4.

461: Building Technology 1 SCHOOL OF ARCHITECTURE AND PLANNING: MIT

CONSTRUCTION AND MATERIALS
Professor John E. Fernandez Metals

Part I: Metals in Architecture

• Introduction
• Material Properties and
Structural Morphology
i. Wood
ii. Masonry
iii. Metals
iv. Fabric
v. Composites
Part II: Metal Systems and
Architecture
• Transparencies
Part III: New Materials and
Systems
• Stainless Steels
• Panelized systems
Part IV: Resource Efficiency
• Embodied energy
• Sustainable practice

These notes are a test.

Metals

Part I: Metals in
Architecture
• Introduction

• Structure and skin

Metals

Part I: Metals in Architecture

• Introduction
i. Historical trajectory

Image by MIT OCW.

Metals

Part I: Metals in Architecture

• Introduction: Steel Landmark developments

i. Historical 1777-79 First Cast iron bridge built in England

trajectory
1780-1820 Numerous cast bridges built, arch-shaped with main girders
of individual cast iron pieces forming bars or truss
~1800 Industrial production of rolled shapes begins in England
1840 Wrought iron begins to replace cast iron
1846-50 Brittania bridge over Menai Straits in Wales
1870s I-shapes rolled
1855 Development of the Bessemer process
1870 Introduction of basic liner in the Bessemer converter
1890 Steel permanently replaces wrought iron as principal
building material

Currently Steels having yield stresses varying from 24,000 to

100,000 psi are readily available
Metals

Tensile strength, Fu
0.2% offset
Part I: Metals in Architecture Heat-treated constructional

• Material Properties and 100 alloy steels; A514 quenched

and tempered alloy steel

Applications of various Minimum yield strength

steels Fy = 100 ksi

Stress, kips per square inch

(C)
High-strength, low-alloy
80 carbon steels, A572

Three types 60
(B)

1. Carbon steels Fy = 50 ksi

2. High-strength low-alloy Carbon steels; A36

(A)
40 Fy = 36 ksi
steels
3. Alloy steels
20

0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35

Strain, inches per inch

Image by MIT OCW.

Typical stress-strain
curves
Metals

Tensile strength, Fu
Part I: Metals in Architecture 0.2% offset

• Material Properties and 100

Heat-treated constructional
alloy steels; A514 quenched

Applications of various and tempered alloy steel

steels Minimum yield strength

Fy = 100 ksi

Stress, kips per square inch

(C)
High-strength, low-alloy
80 carbon steels, A572

Carbon steels
Carbon steels are divied into four 60
(B)

categories depending on the Fy = 50 ksi

percentage of carbon: Carbon steels; A36
(A)
• Low carbon: less than 40 Fy = 36 ksi
0.15%
• Mild carbon: 0.15-0.29
• Medium carbon: 0.30-0.59% 20

• High carbon: 0.60-1.70%

Structural carbon steels are in the 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35
mild category: A36 has max.
Strain, inches per inch
carbon from 0.25-0.29%.
Increased carbon percent
Image by MIT OCW.
raises the yield stress but
reduces ductility and makes
welding more difficult.
Metals

Tensile strength, Fu
0.2% offset
Part I: Metals in Architecture
Heat-treated constructional
• Material Properties and 100 alloy steels; A514 quenched
and tempered alloy steel
Applications of various
steels Minimum yield strength
Fy = 100 ksi

Stress, kips per square inch

(C)
High-strength, low-alloy
80 carbon steels, A572

High-strength low-alloy steels

(B)
60

The addition to carbon steels of Fy = 50 ksi

small amounts of alloy Carbon steels; A36

(A)
elements such as chromium, 40 Fy = 36 ksi
columbium, copper,
manganese, molybdenum,
nickel, phosphorous, 20
vanadium, zirconium
improves some of the
mechanical properties.
Additional strength is obtained 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35

through a fine-grained Strain, inches per inch

crystalline microstructure as
opposed to the course Image by MIT OCW.
graining of simple carbon
steel.
This type of steel yields at stresses
from 40-70 ksi.
Metals

Tensile strength, Fu
0.2% offset

Part I: Metals in Architecture Heat-treated constructional

alloy steels; A514 quenched
• Material Properties and 100
and tempered alloy steel

Applications of various Minimum yield strength

steels
Fy = 100 ksi

Stress, kips per square inch

(C)
High-strength, low-alloy
80 carbon steels, A572

Alloy steels 60
(B)

Low-alloy steel may be quenched Fy = 50 ksi

and tempered to obtain yield Carbon steels; A36

(A)
strengths of 80 – 110 ksi. 40 Fy = 36 ksi

Maximum carbon content of

0.20% to limit the hardness
of any coarse-grain 20

microstructure.
The heat treatment consists of
quenching [rapid cooling 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35

with water or oil from at least Strain, inches per inch

1650 F to about 300-400 F],
then tempering by reheating Image by MIT OCW.
to at least 1150 F and
allowing to cool. Tempering
greatly improves toughness
and ductility.
Metals

Part I: Metals in Architecture

• Material Properties and
Applications of various steels
A36 carbon General structural purposes, bolted and welded. Mostly for buildings.

A53 carbon Welded and seamless pipe

A500 carbon Cold-formed welded and seamless round, square, rectangular, or special shape structural tubing for
bolted and welded general structural purposes.
A501 carbon Hot-rolled welded and seamless round, square, rectangular, or special shape structural tubing for bolted
and welded general structural purposes.
A514 alloy Plates in thickness of 6 in. and under, primarily for welded bridges.

A588 High S., Low A. Structural shapes, plates and bars for welded buildings and bridges where weight savings or added
durability are needed; atmospheric corrosion resistance is about four times that of A36 steel.
A913 High S., Low A. Structural shapes for bolted and welded construction.
Metals

Part I: Metals in Architecture

• Material Properties and Applications
of various steels 10
el
ste
Corrosion bo
n

Calculated average reduction in

9 car
al
Self-weathering steels have been widely u ctur
8 Str
adopted for conditions in which the surface
of the steel is exposed to the weather. 7

thickness, mils
These steels are typically A588 for 6
buildings and A709 for bridges. opp
er
5 l with c
Several rules are important to note: n stee
arbo
4 tural c
c
1. For optimum performance in the unpainted Stru
condition, the structure should be boldly 3 Cr-Si-Cu-P steel
trength, low-alloy)
exposed to the weather. 2
(high-s

2. The development of the protective oxide 1

film is best achieved under normal
exposure, wherein the surfaces are wet at
night by dew formation and dry during 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

daylight hours.
Time, years
3. Because this wet-dry cycle cannot occur
when the steel, regardless of its grade, is Image by MIT OCW.
buried in the soil or immersed in water, the
protective oxide will not form and the
performance will resemble that of mild
steel carbon exposed to the same
conditions.
Metals

o
Temperature, C

Heat and 1.2

200 400 600 800 1000

strength

Ratio of high-temperature yield strength

to room-temperature yield strength
1.0

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0 400 800 1200 1600 2000

o
Temperature, F

(a) Average Effect of Temperature on Yield-Strength

Image by MIT OCW.

Metals

Part I: Metals in Architecture (A) Wide-flange W

shape
• Types of Structural Steel
Members (F) Pipe section

American Institute of Steel Construction

(AISC)
American Society for Testing and (B) American standard S
beam
Materials
(ASTM) A6 Specification (G) Structural tubing

Standard Hot-Rolled shapes

1. Wide-flange shape (C) American standard C
channel
2. American standard beam
3. American standard channel (H) Bars

4. Angle
5. Structural tee (D) Angle L

6. Pipe section
(I) Plates
7. Structural tubing
8. Bars (E) Structural tee WT or ST

9. Plates

Image by MIT OCW.

Metals

Part I: Metals in Architecture

• Types of Structural Steel
(A) Channels
Members
American Institute of Steel (D) Angle
Construction (AISC)
American Society for
Testing and Materials (B) Zees

(ASTM) A6 Specification

Standard Cold-Rolled shapes

1. Channels (C) I-shaped
(D) Hat sections

double channels
2. Zees
3. I-Shaped double channels Image by MIT OCW.
4. Angle
5. Hat sections
Metals

Part I: Metals in Architecture

• Typical compression members (A) Rolled W- and
S-shapes

(C) Structural tee

(B) Double angle

(D) Structural tubing (E) Pipe section

(F) Built-up sections

Image by MIT OCW.

Metals

Part I: Metals in Architecture

• Typical tension members
(A) Round and rectangular bars,
including eye bars and upset bars

(D) Rolled W- and

S-shapes

(B) Cables composed of many

small wires (E) Structural tee

Perforated
plates

(C) Single and double

angles

(F) Built-up box sections

Image by MIT OCW.

Metals

Part I: Metals in Architecture

(D) Angle
• Typical beam members
(A) Rolled W and
other I-shaped
sections

(E) Channel

(B) Welded I-shape

(plate girder) (F) Built-up members

(G) Composite steel-concrete

(C) Open web joints

Image by MIT OCW.

Metals

Part I: Metals in Architecture

Joints

• Bolts
• Welds

COPYRIGHT JOHN E. FERNANDEZ: BUILDING

TECHNOLOGY GROUP: MIT
Metals

Part I: Metals in Architecture

Joints

• Welds

1. Groove: connect structural

members in the same plane or
orthogonal planes.
2. Fillet: most commonly used to
connect structural members not in
the same plane
3. Slot and Plug: for member
connections that need extra
strength in shear
Metals

Part I: Metals in Architecture

Joints

Examples of groove welds

Image by MIT OCW.

Groove welds in tee joints

Metals

Part I: Metals in Architecture

Joints
(A) Lapped plates (D) Tee connection (G) Column base plates

Examples of fillet welds

(B) Stitch plates (E) Brackets (H) Pipe connection

(C) Slotted connection (F) Beam bearing plates (I) Beam brackets

(J) Built-up sections

Image by MIT OCW.

Metals

Part I: Metals in Architecture

Joints

Ends curved as per LRFD

and ASD-J2.3.b

Image by MIT OCW.

Metals

Part I: Metals in Architecture

Joints

Standard welding symbols

Metals

Part I: Metals in Architecture

• Structural Morphology

i. Framed structures

ii. Shell-type
structures

iii. Suspension-type
structures

iv. Tube structures

towers (lattice)
bridges (plates)
Metals

Part I: Metals in Architecture

• Structural Morphology

i. Framed structures

ii. Shell-type
structures Gewachshaus
Dusseldorf
iii. Suspension-type Karl Krass
structures

iv. Tube structures

towers (lattice)
bridges (plates)

Biosphere
Montreal, Quebec
Buckminster Fuller

Images courtesy of Nicolas Janberg, photographer, and Structurae

Metals

Part I: Metals in Architecture

• Structural Morphology

i. Framed structures

ii. Shell-type
structures

iii. Suspension-type
structures

iv. Tube structures

towers (lattice)
bridges (plates)

Millenium Bridge, London

Sir Anthony Caro and Lord Norman Foster

Image courtesy of Guido Morgenthal, photographer, and Structurae

Metals

Part I: Metals in Architecture

• Structural Morphology

i. Framed structures

ii. Shell-type
structures

iii. Suspension-type
structures

iv. Tube structures

towers (lattice)
bridges (plates)