following study. Second, all average variances extracted (AVEs) in this study were above 0.50, and all composite reliability (CR)
values were at least 0.70. Third, Cronbach’s alpha coefficients of all measurement constructs met the 0.70 criterion.
With respect to discriminant validity, we compared the AVE value of each construct with its squared correlation with any other
construct (Hair et al., 2014, p. 620). As shown in the bivariate correlations (Table 2), all AVE values (i.e., on the diagonal) were 0.54
or higher, while all squared correlation values were smaller than 0.44 (given the strongest correlation of 0.66); therefore, dis-
criminant validity was established for the measurement model. Overall, the model fit of CFA was satisfactory, with model fitness
indexes (CFI = 0.98, NFI = 0.97) greater than the desired value of 0.9 and badness-of-fit measures (RMSEA = 0.05, SRMR = 0.03)
smaller than the typically suggested threshold value of 0.08.

4.2. Structural equation modeling results

Following CFA, we developed a structural model in AMOS to test the research hypotheses. The empirical model also took into
account individual demographic, family socio-economic, and car-related factors as control variables for adoption intention. They
included age, gender, and education level of respondents, disposable household income, and city tier of the household, as well as
current household car ownership, respondents’ self-assessed knowledge about cars, and respondents’ self-assessed knowledge about
EVs. It is worth noting that we controlled self-assessed knowledge about EVs as a proxy of EVs-related product experience, because of
the influence of product-related experience on self-assessed knowledge (Park et al., 1994), and the potentially important role of
product experience in consumers’ acceptance of EVs (Schmalfuß et al., 2017). By using maximum likelihood estimation, the model
demonstrates an overall satisfactory fit. The ratio of χ2 to the degrees of freedom was 2.77 (χ2 = 500.65, df = 179), which is smaller
than the desired threshold of 3.0 (Hair et al., 2014, p. 579). The model fit indexes (CFI = 0.96, NFI = 0.93) were greater than 0.90
and badness-of-fit measures (RMSEA = 0.04, SRMR = 0.06) were smaller than 0.08.
Table 3 summarizes the results of hypotheses testing. Regarding H1, the human–nature relationship had a positive and significant
effect on deontological evaluation of purchasing EVs (β = 0.26, p < 0.001). This implies that consumers who believe in the im-
portance of living in harmony with nature value the inherent righteousness of sustainable levels of consumption, in this case,
adoption of EVs (Chan et al., 2008). Thus, H1 was supported.
With regard to H2, LTO was positively associated with deontological evaluation (β = 0.34) at a 0.001 significance level, and thus

182
L. Qian, J. Yin Transportation Research Part D 56 (2017) 175–188

Table 3
Hypothesis testing results based on the structural equation model.

Hypothesis Standardized estimation 95% CI Conclusion

+ ***
0.26 (0.10, 0.40) Supported
H1: human–nature relationship → deontological evaluation
+ 0.34*** (0.20, 0.50) Supported
H2: long-term orientation → deontological evaluation
+ 0.09** (0.02, 0.16) Supported
H3: face consciousness → deontological evaluation
−
H4(a): risk aversion → adoption intention to PHEVs −0.12** (−0.20, −0.04) Supported
−
H4(b): risk aversion → adoption intention to BEV −0.12** (−0.20, −0.03) Supported
+ 0.34*** (0.25, 0.42) Supported
H5(a): deontological evaluation → adoption intention to PHEVs
+ 0.33*** (0.24, 0.41) Supported
H5(b): deontological evaluation → adoption intention to BEVs

Note:
Model fit statistics: χ2/df = 2.77, CFI = 0.96, NFI = 0.93, RMSEA = 0.04, SRMR = 0.06.
** p < 0.01.
*** p < 0.001.

H2 was supported. This finding corroborates with Joireman et al. (2004) that individuals who care about long-term benefits for
themselves and society tend to provide higher evaluations of pro-environmental behavior. In accordance with H3, face consciousness
of individuals positively influenced deontological evaluation of adopting EVs (β = 0.09, p < 0.01), indicating that consideration of
social desirability by others and by self is strongly associated with evaluation and adoption of pro-environmental consumption
practices, perhaps particularly for those publicly visible to others such as driving electric cars (Griskevicius et al., 2010). Thus, H3
was supported.
We also found support for H4(a) and H4(b), in that risk attitude was negatively associated with the intention to adopt PHEVs
(β = −0.12) or BEVs (β = −0.12) (at a 0.01 significance level). This finding suggests that individuals who are more open to change
may be more prone to accept new technologies such as EVs.
We also found that deontological evaluation had a positive influence on consumer intention to adopt PHEVs (β = 0.34) or BEVs
(β = 0.33) (at a 0.001 significance level), complementing the existing literature on the effect of desirable consequences (such as
environmental benefits and social sustainability) of adopting EVs (Rezvani et al., 2015). In addition, there was little difference
between the two types of EVs, given the 95% confidence intervals (CIs) largely overlapped for PHEVs (0.25, 0.42) and BEVs (0.24,
0.41). Therefore, H5(a) and H5(b) were supported.
Regarding the effects of control variables (see Table 4), we found that age was negatively associated with intention to adopt both
types of EVs (at a 0.05 significance level), consistent with previous findings in Carley et al. (2013). In the present study, women were
more inclined to adopt BEVs, which corroborates the gender effect from Moons and De Pelsmacker (2012), but contradicts that from
Carley et al. (2013). Respondents’ current car ownership was significantly related to their intention to adopt BEVs (at a 0.05 sig-
nificance level), while such association was insignificant for PHEVs. In addition, we found that self-assessed knowledge about cars
was positively associated with the intention to adopt either type of EVs, and significantly so for PHEV (at a 0.05 significance level).
More importantly, consumers’ self-assessed knowledge on EVs was very strongly associated with their adoption intention for BEVs
and PHEVs (p < 0.001). Significant effects were not detected for the other control variables including education level, household
income, or tier of city.

4.3. Mediation test

To better understand the influence mechanism of cultural values, we further investigated the mediating role of deontological

Table 4
Effects of Control Variables in the Structural Equation Model.

PHEV adoption intention BEV adoption intention

Control variables Standardized estimation 95% CI Standardized estimation 95% CI

Age −0.08* (−0.14, −0.01) −0.08* (−0.14, −0.02)

Gender −0.02 (−0.08, 0.04) −0.07* (−0.13, −0.01)
Education level 0.00 (−0.06, 0.06) 0.02 (−0.05, 0.08)
Household income 0.05 (−0.02, 0.11) −0.05 (−0.11, 0.02)
Tier of city 0.01 (−0.05, 0.08) −0.01 (−0.08, 0.05)
Household car ownership −0.02 (−0.09, 0.05) 0.07* (0.01, 0.14)
Self-assessed knowledge on cars 0.09* (0.02, 0.17) 0.05 (−0.03, 0.13)
Self-assessed knowledge on EVs 0.18*** (0.10, 0.26) 0.18*** (0.10, 0.25)

Note:
* p < 0.05.
*** p < 0.001.

183
L. Qian, J. Yin Transportation Research Part D 56 (2017) 175–188

Table 5
Direct effect, indirect effect and mediation test results.

Dependent variable: PHEV Type of mediation Dependent variable: BEV adoption Type of mediation
adoption intention intention

Direct effect Indirect effect Direct effect Indirect effect

Human–nature n.s. 0.09 ***

Indirect-only mediation −0.20 ***
0.09*** Competitive mediation
orientation
Long-term orientation n.s. 0.12*** Indirect-only mediation 0.13* 0.11*** Complementary mediation
Face consciousness 0.12** 0.03** Complementary 0.14*** 0.03** Complementary mediation
mediation

Note: n.s. insignificant. All tests are one-tailed.

*** p < 0.001.
** p < 0.01.
* p < 0.05.

evaluation by using bias-corrected bootstrapping analysis in AMOS. Table 5 summarizes the mediation test results. First, the hu-
man–nature relationship exerted a significant indirect effect, but insignificant direct effect on the intention to adopt PHEVs, which
indicates that deontological evaluation fully mediates its influence on adoption intention for PHEVs. In comparison, the hu-
man–nature relationship had a significant and negative impact on the intention to adopt BEVs, while its indirect effect was significant
and positive, which implies competitive mediation from deontological evaluation on the impact of the human–nature relationship on
BEV adoption (Zhao et al., 2010). Competitive mediation might here be related to the debate about whether widespread adoption of
EVs could reduce CO2 emissions, given that most electricity in China is produced using coal and coal power plants are a major source
of air pollution (Wu et al., 2012). The competitive mediation here implies that consumers may be unsure of the short-term direct
benefits for the environment of adopting full-electric BEVs, although they think it is ethically right (through the deontological
evaluation) to use more EVs that could be recharged by clean and renewable energies in the long term.
In this study, we found that deontological evaluation fully mediated the influence of LTO on the intention of Chinese consumers to
adopt PHEVs (i.e., indirect-only mediation), but it only partially mediated the influence of LTO on the intention to adopt BEVs (i.e.,
complementary mediation). This suggests that future-oriented cultural values may have a direct link with the adoption intention of
electric automobile technology (Barkenbus, 2009). Further, the present study identified that both direct and indirect effects of face
consciousness are significantly positive signs of the intention to adopt either of the two types of EVs, which indicates the com-
plementary mediation of deontological evaluation on the influence of face consciousness on adoption intention of EVs. This finding
contributes to the literature of conspicuous conservation in purchasing environmentally friendly goods (for example, Griskevicius
et al., 2010); thus, it is important to consider subjective evaluations of the inherent rightness of the consumption, which may enhance
the link between the cultural significance of face consciousness and adoption intention.

5. Discussion and conclusion

We undertook this research with the aim to integrate cultural perspectives, consumer attitudes and behaviors regarding en-
vironmentally sustainable consumption, answering the call for more attention to the impact of consumers’ values and socio-psy-
chological attitudes on achieving sustainable consumption goals (Claudy and Peterson, 2014). Based on the environmental, symbolic,
and innovative attributes of EVs, we demonstrated the positive effects of cultural values, including the human–nature relationship,
LTO, and face consciousness on influencing Chinese consumers’ intention to adopt EVs. Thus, the first theoretical implication of this
study is the uncovering of Chinese values that correspond with attributes of sustainable innovations, as antecedents for understanding
consumers’ cognitive processing of EV adoption decisions.
Consumers have good reasons for adopting sustainable innovations such as EVs when they believe the sustainable products are
compatible with their values and beliefs. The results thus suggest that public initiatives to promote sustainable consumption should
take into consideration the effects of cultural values and the corresponding psychological influence mechanisms (Claudy and
Peterson, 2014; Yin et al., in press). To foster values, public policymakers can use education (Hyman and Wright, 1979) and media
advertising (Zhang and Shavitt, 2003) to enhance their desirability, and also facilitate interactions among like-minded community
members on consumption of environmentally friendly products (Phipps et al., 2013), which may also enhance consumer awareness
and arouse the desirability of cultural values. In addition, our results suggest that public policies should be enacted to reduce the
perceived risk of sustainable and innovative technologies, possibly through providing education opportunities and facilitating in-
teractions between consumers.
Second, we identified the role of deontological ethical evaluation in mediating the influence of cultural antecedents on adoption
intention. Therefore, we argue that deontological evaluation is critical in consumers’ reasoning processes on adopting en-
vironmentally sustainable consumption practices. More importantly, we found that the mediation effects differed for different cul-
tural antecedents and the different types of EVs. The competitive mediation role of deontological evaluation in the influence of the
human–nature relationship on consumers’ intention to adopt BEVs may reflect public concern over whether adopting BEVs can really
help reduce air pollution in China. As electricity is largely generated by coal in China, coal power plants are one of the main sources
of air pollution (Wu et al., 2012). Indeed, without altering the primary source of electricity in China, large-scale promotion of BEVs

184
L. Qian, J. Yin Transportation Research Part D 56 (2017) 175–188

will fail to reduce CO2 emission and may even increase other pollutions such as SO2 and NOx (Huo et al., 2010). Therefore, gov-
ernments need to not only upgrade environmental policies such as setting higher power plant emission standards and regulations
(Press and Arnould, 2009), but also implement industrial policies on improving electricity generation efficiency by adopting new
advanced technologies in coal power plants (Wu et al., 2012).
The finding that deontological evaluation fully mediates the influence of LTO on consumers’ intention to adopt PHEVs, but only
partially mediates the influence of LTO on intention to adopt BEVs may be explained by the different levels of technology innova-
tiveness of BEVs and PHEVs (Graham-Rowe et al., 2012; Schuitema et al., 2013). BEVs are fully powered by a battery that is
recharged by the electricity network; however, PHEVs are driven by either conventional internal combustion engine or electricity
supply that can be recharged externally, but has a shorter all-electric range than BEVs. Thus, BEVs are considered the final stage of car
transition from petrol to electricity, whereas PHEVs represent a midway stage of the transition process (Barkenbus, 2009). Therefore,
social marketing strategies for BEVs and PHEVs could be differentiated to some extent. Essentially, BEVs may be promoted by
emphasizing their advanced technology and long-term environmental benefits, to encourage adoption by consumers with higher LTO.
Further, our findings provide insight into the potential symbolic effects of adopting EVs, through both the direct influence of face
consciousness and the indirect influence of deontological evaluation. Practically, public policy may be developed to facilitate social
status-seeking or the symbolic effects for adopters of environmentally friendly products and strengthen evaluation of the inherent
rightness of the adoption behavior.
This research has some limitations, which guide potential directions for future research. First, because we focused on values
specific to Chinese culture, such as LTO, and face consciousness, our research model and findings may also be culture-specific. We
thus call for future research to consider the proposed research model in different contexts with a similar cultural heritage to that of
China to verify the cross-culture generalizability of the underlying cultural mechanisms of adopting EVs or other sustainable in-
novations. Second, while we presented evidence about specific conceptions of cultural values and ethics, we were not able to capture
values and ethics per se, which are also subject to slow change over time and may have a reciprocal relationship with the behavior of
adopting new technologies. We thus practice caution in interpreting values-to-behavior causality of our research model. Third, this
study used anonymous cross-sectional data, so we were unable to collect actual adoption data of the respondents. While we believe
that behavioral intention is the most specific and direct antecedent to actual behavior, prior research has noted a gap between
intention and behavior (Johnstone and Tan, 2015). Future studies may consider longitudinal designs to validate the relationship
between cultural antecedents and actual adoption of EVs. Also, researchers could survey the early adopters of EVs and investigate
their adoption behavior. Last but not least, our study may not be able to overcome the potential issue of social desirability bias,
although we ensured the anonymity of respondents through the online survey. Extended research may measure social desirability in
the questionnaire to control for this potential bias in the analysis.

Acknowledgement

The authors would like to thank the participants in the 11th Royal Bank International Research Conference, the 6th International
Society of Business, Economics and Ethics World Congress and the 2016 Research Workshop on Smart & Green Urban Mobility at
Xi'an Jiaotong-Liverpool University for their helpful comments on earlier versions of this paper. This research is supported by the
National Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 71573213, 71672146, 71202025), Philosophy & Social Science Funding Program
of Jiangsu Department of Education (No. 2015SJD617, 2015SJD618), and Research Development Fund of Xi’an Jiaotong-Liverpool
University (RDF-13-02-15).

Appendix A. Survey questions on measurement constructs

In the following measurements, please select your extent of agreement:

1. Do you agree with the following statements on values? (1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree)
•
Human beings need to understand the ways of nature and act accordingly.
•
We should maintain harmony with nature.
•
Being the masters of the world, human beings are entitled to utilize any natural resources as they like (reverse coded).
•
Human beings are only part of nature.
•
We should master, rather than adapt to, the environment (reverse coded).
1. Do you agree with the following statements on values? (1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree)
•
I always respect others and treat them as they would like to be treated.
•
I have a duty to uphold the values and reputation of my family.
•
I show respect for traditions.
2. Do you agree with the following statements on consumption? (1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree)
•
It is important that others like the products and brands I buy.
•
Sometimes I buy a product because my friends do so.
•
Name-brand purchase is a good way to distinguish people from others.
•
Name products and brands purchase can bring me a sense of prestige.
3. Do you agree with the following statements on consumption? (1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree)
•
I am cautious when trying new products.

185
L. Qian, J. Yin Transportation Research Part D 56 (2017) 175–188

• I would rather stick with a brand I usually buy than try something I am not sure of.
• I never buy something I don’t know about at the risk of making a mistake.
4. Do you agree with the following statements on new energy vehicles? (1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree)
• I am duty bound to use electric vehicles.
• I am obligated to use electric vehicles.
• It is morally right to use electric vehicles.
Appendix B. List of abbreviations

EVs Electric vehicles

BEVs Battery electric vehicles
PHEVs Plug-in hybrid electric vehicles
CO2 Carbon dioxide
LTO Long-term orientation
CFA Confirmatory factor analysis
AVEs Average variances extracted
CR Composite reliability
CFI Comparative fit index
NFI Normed fit index
RMSEA Root mean square error of approximation
SRMR Standardized root mean square residual
CI Confidence interval

References

Ajzen, I., 1991. The theory of planned behavior. Organ. Behav. Hum. Dec. Process. 50 (2), 179–211.
Ajzen, I., Madden, T.J., 1986. Prediction of goal-directed behavior: attitudes, intentions, and perceived behavioral control. J. Exp. Soc. Psychol. 22 (5), 453–474.
Arli, D., Tjiptono, F., 2014. The end of religion? Examining the role of religiousness, materialism, and long-term orientation on consumer ethics in Indonesia. J. Bus.
Ethics 123 (3), 385–400.
Atsmon, Y., Kertesz, A., Vittal, I., 2011. Is Your Emerging-Market Strategy Local Enough? McKinsey Quarterly. McKinsey & Company, Shanghai, São Paulo and
Mumbai.
Axsen, J., Kurani, K.S., 2013. Developing sustainability-oriented values: insights from households in a trial of plug-in hybrid electric vehicles. Global Environ. Change
23 (1), 70–80.
Bao, Y., Zhou, K.Z., Su, C., 2003. Face consciousness and risk aversion: do they affect consumer decision-making? Psychol. Market. 20 (8), 733–755.
Barkenbus, J., 2009. Our electric automotive future: CO2 savings through a disruptive technology. Policy Soc. 27 (4), 399–410.
Bass, F.M., 1969. New product growth model for consumer durables. Manage. Sci. 15 (5), 215–227.
Bearden, W.O., Money, R.B., Nevins, J.L., 2006. A measure of long-term orientation: development and validation. J. Acad. Market. Sci. 34 (3), 456–467.
Biswas, A., Roy, M., 2015. Green products: an exploratory study on the consumer behaviour in emerging economies of the East. J. Clean. Product. 87, 463–468.
Bockarjova, M., Steg, L., 2014. Can protection motivation theory predict pro-environmental behavior? Explaining the adoption of electric vehicles in the Netherlands.
Global Environ. Change 28, 276–288.
Carley, S., Krause, R.M., Lane, B.W., Graham, J.D., 2013. Intent to purchase a plug-in electric vehicle: a survey of early impressions in large US cites. Transport. Res.
Part D: Transp. Environ. 18, 39–45.
Chan, R.Y., Lau, L.B., 2000. Antecedents of green purchases: a survey in China. J. Cons. Market. 17 (4), 338–357.
Chan, R.Y.K., 2001. Determinants of Chinese consumers' green purchase behavior. Psychol. Market. 18 (4), 389–413.
Chan, R.Y.K., Wong, Y.H., Leung, T.K.P., 2008. Applying ethical concepts to the study of “green” consumer behavior: an analysis of Chinese consumers’ intentions to
bring their own shopping bags. J. Bus. Ethics 79 (4), 469–481.
Cherubini, S., Iasevoli, G., Michelini, L., 2015. Product-service systems in the electric car industry: critical success factors in marketing. J. Clean. Product. 97, 40–49.
China Association of Automobile Manufacturers, 2015. Economic Situations of Automobile Industry in 2014. Department of Industry Information of CAAM, Beijing.
China Association of Automobile Manufacturers, 2016. Economic Situations of Automobile Industry in 2015. Department of Industry Information of CAAM, Beijing.
Claudy, M.C., Peterson, M., 2014. Understanding the underutilization of urban bicycle commuting: a behavioral reasoning perspective. J. Pub. Pol. Market. 33 (2),
173–187.
Egbue, O., Long, S., 2012. Barriers to widespread adoption of electric vehicles: an analysis of consumer attitudes and perceptions. Energy Pol. 48, 717–729.
Faure, G.O., Fang, T., 2008. Changing Chinese values: keeping up with paradoxes. Int. Bus. Rev. 17 (2), 194–207.
Feng, T., Keller, L.R., Wu, P., Xu, Y., 2014. An empirical study of the toxic capsule crisis in China: risk perceptions and behavioral responses. Risk Anal.: Int. J. 34 (4),
698–710.
Fenger, J., 1999. Urban air quality. Atmos. Environ. 33 (29), 4877–4900.
Ferrell, O.C., Gresham, L.G., 1985. A contingency framework for understanding ethical decision making in marketing. J. Market. 49 (3), 87–96.
Gefen, D., Straub, D., Boudreau, M.-C., 2000. Structural equation modeling and regression: guidelines for research practice. Commun. Assoc. Inf. Syst. 4 (7), 2–76.
Gong, H., Wang, M.Q., Wang, H., 2013. New energy vehicles in China: policies, demonstration, and progress. Mitig. Adapt. Strat. Global Change 18 (2), 207–228.
Graham-Rowe, E., Gardner, B., Abraham, C., Skippon, S., Dittmar, H., Hutchins, R., Stannard, J., 2012. Mainstream consumers driving plug-in battery-electric and
plug-in hybrid electric cars: a qualitative analysis of responses and evaluations. Transport. Res. Part A: Pol. Pract. 46 (1), 140–153.
Griskevicius, V., Tybur, J.M., Van den Bergh, B., 2010. Going green to be seen: status, reputation, and conspicuous conservation. J. Person. Social Psychol. 98 (3),
392–404.
Hackbarth, A., Madlener, R., 2013. Consumer preferences for alternative fuel vehicles: a discrete choice analysis. Transport. Res. Part D: Transp. Environ. 25, 5–17.
Hair, J.F., Black, W.C., Babin, B.J., Anderson, R.E., 2014. Multivariate Data Analysis: Pearson New International Edition, seventh ed. Pearson Education Limited, Essex.
Hand, C.M., Van Liere, K.D., 1984. Religion, mastery-over-nature, and environmental concern. Social Forces 63 (2), 555–570.
Hartmann, P., Apaolaza-Ibáñez, V., 2012. Consumer attitude and purchase intention toward green energy brands: the roles of psychological benefits and environ-
mental concern. J. Bus. Res. 65 (9), 1254–1263.
Haws, K.L., Winterich, K.P., Naylor, R.W., 2014. Seeing the world through GREEN-tinted glasses: green consumption values and responses to environmentally friendly
products. J. Cons. Psychol. 24 (3), 336–354.

186
L. Qian, J. Yin Transportation Research Part D 56 (2017) 175–188

Heffner, R.R., Kurani, K.S., Turrentine, T.S., 2007. Symbolism in California’s early market for hybrid electric vehicles. Transport. Res. Part D: Transp. Environ. 12 (6),
396–413.
Helveston, J.P., Liu, Y., Feit, E.M., Fuchs, E., Klampfl, E., Michalek, J.J., 2015. Will subsidies drive electric vehicle adoption? Measuring consumer preferences in the
US and China. Transport. Res. Part A: Pol. Pract. 73, 96–112.
Hofstede, G., 1980. Culture's Consequences: International Differences in Work-Related Values. Sage, Beverly Hills, CA.
Hofstede, G., 1991. Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind. McGraw-Hill, London.
Hofstede, G., 2001. Culture's Consequences: Comparing Values, Behaviors, Institutions, and Organizations across Nations, second ed. Sage Publications, Thousand
Oaks, CA.
Hofstede, G., Bond, M.H., 1988. The confucius connection: from cultural roots to economic growth. Organ. Dynam. 16 (4), 5–21.
Homer, P.M., Kahle, L.R., 1988. A structural equation test of the value-attitude-behavior hierarchy. J. Person. Social Psychol. 54 (4), 638–646.
Hunt, S.D., Vitell, S.J., 1986. A general theory of marketing ethics. J. Macromarket. 6 (1), 5–16.
Hunt, S.D., Vitell, S.J., 1993. The general theory of marketing ethics: a retrospective and revision. In: Smith, N.C., Quelch, J.A. (Eds.), Ethics in Marketing. Irwin,
Homewood, IL, pp. 775–784.
Huo, H., Zhang, Q.A., Wang, M.Q., Streets, D.G., He, K.B., 2010. Environmental implication of electric vehicles in China. Environ. Sci. Technol. 44 (13), 4856–4861.
Hyman, H.H., Wright, C.R., 1979. Education's Lasting Influence on Values. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, IL.
Johnstone, M.L., Tan, L.P., 2015. Exploring the gap between consumers' green rhetoric and purchasing behaviour. J. Bus. Ethics 132 (2), 311–328.
Joireman, J.A., Lasane, T.P., Bennett, J., Richards, D., Solaimani, S., 2001. Integrating social value orientation and the consideration of future consequences within the
extended norm activation model of proenvironmental behaviour. Brit. J. Social Psychol. 40 (1), 133–155.
Joireman, J.A., Van Lange, P.A.M., Van Vugt, M., 2004. Who cares about the environmental impact of cars? Those with an eye toward the future. Environ. Behav. 36
(2), 187–206.
Kim, Y., Choi, S.M., 2005. Antecedents of green purchase behavior: an examination of collectivism, environmental concern, and PCE. In: Menon, G., Rao, A.R. (Eds.),
NA - Advances in Consumer Research Volume 32. Association for Consumer Research, Duluth, MN, pp. 592–599.
Kley, F., Lerch, C., Dallinger, D., 2011. New business models for electric cars—a holistic approach. Energy Policy 39 (6), 3392–3403.
Kluckhohn, F.R., Strodtbeck, F.L., 1961. Variations in Value Orientations. Row, Peterson, Evanston, IL.
Lane, B., Potter, S., 2007. The adoption of cleaner vehicles in the UK: exploring the consumer attitude–action gap. J. Clean. Product. 15 (11/12), 1085–1092.
Lau, D.C., 1992. The Analects (Lun Yu)/Confucius. Chinese University Press, Hong Kong.
Lau, D.C., 2001. Tao Te Ching. The Chinese University Press, Hong Kong.
Lee, C., 1991. Modifying an American consumer behavior model for consumers in Confucian culture: the case of Fishbein behavioral intention model. J. Int. Cons.
Market. 3 (1), 27–50.
Leonidou, L.C., Leonidou, C.N., Kvasova, O., 2010. Antecedents and outcomes of consumer environmentally friendly attitudes and behaviour. J. Market. Manage. 26
(13–14), 1319–1344.
Li, J., Ernst, J., 2015. Exploring value orientations toward the human–nature relationship: a comparison of urban youth in Minnesota, USA and Guangdong, China.
Environ. Educ. Res. 21 (4), 556–585.
Lieven, T., Mühlmeier, S., Henkel, S., Waller, J.F., 2011. Who will buy electric cars? An empirical study in Germany. Transport. Res. Part D: Transp. Environ. 16 (3),
236–243.
Lin, L.-H., Ho, Y.-L., Lin, W.-H.E., 2013. Confucian and Taoist work values: an exploratory study of the Chinese transformational leadership behavior. J. Bus. Ethics 113
(1), 91–103.
Lu, L.-C., Chang, H.-H., Chang, A., 2015. Consumer personality and green buying intention: the mediate role of consumer ethical beliefs. J. Bus. Ethics 127 (1),
205–219.
McCarty, J.A., Shrum, L., 1994. The recycling of solid wastes: personal values, value orientations, and attitudes about recycling as antecedents of recycling behavior. J.
Bus. Res. 30 (1), 53–62.
Ministry of Finance, Ministry of Science and Technology, Ministry of Industry and Information Technology, National Development and Reform Commission, 2013.
Notice on Continuing on the Promotion and Application of New Energy Automobiles. Beijing.
Ministry of Finance, State Administration of Taxation, Ministry of Industry and Information Technology, 2014. Announcement on Exempting Purchase Tax of New
Energy Vehicles. Beijing.
Moons, I., De Pelsmacker, P., 2012. Emotions as determinants of electric car usage intention. J. Market. Manage. 28 (3/4), 195–237.
National Bureau of Statistics of China, 2011. Tabulation on the 2010 Population Census of the People’s Republic of China. China Statistics Press, Beijing.
National Bureau of Statistics of China, 2016. China Statistical Yearbook 2016. China Statistics Press, Beijing.
Nevins, J.L., Bearden, W.O., Money, B., 2007. Ethical values and long-term orientation. J. Bus. Ethics 71 (3), 261–274.
Noppers, E.H., Keizer, K., Bolderdijk, J.W., Steg, L., 2014. The adoption of sustainable innovations: driven by symbolic and environmental motives. Global Environ.
Change 25, 52–62.
Oliver, J.D., Rosen, D.E., 2010. Applying the environmental propensity framework: a segmented approach to hybrid electric vehicle marketing strategies. J. Market.
Theory Pract. 18 (4), 377–393.
Park, C.W., Mothersbaugh, D.L., Feick, L., 1994. Consumer knowledge assessment. J. Cons. Res. 21 (1), 71–82.
Petschnig, M., Heidenreich, S., Spieth, P., 2014. Innovative alternatives take action – investigating determinants of alternative fuel vehicle adoption. Transport. Res.
Part A: Pol. Pract. 61, 68–83.
Phipps, M., Ozanne, L.K., Luchs, M.G., Subrahmanyan, S., Kapitan, S., Catlin, J.R., Gau, R., Naylor, R.W., Rose, R.L., Simpson, B., 2013. Understanding the inherent
complexity of sustainable consumption: a social cognitive framework. J. Bus. Res. 66 (8), 1227–1234.
Plötz, P., Schneider, U., Globisch, J., Dütschke, E., 2014. Who will buy electric vehicles? Identifying early adopters in Germany. Transport. Res. Part A: Pol. Pract. 67,
96–109.
Potoglou, D., Kanaroglou, P.S., 2007. Household demand and willingness to pay for clean vehicles. Transport. Res. Part D: Transp. Environ. 12 (4), 264–274.
Potoglou, D., Kanaroglou, P.S., 2008. Disaggregate demand analyses for conventional and alternative fueled automobiles: a review. Int. J. Sustain. Transport. 2 (4),
234–259.
Press, M., Arnould, E.J., 2009. Constraints on sustainable energy consumption: market system and public policy challenges and opportunities. J. Pub. Policy Market. 28
(1), 102–113.
Qian, L., Soopramanien, D., 2011. Heterogeneous consumer preferences for alternative fuel cars in China. Transport. Res. Part D: Transp. Environ. 16 (8), 607–613.
Ram, S., Sheth, J.N., 1989. Consumer resistance to innovations: the marketing problem and its solutions. J. Cons. Market. 6 (2), 5–14.
Rezvani, Z., Jansson, J., Bodin, J., 2015. Advances in consumer electric vehicle adoption research: a review and research agenda. Transport. Res. Part D: Transp.
Environ. 34, 122–136.
Rogers, E.M., 1962. Diffusion of Innovations. Free Press of Glencoe, New York, NY.
Sang, Y.-N., Bekhet, H.A., 2015. Modelling electric vehicle usage intentions: an empirical study in Malaysia. J. Clean. Product. 92, 75–83.
Sarigöllü, E., 2009. A cross-country exploration of environmental attitudes. Environ. Behav. 41 (3), 365–386.
Schmalfuß, F., Mühl, K., Krems, J.F., 2017. Direct experience with battery electric vehicles (BEVs) matters when evaluating vehicle attributes, attitude and purchase
intention. Transport. Res. Part F: Traffic Psychol. Behav. 46, 47–69.
Schuitema, G., Anable, J., Skippon, S., Kinnear, N., 2013. The role of instrumental, hedonic and symbolic attributes in the intention to adopt electric vehicles.
Transport. Res. Part A: Pol. Pract. 48, 39–49.
Skippon, S., Garwood, M., 2011. Responses to battery electric vehicles: UK consumer attitudes and attributions of symbolic meaning following direct experience to
reduce psychological distance. Transport. Res. Part D: Transp. Environ. 16 (7), 525–531.
Stern, P.C., Dietz, T., 1994. The value basis of environmental concern. J. Social Iss. 50 (3), 65–84.
The State Council of the People’s Republic of China, 2012. Development Plans of Energy-Saving and New Energy Vehicle Industry (2012–2020). The State Council,

187
L. Qian, J. Yin Transportation Research Part D 56 (2017) 175–188

Beijing.
The State Council of the People’s Republic of China, 2014a. Guiding Opinions on Accelerating the Promotion and Application of New Energy Vehicles. General Office
of the State Council, Beijing.
The State Council of the People’s Republic of China, 2014b. Notice of the State Council on Adjusting the Standards for Categorizing City Sizes. The State Council,
Beijing.
Trudel, R., Cotte, J., 2009. Does it pay to be good? MIT Sloan Manage. Rev. 50 (2), 61.
Tsui, J., Windsor, C., 2001. Some cross-cultural evidence on ethical reasoning. J. Bus. Ethics 31 (2), 143–150.
Tyfield, D., 2014. Putting the power in ‘socio-technical regimes’: E-mobility transition in China as political process. Mobilities 9 (4), 585–603.
United Nations, 2014. World Urbanization Prospects: The 2014 Revision. Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division, United Nations.
Urry, J., 2004. The ‘system’of automobility. Theory, Cult. Soc. 21 (4/5), 25–39.
Wan, Z., Sperling, D., Wang, Y., 2015. China’s electric car frustrations. Transport. Res. Part D: Transp. Environ. 34, 116–121.
Wang, A., Liao, W., Hein, A.-P., 2012. Bigger, Better, Broader: A Perspective on China’s Auto Market in 2020, McKinsey Automotive & Assembly Practice.
McKinsey & Company, China.
Wilhelmsson, T., 1998. Consumer law and the environment: from consumer to citizen. Journal of Consumer Policy 21 (1), 45–70.
Wu, Y., Yang, Z., Lin, B., Liu, H., Wang, R., Zhou, B., Hao, J., 2012. Energy consumption and CO2 emission impacts of vehicle electrification in three developed regions
of China. Energy Policy 48, 537–550.
Yin, J., Qian, L., Singhapakdi, A., 2016;al., in press. Sharing sustainability: how values and ethics matter in consumers’ adoption of public bicycle-sharing scheme. J.
Bus. Ethics in press.
Zhang, J., Shavitt, S., 2003. Cultural values in advertisements to the Chinese X-generation: promoting modernity and individualism. J. Advert. 32 (1), 23–33.
Zhang, X., Liang, Y., Yu, E., Rao, R., Xie, J., 2017. Review of electric vehicle policies in China: content summary and effect analysis. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 70,
698–714.
Zhao, X., Lynch, J.G., Chen, Q., 2010. Reconsidering Baron and Kenny: Myths and truths about mediation analysis. J. Cons. Res. 37 (2), 197–206.
Zhou, G., Ou, X., Zhang, X., 2013. Development of electric vehicles use in China: a study from the perspective of life-cycle energy consumption and greenhouse gas
emissions. Energy Policy 59, 875–884.

188