passage1 Disadvantages Of International Trade

Disadvantages of international trade span from negative social effects to adverse environmental ramifications.
Sometimes the welfare of people is ignored or jeopardized for the sake of profit. Other problems associated with the
exchange of goods and services between nations include possible risky dependence on foreign nations and domestic
job losses.

There are social disadvantages of international trade. Although exposure to other cultures can be a benefit, it can also
be harmful. The types of goods and services that flow from developed nations to emerging nations can have rapid and
significant negative effects on their cultures. For example, certain music or movies from a nation such as the United
States cannot be sold in their original form, and sometimes not at all, in some other nations where culture or religion
are prioritized because of the changes in mentality and behavior that they may incite.

Another of the disadvantages of international trade is that the welfare of the people in nations that produce goods and
services is sometimes ignored for the sake of profits. Those profits generally benefit only a minority, and that minority
may not even be citizens of the nation that they are exploiting. It is common in third world countries to find that people
are required to work under unfair circumstances, which may include being paid low wages or subjected to unhealthy
occupational environments.

Even if there is not an issue with adverse treatment, it is still common to find that goods and services can be produced
more cheaply in emerging countries. When these countries are allowed to access large markets, it can result in job
losses and the collapse of industries in the developed countries because they are no longer able to be competitive.

International trade can also result in destruction and exhaustion of natural resources. Some countries are so
desperate for revenue or so profit-driven that they will allow their natural resources to be over-exploited, which can
create serious problems in the future. This is often exacerbated by the fact that the entities who are engaged in the
task of extracting those resources or producing goods from them may do so in a way that creates substantial
environmental damage. In some cases, there are limited or no resources to address these issues afterward.

Those nations with small economies are often heavily dependent on their trading partners in developed nations. It is
not uncommon to find that those developed nations will attempt to exploit these relationships. They do so by using
their economic power to influence political decisions that are not directly related to their trade activities. Furthermore,
disadvantages of international trade result from the reliance that countries have on one another. When one nation
knows that it is the source of all or a significant portion of materials or services for another nation, the supplying nation
can impose embargoes or other difficult trade restrictions if differences arise or simply for financial gain.

1
 passage2 Charles Darwin upon the island on which they lived. His publications
on his early observations were well received by some.
Charles Darwin (1809-1882) is undoubtedly one of the
As Darwin continued to study species differences, he
most influential natural historians to grace our planet.
became more convinced that species were influenced
His concepts and theories on evolution have forever
by their environment and evolved and changed in
changed the way many of us view the age of Earth,
order to better survive in new environments. This
and the development of species on earth. His
theory would come to fruition, especially as he read
foundational book on evolution, On the Origins of
Alfred Russel Wallace’s work on natural selection. The
Species published in 1859, was especially challenging
two decided to publish their findings together in 1859,
to the religious communities of the Western world,
but Darwin was not available to defend his work. The
since a description of the gradual process of man
loss of a beloved son and continued illness on his part
evolving was in direct conflict to Christian thought that
made it difficult for Darwin to publicly appear or defend
man was specifically created by God in God’s image.
his ideas in any way.Outcry at the suggestion of
Though evolution and subsequent theories of how
Darwin that humans evolved from monkeys was often
creatures evolve is now taught in most public schools,
turned into slogans criticizing his work. Yet a growing
some still feel Darwin was completely misguided in his
number of people supported his theories, and did not
explanations. Other large Christian organizations like
find them incompatible with religious thinking. Darwin
the Catholic Church, have willingly accepted Darwinian
continued to study as his health permitted for the last
theory.Darwin’s family can be described as
22 years of his life, continually drawn to the topic of
freethinkers. They were practicing Unitarians, though
evolution and the ability of nature to transform itself to
Darwin was baptized in the Anglican Church. At first
survive in the world. As he studied, he eagerly read
Darwin thought to follow in his father’s footsteps by
debates on his theories. His work outlasts him, and
becoming a doctor, but found the medical world, and
with Gregor Mendel’s work in genetics, it is the
especially surgery, too brutal. At the University of
foundation for modern biology.
Edinburgh, Darwin’s interest in natural history peaked,
and one inspiration for his argument that blacks and Social Darwinism, which arose after Darwin’s death
whites were much more related than was commonly was the adaptation of the principles of evolution to
held to be true was inspired by his work with John human society. Darwin would have deeply opposed
Edmonstone, a freed slave who taught Darwin this construction. He expressed disdain concerning the
taxidermy. slave trade and the conditions of slaves in South
America. When social Darwinism was used to support
Darwin’s father was not pleased with his interest in
the “fittest race,” Darwin certainly would have rejected
natural history and chose to enroll him at Christ’s
the theory. His main concern in people selecting mates
College to pursue studies that would make him an
was that close relationship might create problems in
Anglican clergyman. He was an indifferent student in
offspring. His wife was his cousin, and he did write
this pursuit, but did pass this bachelor’s degree
about his concerns after the death of their infant son,
education. He never officially took orders as a
that perhaps their close relationship created medical
clergyman, and instead took a job as a gentleman’s
problems or low survivability for his offspring. Still, of
companion on the HMS Beagle.The first HMS Beagle
his ten children, eight survived.
voyage was five years long, and Darwin spent much of
the time collecting fossils, and studying existing animal The work of Darwin continues to have extraordinary
species. His theories on evolutionary aspects of influence on modern thinking, though some of his
animals began to coalesce as he studied animals, theories on how evolution works have been called into
particularly those on the Galapagos Islands. He noted question. In particular, Stephen Jay Gould’s theories
very similar birds had slight differentiations depending on “leap-bound” evolution now often replace the idea
that evolution is a gradual, selective process.

2
 passage3 Solar energy Along with homes, health care facilities are becoming
increasingly open to the idea of solar energy as a
Solar energy is an alternative energy source that source of power in an emergency situation. This would
involves harnessing the radiant light energy emitted by allow a hospital to continue functioning even if the
the sun and converting it into electrical current. Since power failed for some reason and a backup generator
the middle of the 20th century, the ability to harness system was unable to meet the current demand for
and utilize solar energy has greatly increased, making power.
it possible for homes and businesses to make use of
Once considered extremely expensive to build and
the renewal energy source rather than rely on more
install, the price for solar energy systems is
conventional means of generating power. Research
considerably less than in the last decades of the 20th
into the applications of solar energy continue, along
century. In addition to being more affordable, the
with the development of more cost-effective ways to
newer solar energy systems are also much more
capture and store the energy for future use.
efficient than previous generations, which helps them
At present, the most common means of harnessing to be more appealing to homeowners and business
solar power is the utilization of a system involving a owners alike.
series of solar panels and storage batteries. The
panels collect the radiant light and store the captured
energy in the batteries. While energy is stored, it can
also be used real time to operate various types of
machinery and home appliances. The excess is stored
for use at night or in other situations where radiant light
is not readily available for some reason.

In a home powered by solar energy, batteries are now

capable or maintaining a power supply that will
maintain the operation of appliances such as stoves,
refrigerators, computers and entertainment devices
such as television sets. At the same time, the solar
powered home can also use the stored energy to heat
and cool the home or operate a hot water heater.
Some homes today use a hybrid power system that
integrates the use of solar energy along with power
supplied by a traditional power grid. While the home is
not completely dependent on solar power, this type of
system can minimize utility bills and provide an
excellent backup system in the event that a section of
the local power grid should fail.

3
 passage4 Mental disorders
Mental disorders are any kind of thinking problem that
takes someone beyond the boundaries of accepted
norms. In order for something to be classified as a
mental disorder, it usually also has to have a negative
impact on some aspect of a person’s life. Generally,
each separate mental disorder has its own
standardized collection of symptoms that doctors use
to make a diagnosis. Mental disorders can be related
to actual physical problems with the brain, such as
chemical imbalances, or they can be reactions to
certain life experiences.
One of the main things that separates a mental
disorder from most normal mental difficulties is
severity. According to most experts, a mental disorder
shouldn’t be diagnosed if the problems aren’t severe
enough to interrupt a person’s normal daily function in
some way. For example, many people may be afraid of
spiders, but they would normally only receive a
diagnosis for arachnophobia if that fear was extreme
enough to cause problems.
Some mental disorders are present from birth. These
often include psychosis-oriented diseases like
schizophrenia, along with other disorders related to
compulsions. Some of these diseases are caused by
actual brain damage, while chemical regulation
processes cause others, but generally speaking, all of
them are related to physiology.
Some other mental disorders are related to emotional
problems. For example, people may have major
behavior changes after going through certain extreme
events, such as wars or abuse. Other people may
have a temperament that makes them prone to certain
disorders and then have life experiences that actually
trigger the onset of these problems.
There is a large book called the "Diagnostic and
Statistical Manual" that is used for official classification
of each mental disorder. This book is updated
periodically to reflect different diagnostic options for
psychological doctors based on new research.
Sometimes a small change in the book can lead to
major changes in the way patients are diagnosed or
treated.
In a few cases, these changes can be somewhat
negative because doctors can occasionally jump on
the bandwagon of a particular diagnosis unnecessarily.
For example, some people believe that Asperger’s
syndrome is diagnosed much too frequently. When it
was initially added to the manual, the disorder was
studied and experts suggest that it was very rare, but
after being added, doctors started diagnosing it
constantly to the point where many people feel it was
being overused.

4
 passage5 Fossils ash, mud, and sediment. As the volcanic sediments
cooled and hardened, they made molds which
Fossils are the traces of ancient life, and they are used surrounded the bodies of the victims. Over time, these
to find out more about the history of life on Earth. A bodies eventually decayed, leaving imprints of
fossil can take a number of forms, from an imprint of themselves behind.
an ancient footprint in volcanic ash to an organism
A fossil can also be turned to stone if conditions are
which has been turned to stone through the process of
right. In these cases, highly mineralized water fills up
permineralization. You can see numerous examples of
the empty spaces in an organism, and the minerals
fossils on display at natural history museums, and
slowly concentrate, recording the organism's form in
many common fossils are also available for purchase
stone. This is fairly rare. Many deep sea organisms
by collectors and enthusiasts. In some areas of the
were fossilized in this way, as they fell to the bottom of
world, you can also dig up your own fossils.
the ocean and were buried in sediment.
The word “fossil” comes from the Latin fossilis, “dug
Commonly fossils are formed from the parts of an
up,” a reference to the fact that most fossils must be
animal which are mineralized while the animal is alive,
excavated. Humans have been studying and writing
such as bones and teeth. These mineralized body
about fossils since at least the time of the Ancient
parts are preserved by ideal natural conditions while
Greeks, when people noticed things like fossilized
the flesh decays, leaving behind a skeletal record of an
oceanic organisms in mountainous regions and
animal that once was. More rarely, complete animals
suggested that these areas could have been
are preserved in ice, as is the case with some Pliocene
underwater at some point. The collective information
animals like mammoths.
gathered from the millions of fossils on Earth is known
as the fossil record, and the fossil record provides a
number of interesting clues into what life on Earth was
once like.

There are numerous gaps in the fossil record because

not every organism becomes fossilized. Conditions
must be absolutely perfect for the creation of a fossil;
otherwise, an organism will naturally decay away,
being broken down by scavengers and bacteria. Most
fossils are formed because they are deposited into
moist sediments where bacteria cannot survive.
Fossils have been found in bogs, quicksand, clay
deposits, tar pits, and volcanic ash.

In some cases, a fossil takes the form of a natural

mold. Some excellent examples of natural molds were
found in the Roman city of Pompeii, where a volcanic
explosion killed numerous people by drowning them in

5
 passage6 Domestic Robots in the event of movement outside windows or exterior
doors, up to and including locking connecting doors
Domestic robots are electronic robotic devices that are between the room that has been breached and the
designed to manage various types of tasks around the remainder of the home. The robot can also trigger the
house. While some of these devices focus on functions security system to automatically contact law
such as house cleaning, others are designed to enforcement to report the break-in.
provide company for the elderly, monitor the activities
Entertainment robots are another example of robots
of young children, and operate kitchen appliances.
that are already in common usage. Robots of this type
While the number and type of robots that are in actual
are designed to provide interactive entertainment and
use today are somewhat small, designs for robots with
companionship for shut-ins, the elderly, or anyone who
a broader range of capabilities are currently under
lives alone. The robots can be programmed for tasks
development by a number of different companies.
such as playing verbal word games, receive voice
Of all the domestic robots currently in use today, the commands to conduct web searches, and other simple
most common is the smart vacuum. This type of activities that help to pass the time.
household robot is capable of maneuvering around the
Other models for domestic robots are currently under
floor of a room, cleaning carpeting as well as
development. These include robots that can be
hardwood and other types of floors. The robot uses
programmed to prepare simple meals, take out the
sensors to identify the presence of furniture and other
trash, dust, make the bed, and handle a number of
objects, and change direction when and as needed.
relatively uncomplicated household duties. There are
Small and relatively simplistic, the robot takes up a
also companies researching the potential for
fraction of the storage space required for a traditional
developing robots that can function as health
vacuum cleaner. Robots like these normally operate
attendants, providing limited health care to patients
with the use of a battery pack that can easily be
who are recovering from surgery or illness. While many
recharged using household current.
of the more elaborate ideas for domestic robots remain
There are also domestic robots that are used as part of the province of science fiction, advances in technology
home security networks. Devices of this type are are slowly making it possible to convert some of these
usually connected to computer systems within the fictional illustrations of servant robots into reality.
home, using a wired or wireless connection. The
robots are programmed to initiate a sequence of tasks
6
 passage7 Ways To Reduce Anxiety
There are a number of ways to reduce anxiety, but it’s
important to get a doctor’s help if anxiety is constant or
appears to be diminishing quality of life. Many people
have conditions called panic disorder or generalized
anxiety disorder, and some people with bipolar
disorder may experience great anxiety during swings
to manic or hypomanic states. Understanding if anxiety
is in part medically induced can be extremely valuable,
because it then may be possible to control the disorder
with a combination of medication and therapy.
The major prescription medications that reduce anxiety
include some of the best-known antidepressants
(particularly Paxil®, Prozac® and Zoloft®) and the
class of medications called benzodiazepines.
Benzodiazepines (Valium®, Xanax® and others) are
short acting, and many simply refer to them as
tranquilizers. They may be prescribed to reduce
situational anxiety, like flying or going to the dentist, or
they may be a part of long term treatment. These
medications are addictive and need to be used under a
doctor’s care, and they should never be discontinued
without medical guidance.
It isn’t always necessary to turn to medications to
reduce anxiety. Many people find that work with a
therapist helps and others are helped with a number of
self-coping methods. A good way of assessing anxiety
may have medical cause is to see a doctor and work
with a therapist. If methods like cognitive behavioral
therapy work alone, medication may not be required or
may only be necessary for short-term use.
Some people find they don’t require therapy. Taking to
a friend, a family member or a trusted pastor could be
7
enough to help relieve fears. When this alone is
insufficient and the person has no reason to suspect
medical cause, a number of other things may help
ease tension.
Getting regular exercise may reduce anxiety because it
increases serotonin production, which can promote
better feelings and a sense of calm. Some people who
have anxiety exercise on a regular basis and find that if
they are really stressed it helps to exercise
immediately to reduce stress. Taking a quick walk
around the block, doing some jumping jacks or
spending a few minutes on a stationary bicycle may
actually create significant calm.
Others employ various deep breathing methods to
reduce anxiety. It might seem strange that breathing
alone could decrease tension, but the act of focusing
on breath through guided exercises is thought
beneficial. Some people combine breathing with
meditative forms of exercise like yoga or tai chi.
Exerting the body and focusing on breath can have
very positive results. Things like prayer and standard
meditation may pose a solution for others with much
stress.
It may be possible to reduce some anxiety by
distracting from topics creating it. It can help to stay
busy when a matter is weighing on the mind, and not
focus solely on it. Someone waiting for a loved one to
get through a surgery might be better able to pass the
time by doing something constructive like knitting,
crochet, crossword puzzles or the like. Though this
clearly can’t remove the source of stress, it may help it
be more bearable.
Equally important in reducing anxiety is avoiding
certain things. Caffeine tends to create more stress,
and should not be used. Drinking alcohol may help
temporarily reduce anxiety, but it has a bounce back combination with anxiety-relieving medications
effect if used in excess. Though stress may be because this may lower effect of these medications or
reduced when someone is drinking, recovery from the make them dangerous.
drinking can make things seem even harder. It's also
important not to use alcohol or illegal drugs in

passage8 King Arthur each story, is the search for the Holy Grail. Moreover,
the knights are enjoined to protect women and the
King Arthur is the British king whose legends, helpless, a significant change from some of the abuses
especially those regarding the Knights of the Round of lords and knights to vassals in the feudal system.
Table, evolved significantly during the Middle Ages in Another key element to the legends is Arthur’s
most European countries, but especially France, establishment of Camelot, the fair kingdom he builds.
Germany and England. It’s long been disputed whether
Arthur is married to the childless Guinevere, though
a true King Arthur existed and there is some evidence
various accounts give him illegitimate children,
that in the 5th century CE, there was an Arthur,
including a son, Mordred, who ultimately kills his father
possibly Roman or Celtic, who was able to lead a
(and is killed by him) and overturns his kingdom.
successful battle or succession of battles to turn back
Mordred’s story and his relationship to his father is an
Saxon invaders. The Arthur that we know from myths
exceptionally sad one in some accounts, since
and legends is much more fancifully rendered, and first
Mordred is the product of an incestuous liaison
mention of the fictional character occurs in History of
between the king and his half-sister. The kindest
the Kings of Britain by the 11th and 12th century
accounts do not mention this, or defend the king by
clergyman, Geoffrey of Monmouth.
suggesting he is unaware of Morgase’s relationship to
The basic legend is that this British king is the son of himself, and in very early accounts, Mordred is not
Uther Pandraeg, and Igraine, the wife of Gorlois. Arthur’s son.
Utherfalls in love with Igraine, and with the counsel of
The tales of king and Camelot are retold numerous
the wizard Merlin, comes to her disguised as her
times, and underwent significant changes as the
husband. Due to Arthur’s parentage he is raised as a
Middle Ages progressed. Emphasis in tales outside of
ward of another knight, and only learns about his
England was often on adding additional knights, like
parentage after Uther’s death. It is as this point that
Lancelot, Parzival, and Gawain. Some feel the best
many accounts have the young and assumedly
take on the whole story is Thomas Mallory’s Le Morte
illegitimate child claiming his kingship by removing
D’Arthur published in the late 15th century.
Excalibur, the great and enchanted sword, from a
stone, a feat that can only be achieved by the true Others prefer modern renderings of Arthurian tales,
king. including works like T.H. White’s The Once and Future
King, Marion Zimmer Bradley’s The Mists of Avalon,
As king, Arthur gathers together a group of knights
and Mary Stewart’s Merlin Trilogy. Numerous films
who fight for justice, and establishes the Knights of the
have dealt with the king too. The most recent of these,
Round Table. Among the quests, depending upon
8
King Arthur made in 2004, does attempt to restore
some historical accuracy to the tale by dating the time
as not during the Middle Ages, but instead taking place
during the 5th century CE, when the true Arthur may
have actually reigned.

passage9 Supply And Demand more at higher prices because selling their wares at
higher prices provides increased revenues.
Supply and demand is considered a basic economic
To understand this economic relationship, consider a
concept, as well as a vital part of a free market
unique gift item that is priced at 99 US Dollars (USD).
economy. Supply is the amount of something, such as
The company that makes the gift item has analyzes
a product or service, that a market has available.
past sales and determines that demand for this
Demand is the amount of the product or service that
particular item will be low if it is priced higher than 99
buyers want to purchase. The relationship between
USD. The company decides to produce and release
supply and demand has a good deal of influence on
just 100 gift items because its analysis predicts that the
the price of goods and services.
opportunity cost is too high to provide for high demand.
Understanding the law of demand is an important part However, if 200 people demand the gift item, the price
of deciphering the relationship between supply and will rise along with the demand. Since higher prices
demand. According to the law of demand, price has a lead to increased supply, more of the gift item will be
significant effect on demand. Essentially, higher prices produced and offered.
translate into less demand for a product or service.
The supply and demand relationship affects price in a
When the price of an item or service is high, an
different manner when a company has produced too
individual must consider that buying the item may
much of an item. For example, if the gift company
prevent him from being able to afford the purchase of
increases production to create 500 gift items, but the
another, more valuable item. As such, the opportunity
demand stays at 200, the supply outstrips the demand
cost of that item is too high and demand for it may be
and the price will not rise. By contrast, the company
low.
may actually lower the price in an attempt to attract
The law of supply is also vital to understanding the consumers who considered the gift item attractive, but
relationship between supply and demand. According to thought the opportunity cost was too high.
the law of supply, higher quantities of a product or
It is possible for supply and demand to be equal. In
service are supplied at a higher price. Those who
order for this to happen, the amount of supplied
produce goods and offer services are willing to supply
products or services must equal the demand for those
9
products and services. If this is attained, the economy
is balanced in a state of equilibrium.

passage10 Dental Cavity Unfortunately, however, their presence is enough to

In dentistry, a cavity is a hole that forms in a person’s
tooth as a result of decay. Cavities, also called dental
caries, form when sugars or starches and bacteria
combine in the mouth. This combination results in the
production of acid that is harsh enough to destroy a
tooth’s hard enamel coating. Eventually, this
destruction leads to a hole, which dentists call a cavity.
While the thought of bacteria in the mouth may be
unappetizing, it is normal to find bacteria there. They
are a constant presence on a person’s tongue and
teeth as well as on the gums and even the lips. On the
teeth, they are present in a sticky sort of film, which is
referred to as plaque. The bacteria found here digest
the starches and sugars that are present in a person’s
mouth. An acid strong enough to destroy tooth enamel
forms as a result of this feeding and eventually causes
a cavity to develop.
It’s important to note that bacteria in the mouth don’t
always lead to tooth decay. There are some types of
mouth bacteria that do not cause cavities and some
may even help to prevent them. Those that cause
cavity formation, such as Streptococcus mutans and
Actinomyces naeslundii, are in the minority.
10
cause serious problems for a person’s mouth.
Interestingly, when bacteria act on sugars and
starches in the mouth, they not only produce acid, but
they also cause the mouth's pH level to drop. Once the
pH level drops to a significant level, the acid begins its
cavity forming attack on the teeth. Each time a person
eats a meal that contains a sugar or starch, this acid is
formed, the tooth’s pH level drops, and the tooth
enamel is attacked.
At first, a cavity is very small and invades only the
superficial surface of the tooth. In time, however, a
cavity grows deeper and progresses until it reaches
the tooth’s nerve. Superficial cavities are painless, and
a person is typically unaware of them until he visits his
dentist for an examination. Deeper cavities may be
visible as darkened sections of tooth decay,
particularly when they affect the teeth at the front of the
mouth. More often, however, a patient discovers them
when he develops a toothache.
Dentists can treat cavities, but the best way to handle
them is through prevention. Most dental authorities
recommend brushing at least twice each day and
flossing once per day. People are usually advised to
see a dentist every six months as well.

passage11 Ecology plant species, leaving others alone, and excreting

seeds which plants can use to spread themselves.
Ecology is a branch of biology which is focused on the
In the 20th century, ecologists became especially
examination of living organisms in the natural
interested in human activities which had a deleterious
environment. Ecologists look at how organisms interact
effect on the environment, recognizing that humans
with the environment and each other, and they study
could have a tremendous and not always beneficial
the complex and interconnected systems which
influence on nature. For example, dumping pollutants
influence life on Earth. Ecology is also sometimes
into a river can cause a variety of changes in nature,
known as environmental biology, and there are a
just as paving over a wetland can eliminate a habitat
number of subdisciplines within this branch of the
and put stress on the animals and plants which are
sciences which deal with specific topics of interest,
used to living there.
such as the relationship between humans and the
natural environment. Ecologists are often interested in looking at entire
ecosystems, and studying all of the organisms which
Researchers in ecology can study individuals,
live in them and influence them. Each ecosystem hosts
populations, communities, and ecosystems. At each
unique plant and animal species which have adapted
level, there are more things to learn about. The natural
to the environment and each other, and studying this
environment is usually heavily interconnected;
can provide scientists with information about the
researchers can focus on a single population of plants
history of that ecosystem, and the evolutionary roots of
or animals, for example, and find much fodder for
the animals which live there. Ecology can also be
study, ranging from how that population shapes the
studied in urban environments.
physical environment to how other organisms interact
with it. For example, ruminant populations can create The study of ecology is not limited to the terrestrial
paths and watering holes, shaping the land, and they environment; marine environments, lakes, and streams
can also influence plant populations by eating some can also provide a great deal of food for thought and
11
inspiration for study. The marine environment in
particular is not very well understood, with researchers
constantly finding that there is more to learn about the
ocean, the creatures which live there, and its
underlying geography and geology. For example, for
centuries people assumed that the bottom of the ocean
was inactive and bleak, but in the 20th century,
researchers discovered areas of biological activity
around hydrothermal vents, with organisms which had
adapted to the dark, high pressure, low oxygen
environment of the deep sea.

passage12 Jane Austen the marriage proposal of Mr. Collins to Elizabeth in

Pride and Prejudice(P&P) Jane Austen received a
Jane Austen was an early 19th century British novelist, proposal of marriage in 1802 from a “heavyset” man,
who has received much posthumous praise for her Harris Bigg-Wither. She initially accepted, then
novels. Her work was disregarded for much of the declined the proposal. She would not marry for
1800s. Interest in the 1900s clearly established her anything less than love, and would not become the
novels as an important part of the literary canon or Charlotte Lucas of P&P who married an “odious” man
“must read” material for those studying literature.Her to avoid poverty. Some critics suggest Charlotte is
novels are comedic, tightly constructed works which Austen’s argument for refusing Bigg-Winter.
gently mock the limited sphere in which she lived--the
Jane Austen did not find love and was obliged to
middle class of England in the early 1800s. She
accept support and guidance from her family. She
completed six novels during her lifetime: Sense and
began writing novels, to partially earn her way.
Sensibility, Pride and Prejudice, Mansfield Park,
However, as any proper female of the time, she was
Emma, Northanger Abbey, and Persuasion. The last
known to hide her writing under blotting paper, should
two novels were written before Emma and published
any guests arrive, as it was considered next to
posthumously.
indecent to be a female novelist. Her work was
Jane Austen lived an uneventful and short life in published anonymously befitting “decent” behavior of
England. Born in 1775, Jane Austen only lived until the time.
1817. Her major works were composed during the first
She has received both praise and censure for her
decade of the 1800s. She had started writing by the
works from other writers. Both Mark Twain and
time she was 13 or 14, and some adore her collection
Charlotte Bronte thought her novels were wretched.
of early writings.Jane Austen clearly wrote to entertain
Samuel Taylor Coleridge and Lionel Trilling were fans,
her family in her early works. She received a better
and Virginia Woolf referred to Jane Austen as an
education than most women, and was inspired to study
“incandescent” writer.
the more weighty topics in which her brother excelled.
Jane Austen lived in a limited sphere of English
Jane Austen had six brothers and one sister. She was
society, and exemplifies the “write what you know”
particularly close to her sister Cassandra, mirroring the
philosophy of composition. Her works are limited to her
relationship between Jane and Elizabeth in her novel
understanding of the world, although her last novel,
Pride and Prejudice. Her letters to Cassandra are
Emma, explores society a bit more and is considered
available for review on the Internet and at the Jane
by many critics to be her greatest work. Her novels are
Austen Museum located in Bath, England.Much like
unlike much of the writing of the Romantic period, as
12
they do not celebrate either nature or naturalness as
was common to her contemporaries like
Wordsworth.Readers find Pride and Prejudice to be
the most approachable work of Jane Austen, and had
been adapted into two films. The 1940s version stars
Laurence Olivier as Darcy, and the other in 2005 stars
Keira Knightly. Two miniseries closely adhere to the
book. The 1980s BBC version starring Elizabeth
Garvey and David Rintoul is the most faithful
production. The 1990s series featuring Jennifer Erhle
and Colin Firth is most admired.
Sense and Sensibility’s best known film adaptation
was written by the actor, Emma Thompson, who also
starred in the work. It is a fairly faithful production and
passage13 A hybrid car
A hybrid car is a vehicle that utilizes two types of
technologies for energy. This usually refers to an
automobile that has both a conventional gasoline
engine as well as a bank of batteries and that shares
the demand for power between these two sources.
One source might be the main power source with the
other serving as a backup, or the vehicle might use
one source in certain situations and the other in
different situations.
Two Power Sources
Hybrid cars work in a variety of ways. The most basic
hybrid car is powered by a gas engine but also keeps a
charge in a bank of batteries. Many hybrid cars also
charge their batteries by using regenerated energy that
was captured through braking. Hybrid cars typically will
switch between gasoline and battery power as
necessary. For example, when there is minimal
demand on the engine, the car might stop using gas
13
pleases most Jane Austen fans. Mansfield Park and
Persuasion have been adapted for both films and
miniseries several times, and Emma was wonderfully
parodied in the 1990s film Clueless.Austen’s greatness
as an author is found less in films, but more in her
actual work. Her character studies are precise and
witty. One can still find representations of such
characters in ordinary modern life. Jane Austen novels
form an integral part of the literary canon, and should
be studied by all who are analyzing the novel as art
form.
altogether and switch to battery power. Some hybrid
car drivers have said that it can be unnerving to hear
their vehicles' gas engines turn off while they are
driving.
History
This technology has been around since cars were
introduced in the 19th century, because most vehicles
use a combination of energy sources for power. For
example, most cars have a battery that starts the car
and can power the car's accessories, such as the
headlights. In the late 1990s, hybrid cars with more
power began to be considered viable and popular
alternatives to conventional gasoline-only vehicles, and
several models broke into the market and became
popular sellers.
Advantages
The hybrid car is considered by many people to be an
excellent alternative to conventional vehicles because
it can be more gas efficient. Many hybrid cars have a
gas efficiency that is double that of conventional
gasoline-only models, which provides a significant cost
savings for the user. In addition, hybrid cars tend to be
less polluting during use, because they burn less fuel
and because the companies that build them tend to be
conscious of environmental pollution and make an
effort to build cleaner vehicles. Many jurisdictions give
owners of hybrid cars special incentives, such as tax
breaks and permission to use carpool lanes on
highways.
Advances in Technology
Some companies have gone further with hybrid car
technology by building cars that can be plugged in to
charge batteries that can power the vehicle for 150
passage14 Recycling
While recycling has become part of the daily routine for
many people, the full importance of recycling is not
always understood. In general, people do understand
that recycling helps to minimize the drain on the limited
resources of our planet. However, there are several
other factors that make recycling important. Here are a
few other reasons why recycling is extremely important
to our world today.
One of the great things about recycling is that the
process helps to minimize the presence of waste
materials in our communities. Because items such as
glass, paper, and plastics are being reused to create
new products, they do not end up taking up space in a
landfill somewhere. Since most people are not
interested in having a garbage dump located near their
homes or offices, recycling makes it possible to avoid
creating newer and larger landfills that would otherwise
be necessary to accommodate all the waste.
14
miles (241 km) or more before needing to switch over
to the gas engine. For most short trips, this allows the
car to use only the battery power. Many companies
also have begun developing hybrid cars that use
alternative energy sources, such as hydrogen hybrid
cars, in the hopes of encouraging consumers to switch
over to more sustainable energy sources.
While many people realize that recycling is good for
the environment in terms of easing the demand on our
limited resources, they may not realize that choosing to
reuse and recycle items also makes it possible to cut
the cost of producing products significantly. For
example, it takes anywhere from seventy-five to ninety-
five percent less energy to produce aluminum cans
from recycled products than it does to create them
from raw materials. Thus, the importance of recycling
not only extends to preserving raw materials but also
to easing the energy needed to manufacture various
goods.
Another example of the importance of recycling has to
do with the creation of new jobs. As more people
recycle, the number of people required to collect, sort
and process recycled items continues to grow. More
jobs in the community means more money spent in
local stores, more taxes collected for the city or town,
and in general a healthier economy for everyone
concerned.
The importance of recycling also extends to
maintaining a healthy balance in the ecology of the
planet. By not having to mine raw materials in order to
continue producing the same volume of products, there
is less damage to our rivers, forests, and areas where
wildlife is abundant. Since every form of life on the
planet is dependent on the presence of another form of
life, maintaining an ecological balance is key to
providing security for the generations to come.

Think about all the reasons behind recycling the next

time you begin to wonder if your meager contribution
really makes a difference. The combined efforts of all
people to recycle do in fact make a huge difference in
our world. Look around your community and you are
likely to see first hand the importance of recycling to
your city or town in several different ways.

passage15 A Fiscal Crisis money for key functions, but this may not be enough to
bring the government's spending back on an even
A fiscal crisis is a situation where a government cannot keel.
finance its regular activities, including providing social
As a fiscal crisis proceeds, it tends to develop a
services, paying for defense, and managing other
snowball effect. Each warning sign of financial
government functions. There are a number of ways
problems contributes to increasing unrest and concern,
nations can attempt to address a fiscal crisis and they
making it harder to fix those problems. For example, a
often involve hardship for many citizens. It is also
nation having trouble with its budget might issue
possible for lesser units of governments, like states,
government bonds to raise money, and find that
provinces, and municipalities, to experience their own
investors do not want to purchase them because they
fiscal crises. These may occur as part of a larger
are following the budget problems. The government
economic problem or an independent issue.
may start issuing promissory notes instead of
Governments in a state of fiscal crisis cannot balance paychecks to employees, creating a ripple effect in the
their budgets. They do not take in enough in tax economy as government workers start to worry about
revenues to cover their expenses and they cannot meeting their own expenses.
raise funds by floating government debt. The nation
In a deep fiscal crisis, a government may have to
may already be servicing a large debt and can start to
default or declare bankruptcy. In the case of regional
go into default. Usually, governments begin to slash as
governments like cities, bankruptcy and a chance to
much funding as possible in an attempt to free up
15
reorganize is a possibility. National governments do
not have access to the bankruptcy court system and
must instead choose to default on their debt or solicit
international aid in the form of loans from organizations
like the World Bank. Governments may also attempt to
negotiate debt forgiveness if they are already carrying
loans from such organizations.

During a fiscal crisis, politicians often use a variety of

approaches to try and fix the problem, and they tend to
be controversial. Raising tax revenues is necessary to
balance the budget, but this may be difficult in periods
of economic hardship when citizens and some
legislators resist the idea of tax increases. Cutting
funding to reduce expenses is also usually necessary,
but deciding what to cut, and by how much, is a fraught
task.

passage16 Mark Twain
Mark Twain was the pen name of American writer and
humorist Samuel Langhorne Clemens. Born 30
November 1835, he is often referred to as “the father
of American literature.” He published 28 books, as well
as numerous short stories, during his long and
prosperous career. Mark Twain is also the first writer to
trademark his name and incorporate himself as a
business enterprise.
Twain left school at the age of 13, shortly after his
father died of pneumonia. He began working as a
printer’s apprentice, later joining his brother’s
newspaper as an editorial assistant and newspaper
reporter. This practical experience is credited with
helping him to develop his distinctive writing style.
Mark Twain first began to achieve public recognition
for his humorous writing when his short story, "The
Celebrated Jumping Frog of Calaveras County" was
published in The New York Saturday Press in 1865.
This gave him the boost he needed to allow his first
book, The Innocents Abroad , to be released in 1869.
Based on his travels through Europe, The Innocents
Abroad quickly became a bestseller that allowed Twain
to enjoy a level of financial success previously unheard
of for a writer.
The Adventures of Tom Sawyer was published in
1876, followed by The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn
in 1885. Despite being Twain’s best-known novel, The
Adventures of Huckleberry Finn is often criticized as
racist by those who object to the dialogue he included
to add “local color” to the story. In fact, according to the
American Library Association, The Adventures of
Huckleberry Finn has earned the dubious honor of
being the fifth most frequently censored book in the
United States.
Mark Twain married Olivia Langdon in 1870. The
couple had four children: Langdon Clemens, Susy

16
Clemens, Clara Clemens, and Jean Clemens.
Unfortunately, since three of his children died young,
there are no direct descendants alive today.

Mark Twain died on 21 April 1910 of angina pectoris.

As the first American literary celebrity, his death made
the front page of newspapers across the United States.
His fans were given a chance to pay their respects in
New York City before his body was buried next to his
wife and children in Elmira, NY.

Today, Twain’s work continues to remain an important

part of the American literary landscape. Fans of his
writing frequently flock to the Mark Twain Museum in
Hannibal, MO and the Calaveras County Fair’s
Jumping Frog Jubilee in Angels Camp, CA.

passage17 Black Hole
A black hole is an astronomical concept that describes
an area of space with an intense gravitational pull that
basically “sucks” in its surroundings, and nothing —
not even light — can escape. Scientists debate
whether they exist at all. Some claim that they’re just
an invented explanation for a phenomenon that can’t
otherwise be rationalized, namely the disappearance
of matter in space; for others, though, these areas are
very real. It’s unclear exactly how the holes are
formed, but most experts believe that they come about
as a consequence of star death. They’re difficult to
document, and researchers are usually only able to
identify them by measuring force fields and energy
outputs. Unlike most stars and other cosmic entities,
they are all but invisible with the eyes.
These holes are usually known by their huge
concentration of mass, which gives them an immense
gravitational pull. Most astronomers believe that they
17
form over many hundreds and thousands of years after
stars die. When stars burn out, their energy can either
explode off into the cosmos or be compressed and
compacted into a very small space. The latter is what
most researchers think happens at the
beginning.There are many stars in space, and up close
they looks really different than the twinkles most
people are used to seeing in the sky. Most of them are
fireballs full of energy. The sun is the closest star to
Earth, and is the most familiar one for many, but it’s
actually on the smaller side — scientists do not think
the sun is large enough to ever have the capacity to
create a black hole upon its death. According to most
data, a dying star would have to weigh at least ten
times more than the sun to create such an area.
Though scientists cannot see these voids, when they
find areas in space where large amounts of mass are
contained in a small volume and the area is dark,
chances are there is a black hole nearby. Most of the
time these calculations are made mathematically
rather than through direct observation. There isn’t
usually anything to see, but there’s often a lot to feel.
No person or human-made ship or object is ever
believed to have encountered one of these holes
directly, and the only evidence of their existence
comes through calculations and formulaic derivations
of astronomers. They are generally believed to exist
near the fringes of the galaxy, very far from Earth and
the other planets in the identified solar system.
The voids are usually characterized first and foremost
by their gravitational pulls. It’s widely believed that
nothing can escape this pull, not even light; in fact, the
lack of light is what accounts for the "black" part of the
name. The gravitational forces will cause the region to
remain dark infinitely.Scientists generally think that the
gravitational pull radiates out from the center of the
space, often extending far out into the perimeter.
Though no one has come near enough to a black hole
to test things out, it’s believed that any object
approaching would first experience a floating, gliding
sensation. This would be a more or less pleasant
experience as the gravitational forces would be similar
to simply orbiting the earth at first. However, as the
object moved closer and closer, the hole would begin
to exert more pull. Eventually, the pull would be so
strong as to destroy matter by breaking it apart as it
sucked towards the center of the hole. Researchers
also have a number of theories about how time is
conceptualized in this space, and often think that
seconds and minutes essentially “freeze,” or at least
dramatically slow, once the threshold into the void has
been crossed.
Whether or not these spaces actually exist is a matter
of some controversy in the scientific community. In part
this is because there isn’t actually much tangible
evidence to identify them, and there’s a lot that still
remains unknown about how and why they’re formed.
Most researchers who’ve spent time studying the
cosmos will readily admit that there’s a lot that remains
unknown. There is significant backing for the theories
of gravitational space voids, but much of it is based on
speculation and best guesses from numerical readings
and charts.

passage18 Foreign Trade

Foreign or international trade can be considered a number of different things, depending on the type of trade one is
talking about. Generally speaking, it is trading goods and services that are destined for a country other than their
country of origin. Foreign trade can also be investing in foreign securities, though this is a less common use of the
term.

Foreign trade is all about imports and exports. The backbone of any trade between nations is those products and
services which are being traded to some other location outside a particular country's borders. Some nations are adept
at producing certain products at a cost-effective price. Perhaps it is because they have the labor supply or abundant
natural resources which make up the raw materials needed. No matter what the reason, the ability of some nations to
produce what other nations want is what makes international trade work.

18
In some cases, the products produced in a foreign trade situation are very similar to other products being produced
around the world, at least in their raw form. Therefore, these products, known as commodities, are often pooled
together in one mass market and sold. This is called trading commodities. The most common commodities often sold
in foreign trade are oil and grain.

There are a number of issues with imports and exports that must be taken into consideration when conducting foreign
trade. For example, some countries have industries they may want to protect. These industries may be in competition
with foreign companies for the opportunity to sell products domestically. To protect domestic trade, countries may
institute tariffs, which are taxes on certain foreign goods. While this is a way to generate revenue, its real value lies in
helping those domestic companies.

For example, to encourage domestic production of ethanol in the United States, a tariff has been imposed on Brazilian
ethanol. This protects the ethanol market in the United States, which would not otherwise be able to compete with
Brazilian ethanol based on cost. In Brazil, ethanol is made from sugar, which produces far more ethanol gallons per
acre than corn, the primary crop used for ethanol in the United States.

In addition to tariffs, currency issues are another factor in foreign trade. Some companies selling products overseas
prefer to be paid in a certain type of currency, such as the US Dollar or Euro. This protects the company in case the
country involved in a trade experiences a rapid devaluation in currency. Most foreign trading agreements will always
involve a relatively stable currency.

passage19 Byzantine Culture
Byzantine culture comprised a crossroads of influences.
Its geographic location centered in the heart of Greece
gave it a fundamental Greek character, while connections
to the ancient foundations of the Roman empire in the
west defined its political aspirations. Influences from the
growing Islamic Persian Empire and Ottoman Arab
influences of Turkey gave it a synthesis of eastern and
western thinking. Well-established trading with the Middle
East and Orient also contributed to making Byzantine
culture one of the most advanced and diverse
civilizations of its time.
The Byzantine empire is generally considered to have
come into existence when Constantinople was made the
capital of Rome in the year 324 AD. The Eastern Roman
Empire survived for 1,129 years until Constantinople was
conquered by Sultan Mehmed II of the Ottomans in 1453
AD with an army of 80,000 to 200,000 men. Prior to its
fall, the capital city of Byzantine culture had peaked at
one time at a population of nearly 1,000,000, and was a
cultural center of the world.
The political structure of Byzantine society was modeled
on that of ancient Roman tradition. Emperors ruled with
the advice of a small circle of advisers, and a Senate
body prepared laws to rule the majority. A small segment
of the population was composed of wealthy aristocracy,
followed by a prosperous middle class minority of
merchants and shop owners. The bulk of the population

19
were urban laborers or farmers who worked for wealthy
landowners in the countryside.
Christian religion dominated the culture from its founding,
through the Edict of Milan in 313 AD, a letter by
Constantine the Great which supported religious
tolerance. Emperor Constantine in the east and Emperor
Licinius I in the west both signed the letter, and
Constantine became the first Byzantine emperor to
convert to Christianity. Eastern Roman views of
Christianity were highly speculative, however, and
involved mysticism and metaphysical philosophies
acquired from other cultures. This later led to persecution
of some Christian groups labeled as heretics under the
rule of Emperor Justinian from 527 to 565 AD.
Justinian is also credited with many significant positive
contributions to Byzantine culture. He initiated an
enduring imagery in Byzantine art traditions through
mosaics by commissioning the building of the Santa
Sophia Basilica in Constantinople on a lavish scale that
had not been seen to date. The legal system was also
reformed under his rule through the Corpus iuris civilis, or
Body of Civil Law, which came to be known as the Code
of Justinian. It was a systematic unification of established
Roman laws and Christian principles, which is, in modern
times, seen as the foundation for continental European
law overall.
passage20 Alfred Hitchcock
Alfred Hitchcock (1899-1980) is considered to be one
of the greatest and most influential directors of films in
the suspense genre. He directed over 50 films, starting
with silent movies in England in the 1920s. He was
also known for his rather peculiar habits, particularly
his obsession with actress Tippi Hedrin, who appeared
in The Birds and Marnie in the 1960s.
Alfred Hitchcock was fond of relating a story of one of
his father’s “teaching” lessons when he was a teen. His
father sent him to a local police station with a note.
20
The Greek love of learning had a fundamental influence
on Byzantine culture and character. Their openness to
diverse ideas resulted in the export of their own classical
Greek and Roman thinking to neighboring Islam and
Slavic peoples, such as those of Russia. The elite of
society spoke in Latin, yet the everyday populace spoke
Greek and was taught in the Greek intellectual traditions
of literature, rhetoric, and democratic thinking.
Since Constantinople sat on trade routes both by land
and sea between Europe and eastern empires, it
prospered greatly. Constantine built a multitude of
covered walkways, baths, and palaces in the city. He also
imported large quantities of art from throughout the
region to embellish the capital. So great was the
influence of Byzantine culture that, when the empire fell
to the Ottomans, Russian rulers took on the title of Tsar,
a translated form of Caesar which was used by Byzantine
emperors, through an attempt to restart the empire. They
claimed Moscow as the third Rome, a successor to the
divided Roman empire which had now fallen to invaders
in both the eastern and western regions.
When the police read the note, they locked him in a
cell for a few minutes. This lesson certainly is
expressed in many of Hitchcock’s films where there
exists a distrust of authority figures, of both parents
and the police.Many of his films contain similar
thematic elements. A protagonist is falsely accused of
a crime, and must somehow find a way to exonerate
him or herself. Alternately, a protagonist believes he or
she has committed a crime, and further information
either shows the crime was committed when the
person was insane or someone else arranged the
circumstances to make the protagonist falsely believe
in his or her own guilt. Notable departures from this
theme are often seen in later films. The first film to
explore this thematic structure is the 1926 silent film,
The Lodger
Film critics hail 39 Steps, one of the early “talkie” Alfred
Hitchcock films as a critical masterpiece. This again
features the innocent protagonist who thinks he is a
criminal. The film is also humorous, something that
would recur frequently in Hitchcock’s films. Toward the
end of his career, much of his films display a “gallows'
humor,” that does not always seem appropriate. Alfred
Hitchcock is better when the comedy is light, in most
cases.In the 1940s, Alfred Hitchcock moved from his
native England to California, and began partnering with
the director David O. Selznik. The partnership was not
always successful, as Selznick frequently ran out of
money on films. Despite its problems, this partnering
brought us Hitchcock’s only Academy Award winning
film, Rebecca.
The 1940s also saw production of the classic films
Shadow of a Doubt, Spellbound and Notorious. The
two former represent his collaboration with Ingrid
Bergman, as well as his work with both Cary Grant and
Gregory Peck. Alfred Hitchcock called Doubt his
favorite film. It is a very suspenseful film dancing on
the edge of allusion to incest and pointing out evils in a
small town. It features a multi-layered performance by
Joseph Cotton that is truly fascinating to observe.Alfed
Hitchcock was known for his partnership with several
respected actors. He worked with the aforementioned
passage22 Embryo
An embryo is an organism in the early stages of
development which cannot survive on its own. The
precise definition of it varies; in humans, for example, a
21
actors, as well as, Jimmy Stewart and Grace Kelly. He
would often work with actors repeatedly, and made the
most films with Stewart and Grant who appear in the
lion’s share of his work in the 50s-60s. One of the
lesser known of his works is the darkly comic The
Trouble with Harry from 1955, starring a young Shirley
MacLaine.
Many consider Psycho in 1960 to be one of the most
frightening films ever. A wonderful piece of trivia
regarding the film is that the studio was not at all
bothered by the famous “shower scene,” but
expressed concerned that Hitchcock showed a toilet
flushing. The murder in the shower was probably made
more acceptable because it was shot in black and
white, yet this is the first of Hitchcock’s films to feature
extremely graphic violence. Later films like Frenzy
would also push the envelope on both violence and
nudity.
Hitchcock also had his own television show, Alfred
Hitchcock Presents, and directed over 20 episodes
from the mid 50s-60s, which are now available on
DVD. All of his films are also on DVD. Most Hitchcock
fans will recommend the following: The 39 Steps,
Lifeboat, Rear Window, Vertigo, North by Northwest,
The Birds, and Psycho. Alfred Hitchcock fans will
doubtless point to other of his films as the “best.” In all
his later films look for Hitchcock cameos, as he loved
to appear for brief moments onscreen.
fertilized egg may be considered an embryo until
around the eighth week of pregnancy, at which point it
is termed a fetus. Embryos in animals typically indicate
any pre-birth stage of development, including those in
wombs or eggs. Plant embryos can take a number of
different forms, though they are commonly encased in
seeds.
Formation
The term “embryo” is only used to refer to "eukaryote"
or multi-cellular organisms. Typically, people use the
term specifically to refer to diploid eukaryotes, which
have a complete set of genetic material from two
donors. This genetic material takes the form of haploid
sperm and eggs; a haploid cell only contains half a set
of chromosomes, meaning that it cannot develop into
anything unless it is combined with another one.
Formation of an embryo starts at fertilization. When an
egg and sperm meet, they form a "zygote." A zygote is
a single diploid cell, created through the merging of
two haploid cells. After fertilization, the zygote starts to
divide, laying the groundwork for the mature organism
which will eventually be born, hatched, or grown. When
this division begins, zygotes turns into embryos.
Human Development
The status of embryos in humans is rather complex. At
conception, a human egg and sperm become a zygote,
which begins to divide, becoming an embryo. There is
a great deal of debate regarding the definition of
human embryos in terms of "life." This debate has led
to conflict in many parts of the world, especially when it
comes to terminating a pregnancy. As a human
embryo matures, it starts to turn into a recognizable
form, at which point people refer to it as a fetus.
passage23 Thermal pollution
Thermal pollution refers to an increase of temperature
in a body of water due to human or environmental
causes. While a degree or two of difference may sound
22
Development in Animals
Embryos cannot survive independently because they
lack the tissues, body structure, and organs needed to
do so. The parent of an embryo must feed it and watch
out for it until it reaches viability. In mammals, this is
accomplished by incubating it inside the body and
nourishing it with nutrients from the parents. Egg-laying
animals provide the embryo with a rich layer of
nutrients encased in a hard shell, which protects it until
it is ready to be born.
Plant Embryos
Development of embryos in plants depends upon the
way in which different species replicate. Those that
utilize seeds include small structures that turn into the
leaves, roots, and stem, which make up the embryos
of these plants. Other species produce embryos as tiny
plants that grow along the larger plant before
separating off on their own to continue growing.
minor, warming of an aquatic or marine environment
even by a small amount can result in devastating
alterations to the habitats of fish, insects, plants, and
animals. There are several main causes of thermal
pollution, each contributing to what some
environmental experts call a possible environmental
catastrophe.
One of the major causes of thermal pollution is
industrial use of water as a coolant. Factories and
power plants typically use nearby sources of water to
keep machinery cool and functional. While inexpensive
and effective, this form of cooling process can wreak
havoc on aquatic ecosystems. Water is typically
siphoned away from a source, run through cooling
systems at a factory or plant, then returned to the
original source.
Unfortunately, in the process of cooling machinery, the
water temperature rises, sometimes by several
degrees. The influx of warm or hot water back into a
natural source can destroy food sources or kill off
species that require a certain temperature to survive.
Many environmental scientists consider the industrial
heating of water to be the largest factor in localized
thermal pollution.
Soil erosion and deforestation are two other major
factors that can lead to unnatural increases in
temperature. Shore plants and trees help shade water,
keeping temperatures in check by providing protection
from sunlight. When plants are removed, not only does
a body of water absorb more sunlight, soil held in place
by root structures falls into the water. Soil erosion can
cause river and lake beds to rise, creating shallower
pools of water which heat more quickly.
passage24 Democracy
A democracy is a type of government in which citizens
who are eligible to vote get to elect government
officials and representatives. A political party is an
organization that is made up of people who share
many or all of the same ideologies and that attempts to
23
One of the primary causes for concern with thermal
pollution is the depletion of oxygen in the water. Fish
rely on a certain amount of oxygen to survive
underwater; they do not easily adapt to oxygen level
shifts. The warmer water is, the less oxygen it can
hold, making a flourishing ecosystem turn deadly for
inhabitants in a short time. Additionally, shallow and
warmer waters increase the production of oxygen
consuming plants such as algae, which decrease
oxygen levels even farther as they decompose.
There are several ways to help mitigate the effects of
thermal pollution in order to stabilize and sustain
aquatic environments. Factories that use water as
coolant can install cooling towers and ponds which
return water to original temperature before releasing it
back into the natural source. Ensuring that banks and
shorelines have adequate vegetation to provide shade
and retain soil can also help prevent thermal pollution.
gain power and influence in the government, usually by
having members of the party elected into office. A one
party democracy is one in which all political candidates
and government officials are members of a single
party. In most cases, other political parties and even
opposition to the ruling party are illegal.
One Example To many political analysts, there are certain conditions
that would have to exist for a one party democracy to
Nearly all democracies have at least two political be effective. One such condition is that the citizenry
parties, but there have been some one party would have to be fairly unified and agree on the basic
democracies. As of 2011, the government in Syria was direction for the country and the role of government in
an example of a one party democracy. Syria's the society. Another is that the ruling party must be
constitution, which was adopted in 1973, gave control able to sustain membership and have a relatively high
of its government and its society to the Arab Socialist tolerance for different viewpoints. The ruling party also
Ba'ath Party. must offer multiple candidates to the electorate for
each elected office, and there would need to be
Pros and Cons
continued agreement by the citizens that additional
Proponents of one party democracies say that the political parties were not needed. These conditions are
existence of multiple political parties in a state creates seldom met, so an effective one party democracy is
partisanship and leads to problems when elected difficult to find, and many that are established
officials from opposing parties must come together to eventually develop into multiple party democracies or
create laws and policies. These proponents might point completely dismiss the idea of having political parties
to the so-called gridlock that can occur when members at all.
of opposing parties cannot come to an agreement and
are unable to pass a proposal because the minimum
number of affirmative votes cannot be achieved.
Opponents of one party democracies argue that the
variety of opinions on how a government should
operate is best reflected by having more than one
party. They say that having multiple political parties
allows for balance and a fuller representation of the
people's views. Also, some critics of one party
democracies point to a lack of choices for voters,
because even if there are multiple candidates in an
election, they are all from the same party and generally
would have the same opinions and ideals.

Necessary Conditions for Success

passage25 George Washington Revolutionary War and secured him the title of "father
of the nation."
George Washington was the United States of
George Washington was born in Westmoreland
America's first president. Washington's passion for a
County, Virginia on 22 February 1732 to a family of
free country led him to fully support the American
planters, a profession he embraced himself early on.
24
After graduating from university, Washington worked the fact that his doctor used bleeding techniques in his
as a land surveyor until the French and Indian War treatment. The first U.S. president is buried in Mount
started and he decided to join the war. His leadership Vernon.
during the war later won him an appointment as the
American Army's commander in chief, which he held
until the end of war in 1783.

George Washington's intentions were to go back to his

early work as a planter, but his love for the emerging
nation kept bringing him back to the center of political
upheavals. He was one of the driving forces behind the
drafting of the Constitution, and the key creator of a
new tax system and the first national bank.

As the first US president, Washington was responsible

for establishing an executive department and avoiding
future conflicts with Britain, which he did by signing the
Jay Treaty, which guaranteed the United States fair
trade with other nations without the need for British
approval. He also spoke openly about the importance
of freedom of religion.

George Washington married a widow and had no

children of his own, but he helped raise two
stepchildren and, later on, two of his grandchildren.
Washington owned 317 slaves at his plantation in
Mount Vernon, but since he refused to break families,
he never sold any of them, even when they were not
longer productive at the farm. Washington did,
however, leave a statement declaring his slaves free
after the death of his wife.

George Washington died on his bed on 14 December

1799 of an acute case of pneumonia. The illness
developed overnight and it was possibly worsened by

passage26 Renewable Resources the speed with which humanity can consume that
resource. While considered capable of replenishment
Renewable resources are any type of resource that over time, resources of this type usually require some
can be regenerated at a rate that is at least equal to degree of planned and responsible cultivation and

25
harvesting in order to ensure the resources are
available for future generations. Wood, leather, and
plant life are examples of renewable resources.
While many people assume that renewable and
sustainable resources are the same, there is one key
difference. Sustainable resources are those that can
be utilized at will, with no worries about depleting the
supply or having to cultivate the resources for future
harvesting. Solar energy and wind energy are two
examples of resources that are more accurately
defined as sustainable.
The development of other products from renewable
resources is also an ongoing process. Alternative
energy produced with the use of solar and wind energy
may be able to eventually augment the efforts to use
biofuels to operate vehicles and heat homes that
currently rely on fossil fuels. From this perspective, the
ongoing developments in green energy may help to
support the responsible use of renewable resources by
increasing the shelf life of harvested resources. This
action would in turn mean that trees would be
harvested less often, even if the demand for new
housing remained constant.

In terms of renewable energy, a natural resource such

as wood is a good example of a resource that can be
used but must be replenished over time in order to
make sure the supply is plentiful for future generations.
This is one reason why many timber companies make
it a point to plant new trees after the harvest of a line of
trees has taken place. The idea is that by replacing the
trees recently removed to make timber for construction
and other wood products, that same land will be able
to yield a similar amount of product after a period of
twenty to thirty years.

Over time, the emphasis on the use of sustainable and

renewable resources to augment or even replace the
use of non-renewable resources has become a priority
for many people. With resources such as fossil fuels
limited in quantity, the cultivation of biofuels from
plants has gained a great deal of attention. Over time,
it is hoped that corn and similar resources can be used
to produce sufficient fuel to replace the use of gasoline
and other products currently produced using fossil
fuels.

passage27 The Conservation Of Air any number of sources, including transportation, power
plants, and factories. This pollution can cause a
The conservation of air is the protection and cleaning number of health problems, so it is important to
of the earth's air supply. Air pollution can be caused by practice air conservation when possible. This can be

26
done by reducing emissions produced by personal as conservation as can the use of renewable energy
well as business, activities. sources, which are pollution free, to provide electricity.

Environmental conservation is the protection of the
earth's ecosystems and resources from pollution and
destruction and includes the rehabilitation of damaged
ecosystems. There are different types of environmental
conservation, including water conservation and forest
and animal conservation. Forest conservationists work
to prevent deforestation while animal conservationists
try to protect wildlife from destruction brought about by
poaching, pollution, and habitat destruction.
Governments, both local and national, have also
participated in the conservation of air. Restrictions
have been placed on the amount of pollution that some
types of large factories can emit. Inspectors are
assigned to measure the level of emissions that are
produced by certain factories and big businesses to
make sure that they are following emissions laws that
are designed to promote the conservation of air.

The pollution of air can occur from any number of

different sources. The fuel burned by cars and other
modes of transportation is a major source of air
pollution. Manufacturing plants and power plants can
also be large sources of air pollution, but the amount of
pollution may vary depending on the type of factory.

Those who participate in air conservation efforts are

concerned about different types of air pollution. Too
many greenhouse gases in the air, including carbon
dioxide and methane, have an effect on global
warming. Too much ozone can also be a problem
because it can cause respiratory problems for some
individuals. Other dangerous chemicals, such as
mercury, may escape into the air and cause acid rain.
Large amounts of smog can also be unsightly, and ruin
the aesthetics of many city and natural landscapes.

Proponents of the conservation of air encourage a

number of actions that can be taken to reduce air
pollution. Instead of driving in individual cars, they
encourage people to carpool or take public
transportation whenever possible. Likewise, efforts to
conserve electricity used in the home can also help air

passage28 Mesopotamia
27
Mesopotamia was an ancient region that existed
primarily in what is now Iraq, and it is recognized for its
role in the development of the first literate societies.
Though its borders were loosely defined, its central
area lay between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, with
outward borders extending into regions now known as
Syria and Turkey.
This region thrived from the late 4th millennium B.C. to
323 B.C., when Alexander The Great conquered the
region for the Greeks. During Mesopotamia’s long
existence, it bore witness to many changes in
civilization and gave birth to great cities such as Ur and
Babylon. Ancient peoples of the region included the
Akkadians, Assyrians, Babylonians, and Armenians. It
is little wonder that the geography of this area is also
known as The Cradle of Civilization.
Mesopotamians believed in a pantheon of gods and
constructed large pyramid-like structures called
ziggurats as worship sites. They enjoyed music and
dancing and are often depicted playing a stringed
wooden instrument called an Oud. Wrestling and
boxing were popular sports among the ancients,
commonly depicted in their art.
The first evidence of writing comes from Mesopotamia,
where stylus-inscribed clay tablets were used to record
cruciform pictographs. Clay tablets from the region
shed extraordinary light on every-day events,
philosophies, and religious inclinations of these
complex societies. They reveal debts, land
agreements, marriages, poetry, and epics, such as the
oldest known work of literature, the epic of Gilgamesh.
Many themes present in the epic of Gilgamesh,
including the story of the Great Flood, strike a familiar
chord from various holy books written in the wake of
these ancient civilizations.
28
Fortunately for modern scientists, a man named
Ashurbanipal, who ruled Assyria in 6th century B.C.,
decided to build a library of cuneiform tablets, housing
them in the city of Nineveh. At that time, libraries were
located in temples, so Ashurbanipal sent scribes to the
Babylonian temples to collect the tablets, instructing
them to copy those they could not procure. Though
much of the library was lost, many remnants survive.
In addition to writing and literature, some notable
accomplishments of the Mesopotamians include
weaving fabrics or textiles, metalworking, and
irrigation. The region was also the source of the
current form of time keeping and mapmaking, using a
sexagesimal or base 60 system. The 24-hour day and
the 360-degree circle come from this culture. The
ancient people could also read the skies and stars,
pinpoint the solstices, and predict eclipses.
The language spoken in ancient Mesopotamia was
Sumerian, later replaced by Akkadian, and finally,
Aramaic. As newer languages replaced older ones,
older languages continued to be used in academia and
for official business. Eventually, root languages were
used only in temples, where they would survive a few
centuries longer.
 passage29 Trade Embargo
A trade embargo is a political move by one country
against another. Generally speaking, the country
imposing the embargo will prohibit most or all people in
their country from doing business with the country
against which it is imposed. It may even mean that
citizens from the imposing country are banned from
visiting the prohibited country. Essentially, a trade
embargo is a strategy to make another country either
do something or refrain from doing something.
Some trade embargoes may be meant to sanction a
government that is not abiding by laws, treaties, or
agreements. They are sometimes called “economic
sanctions.” It is one means by which one country may
compel others to cooperate with international laws.
Perhaps, one of the most famous trade embargoes in
recent times is that the United States holds with Cuba.
The embargo was established in the hope that
prohibiting trade with Cuba would weaken the
country’s economy to the point where Cuba would
overthrow Fidel Castro and implement a democratic
government. In fact, the law prohibiting trade with
Cuba was renamed the Cuban Democracy Act in
1992, though the initial embargo began in 1962.
Under the terms of the Cuban Democracy Act, the
United States does not transact business with Cuba,
and does not allow Cuban investors to spend money in
the US. Visiting Cuba means either traveling illegally,
or obtaining a special license for a visit. Political
visitors from the US must account for the money they
spend in Cuba, and may also be restricted to a certain
amount of spending per day. Purchasing items from
Cuba or sending money to Cuban family and friends is
not permitted. Though the Cuban economy has been
passage30 Agatha Christie
Agatha Christie, born Agatha Miller, is one the best-
loved mystery writers of the 20th century. She is
certainly the most easily recognizable, and no mystery
or crime writer since has had the same level of
29
weakened by the decades old US trade embargo, it
shows no signs of implementing a democratic
government.
In the US, participating in a secondary trade embargo
is outlawed. This occurs when a country attempts to
coerce a business's dealings with a third party country.
An example of this would be a decision made by the
US to pressure businesses not to trade with Israel,
because Israel established economic sanctions with
any Arabic country, or alternately, for the US to compel
businesses not to trade to the country to which Israel
has halted trade. Pressuring businesses to form
secondary trade embargoes is not only illegal, but
must be reported.
This does not mean that a trade embargo can’t be
established by more than one country. In fact a country
in violation of international laws may have several
countries impose economic sanctions against it. A
trade embargo is more likely to achieve its ends if
multiple countries end financial relationships with the
country.
Under most laws in most countries, there are special
times when a trade embargo can be violated. A
country can still offer help or aid if a natural disaster
occurs, or they may sponsor the efforts of
organizations like the Red Cross to help get assistance
to the extremely poor or those in need of medical
attention. Yet, when a trade embargo exists, one
country will never hand money to another country’s
government. Instead, they will fund humanitarian
efforts that reach the people directly, as often doubt
exists that giving money to a government would ever
reach or benefit its citizens.
success. She was born in 1890, and died, much to the
disappointment of her admirers in 1976. In addition to
enjoying financial success from her books and plays,
Agatha Christie was honored by Queen Elizabeth II
when she gave her the title of Dame Commander of
the British Empire in 1971.Her early years gave her
much inspiration for later books. She married in 1914,
and divorced her first husband, Archibald Christie, 14
years later. He is described as good-looking but cruel,
and many such males in Christie’s books are thought
to have been modeled on her unhappy life with her first
husband. Christie had her only child Rosalind, in
1919.Agatha Christie remarried in 1930, to Sir Max
Mallowan, who was an archaeologist. Together the two
traveled frequently to the Middle East, and several of
her later books are set in Egypt, with her most famous
novel, Murder on the Orient Express set on the train
itself.
Prior to becoming a mother, Agatha Christie worked as
a nurse during WWI. She later worked in a pharmacy,
which gave her significant information about poisons,
which was instrumental in some of her plots. After the
war ended, she published her first novel, The
Mysterious Affair at Styles, which introduced her very
popular Belgian detective character, Hercule Poirot.
Almost every year of her life afterwards, she published
at least one book, and sometimes several.Agatha
Christie was thought to be quite innovative in form. The
Murder of Roger Ackroyd published in 1926 has a
surprise ending that is particularly unpredictable given
the first person narration she employs. Christie
published her first play in 1928, but it was two of her
later plays that have gained the most critical attention.
Ten Little Indians, which was published in 1943, was
based on her 1939 novel which has appeared under
several titles including And Then There Were None.
The book was a great success, with a fantastic
surprise ending. The Mousetrap was first produced in
1952 at the Ambassador’s Theater in London and is
the longest running play in history. It is still performed
today in London, and there is no intention of stopping
production.Agatha Christie developed several
characters that soon became fan favorites and
appeared in many of her books. As well as Poirot, Miss
passage31 Green Energy
Green energy is energy that is produced in such a way
as to minimize its negative impact on the environment.
30
Marple, Tommy and Tuppence, and Ariadne Oliver all
make several appearances. Miss Oliver is a mystery
writer, who many feel may be a semi-autobiographical,
yet parodied, version of Christie. She always appears
in the Poirot novels, often taking center stage over
Poirot’s parts of the stories. As well, Captain Hastings
plays Poirot’s “Watson” on many cases.
In addition to her “character” novels, Agatha Christie
published numerous short stories. Her books have sold
2 billions copies in English translation alone, and have
been translated into over 100 languages. Her last two
novels, Curtain concerning the death of Poirot, and
Sleeping Murder, the last Miss Marple case, were
published posthumously by her request.Agatha
Christie’s novels and plays have been made into
feature films, radio shows and television productions.
Many of the film adaptations lack merit. Truer
adaptations can be found in BBC productions of the
late 1980s and 1990s. The Miss Marple series
featuring Joan Hickson as Miss Marple is considered
the best adaptation of the Christie novels. Many of her
fans also agree that David Suchet brilliantly played
Poirot in more than ten separate episodes. The Poirot
series may disappoint some of the more meticulous
readers of Christie, as they frequently alter major
characters and events. A more recent adaptation of
Miss Marple books has also been produced on BBC,
but many find it lacks the faithfulness and performance
quality that rendered the Joan Hickson version so
charming.
In her lifetime, Agatha Christie published over 70
novels, 24 plays, and several collections of short
stories. She is one of the most prolific writers,
amassing a stunning amount of work in her lifetime.
Her work is eminently approachable, and always
makes for a fun and easy read.
Traditional energy sources, most notably fossil fuels,
produce greenhouse gases that are believed to be the
primary cause of an effect known as global warming or
climate change. Sources of green energy, such as
solar, wind, geothermal, and hydro energy, are
developed and promoted as alternative sources that
make little or no contribution to climate change. Even
nuclear energy is sometimes considered a green
energy source, because some types of nuclear
technology produce much less waste than oil and coal.
The industrial revolution that began in the second half
of the 18th century changed the world, with new
methods of machine-based manufacturing leading to a
profound increase in economic growth, population
growth, and quality of life. At the time, the long-term
consequences could not even be conceived of, much
less felt; however, the burning of vast quantities of
fossil fuels, such as coal and oil, has caused a great
deal of harm to the environment. Most climatologists
agree that the use of fossil fuels has contributed
significantly to global warming. This term refers to the
measured increase in the Earth’s surface temperature
since the late 19th century and the environmental
effects of this change.
The primary goal of developing green sources of
energy is to generate power while minimizing both
waste and pollution, to thereby reduce the impact of
energy production on the environment. Scientists who
advocate the use of green energy say that using such
sources will reduce the rate at which climate change
occurs, although it cannot stop or reverse the
temperature increase. Another important objective is
creating energy sources that are renewable. This is in
contrast to fossil fuel sources, which are finite and
estimated to be depleted before the end of the 22nd
century.
Hydro Energy
This technology uses the movement of water to power
turbines attached to generators, and in many
countries, it provides a larger proportion of energy than
any other green resource. Hydropower does not
produce a significant amount of waste and provides a
unique environmental advantage. Many of the largest
hydroelectric damns make use of a reservoir, which
can serve as a location for recreational activities. The
presence of a large water supply can also provide
valuable support for agricultural regions.
In some cases, however, damming a river and creating
an artificial lake can cause damage to the
environment. Fish may not be able to make their way
past the dam, for example, reducing their populations.
Man-made reservoirs require flooding an area that was
previously dry, changing it dramatically. The Three
Gorges Dam in China offers a clear example of both:
the baiji or Yangtze river dolphin, which lived in the
river where the dam was built, is now functionally
31
extinct, and over 1 million people were forced to
relocate when their towns were covered in water to
create the reservoir.
Solar Power
Solar power does not produce any emissions, is
renewable, and is highly suitable for powering portable
devices as well as homes. Many new homes take solar
energy generation into consideration as a design
concept, with solar panels and water-heating systems.
While the goal of solar-powered transport has not yet
been achieved, the panels can be employed in
vehicles as a source of power for air conditioning.
When it comes to large-scale energy production, the
main disadvantage of solar technology is that solar
panels and energy storage devices use a significant
amount of land. This can be defrayed somewhat by
building on land that is not suitable for other uses.
Although the technology has improved, most are only
about 20% efficient and can be expensive to install.
Wind Power
Wind is used to generate energy with large turbines
connected to a power collection, storage, and
distribution system. This type of energy generation is a
highly effective method of providing electricity to small,
isolated communities. They are often preferred over
solar-powered methods in agricultural areas, because
land which contains wind turbines is more easily able
to be used for other purposes. Off-shore wind farms
have much higher building and maintenance costs, but
they are able to harness stronger, more consistent
winds. Because the turbines are large, some people
complain that they are eyesores that distract from the
beauty of the environment. There is also some concern
that they could harm local bird and bat populations.
Geothermal Energy
Geothermal energy is generated by the earth
underneath its surface in the form of heat. While it is
not technically a renewable source, it is sustainable
more or less indefinitely, and produces only a small
amount of waste in comparison to fossil fuels. Many
countries use this type of energy for a portion of their
requirements, but most thermal energy plants are
located near tectonic plate boundaries, where the
energy can be extracted more easily. The potential of
geothermal energy to supply a significant portion of the
world is limited by the expense of the technology it
requires.
Nuclear Energy
Some types of nuclear energy are categorized as
green because they produce very small amounts of
waste. A green nuclear reactor can burn its own
nuclear waste to produce energy, relying on a process
called nuclear transmutation. In this process, the waste
is converted into progressively lower-energy forms via
further similar reactions. This means that almost all of
the available energy can be extracted from thorium or
uranium, the fuel sources most often used in nuclear
energy plants. Scientists believe that this form of
energy production is so efficient, it could provide for
100% of the earth’s needs for up to five billion years.

Many people fear nuclear power, however, because of

accidents like those at the Chernobyl Nuclear Power
Plant in the Ukraine and the Fukushima I Nuclear
Power Plant in Japan. A disaster of this magnitude can
not only kill workers and others near the power plant, it
could potentially lead to an increase in cancer in the
population exposed to radioactivity released during the
incident. A very small number of incidents of this
magnitude have occurred, however, and even the
Fukushima Daiichi disaster, which was one of the
biggest in history, is not expected to increase cancer-
related deaths in the area significantly.

Cleaner Fossil Fuels

Aside from developing new energy sources, another

goal of the green energy movement is to refine existing
fossil fuel technology to make it more environmentally-
friendly. An example of this is so-called clean coal
technology, which attempts to reduce gas emissions
from burning coal. One means by which this can be
accomplished is to convert coal into a gas, and then
generate energy by burning the gas. While this type of
energy production is cleaner than traditional methods
of burning fossil fuels, critics believe that the
environmental cost is still too high. Another issue is
that even though the technology is less harmful, coal is
still a finite resource.

32
 passage32 Ecosystem
Ecosystem is a portmanteau word - that is, a word
made by jamming two other words together. It
originated as a shorthand way of referring to an
ecological system, and is now the preferred term.
In nature, no ecosystem can be said to be independent
of neighboring ecosystems or indeed, the global
ecosystem, since ecosystems are open and plants and
animals can move between them. All ecosystems are
effected by planet-wide trends that effect the
atmosphere, such as pollution and global warming.

An ecosystem is simply an easy way to refer to all the One attempt to study an ecosystem in isolation was
lifeforms (plant and animal) in a cohesive, relatively Biosphere 2, an airtight enclosure that tried to
independent area, and their relationship to one duplicate an ecosystem in balance. Although the
another. In a perfect world, an ecosystem is in experiment was not successful - they were unable to
balance. That is, the predator species keep the prey maintain oxygen levels high enough for human health
species' population in check without completely without importing it - the experiment did make clear
destroying them, and plantlife remains varied without how fragile the balance of an ecosystem is and how
one type predominating and crowding out the rest. dangerous it can be to severely damage the
ecosystem of the entire earth.
Ecosystems are rarely in balance, and this is often
cause for alarm. For instance, pollution runoff from a
factory can effect marine life in a lake, causing the fish
population to plummet. This destabilizes the entire
surrounding ecosystem, and birds and animals that
prey on the fish either die off or migrate to areas with
more food.

Attempting to counteract damage to an ecosystem

requires a complete understanding of all the
interrelationships between plants, animals and
atmosphere in the system. Since such perfect
understanding is rarely possible, unintended
consequences are often the result.

For instance, the US government recommended in the

1930s that farmers in the south plant kudzu as a
groundcover to help prevent erosion. Now kudzu is a
nuisance plant and many thousands of hours a year
are logged in trying to keep kudzu from taking over,
damaging roadways and buildings and choking out
other plant species. A similar takeover of a non-native
species is seen in the rabbit problem in Australia.
Rabbits have no natural predator native to Australia, so
when they were introduced in the nineteenth century,
they proliferated like, well, rabbits, to the point where
their effects on the ecosystem, particularly farmland,
has been devastating.

33
 passage33 The Stone Age tools were developed, very little refinements came for
thousands of years after.
The Stone Age refers to a period of time in human
Things first began to change appreciably in the Upper
prehistory, all the way back from the first primate
Paleolithic, that is, the most recent part of the New
toolmaking (Homo habilis), more than 2.6 million years
Stone Age, which extended from about 40,000 years
ago to about 3500 BC, when metallurgy in the form of
ago to 10,000 years ago, when remarkable changes
smelting copper ore was developed. The Stone Age is
happened in human culture. Advanced darts,
divided into three segments, the Paleolithic, Mesolithic,
harpoons, the fishhook, the oil lamp, rope, and the
and Neolithic.
eyed needle all appeared during this period. Art was
The Paleolithic stretches from 2.6 million BC to about represented by Venus figurines, cave paintings, and
20,000 or 10,000 years ago (varies by location), when petroglyphs.
the Mesolithic began. The Mesolithic is the period
The New Stone Age, or Neolithic, continues all the way
during the last Ice Age. Artifacts and fossil evidence
up until the beginning of history, that is, the
from this period are scant. The Mesolithic gave way to
appearance of useful written records, which began
the Neolithic with the development of agriculture
around 3500 BC in Egypt, and spread around the
around 8,000 BC. The Neolithic continued until the
world throughout the next couple thousand years.
Bronze Age, which began around 3500 BC. (Again,
this varies somewhat with location.)

As the name implies, the Stone Age refers to the time

period in which man made its tools from stones, such
as flint. "Man" is being used here in the broad sense of
the genus Homo, means literally means "man," but not
"modern man," associated with the species Homo
sapiens. The Stone Age was participated in by at least
nine species of the genus Homo: Homo habilis, Homo
ergaster, Homo rhodesiersis, Homo antecessor, Homo
hedelbergensis, Homo erectus, Homo solcersis, Homo
neanderthalensis, Homo sapiens. They lived in small
tribes leading a hunter-gatherer lifestyle, until the very
end of the age, when the so-called Neolithic revolution
took place in the Fertile Crescent in modern-day Iraq.

Common products of this time included the mortar and

pestle, arrowheads, spearheads, racloirs (stone
scrapers), and most famously, hand-axes. Pottery
came at the very end. Bone needles and straw textiles
were also made. The oldest representative
culture/"industry" is known as the Oldowan, which was
further refined in the Acheulean culture. After the basic
34
 passage34 Political Corruption
Political corruption is a general term that refers to
instances where appointed or elected government
officials, from judges to legislators and police, fail to
uphold the law in a fair and balanced manner. This can
include such activities as supporting legislation through
bribery, providing favorable or unfavorable judicial and
legal treatment to select minorities in the population, or
other abuses of power. Human history in governments
of all types have demonstrated corruption to some
degree. The practice is usually more widespread,
however, in political systems that lack the innate
checks and balances to limit power at local and
national levels, such as in dictatorships and totalitarian
regimes.
The most unstable countries are generally those with
poor government administration and control over the
population, due to economic, military, or ethnic turmoil.
This often leads to widespread political corruption in
government officials who obtained their authority and
offices by questionable means in the first place and
who may not be representative of the will of the
people. Nations that topped the list of a failed states
index as of 2011 included Somalia, Zimbabwe, and
Sudan. Each nation has unique circumstances that
lead to political corruption, with Somalia having a very
weak central government, Zimbabwe facing enormous
economic challenges, and Sudan struggling with ethnic
strife.
National intelligence services such as the US Central
Intelligence Agency (CIA) regularly examine corruption
by country and attempt to fairly rank nations using
universal human rights principles. These include
political freedoms and protections that governments
offer to their citizens. The lists are based on basic
political rights and civil liberties that, once well-
established, minimize political corruption such as
police corruption and unfair rule by a power elite.
35
The CIA ranking for nations by level of freedom as of
2011 is based on the political rights of a fair electoral
process, political pluralism and participation by the
population, and a stable, functioning government. It
also includes rankings using civil liberties, such as
freedom of expression and belief, rule of law, and
protection for individual rights. Nations that ranked as
most oppressive on the list as of 2011 included Burma,
Libya, and North Korea. Others considered high on the
list for unfair political systems that often lead to
systemic corruption included China, Cuba, and Laos.
Corruption in local government is often an example of
where a national government is weak or has abdicated
responsibility over its citizens except in the capital and
major cities. This sort of political corruption can be
traced back to empires and monarchies of the distant
past, where a ruling political class used its power and
wealth to exploit a disadvantaged local population.
Similar circumstances still exist today in many
developing nations, where the wealth of a nation's
natural resources are channeled largely to the ruling
class, and the bulk of the population is neglected and
ignored. The CIA World Factbook as of 2007 listed The
Democratic Republic of the Congo as an example of a
nation where rampant corruption in the banking system
and poor infrastructure contribute to making it the sixth
most dangerous country in the world in which to live.
Political scandal, however, is not solely the province of
poor nations or those ruled by oppressive regimes.
Many advanced democracies at one time or another
have had a political machine that was rampant with
corruption. Great statesmen like the UK's Winston
Churchill recognized that political corruption is a
human condition that arises in all forms of government
and that one of the best ways to minimize it was to
encourage the participation of all citizens in the
process of government. Political corruption in its most
basic form is an act by a public official that defies
broad public interests, to give special consideration to
the needs of associates and like-minded individuals. In
this sense, political corruption is a trend that all public
officials must be on-guard against in performing their
day-to-day duties for the population they are tasked
with serving.

passage35 Isaac Newton received with either disdain or indifference by the

community. He eventually moved to London to take
Sir Isaac Newton was born on 4 January 1643 in over the Master of Mints post, where he oversaw the
Woolsthorpe-by-Colsterworth, England. By the time he manufacturing of British coins and medals. In 1705,
was three, his father had died, his mother had Queen Anne bestowed a knighthood on Newton as a
remarried, and he had been left to live with his thank you for his hard work at the Mint.
maternal grandmother. After studying at local schools
Newton spent the last years of his life as the president
and secondary institutions, Newton eventually entered
of the Royal Society of London for the Improvement of
Trinity College, Cambridge, where he became
Natural Knowledge. He died in 1727 and is buried in
engrossed in mathematical theorems. Newton
Westminster Abbey. Newton's discoveries are
eventually developed the basics for calculus and
considered some of the most important scientific
elaborated a new formula for pi, all without the aid of
findings of the past few centuries.
other scientists or previous publications. This alone
makes Newton one of the most renowned scholars in
history.

From 1670, while he was a professor of mathematics

at Cambridge, Sir Isaac Newton researched optics
extensively, invented the reflecting telescope, which
put into practice his new theory of colored light, and
designed a primitive electrostatic generator. Newton
was a strong believer in alchemy, which he used to
explain the laws of attraction between particles.

About a decade later, Newton's focus switched to

mechanics and astronomy. In his book The
Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica, he used
the word gravitas for the first time to explain the
downward force or weight of an object. The book,
published in 1687, gave Sir Isaac Newton
internationally fame and praise.

By the end of the century, he began writing a series of

religious treaties that were never published or were
36
 passage36 Cloning experiments with somatic cell nuclear transfer have
prospered less than 1% of the time.
Cloning is the asexual production of an exact copy of
However, the idea of cloning humans still remains.
an original. So for example, one could use cloning to
While many people feel that cloning human tissue, as
produce the exact copy of a single cell. The cell copy
for organs for transplant might be valuable, many
would be identical to the first cell and would have the
others feel that cloning a whole human is unethical.
same exact DNA sequence. In many cases, cloning
Some scientists without religious affiliation also believe
has been used to reproduce type specific cells. In
that ethical issues that might be engendered in
some instances, cloning of an individual organism, like
prolonging life through cloned tissues need further
the sheep, Dolly, has been possible.
scrutiny.
Unlike reproduction that involves two “parents,” such
From a moral standpoint, much has to do with how
as a male and female plants, cloning has a single
some reproductive clones are made. Many believe that
parent. This is often used in reproducing certain plants.
an embryo, even when simply fertilized sperm and egg
Certain plants have undergone cloning processes for
is a human and thus should not be destroyed.
thousands of years, but they do not play a part in the
Experimentation of embryos to produce clones often
ethical debates that surround cloning of animals, and
results in embryo death. Further some feel that cloned
most particularly humans.
embryos might be used specifically to harvest body
For example, reproductive cloning of animals was first parts and then killed.
attempted in the 1950s. Most identify the sheep Dolly,
Some further feel that the harvesting of stem cells from
cloned in 1996. Dolly’s parent had DNA transferred
an embryo is also wrong, or that creating embryos for
into an egg that had its nucleus removed. This is called
the purpose of harvesting stem cells is unethical.
a somatic cell nuclear transfer. The cell was then
Others argue that stem cell research may point the
treated with chemicals and stimulated to grow so than
way toward curing diseases for which there is currently
an almost exact replicate of the cloned sheep was
no cure. It should be noted, however, that fewer people
born.
object to the idea of cloning a body part, than cloning a
In actuality, Dolly was not a precise clone of her human.
parent. She shared the same DNA, but some of the
Others are concerned about the cloning of extinct or
genetic materials of the donor cell also became part of
endangered animals. In fact Michael Crichton’s novel
Dolly’s parentage. This is only .01% of Dolly’s DNA,
Jurassic Park dealt with this theme extensively.
but it does make a negligible difference.
Especially since actual dinosaur DNA has been found
The cloning resulting in Dolly was not exactly simple. recently, in enough abundance to clone, some
In fact it took 277 donor eggs, and the production of 29 scientists are concerned about the environmental
embryos before a live birth was achieved. Calf cloning
37
impact that could result from reproducing a long dead
species.
In some countries, stem cell research has been halted,
when it involves cloning human embryos. Other
scientists investigate the possibility of finding stem
cells elsewhere, as in the umbilical cord blood of
newborns. It is suspected that some countries may be
attempting to clone a whole human, but have not yet
achieved this.
passage37 Green architecture
Green architecture is a broad term that refers to the
creation or restructuring of buildings so they have a
minimal impact on the environment. There are a
number of different approaches to green construction,
with many of the ideas involving the responsible
recycling of existing resources along with the efficient
use of environmentally friendly systems to provide
water and power services to buildings that are created
using a sustainable design. As more people have
become concerned about the wise use of the planet's
resources, the concept of green architecture has
gained in both acceptability and interest.
In general, a green architect will attempt to design or
overhaul buildings so they provide all the necessary
functions but do not pose a threat to the surrounding
environment. In many cases, this means using building
materials that are composed of organic compounds
rather then synthetics. The building materials may be
wood, bricks, or other elements that are harvested
from older buildings scheduled for demolition. These
harvested materials are joined with newer technology
to create structures that fit into the surrounding
landscape with greater ease and make the best use of
38
Though cloning is much in the news, it is still an
imperfect science with more failures than successes at
present. This suggests that scientists may not fully
understand all the mechanisms involved in creating an
exact copy of another organism. With further research,
such mechanisms may be understood and clear the
way toward making clones. Yet, doing so is likely to
result in continued controversy.
available resources for heating, cooling, cooking, and
water supply to the edifice.
The use of solar panels is a common element of green
architecture. The panels, along with their storage
tanks, make it possible to store energy for electrical
needs such as cooking, keeping the temperature in the
building at a comfortable level, and running necessary
equipment such as computers. In recent years,
coupling a solar energy system with a wind system has
been experimented with, effectively drawing on two
renewable resources to create energy to meet the
demands of modern life.
Collection vats and other devices are also a common
element in green architecture. This makes it possible
to collect rainwater and use it for tasks such as
watering lawns, growing crops, or operating sewage
systems. A system of this type helps to ease the
demand on municipal purification systems, reserving
purified water for drinking, cooking, and bathing.
Another important aspect of green design is the
strategic placement of windows around the facing of
the building. Ideally, the windows are placed so that
the most efficient use of sunlight during the day takes
place. In addition to decreasing the demand for
artificial light during the daytime, the windows can also
serve as a means of allowing the natural sunlight to
provide a degree of warmth to the interior of the
building. This in turn makes it possible to utilize less of
the stored solar or wind energy to keep the space at an
equitable temperature.
Depending on the placement of the building and its
intended purpose, other aspects of green architecture
may be included. The building may be recessed
partially into the side of a hill, providing natural
insulation. Composting toilets may be the ideal solution
in areas where water is harder to come by. Finding
ways to use whatever elements are native to the area
passage38 Independence
Independence is an important word for most countries
in the world. It means freedom, but to most nations it
means more. The freedom they have now did not
always exist. For most countries, being independent
means they have been released. Before that time, they
were usually colonized. Colonization is a system that
generally allowed one population to benefit from the
often unjust treatment of another population.
To understand the importance of the word
independence, it is necessary to have a clear
understanding of the word colonization. Many of the
world’s countries were colonized before they were
independent. This meant that instead of being
recognized as lands filled with people who have their
own thoughts, beliefs, and plans, these lands were
treated as the possessions of other people. The
people's lives were dictated by the decisions made by
a few strangers in a place that was usually very far
away.
Colonization often involved unjust and shameful acts.
Foreigners took over land from natives, and when they
39
also help to keep the structure in balance with nature,
such as creating blocks using local sand rather than
shipping in bricks constructed elsewhere. While the
process of creating green architecture may be more
difficult in some areas, there is no doubt that just about
any structure can be altered or designed to be more
environmentally friendly.
did, they sometimes used crooked, vicious, and brutal
methods. In many cases, the natives were treated as a
lower class or were exterminated. Land was divided
according to the will of the foreigners who broke up
communities and forced people from their homes. The
foreigners exploited the land, caused war among the
natives, and kept most of them in poverty.
Independence, with regards to a country, means that
generally at some point, people decided they were not
free. The idea arose because they wanted to be
released from the grasp of colonization, but this
system of control tended to be a benefit to those with
power. As a result, freedom from colonization often
involved a lot of violence.
For a country to be independent means it is a nation
whose people are recognized collectively. They are
identified by the character, morals, and beliefs they
have chosen for themselves. An independent country
has the right to establish a constitution which outlines it
fundamental principles. It has the right to develop its
own system of government and to see its own people
as the heads of that government. People often gained
rights that should never have been denied, such as the
right vote and the right to choose a religion.

In most countries, independence is marked by an

annual holiday. It is usually observed on the same day
every year. Usually, an independence day is
recognized as a national holiday resulting in the
closing of many public facilities.

passage39 Ronald Reagan second wife who became both infamous and well-
loved, future First Lady Nancy Davis Reagan.
Ronald Reagan, the 40th President of the United
In 1980, Reagan, who was also the thirty-third
States, is one of America’s more legendary Presidents.
governor of California, campaigned for President of the
Not only was Reagan the oldest man to become
United States for a third time. After a failed attempt the
President at the time of his election, when he died he
previous two elections, the third time really did prove to
was the second longest-living US President behind
be a charm when he won the 1980 election. It was
Gerald Ford. Ronald Reagan was 69 years old when
March of the following year, shortly after his
elected President in 1980, 73 years old when he was
inauguration, when John Hinckley Jr. attempted to
elected for another term in 1984, and lived to be 93
assassinate President Reagan. Shot under his left
years old.
arm, just missing the heart, he was taken to the
Ronald Wilson Reagan was born 6 February 1911 in hospital to undergo surgery.
Tampica, Illinois. Prior to the roles he filled in
Making a full recovery from his injuries despite his age,
Washington, Reagan was President of the Screen
Reagan returned to the White House and his eight-
Actors Guild and a Hollywood star. Ronald Reagan
year stint in the Oval Office involved many historic
starred in a number films in the late 1930s through the
issues, events and policies. Some of these included
1940s and also in television throughout the 1950s. His
the war on drugs, the Iran-Contra Affair, The Cold War,
Hollywood roles have earned him a star on the
and of course “Reaganomics,” which was the coined
Hollywood Walk of Fame. It was also Hollywood where
name for what many thought was Ronald Reagan’s
he met his first wife, actress Jane Wymann and his
unusual policy on economics.

40
Reagan had a way with words and displayed both
eloquence and humor. His public demeanor earned
him the nickname "The Great Communicator" as well
as "The Teflon® President." The latter coming about
because he had a way of easily and gracefully
escaping what some considered to be sticky situations.

Reagan died after a decade-long bout with Alzheimer’s

Disease on 5 June 2004 at 93 years of age. After
Reagan’s state funeral, where hundreds of thousands
mourned the loss of their former leader, he was
interred in California, where the Ronald Reagan
Presidential Library is located. To this day, Ronald
Reagan remains one of the single most popular US
Presidents as determined by numerous polls.

passage40 Nanobots nanorobotics try to take these dangers into

consideration.
Nanobots are incredibly tiny robots, down at a
The most famous doomsday scenario given when
microscopic scale. The name comes from a
discussing nanobots is the so-called grey goo
combination of the nanometer, the scale the devices
situation. This is a theoretical situation where a swarm
are built at, and robot. Nanobots have been popular
of nanobots gets out of control or is plagued with a
staples in science fiction for some time, and have
computer virus, and begins deconstructing all matter,
experienced periods of relative popularity among
resulting in everything on the planet eventually being
futurist communities. Although they have been created
turned into a shapeless goo. Most current proponents
in a biological context, no actual mechanical nanobots
of nanorobotics point out that failsafes can be installed
have yet been created, but they remain an area of
in the systems to prevent this from happening, and that
active research and hold a great deal of promise for a
in fact it relies on a number of things, such as auto-
number of fields. The term nanobots may also be
replication, that would not necessarily have to be
occasionally used to describe a macro-robot that is
included in a nanorobotic rollout.
able to interact at the nano-scale, using incredibly tiny
tools. The theoretical uses of nanobots are virtually endless,
as their size would allow them to essentially rebuild
Generally, when discussing nanobots seriously in a
matter. In this sense, properly programmed nanobots
scientific context, the term nanorobots is used instead,
would be able to take raw materials and build them into
as nanobots has become more closely associated with
anything, from proteins to foods to tiny
science fiction contexts. Nonetheless, nanobots is the
microprocessors. If set up to do so, they could in
term generally used by the public. Many proponents
theory even build more nanobots, through the process
have had to battle public perception that if the
of auto-replication, so that a small group of nanobots
technology were ever developed it might pose a threat
to humanity, and most contemporary theories of
41
could quickly develop into a massive swarm capable of technology is still beyond the level of what is currently
large-scale projects. possible with contemporary engineering, every year
nanobots come closer and closer to becoming a
The medical applications of nanobots are particularly reality. As this time approaches, more private industry
promising, and most researchers focus on these as the and governmental groups are investing more money
likely first uses of the technology. Because nanobots into research and laying out the theoretical uses and
interact at the same scale as many invaders in the limits of nanorobotics.
body, they could in theory be used as specifically-
programmed warriors, helping to fight off cancerous
cells or viruses. They could also be used for much
more detailed scans of people, to help with early
detection or simply to make sure the body is
functioning at an optimal level.

Since 2000, the Nanofactory Collaboration project has

been working to come up with a research agenda that
will further the development of nanobots. Although the

passage41 The Irish Potato Famine on the part of the government is a causal factor for
some of the deaths occurring.
The Irish Potato Famine occurred during the years
As well, the Potato Famine began the mass emigration
1845-1849. A fungus on the crops of potatoes, which
of the Irish to Canada, the US, and Australia.
essentially destroyed the crops, primarily caused it.
Approximately 1.5 to two million people emigrated.
Those who had little land to begin with and small food
Thus the Irish population was reduced from a figure of
supplies depended upon this crop as their main food
close to seven million to one of slightly over four
source. Thus the death of the crop translated to deaths
million. The numbers are shocking upon inspection. As
in the thousands of the Irish people.
a result of the famine, Ireland lost nearly one-third of its
There is no clear record of the number of deaths from population. The deaths themselves account for about
the Potato Famine since members of the Irish 10-20% of the population in total.
Republican Army (IRA) destroyed most church records
Much of the causes for the famine are fairly well
in 1922. The estimates range from 500,000, to 1.5
known. Many had too little land, and relying on a single
million deaths due to starvation. Because of the
crop is always risky. Ireland’s land consists of many
discrimination against Catholics by the British
areas, like bogs and sheer rock that are simply not
government, measures to stem the starvation were not
arable, thus reducing the ability to produce a
employed as effectively as was needed.
sustainable crop.
Unlike other incidences of famine, the Potato Famine
Prior to the Potato Famine, the British declaring that no
occurred in a country at the height of its social and
Roman Catholic could transmit his whole estate to the
political power. Thus it can be clearly stated that failure
42
eldest son had continually reduced landholdings.
Traditionally large families had to subdivide estates
repeatedly to evenly distribute the property between
sons. Thus families who might have held large estates
50 years before the famine, now held very small ones.
Many barely had enough land prior to the Potato
Famine to produce adequate food.
Additionally, there were inadequate social welfare
systems set up before the Potato Famine. There were
few poorhouses, and those poorhouses that existed
demanded that a person abandon their land to the
government.
Britain attempted to establish work programs to help
the Irish buy necessary food. These programs were
abandoned. They were unsuccessful largely because
passage42 Asteroid
An asteroid, sometimes called a planetoid, is a small
celestial body which orbits around the sun, along with
other objects in the solar system such as planets.
However, unlike the planets, asteroids are typically
very small, with only a handful of asteroids reaching
immense sizes. The largest known asteroid is Ceres,
which is 580 miles (930 kilometers) in diameter. After
the discovery of Ceres in 1801, many other asteroids
were discovered, since astronomers knew what to look
for. Thousands of new asteroids are discovered every
year.
The name asteroid comes from the Greek asteroides,
which means “star like.” Asteroids are irregularly
shaped collections of various materials, including
metallic and carbonaceous minerals. When a fragment
of an asteroid collides with the Earth's atmosphere, it is
termed a meteoroid. The flash of light which
43
pay was given on a weekly basis. Most were too weak
from starvation to work for a week. Many died in the
trenches or roads they were attempting to dig without
ever receiving one paycheck.
Most credit the end of the Potato Famine to the decline
in population due to either death from starvation or
emigration. Britain as well, had sent some food and
funds to Ireland. Again, however, the Irish were taxed
for this support, and this further impoverished some.
This population destabilization did decrease demand
for food, and new crops of potatoes were successfully
grown. Some Irish, however, cite the Potato Famine as
a reason for continued enmity with Britain
characterizes a meteor is caused by vaporization when
the chunk of foreign material hits the atmosphere.
Other foreign bodies which enter the Earth's
atmosphere are also called meteoroids.
When the solar system first started to form, creating
the planets, asteroids also formed. The bulk of the
asteroids in the solar system are concentrated in an
“asteroid belt” which is located between Mars and
Jupiter. It is believed that the immense gravitational
pull of Jupiter may have influenced the formation of the
asteroids, which might have otherwise pulled together
to form a large planet. Within the asteroid belt, most
asteroids orbit in groups, which are named after the
largest or most notable asteroid in the group.
Other asteroids can be found scattered throughout the
solar system. The exact orbital patterns of every
asteroid discovered have not been pinned down, but,
like many other celestial bodies, asteroids have set
and specific orbits. Comets are the exception to this
rule, with highly irregular orbits which can make
forecasting their movements difficult. Some asteroids
also come very close to Earth, and it is believed that
collisions with major asteroids may be behind several
important events in Earth's geological history. The
probability of another such collision is very low, to the
relief of many organisms which call the Earth home.

Astronomers catalog asteroids, along with other

celestial bodies, in an attempt to learn more about the
solar system and the universe. Most asteroids are
identified with a universal number, and unique
asteroids are also given names. Data about asteroids
is regularly published, so that astronomers can
determine whether or not an asteroid is a new
discovery.

passage43 Barack Obama science with an international relations focus from

Columbia University. He later received national
Despite his relatively short political career, Barack recognition for being the first African American
Obama has earned himself a place in the spotlight with president of the Harvard Law Review .
his record of bipartisanship and focus on meeting the
In 1992, Barack Obama married attorney Michelle
needs of American working families. Born in Honolulu,
Robinson. The couple met while they were both
Hawaii on 4 August 1961, Barack's parents divorced at
employed at Sidley Austin LLP, a corporate law firm.
the age of two, and he was then sent to live with his
They have two daughters, Malia and Sasha.
mother's parents in the midwest. Although there have
been rumors that Barack Obama was raised as a In 1996, Barack Obama was elected to Illinois' State
Muslim, he has repeatedly stated that he had a non- Senate. During his time in office, he worked on
religious upbringing and did not become a Christian initiatives to benefit low-income families, increase
until his late twenties. funding for the prevention of AIDS, and provide
affordable access to healthcare. He became well
Barack Obama had a difficult childhood and admits to
known for his ability to work successfully with members
experimenting with cocaine and marijuana when he
of both the Democratic and Republican parties while
was a teenager in an attempt to cope with conflicting
avoiding the partisanship that was rather
feelings about his multi-racial heritage. Despite his
commonplace.
troubles, however, he remained an exceptionally
ambitious student. He earned his B.A. in political
44
In 2004, Obama was elected to the U.S. Senate,
making him the fifth African-American Senator in U.S.
history. To fulfill one of his campaign promises, the first
bill he sponsored was the Higher Education
Opportunity through the Pell Grant Expansion Act.
Unfortunately, the bill failed to progress beyond the
committee stage. Barack later became a member of
the Senate committees for Foreign Relations;
Homeland Security and Governmental Affairs; Health,
Education, Labor and Pensions; and Veterans' Affairs.

In 2009, Barack Obama became the 44th president of

the United States with Joseph Biden as his Vice
President. Obama also earned the distinction of being
the first African American President.

Outside of his extensive political accomplishments,

Barack Obama is also the author of several books. His
1995 memoir Dreams from My Father provides a
detailed account of his early career. The Audacity of
Hope , published in 2006, describes his political
convictions. He is also currently working on a
children’s book with his wife and daughters—a project
that will have all proceeds donated to charity.

passage44 The Neolithic Revolution refers both to the period of time when it occurred as
well as the enduring changes it caused.
The Neolithic Revolution is the transformation of
Tens of thousands of years ago, there were no crops:
human societies from being hunter-gatherer based to
only the primitive ancestors of the plants we recognize
agriculture based. This period, which occurred
as being edible. After hundreds or thousands of
between 12,000 and 8,000 years ago, brought along
generations of purposeful and accidental selection by
many profound changes to human society and culture,
human farmers, who would destroy or confiscate the
including the creation of cities and permanent
seeds of plants with undesirable qualities, we
dwellings, labor specialization, the baking of bread and
domesticated strains optimized for maximum nutrition
brewing of beer, personal property, more complex
and largest yield. The so-called "Neolithic founder
hierarchical social structures, non-agricultural crafts,
crops" include emmer, einkorn, barley, lentil, pea,
slavery, the state, official marriage, personal
chickpea, bitter vetch, and flax. These are all new
inheritance, and more. The term "Neolithic revolution"

45
species created by human intervention into wild
ancestor species.

The use of fields for crop-growing and granaries for the

storage of food simplify this whole nutrition endeavor
for humans, allowing for non-farming occupations in
society. Trade and barter systems emerged, as well as
informal currencies. Farmers could be paid for
supplying others with food. Soldiers could be trained
and armies raised. The creation of personal goods and
food stores meant that plundering from raiders became
more common, necessitating a soldier class to protect
the farmers. The Neolithic revolution was the first
fundamental restructuring of human affairs seen in a
couple hundred thousand years.

The Neolithic revolution first emerged in the Fertile

Crescent, around present-day Iraq, which would also
be the founding site of the world's first large cities,
including Babylon. Mankind was most active and
prosperous around the Near and Middle East at this
time. Some of the oldest known human settlements
were founded in Lebanon, Syria, and Turkey just a
couple thousand years after the conclusion of the
Neolithic revolution.

passage45 A peace treaty times, complicated conflicts often call for a more
detailed resolution than a simple treaty.
A peace treaty is a formal agreement between two or
Wars are conducted by governments or other opposing
more countries that have formerly been at war. The
bodies for a variety of reasons. When one force has
treaty is a contract designed to cease hostilities
superior combat strength, the war often ends with
immediately. It can also lay out the conditions for
bloody conquest. When forces are evenly matched, or
surrender, reparations, or other requirements to ensure
nearly so, fighting can last for months or years, with
peace. Many of the most famous wars of history ended
tremendous losses on both sides. In these cases,
with a peace treaty, including the Napoleonic Wars, the
diplomacy often triumphs where brute force fails to
American Revolution, and World War I. In modern
46
resolve the conflict. A peace treaty is a common way
for opposing forces to end hostilities and begin the
process of rebuilding.
The earliest recorded peace treaty, the Treaty of
Kadesh, ended a war between the Hittite people and
the Egyptian empire in roughly 1280 BC. The treaty
has been preserved on stone tablets; a replica of the
agreement is on display at the United Nations
headquarters in New York. In modern history, Paris
has long been the site for the signing of peace treaties,
as it is often a neutral location. The American
Revolution ended with the 1783 Paris Peace Treaty,
while Napoleon conceded defeat with the Treaty of
Paris in 1815.
In modern times, war rarely ends with a
comprehensive peace treaty. The Vietnam War, the
Korean Conflict, and France’s Algerian War ended with
agreements that slowed combat gradually over a
period of years rather than bringing an immediate
peace. Modern war is a messy business that is difficult
to control through such civilized measures as a signed
contract. Nevertheless, diplomats work diligently to
ensure that conflicts are resolved, one way or the
other, by eventual peace.

A peace treaty does not always mean the end of

hostilities. During the Indian wars of the 18th and 19th
centuries, the American government was notorious for
disregarding treaties it had previously signed with
Native American tribes, and more battles resulted. The
Treaty of Versailles, which officially ended World War I
in 1919, imposed harsh sanctions on Germany, the
defeated party. These sanctions crippled the German
economy and caused bitter resentment among the
German people. Many historians believe these
conditions led to the rise of the Nazi party and the
Second World War.

passage46 Vegetation Earth. Vegetation provides food, shelter, habitat, and a

Vegetation is plant life, which can vary from
unexplored tropical forests to the cultivated plants of a
farm or garden. Plant life is a topic of interest among
many scientists and researchers because it plays an
important role in the interconnected systems of life on
number of other services to the natural world, whether
it is clinging to sandy dunes in the desert or taking over
abandoned properties in a settled temperate zone.
People who study plant life on Earth include botanists,
general biologists, ecologists, agronomists, foresters,
and oceanographers.

47
Several scientific organizations have classified the
world's vegetation to create a series of biomes, zones
on Earth with shared characteristics which can be
defined by the plant life they contain. There are a
number of classification systems in use, depending on
where in the world one is, which describe biomes in
terms such as the types of plants found there, the soil
conditions, the climate, and the historical use of the
land. Some examples of vegetation biomes include
tropical plants, high alpine plants, and desert plants.
In areas where vegetation is lacking or scrubby, it can
contribute to environmental problems. Loss of
vegetation contributes to loss of topsoil, making the
soil less useful, and it can also cause the area to grow
warmer because the plants are not acting as a heat
sink to keep temperatures more moderate. Lack of
plants also means lack of food, a serious problem in
regions of the world which are undergoing
desertification and experiencing food insecurity as a
result.

One important function of vegetation is soil stabilization

and enrichment. Having plants around improves the
soil, with the plants trapping nutrients and water to
make the soil better. In addition, the roots and other
structures of the plant work to hold down the topsoil so
that it is not lost. Vegetation also plays a role in flood
control, as plants can help to create buffer zones which
keep flood waters at bay, especially in marshlands.

For animals, vegetation provides ample habitat along

with food. Animals live in plants or use plant materials
to construct homes, and many plants are edible, for at
least some species. Other animals in turn prey on
animals which feed on vegetation. Gardeners, whether
they are growing food or ornamental plants, utilize
plant life in a variety of creative ways, depending on
the climate or zone they grow in.

passage47 History Today, history forms a huge component of human

History is the study of the past, including the prehistory
of man, all the way back until our origin in Africa about
200,000 years ago. Modern history is generally thought
to begin in Classical Antiquity, around 800 BCE, when
large numbers of scholars began to write things down.
Herodotus of Halicarnassus (484 BCE – ca. 425 BCE)
and Thucydides (ca. 460 BCE – ca. 400 BCE) are
generally considered the "fathers of history," with the
latter taking special care to use a scientific approach in
the study of history, attributing major events to human
choice rather than divine intervention.
48
knowledge in general, alongside cultural and scientific
knowledge, both of which overlap with history.
Historians place a great emphasis on primary sources;
people writing based on events they or their immediate
friends actually experienced, rather than secondary
sources, writing merely based on hearsay. Also
important are comparisons between primary sources
— without comparisons, it can be difficult to validate
historical claims. Obviously, the history of an invasion
will be written differently by the conquerors and the
conquered.
History is generally periodized into several broad
strokes, to make it easier to analyze and understand.
First is prehistory, extending over a couple hundred
thousand years, from the beginning of humanity to the
Neolithic Revolution, which began between 10,000 and
8,000 BCE. The Neolithic Revolution heralded the
beginning of agriculture, the establishment of the first
cities and non-agricultural classes.

Thousands of years after the Neolithic Revolution,

various ancient civilizations were founded:
Mesopotamia (5000 BCE), the Indus Valley Civilization
(3300 BCE), ancient Egypt (3150 BCE), ancient China
(3000 BCE), Minoan Crete (2700 BCE), Mycenaean
Greece (1600 BCE), Kingdom of Israel (930 BCE),
ancient Rome (900 BCE), and many others. Historians
study these on a civilization-by-civilization basis, with
objectivity as the primary goal.

The end of the era of ancient history is arbitrary, but

the year 476 CE, when the Western Roman Empire
fell, is often cited. Between 476 and around 1492 is the
period of time known as the Middle Ages, while from
1492 to today is called the Modern Era. Modern history
focuses mostly on the last 500 years.

passage48 Leo Tolstoy
Leo Tolstoy (1828-1910) was a Russian author,
activist, and philosopher. He is most well remembered
for his voluminous War and Peace, published serially
in the 1860s. Leo Tolstoy led a markedly different life
from other famous Russian authors of the era, such as
Dostoevsky. His novels are considered classics of
Russian literature, and his later philosophical works
have inspired a wide variety of people.
49
Leo Tolstoy was born into the Russian aristocracy in
late 1828 and was one of five children. His parents
both died before he reached the age of ten, and the
relatives who raised him educated him at home. Leo
Tolstoy also briefly attended Kazan University,
although he never took a degree there.
Tolstoy spent his twenties in Moscow among the
Russian elite, writing about the experience later with
bitterness. Leo Tolstoy felt that his youth in Moscow
was squandered with gambling, liaisons, and
exploitation of the peasants who formed the foundation
of his family's wealth. Leo Tolstoy ended up joining the
military, seeing action in the Crimean war that inspired
Sebastopol (1855), The Cossacks (1861), and "The
Raid", a short story published in 1852.
After his military service, Leo Tolstoy traveled in
Europe, and in 1862 he married Sofia Bers, with whom
he had 13 children. The two remained married
throughout Tolstoy's life, although he spent his later
years physically separated from his wife. His history of
social activism began in the late 1850s, when he
started a school for peasant children, realizing that
education was the key to social mobility. During this
period, he wrote his most well known novels, including
Anna Karenina, published in 1873.
Leo Tolstoy grew disillusioned with his life as a
member of the aristocratic elite, and in 1884 he gave
up his worldly possessions to live as a peasant ascetic.
The reasoning leading to this decision is documented
in his later philosophical writing, which explores
Christian philosophy and sets forth Tolstoy's personal
beliefs. Leo Tolstoy came to the conclusion that
passive non-resistance was a vital personal and
political tool and that true Christians needed to be
guided by God rather than by social norms or the state.
Tolstoy also fervently believed in helping the lower
classes, providing them with education, food, housing,
and other forms of assistance.
Leo Tolstoy is still viewed as a teacher by many
Christians, who appreciate his simple values and strive
passage49 Political Abuse
Political abuse occurs when politicians subvert the
political process for the purpose of self-
aggrandizement. This form of abuse may include
50
to achieve them in their own lives. His writings on non-
violence, love for enemies, and the renunciation of evil
inspired a wide variety of public and private figures,
including Gandhi. Tolstoy's decision to live out his later
years in relative poverty was applauded by many, even
at the time, and his writings became popular among
Russians seeking a less decadent way of life.
Tolstoy's family suffered to some extent during his
wanderings, and they would have led very difficult lives
if his wife had not controlled the printing rights to his
literary estate. Using the sale of his books, essays, and
short stories, she financed the family's existence.
Despite the hardships she endured, Sofia remained
devoted to her husband throughout his life, supporting
the greater cause that he embodied.
While Tolstoy is remembered overwhelmingly for his
works of fiction, which were extremely valuable
additions to the field of Russian literature, he also
contributed an expansion of Christian philosophy,
pushing his readers to challenge their belief systems
and to form new ideas about life and happiness.
Tolstoy was a man with very strict morals, which he
explored logically and convincingly in books like
Confession (1884) and What I Believe (1886). Tolstoy
reworked traditional Christian thinking in a manner that
appealed to many readers, and his writings had a huge
impact on people all over the world, despite his 1901
excommunication from the Russian Orthodox Church.
political repression that subjugates the populace,
enslaving citizens through unjust economic
exploitation, or seizing property from citizens under
authoritarian powers of the state. Political abuse often
involves the unethical or illegal granting of favors to
reward political supporters. Conversely, when directed
against citizens, this form of abuse may also result in
the repression of political opposition. Political abuse
likely occurs in all countries, with influence peddling
endemic to almost all societies.
Corrupt politicians engage in a variety of politically
abusive behaviors in nations around the world.
Influence peddling is one of the most common forms of
political abuse, and typically involves a politician
agreeing to support or oppose legislation in exchange
for receiving favors that violate ethics laws. Another
form of political abuse may occur when a political
leader levies various sanctions against opponents.
This may involve exclusion from certain types of
employment, being excluded from college admission,
or being publicly vilified as an enemy of the state.
Enforced exile is a form of political abuse. This occurs
when a citizen who supports a particular political party
or platform is forced to live in another city, or is even
expelled from his or her homeland. Another form of
political repression may occur when citizens who
express disagreement with political policies are
imprisoned. Often, some form of deprivation or torture
accompanies the incarceration. It is considered
political abuse because the politician gains power
through exiling or imprisoning opposition that may
otherwise arouse the public to expose political
corruption and subsequently call for reforms.
authorities may be overtly or subversively used against
a population. For example, if citizens decide to
peacefully march in order to express their view that the
nation's leaders should be chosen through an election
instead of a succession policy, political leaders may
choose to use military power to dissuade the
advocates of political reform.
Economic exploitation is another common way that
political powers are abused. For example, a nation's
natural resources may be sold off to private industry,
despite citizen opposition, because it benefits the
politician. Enforcement of existing pollution laws may
lag, due to political relationships. Securing cleanup
funds for contaminated sites is often complicated by
political considerations. Industrial operators in many
areas sell rights to natural resources without fairly
informing or compensating citizens for the loss of
access to a vital community resource.

Subjugation of a whole population may occur through

political abuse, and is a more extreme example of
political repression. This almost always requires police
or military involvement, and violence on the part of

passage50 Sustainable energy repercussions for future generations. A number of

types of energy can be thought of as sustainable, and
Sustainable energy is energy that can potentially be many governments promote their use and the
kept up well into the future without causing harmful development of new technologies that fit within this

51
model. Increasing rates of energy consumption around
the world have led to a corresponding rise in concerns
about where the energy comes from and if it will
become more scarce.
Several factors go into making energy sustainable. The
first is whether or not the current use of the energy is
something that could potentially persist into the future,
which leads many forms of renewable energy to qualify
as sustainable. People can generate energy from
windmills, ocean waves, and the sun without running
out of energy and resources, making these methods
sustainable for use by future generations. By contrast,
fossil fuels are not treated as sustainable because the
Earth's supplies of crude oil will eventually run out.
Another factor important to some people in the energy
field is independence. Some critics argue that energy
is not sustainable if a nation is forced to rely on
another country to meet its energy needs, even if that
energy is renewable, non-polluting, and efficient. For
example, if the United States relied heavily on
Canadian wind farms, this would violate the criterion of
energy independence. Being able to meet one's own
energy needs as a nation is an important part of
sustainable energy in the eyes of some people who
are concerned about the intersection of energy and
politics.

Another consideration is energy efficiency. Some

forms of renewable energy, for example, take quite a
lot of effort to actually generate, meaning that almost
as much energy goes into their production as the
sources themselves generate. Energy efficiency can
also be used to describe the technologies that use
energy, such as homes, cars, and businesses.
Increased efficiency in the way energy is used makes
sustainable energy stretch further.

Many people also feel that the environmental impact

an energy source has is another facet of whether or
not it is considered sustainable, which is why sources
like nuclear power are often not treated as such.
Although it meets the demands of renewability and
energy efficiency, nuclear power can have a negative
impact on the environment. Likewise, some of the
methods used to produce solar panels, wind turbines,
and other technology to convert renewable sources
into energy are polluting, leading to concerns that such
technology merely moves the pollution to a different
place, making it unsustainable.

passage51 The Iron Age The Iron Age is the most recent period in the three-age
system in archeology for classifying human prehistory.

52
It began in about the 12th century BC in the Near East,
India, and Greece, the 8th century BC in most of
Europe, and the 6th century BC in Northern Europe.
This age ended in the 4th or 5th century BC in most of
the world, but as late as AD 500 in Northern Europe.

As the name implies, the Iron Age refers to the period

of time when ironworking was the most sophisticated
type of metallurgy. Ironworking is preferable to the
bronze working which preceded it due to the higher
durability and availability of iron ore. An civilization in
the Iron Age coming into contact with a Bronze Age
civilization would have a huge advantage through its
weapons. An iron sword could break a bronze sword
with a strong blow.

The first systematic production of iron began in

Anatolia in what is modern-day Turkey, and spread to
both the East and West simultaneously. Anatolia was
the center of the Hittite Empire, who used iron
weapons to conquer large parts of the Near East. Their
writing system was based on cuneiform, like the
Babylonian culture before them. They spoke an early
Indo-European language.

Housing in the time of the Iron Age was based around

grass huts. Agriculture was very well established, and
thousands of years of selective breeding were paying
off, not only with plants but also livestock. Instead of
being based around small tribes, nation-states and true
nations existed, with an often tenuous central control
and an expansionist bent. The whole non-polar world
was inhabited by humanity except for Madagascar,
Iceland, and New Zealand.

In the Iron Age, much of the world was still occupied by

hunter-gatherers and nomads, including the Americas,
most of Africa, and Australia. The majority of Asia and
Europe were steeped in this age, with non-nomadic
cultures throughout these continents.

passage52 Cicero Marcus Tullius Cicero (106-43 BCE) was a Roman

writer, speaker, philosopher and politician. His work
was closely studied and praised until scholarship in the
19th century revealed that Cicero deftly stole from
53
previous work by Greek philosopher and rhetoricians.
Augustine studied him closely, and it is mostly through
this scholarship that the writer continued in popularity.
He was considered by many to be a “Christian” pagan
in his philosophy, so the Roman Catholic Church
placed a high value on Cicero’s work.
One must read Cicero with skepticism, since he was
an ambitious politician, and his gifted writing
represents attempts to achieve his political goals. His
skilled writing and philosophy where a means to a
political end, which was placement in a high position in
the Empire. Though Cicero was born wealthy, he was
not of a high enough class to simply enter and succeed
in Roman politics. Like many American politicians he
studied and practiced law as a way to achieve power in
Rome.Since Cicero was elected to several offices in
the judicial system, he became eligible for participation
in the Roman senate. Unlike the Greek senate and
judiciary process, the Roman senate worked in an
advisory capacity. Rome was not a democracy but
more closely an oligarchy, where the people are
governed by a few in political power, and often these
few have inherited power through birthright.
As consul, the most powerful elected office, Cicero
unmasked a conspiracy by Caitline, to overthrow the
government. He then ordered the death of Caitline and
his conspirators without trial, which differs greatly from
his previous writings where he appeals for just trials.
His decision would later haunt him. He refused to join
with Julius Caesar, Crassus, and Pompey to take
control of the government. Crassus retaliated by
passing a retroactive law, exiling those in Rome who
had had Romans executed without trial. Cicero lost not
only his estates but also his status as a citizen.His
exile lasted for a little under two years, and represents
a time of significant writing in philosophy. Upon
returning to Rome, he witnessed the fracture of the
relationship between Caesar and Pompey, after the
death of Crassus. Cicero felt either ruler would be of
tremendous detriment, destroying the oligarchy and
instead creating a monarchy with a supreme ruler.
54
Upon Caesar gaining power, Cicero received a pardon
for his mild support of Pompey. However, hewas still
unable to return to politics. Cicero witnessed but did
not take part in the assassination of Caesar three
years later in 44 BCE. His role then became more
tainted by political gain. He purposefully pitted Marc
Anthony and the Octavian against each other to
destabilize the Empire. He felt Octavian should
become emperor since he was younger and could be
easily influenced by the Senate to restore the
Republic.
When Octavian made peace with Marc Anthony, Marc
Anthony ordered the deaths of not only Cicero but also
his close male relatives. Cicero made an attempt to
escape from Italy but he was not successful and was
assassinated. His brother and nephew were also killed,
but his son escaped and later would hold the office of
consul as his father had.Cicero’s preserved writing is
extensive, though it is believed that a few important
pieces were lost. He did set up a whole theory of how
rhetoric should be taught, greatly derived from
Aristotle. His philosophical writings focus on morality,
and represent why he was so loved by later Catholic
philosophers. Many Romans had come to believe that
if the Gods existed, they were impersonal beings that
cared little about humans. Cicero held the gods in
more esteem, and enjoined others to act in a moral
fashion, quite similar to later Christian behavior.
To students of rhetoric, his work is well worth study,
particularly his works, “On Invention,” “On the Orator,”
and “The Orator.” For philosophers his works, “ On The
Nature of the Gods,” and “On Divination,” are of
particular interest. His other works are primarily
political in nature and may be of interest to those who
study politics or rhetoric, since they are classic
examples of double speak, with fine noble intentions
expressed that were certainly not carried out by the
way Cicero lived.
 passage53 Galaxy large galaxy, which has cast off most of its gas and
dust clouds.
A galaxy is a cluster of stars, nebulae, dark matter, and
There are roughly a hundred billion galaxies in the
other astronomical objects. Most galaxies are tens of
visible universe; most of them occur in large
thousands of light years in diameter, and contain
agglomerations called galaxy superclusters. Between
billions of stars. Galaxies come in three primary
these superclusters are voids with few or no galaxies,
shapes; spiral galaxies are thin disks, with spiral arms
often for a hundred million light years or more. By
surrounding a central hub; elliptical galaxies are
studying the rotation of spiral galaxies, astronomers
uniform, oval-shaped agglomerations; and irregular
found that most of the matter in the universe is not
galaxies have little or no definite structure.
stars and gas, but invisible “dark matter” which cannot
A spiral galaxy centers around a hub, which is roughly be seen but still exerts gravity. Dark matter is thought
spherical and bulges outward from the disk. The hub is to be responsible for these large clusters, as the
the gravitational center of the galaxy, and usually gravitational attraction of the dark matter pulled
contains a supermassive black hole. Surrounding the galaxies together.
hub are spiral arms, which are bunched-up waves of
stars and gas orbiting the center. The spiral arms
usually have more gas and dust, and they contain
most of the newly formed stars, which make them
appear blue in color imagery. A spiral galaxy may have
a horizontal bar passing through its hub; our own
galaxy, the Milky Way, is believed to contain a bar.

Elliptical galaxies have a large, central hub, but they

lack the arms of a spiral galaxy; they usually appear
more yellowish in color imagery from old, reddish stars.
Irregular galaxies often have no discernible structure,
but often they can be recognized as having a distorted
spiral or elliptical shape. Elliptical and irregular
galaxies often result from collisions, which cause large
bursts of star formation and distort the galaxies'
structure due to the complex gravitational interactions.
Eventually, the two galaxies usually merge to form one

55
 passage54 Flood myth
A flood myth is a type of origin story common to many
cultures worldwide. In most versions of the story, much
of the earth’s population is wiped out in a global flood
caused by a deity or several deities. Some experts
suggest that the flood myths may be based in human
memory of extinction events or natural disasters, used
to explain ancient ruins, or meant to encourage the
belief that the survivors were chosen by a higher
power to be saved.
Probably the most famous flood myth is the story of
Noah’s Ark, from Judeo-Christian texts. In this tale,
God has become angry that most humans are sinning
and not being devoted. He gets Noah, an honest and
devout man, to build an enormous boat and fill it with
his family and two of each kind of animal. After Noah
has done this, God kills everything else on the planet
with a flood, leaving Noah’s family and the animals as
the only survivors. Being pleased with Noah and his
sons, God decreed he would never again send a flood.
Indian mythology provides a tale quite similar to the
story of Noah, regarding a man named Manu. Because
he saved the life of a small fish, the fish informs Manu
that a great flood is coming, and tells him to build a
boat. Manu does so and manages to survive along
with his sister, with whom he repopulates the world.
The Tarahumara flood myth gives an interesting
explanation of why corn is so important to Central
American culture and gives a variation of the “chosen
people” story. After God sent a flood to kill men as
56
punishment for making war, he sent three men and
three women to repopulate the planet. God sent them
three types of corn to plant, that they were meant to
guard forever after. All Tarahumara people are
believed to have descended from the original six.
Although there are hundreds of versions of the flood
myth, experts remain puzzled as to exactly why they
are so prevalent around the world. Some suggest that
actual floods could be the origin of many of the stories,
but some cultures that live nowhere near water still
have a flood myth. Another possibility is that a global
event, such as a comet striking the earth, caused a
sudden and massive flooding, even in normally dry
locations. This could account for the suddenness of the
floods in so many of the stories.
In ancient times, nature was considered by many to be
a tool of the gods and a signal of their moods. In most
stories, the flood comes after a war or sin has taken
over most of the populous, and is usually explained by
saying the gods were angry or disappointed in
humans. Actual weather events could easily have been
interpreted as the swift fury of a deity, while what
caused the anger may have been added after the fact.
Flood myths are a fascinating means of studying the
origins of mythology in cultures across the world. The
fact that almost every ancient culture and religion
possesses at least one flood myth seems to indicate
that at some point in history, something went badly
wrong with the waters of earth. We may never know
the true physical origin of the many stories, but the
tales themselves provide insight into the ancient world,
both of the cultures who invented the stories, and the
unpredictable patterns of the natural world.

passage55 Nuclear power radioactive and extremely dangerous, requiring a

substantial infrastructure to secure the power plant and
Nuclear power is energy which is produced with the to handle the fuel. Unfortunately, some nations do not
use of a controlled nuclear reaction. Many nations use have adequate measures for handling their spent fuel
nuclear power plants to generate electricity for both in place, and it is not uncommon to see “temporary”
civilian and military use, and some nations also utilize solutions for the storage of nuclear material which last
this type of energy to run parts of their naval fleets, for decades.
especially submarines. Some people favor an
The process of mining and refining the necessary
expansion of nuclear power plants because this form
radioactive elements used in a nuclear power plant is
of energy is considered cleaner than fossil fuels such
also not very clean, and these elements require secure
as coal, although they come with a number of
transport, which can add to the cost of this type of
problems which must be addressed, including the safe
power significantly. Several nations have instituted a
disposal of radioactive waste products.
moratorium on the development of nuclear energy until
The process of generation nuclear power starts with these problems have been addressed.
the mining and processing of uranium and other
radioactive elements. These elements are used to feed
the reactor of a power plant, generating a reaction
known as fission which creates intense heat, turning
water in the plant into steam. The steam powers steam
turbines, which generate electricity and feed the
electricity into the electrical grid.

When nuclear energy is used to power something like

a submarine, the reactor runs the engines, with the
steam directly powering the engines. In both cases, the
reactor requires careful supervision, because runaway
nuclear reactions must be stopped as quickly as
possible to prevent serious problems. Many nuclear
power plants have extensive automated systems which
help to identify potential trouble spots, and these
systems can also re-route power, turn off parts of the
plant, and perform other tasks which make the plant
safer and cleaner.

One of the advantages of nuclear energy is that it does

not produce greenhouse gases. It does, however,
produce hazardous waste. Spent nuclear fuel is
57
 passage56 Senior Citizens
Senior citizens are people who have reached an
advanced age that is considered to be beyond middle
age. The designation of senior citizen can begin at
several specific levels of advanced age, but the title is
rarely applied before age 50. Also known as seniors,
elderly people are entitled to various benefits after
reaching certain age levels, including senior discounts,
reduced fees on medical care, and special insurance
rates.
Numerous medical advances in the past century have
significantly increased human life expectancy, creating
a huge population of senior citizens. For the first time
in history, improved health practices are allowing the
elderly to enjoy longer, healthier lives. Many of the
maladies that plagued the elderly in the past can be
prevented or effectively treated today, including heart
disease, cancer, bone loss, and many others. Of
course, there is still no “cure” for aging, but it is
possible for seniors to remain healthy and mentally
astute well into old age.
On the other end of the spectrum, many commercial
enterprises are willing to offer discounts to senior
citizens who are barely out of middle age. Retail stores
and restaurants will commonly offer a senior discount
to people who have reached 50 or 55 years of age.
The American Association of Retired Persons (AARP)
actively solicits people to join with other seniors
starting at age 50.
One advantage of aging in today’s world is that old
people can be active, productive members of the
community. The elderly can offer considerable life
experience and wisdom that comes with age, and they
provide a fascinating connection to the past. Seniors
can mentor young people, visit the sick, or volunteer to
help the underprivileged. With attention to preventive
health measures, good nutrition, mental stimulation
and daily exercise, senior citizens can truly enjoy
retirement and the benefits of advanced age.

In some regions, the high concentration of senior

citizens eligible for old age benefits and pensions has
caused financial strain on government programs, such
as Medicare and Social Security in the US. To
compensate for a population that is living longer, as
well as the high number of applicants, US Social
Security is gradually increasing the age requirement to
receive retirement benefits from 65 to 67; and there is
a good possibility of further adjustment to age 69
before long.

58
 passage57 Conditioned Response it is paired with the unconditioned stimulus, it becomes
associated and will obtain the same response, which is
A conditioned response is a type of learned behavior, the conditioned response.
and is often considered one of the simplest. It is a
Conditioned response theory has been helpful in
response that is obtained through a stimulus other than
studying the sensory abilities of various animals. For
the one that originated it. Such a response also is often
example, Karl von Frisch was able to determine that
called a conditioned reflex.
honeybees can see several colors by conditioning
Conditioned response can be developed through a them to look for food on blue cardboard. Once they
procedure called acquisition which involves pairing a showed the proper response, he did the same with
neutral stimulus with the conditioned one. One cardboard in other colors and discovered that bees can
common example is when the loud ringing a bell tell the difference between blue and green, blue and
produces scares animals. Pairing another more neutral violet, and yellow and green.
stimulus with the bell, such as a particular dog toy,
Though this type of response is often associated with
typically causes the animal to associate the loud sound
animals, it can also figure into the daily lives of people.
with the toy. The animal eventually will be scared upon
Children first learn to associate the word, "No!" with an
the appearance of the toy itself without the bell having
angry face, and eventually learn to stop their behavior.
to ring.
Most conditioned responses, especially those learned
Classical conditioning, of which a conditioned at an early age,
response is a large part, was developed by Ivan
Pavlov in the early 1900s. Pavlov's experiment
involved dogs in which he noticed that the dogs
developed a habit of salivating in response to the lab
technician that fed them their meat powder rather than
to the food itself. To test his theory, Pavlov used a
metronome to signal it was time to eat, and after a few
times, the dogs began to salivate upon hearing the
click of the device.

It is helpful to know the other elements in classical

conditioning to fully understand a conditioned
response. An unconditioned stimulus is one that
naturally triggers a response in either humans or
animals, such as the smell of food. The unconditioned
response of hunger is natural. By contrast, a
conditioned stimulus was at one time neutral, but when
59
 passage58 Glacier At one point in the distant past, about 700 million years
ago, during the Cryogenian Period, some scientists
A glacier is a large, slow-moving river of ice, formed by believe glaciation may have been so severe than the
many layers of compacted snow. The rate of motion entire planet was covered in an ice sheet. This has
varies greatly, depending on the ambient temperature, been called the Snowball Earth Hypothesis, and it is
depth of the ice, the underlying slope, and other controversial, especially among scientists who doubt
factors. Movement ranges from several meters per the geophysical feasibility of a completely frozen
hour to several meters per century. Sometimes, when ocean. What is known is that the glaciers at this time
conditions are just right, glaciers experience a surge, were extremely large in extent, reaching the Equator in
accelerating their rate of movement by as much as 100 at least some areas. Interesting to note is that the first
times. When glaciers surge, they can be a danger to complex multicellular organisms, the Edicaran biota,
humans, triggering avalanches of rock and snow. appear in the fossil record almost immediately after the
glaciations of the Cryogenian.
Glaciers can be found on every continent and in about
47 countries. Most mountains taller than 4,500 meters
(14,800 ft) have them, because temperature tends to
quickly drop with altitude. There are two main
categories of glacier: alpine glaciers, on mountains,
and continental glaciers, on flat land where it is very
cold. Continental glaciers almost completely cover
Greenland, parts of Iceland, northern Siberia and
Canada, and most of Antarctica. About 70% of fresh
water on the planet can be found in the Antarctic ice
sheet alone.

Glaciers are present year-round, but vary in their rate

of melting. For a pack of ice to qualify as a glacier, it
exist continually rather than just seasonally. For
reasons that are not completely clear, the planet has
experienced several major Ice Ages in its history, when
glaciers extended as far south as New York, USA and
Paris, France. So many glaciers piled up that the sea
level was lowered by 100 m (328 ft), opening up large
areas of land such as the North Sea, the Bering strait,
and connecting New Guinea to the Southeast Asian
mainland.
60
 passage59 RNA
Ribonucleic acid (RNA) is a chain of nucleotides
present in the cells of all life. This chain has a number
of important functions for living organisms, ranging
from the regulation of gene expression to assistance
with copying genes. Severo Ochoa, Robert Holley, and
Carl Woese all played critical roles in discovering RNA
and understanding how it worked, and more research
is constantly being performed.
Many people are familiar with deoxyribonucleic acid
(DNA), a nucleic acid which is often referred to as the
“building blocks of life” because it contains the genetic
material for its parent organism. RNA is equally
important, even if it is lesser known, because it plays a
critical role in helping DNA to copy and express genes,
and to transport genetic material around in the cell.
RNA also has a number of independent functions
which are no less important.
RNA strands have a backbone made from groups of
phosphates and ribose, to which four bases can
attach. The four bases are adenine, cytosine, guanine,
and uracil. Unlike DNA, RNA consists of a single
strand, with strands folding to compact themselves into
the tight space of the cell. Many viruses rely on RNA to
carry their genetic material, using it to hijack the DNA
of infected cells in order to force those cells to do what
the virus wants them to do.
This nucleic acid plays a role in the synthesis of
proteins, the duplication of genetic material, gene
expression, and gene regulation, among other things.
61
There are a number of different types, including
ribosomal RNA (rRNA), transfer RNA (tRNA), and
messenger RNA (mRNA), all of which have slightly
different functions. Studies on these different types
sometimes reveal interesting information. rRNA, for
example, undergoes very few changes over the
millennia, so it can be used to trace the relationships
between different organisms, looking for common or
divergent ancestors.
DNA plays a role in the synthesis of RNA. Essentially,
DNA contains the blueprints for making RNA, so when
the cell requires more, it pulls up the necessary
information in the DNA and gets to work. This process
is known as “transcription,” referencing the fact that the
information is basically copied from one molecule to
another. Some very sneaky viruses, like HIV, are
capable of reverse transcription, which means that
they can translate RNA into DNA. Drugs which target
such viruses often focus on the reverse transcription
capability of the virus, working to block it so that it
cannot perform this function.
 passage60 Fundamentalism
Fundamentalism is the strict adherence to a set of
beliefs, in most cases religious. The term is often
applied to certain sects of Christianity, but is common
to most World Religions. Often, fundamentalism is
referred to in a derogatory way and is paired with
extremism and its negative associations.
Fundamentalists do no find their beliefs extreme, but
rather basic or fundamental.
In Christianity, most fundamentalists are those who
support a strict reading and following of Biblical texts.
Churches considered to practice fundamentalism are
those that tend to read most biblical texts as the
undisputed word of God, which cannot be negotiated
or watered down, as they claim many modern versions
of Christianity do. Such churches exist in most
Christian sects and may be promoted as “back to the
basic” or “bible-based” churches.
As the Bible is the source of God’s word, there can be
no argument in fundamentalism for disputation of the
Word. Criticisms levied against Christian
fundamentalism claim that fundamentalists often
preference the Old Testament over the New,
particularly when considering such things as
homosexuality or the relative age of the earth. Also,
less fundamental biblical scholars point to glaring
inconsistencies in most Biblical books, which may be
accounted for by suggesting that the Bible is the word
of God as interpreted by the imperfect human.
62
In return, Christian fundamentalists would respond by
saying that to question the origins of the Old
Testament, or those of the New, is to question the
word of God. What appear as inconsistencies are of no
matter, because study of the Word will help us become
wiser, as adherence to the Word will assure us
passage to heaven. If an inconsistency appears, then
we are simply not wise enough to understand it.
In one form of Christianity, Mormonism,
fundamentalists advocate not only a close reading of
and adherence to Biblical teachings, but also to the
teachings in The Book of Mormon . These views are
often thought of as extreme by mainstream Mormons
because they advocate polygamy and blood
atonement, in which those who commit murder must
literally have their blood spilled upon the ground as
punishment. Further, these teachings often outlaw
Blacks from taking part in the priesthood. Most
Mormons are not fundamental in their beliefs, and
though quite religious, they find certain aspects of
Joseph Smith and Brigham Young’s teaching
abhorrent or at least inapplicable to modern life.
In Islam, Westerners often attribute fundamentalism to
Shiites. However, Moslems in general do not consider
Shiites to be fundamentalist. They point instead to
Wahhabis, a group of Sunnis who are fundamental in
regards to the strictest interpretation of biblical texts
and the refutation of praying to saints or beloved Sufi
leaders. Of great importance is remembering that it is
only the “One God” to which people may pray. Any
other prayers are polytheistic and against the
fundamental teaching of Islam.
True fundamentalism in Judaism is difficult to find,
since almost all Jews believe that interpretations of the
Tanakh, or what Christians would term the Old
Testament, are necessary to understand its teachings.
Only one small group, the Karaites, do not interpret
Tanakh texts by reading the Torah and Mishnah. One
might class Orthodox and Hasidic Jews as
fundamental, yet they are not so, because they rely on
textual interpretations, even when their adherence to
Jewish law is inflexible.
passage61 Social Archaeology
Social archaeology is a discipline of archaeological
study that focuses on the bigger picture, rather than
the individual object or person, by attempting to put
each of those things into context. In other words, it
attempts to build a model of what a society may have
been like by determining the roles of the individual
artifacts found. Once that is accomplished, it is easier
to see why a certain item may have been
manufactured or used. While the discipline does have
a number of advantages, researchers must also be
careful not to let individual or cultural biases influence
their interpretations.
Colin Renfrew founded social archaeology in the
1970s, and expanded the concept in the early 1990s.
He is a British archaeologist who spent a great deal of
his academic career at the University of Cambridge.
He published a major work on the importance of social
archaeology, but has also made many other
contributions to the field, including being focused on
preventing looting at major historical sites around the
globe.
63
Fundamentalism also evokes certain political
connotations. Suicide bombings and stockpiling of
weapons in rural areas of America, as well as other
countries, sometimes associated with extremist
religious right groups, are seen as outgrowths of
fundamentalist beliefs. Though fundamentalism can be
associated with extremism, this is not always the case.
Many fundamentalists merely want to get as close to
their sacred texts as possible and have nothing to do
with jihad or political extremism of any kind. It is quite
inaccurate to tar all fundamentalists with the same
brush as political extremists.
The benefits to social archaeology are numerous. It
can help distinguish and identify cultures and people
who may have been found in the same area. It can
provide a context for when those people may have
lived, and how they may have lived and interacted at
that particular time. This type of archaeology may even
identify the time period of the society without the
benefit of radiocarbon dating.
Social archaeology goes far beyond simply identifying
artifacts found at different sites. It explores human
culture, and seeks to make the archaeological record
into a historical narrative that tells humans a little
something about the relationships, classes, and
governments that may have preceded them at a given
location. The more objects or artifacts found together,
the easier it may be to determine what type of society
had lived there.
In order to tell that history, social archaeology seeks to
combine the artifacts and other evidence at a site with
what is already known about history at that location.
Ultimately, some interpretation must take place
because a direct observation of what a culture or
person used an object for is not possible. Therefore,
this type of archaeology may introduce a modern bias
in some cases, as it attempts to explain a society
through a modern perspective. Archaeologists must
guard against such bias, but it may be impossible to
eliminate completely. Likewise, some hypotheses may
be impossible to ever conclusively prove.
passage62 Cultural Hegemony
Cultural hegemony is the idea or concept that one
nation or culture, either by direct intent or merely by its
dominant position in the world, exerts an inordinate
influence into how other cultures should conduct
themselves, both in terms of values and political and
economic aspirations. The idea of cultural hegemony
was promoted by the writings of the Marxist
philosopher Antonio Gramsci in the late 19th and early
20th centuries, but he did not originate the concept. A
ruling class social structure has existed throughout
human history in many regions. Examples can be seen
in the dominance of Roman values over five centuries
of rule by the Roman Empire, the dominance of
Chinese culture over its smaller Asian neighbors that
has continued to exist into the modern era, the
dominance of European cultural values over Native
American societies as North America was widely
settled by European immigrants in the 1800s, and so
on.
64
The United States is uniquely concerned with the idea
of cultural hegemony, in large part because the
promotion of its social structure around the world is an
inevitable byproduct of the expansion of US
multinational corporations into emerging markets, and
due to its far reaching willingness to intervene militarily
into the affairs of failed or failing states. American
culture is also centered around a thriving and diverse
media industry. Through movies, television, music, and
print entertainment, as well as the marketing of
products through extensive advertising, American
culture has an inordinate influence on the values of
many nations where people aspire to a more
consumer-based lifestyle. This influence is often seen
in a negative light, as it has the potential to suppress
local cultural expression to the point where diversity in
many forms is lost.
One of the main arguments against cultural hegemony
in many forms throughout history, and which offers a
singular defense of the spread of American culture, is
that it is wrong to assume that smaller cultures are
forced to take on the identity of more dominant ones.
They do it by choice, and often go to extraordinary
efforts to obtain access to foreign cultural ideas and
products, despite an attempt to suppress this by their
own governments. Another main argument against the
concept of cultural hegemony is that, while dominant
cultures may spread their influence to diverse regions,
these regions tend to not abandon their own values
and interests, but merely incorporate the new ones into
a broader view of the good life.
The philosophic concept of one dominant ideology
supplanting others sometimes fails to take into account
what is occurring in reverse. As a dominant culture
introduces its products and values into the lifestyles of
others, those products are often modified to suit local
tastes and interests. At the same time, local culture is
incorporated into the dominant social structure, making
both groups more culturally diverse.
passage63 Romans
Romans were members of the Roman empire, which
was at its peak during the first and second centuries
CE. The Roman empire encompassed the majority of
Western Europe, controlling countries such as
Britannia (England and Wales), Hispania (Spain), Gaul
(France) and Achaea (Greece). The Roman empire
also encompassed parts of the Middle East, known
during the Roman period as Judea, and large swathes
of the North African coast. The empire was controlled
centrally from Rome. Because the Roman empire was
so large, its people were extremely diverse, and those
identifying themselves as Romans may not have been
born in Rome, or even in Italy, but were born into areas
controlled by the Roman empire.
65
A simple example of merging cultural interests can be
seen in the introduction of a popular American devil's
food cake dessert mix by a large US corporation into
the Indian marketplace. Not only did Indians widely
accept the product, but they altered it both in content
and advertising to suit their own local values, by
substituting the traditional cake mix produced by the
company for one that used rice instead of standard
wheat flour. The mix was also changed so that it could
be used to make products other than traditional
American cake, such as dosas, idlis, and vadas, which
are Indian fermented crepes, savory cakes, and
donuts, some of which stretch back over one thousand
years to 920 AD in Indian cuisine.
Populations were conquered by the formidable Roman
military. To avoid uprisings, conquered peoples were
permitted to continue to follow their own religions and
cultures and worship their own deities. This meant the
culture of the Roman empire was incredibly diverse.
Roman life absorbed many influences from other
nations, particularly the Greeks. This included
philosophies, laws, deities and architecture.
The Romans were an industrious and advanced
people, and throughout the empire they built a network
of roads to make travel and transport easier. Romans
understood the need for hygiene, cleanliness and
clean water, even if they did not fully understand the
science behind it. The Romans built aqueducts to
ensure clean drinking water and were responsible for
the first public health regimes in the world. Public baths
were constructed for the whole population, irrespective
of class or social standing. Romans also built
sanitation systems and public toilets designed to carry
away the waste.
Roman society was medically advanced compared to
other civilizations of the time and had many surgical
and medical implements that are similar to some still in
use in the 21st century. A vast amount of medical
terminology used by the Romans also remained in use
into the 21st century. Much of Roman medicine was an
eclectic mix of science and superstition. Roman
medicine followed many of the teachings of Greek
physicians such as Hippocrates.
Entertainment consisted of gladiatorial combat,
theatrical performances, poetry recitals, chariot races
and circus acts. Gladiators were generally slaves or
prisoners of war who were forced to fight each other or
a variety of large animals to the death. Records
indicate that many of the theatrical performances were
comedies, though not necessarily in the way people
think of comedies today.

Entertainment was wide and varied in ancient Rome. A

great deal of free entertainment was available so all
could attend, regardless of social standing or
affluence. It is theorized by many historians that
entertainment was provided on such a large scale to
distract people from the often harsh realities of daily
life and to prevent potential uprisings.

passage64 Rainforests Tropical rainforests can be found in South America

Rainforests are forests with high amounts of rainfall,
which cause them to have very different characteristics
than other forests, such as coniferous forests.
Rainforests are variably defined as having a average
annual rainfall greater than 1750 mm and 2000 mm
(68 inches to 78 inches). There are two types of
rainforest: temperate rain forests, which are found in
small amounts on the coasts of all continents except
Africa and Antarctica, and tropical rainforest, such as
the Amazonian rainforest in South America,
possessing the numerous unique flora and fauna
synonymous with the term "rainforest."
(Amazon Rainforest), Africa (African Rainforest), and
Southeast Asia (Southeast Asian Rainforest),
Madagascar, and that's all. Just a couple hundred
years ago, tropical rainforests covered 12% of the
surface area of the continents, but today that number
has shrunk to less than 6%, due both to human-
caused deforestation and the southward creep of the
Sahara Desert into the African Rainforest. The majority
of the world's rainforests are located within 20 degrees
of the equator, where it is warmest, and often, wettest.
Although the world's rainforests only account for 6% of
the surface area, they contain two-thirds of plant and
animal biodiversity on the planet. They have also been
called "the lungs of the Earth," although this is false, as

66
rainforests do not actually produce more oxygen than
they take in. Rainforests are covered in evergreen
broadleaf trees, some as tall as 80 m (260 ft). At the bottom of the rainforest is the forest floor. Little
light reaches here, and nutrients are often washed
The rainforest biome has a layered structure. At the away by the rain. Numerous bacteria quickly break
top is the emergent layer, where the tallest trees poke down organic material, precluding the formation of
through the canopy below. The emergent layer is humus. The forest floor has low biodiversity compared
usually between 45 m (150 ft) and 55 m (180 ft) high, to the canopy above it, but still greater biodiversity than
although on occasion, certain very tall trees will project any other habitat on the planet.
80 m (260 ft) above the ground. The emergent layer is
populated by eagles, butterflies, bats, and certain
monkeys. The plants here must be resistant to strong
winds and high temperatures.

Below the emergent layer is the famous canopy, the

area of greatest biodiversity in the rainforest and on
the Earth itself. About 40% of all plant species and
more than half of all insect species on Earth are
thought to live in the canopy, which only started to be
probed by scientists in the 1980s. The canopy is 30 m
(100 ft) to 40 m (130 ft) above the ground. Here, the
branch is so great that it forms a more or less
continuous sheet of foliage over areas many hundreds
of thousands of square miles in extent.

passage65 Child Labor because many nations in which child labor is a

problem have laws which allow people to work full time
When people under the age of majority are employed after the age of 14.
in continuous work, this practice is considered “child
Sustained labor could be any form of full time
labor.” The definition of child labor can be challenging
employment, ranging from agricultural work to factory
to pin down, because different cultures have different
work. Child labor tends to involve rote tasks such as
definitions of “child” and “sustained labor,” and this can
manufacturing, farming, and cleaning, although
make the formulation and enforcement of laws which
children may also work in other industries, such as the
are designed to eliminate child labor rather difficult.
sex industry. In order to be considered child labor,
Opponents of the practice of hiring children argue that
rather than simple work experience, the child must
child labor is exploitative and often very dangerous.
generally be unable to attend school because of his or
According to the United Nations, a “child” is any person her work schedule, and the working conditions must be
under the age of 18. Specific labor laws may consider hard or dangerous.
people under the age of 16 children for legal purposes,
There are several issues with child labor. The first
and in some countries the cut off may be even lower,
issue is that minors are not empowered under the law
around 12 or 14. Statistics on this type of labor usually
to make choices on their own, and in many cases,
focus on children between the ages of five and 14,
children are working because they are forced to do so,
67
not because they want to work. In some instances, the
children used for manufacturing and other tasks are
actually slaves who were sold by their parents for such
work. Children who are not slaves may receive minimal
wages for their work, and they are often forced to turn
the wages over to family members, rather than keeping
them for themselves. Child laborers also do not have a
chance to go to school, or to socialize with friends and
live normal lives.
Children have been working on family farms and in
family businesses for centuries, and historically it was
common to apprentice children as young as eight.
Apprenticeships were quite valued, as they gave
children an opportunity to create careers for
themselves by training with experienced people, and
everyone from doctors to weavers learned through
apprenticeship systems. The tradition of encouraging
children to engage in family farm work or help out with
family-owned businesses endures today in many
regions of the world.
Using children as laborers became an issue in the
industrial age, when factories began to arise to
passage66 William Shakespeare
William Shakespeare (1564-1616) is considered by
many to be one of the finest playwrights in history. The
influence of his work extends to the modern day, and
his stories are often reworked into modern plots. It is
not that his plots were particularly unique, rather that
his language and characters are fascinating. Despite
our respect of what many term the “master” of English
Literature, there is only sketchy biographical
information regarding Shakespeare. As well, there is
dispute about the authorship of several of his plays,
and whether some of the plays may have been
collaborative.
Most information about the life of Shakespeare is taken
from church records. We know, for example, that he
was born in 1564, and most date his birthday as April
23. It is certain that Shakespeare was baptized on April
68
manufacture goods which had historically been made
at home or by artisans. With the rise of factories came
a number of labor issues, ranging from the length of
the work day to workplace safety, and children were
often documented in factories performing grueling work
like weaving and tailoring. Children also worked in
hazardous environments like mines. The first child
labor laws were passed in the 1800s, reflecting social
unease about the employment of children in factories.
While child labor is a very serious issue, many nations
have taken steps to allow people under the age of 18
to work in certain circumstances. In many societies,
work is viewed as a valuable experience and
contribution to society, and the availability of part time
work and apprenticeships to people under the age of
18 is considered important. In these cases, a minor
must generally obtain a permit for work, and his or her
working hours and conditions are limited by law to
prevent exploitation and ensure that the minor has time
to go to school and socialize.
26. The death of Shakespeare is often dated as April
23, 1616, but this may as well be inaccurate. He
probably attended a local school, and was married to
Anne Hathaway, with whom he had three children.
When Shakespeare was about 20, he left his wife and
children and went to London where he worked as an
actor and playwright. He also wrote a number of
sonnets, and several book length poems in around
1592, when the spread of plague closed down theaters
for a few years. He is noted for both “Venus and
Adonis” and “The Rape of Lucrece.” Most of his plays
were not published, but were rather written down as
tracts so the actors could memorize lines. So
publication of the plays today is based on collected
folios, and critics differ on when each play was
published.
Many of the plays of Shakespeare were performed at
the Globe Theater in London, and also private plays
were given for royalty, notably Queen Elizabeth I and
her successor, King James. It is thought Shakespeare
spent 25 years in London before retiring to his home in
Stratford on Avon, where he lived the remaining 5
years of his life.
It would be impossible to describe the plots of every
Shakespeare play, since they are complex. They do
fall into several categories however, which can be
described. Like his contemporaries, Shakespeare
wrote histories, comedies, and tragedies. Comedies
ended with marriage, tragedies with death. The last
class, the romances, are neither comedy nor tragedy.
History plays tend to refer to English and French
history, thus the Roman history plays are classed as
tragedies. The Romances many also be classed as
either comedy or tragedy, but their key element is
reconciliation of family members to each other, thus
differing from the prescribed form of tragedy, though
they often have tragic elements.
There is also disagreement about the order in which
the plays were written, though many believe Richard III
to be among the first, and The Tempest to be the last
passage67 Silicon Valley
Silicon Valley is located in the northern part of the
Santa Clara valley, directly south of San Francisco
Bay. Since the early 1900s, this region has hosted
innovators in technology, electronics, and the
sciences, although the name was not coined until the
1970s. Many people associate the area with the tech
industry, although the eponymous silicon chips are no
longer manufactured in high volume in the region.
69
Shakespeare play. Some of the great tragedies were
written between of 1600-1608. Most feel that
Shakespeare wrote Hamlet, Macbeth and Lear before
ending his writing career with his romances.
In the tragedies, Shakespeare gives us some of the
most villainous characters ever, Iago the devious
plotter of Othello, the horrible elder daughters of Lear,
and the power-mad Lady Macbeth. His comedies are
equally memorable for their wonderful funny
characters, Puck from Midsummer, Kate from Shrew,
and Falstaff from Wives. The romances blend comedy
and tragedy representing a mature frame of mind and
a wish to further the art form of the play.
Regardless of where one starts in reading
Shakespeare, the rich language, the complex
characters, and exciting plots can leave one
breathless. Today, there are wonderful modern
interpretations or traditional productions of his work,
which will give one Shakespeare as he was meant to
be understood, by watching the performance of his art.
There are various ways to define the location of Silicon
Valley. Some people consider it the southern part of
the San Francisco Bay Area, encompassing cities on
both the east and west sides of the bay, along with
some cities directly below it. The city of San Jose is
widely regarded as the capital of the region, and the
cities of Cupertino, Palo Alto, Los Altos, Livermore,
Mountain View, Santa Clara, and Sunnyvale, among
others, are also included.
The origins of technological innovation in the area
stretch back into the 1800s, when patrons like Leland
Stanford sponsored scientific experimentation and
innovation. The San Francisco Bay area also hosted a
number of experimental sites for the United States
military in both world wars, and the high concentration
of universities and colleges in the area attracted a
number of students and innovators. By the 1960s, the
region was well established as a science heavy,
extremely geeky section of California.
an apt replacement for the former nickname for the
area, the “Valley of Heart's Delight,” a reference to the
orchards that once sprawled across most of the region.
Although fortunes in the area were damaged by the
collapse of the dot-com bubble, the region continues to
be recognized as a center of creativity, with new firms
constantly appearing.

One of the first major tech companies in the region

was Hewlett-Packard, founded in a Silicon Valley
garage in the 1920s. When the silicon transistor was
developed in the 1950s, many semiconductor firms
moved into the region to start manufacturing, and the
area became forever associated with computers and
the tech industry. Sadly, one legacy of this industry is
heavy levels of pollution throughout the region, caused
by improper handling of toxic materials by many major
manufacturers.

In addition to silicon chip makers, this area also began

to attract other members of the high tech industry,
such as software developers. By 1971, the term
“Silicon Valley” was being used in a trade magazine,

passage68 Ecotourism number of professional organizations have banded

together to create a firm definition for ecotourism so
Ecotourism is a form of tourism which places a heavy that standards can be established for ecotourism
emphasis on appreciation and protection of the natural programs.
environment, with ecotourists traveling to regions of
In order to qualify as ecotourism, several criteria must
ecological interest around the world. This form of
be met. The most important criterion is, in the eyes of
tourism is also sometimes called ecological tourism,
many people, minimal environmental impact, as people
nature travel, or responsible tourism. Like other forms
do not want to damage the natural environment while
of tourism, ecotourism touches on some very complex
they are trying to appreciate it. Ecotourism also
environmental, social, and ethical issues, and a
70
typically includes an educational aspect, with visitors
learning about the environments they visit, and there is
a heavy emphasis on conservation. In some cases,
people may even participate in a service program on
an ecotourist trip, doing something to actively benefit
the environment while enjoying it.
Critics of ecotourism feel that tourism to sensitive
areas should not be encouraged at all, even when
companies fulfill their claims of environmental
responsibility. Some critics also concerned about the
displacement of native peoples, and the ecotourism
industry has responded to these concerns by placing
more emphasis on native cultures and traditional ways
of life. For critics, ecotourism seems like a way to enjoy
a tourist trip without acknowledging the environmental
consequences of tourism, and this is a major bone of
contention between some environmental activists and
the ecotourism industry.
Promoters of ecotourism point out that without
ecotourism, some regions of the world might not be
saved. Ecotourism creates a valuable market for
pristine wilderness and the natural environment,
encouraging governments and communities to
prioritize the preservation of natural habitat.
Ecotourism is especially popular in Africa, South
America, and Asia, where stretches of largely
untouched land still exist extant in some regions.
passage69 Thomas Edison
A young Thomas Edison, born 11 February 1847,
displayed a hyperactive personality, suffered from a
hearing loss, and was at times nearly destitute.
However, he overcame all those obstacles to become
a famous American inventor, holding over 1000
patents. Born to middle class parents in Milan, Ohio,
Edison moved to Port Huron, Michigan, at the age of
seven.
71
Tourists can travel to various locations by animal, boat,
or foot, and while on location, they are typically
encouraged to camp or use basic facilities provided by
the tourist company. Companies which cater to
ecotourists typically minimize luxuries, with the
understanding that luxury often has a negative
environmental impact. Once on site, the tourists may
participate in guided trips, visit interesting sites in the
area, or interact with native people to learn more about
their culture.
Numerous ecotourism companies offer an assortment
of packages to people who are interested in going on
an ecotourism adventure, and these companies
typically include details about the action they are taking
to benefit the environment. For consumers who are
concerned about greenwashing and misleading
advertising information, it can help to get a
recommendation from a certifying organization which
asks its members to submit to inspection and adhere
to certain principles.
At that same age, Edison’s teacher in a one-room
schoolhouse became frustrated with his non-stop
questions and rather disruptive behavior. Edison’s
mother chose to homeschool him thereafter. As he
became a voracious reader and exhibited a special
interest in the sciences, his parents hired a tutor to
assist him in understanding Physics.
Even as a youth he was very industrious, starting a
fruit and vegetable business and even publishing a
newspaper. He used his income to create a chemical
lab. At the early age of 15, Thomas Edison was trained
as a telegrapher and created his first invention, the
automatic repeater. In 1868, he moved to Boston to
work for the Western Union Company.

When Edison moved to New York a year later, his first

impromptu task was to repair a broken stock ticker; he
was immediately hired and offered a generous salary.
Thomas Edison continued to moonlight during his
years as a telegrapher. In 1876, Edison started a
laboratory in Menlo Park, New Jersey.

Edison went on to invent many machines. His first

great invention, in 1877, was the tin foil phonograph.
He also invented the Dictaphone, mimeograph,
storage battery and the first commercially practical
incandescent light bulb. He also invented the first
motion picture camera and a vote recording machine.

Due to his lifelong work and lengthy list of inventions,

Thomas Edison is dubbed the Greatest Inventor Who
Ever Lived, the Wizard of Menlo Park and the Father of
the Electrical Age. He continued to work on inventions
until his health began to decline in the 1920s. His last
patent was at the age of 83. He died the following year,
1931, in New Jersey with his wife Mina at his bedside.

passage70 Genocide the international community agrees that genocide is a

heinous act, and several attempts have been made to
The term “genocide” is used to refer to a planned, intervene in obvious genocides.
systematic, and deliberate destruction of a particular
This term was coined in 1944 by Raphael Lemkin, a
cultural, ethnic, political, religious, or racial group.
man who knew of which he spoke, since he escaped
Numerous examples of genocides can be found
from Poland shortly before the Nazis took over.
throughout history; some notable 20th century
According to Lemkin, genocide is not necessarily
genocides occurred under the Nazis during the
something which happens all at once; it can be
Holocaust, in Bosnia under Slobodan Milosevic, and in
extremely gradual but still aimed at the end goal of
the African regions of Rwanda and Darfur. Collectively,
total annihilation. This can make genocide difficult to
72
identify at times, because it may be well advanced by early part of the 20th century, the forced labor marches
the time outside observers realize what is happening. and camps of Stalin in Russia, and the infamous Rape
of Nanjing which was perpetrated by Japanese forces
There are a number of ways to carry out a genocide. in the early stages of the Second World War.
Outright murder of the group in question is common, of
course, as is inflicting serious injuries which lead to
mass loss of life. Genocide can be more insidious as
well; for example, members of the group may be
forced to undergo sterilization, and their children may
be taken from them and raised as children of another
ethnic group. Another common trait to many genocides
is the deliberate undermining of quality of life for the
group, as was seen in Poland when Jewish people
were forced into ghettos. By creating situations which
are untenable for life, taking away the ability to
reproduce, and murdering people in an ethnic group, a
genocide will slowly but steadily ensure that the group
is stamped out.

In 1948, the United Nations General Assembly passed

a law declaring that genocide was illegal and clearly
defining the term, in the interests of eliminating
confusion. Since then, several government leaders
have been prosecuted for genocide, and several
instances of genocide have been identified and
addressed. However, the United Nations has been
accused of being slow to act in situations where
genocide is suspected.

Some other examples of genocide include the mass

extermination of Christian Armenians in Turkey in the

passage71 World citizenship advances in technology can now permit open

World citizenship is the concept that all human beings
are born citizens of the world, rather than merely
citizens of a particular nation. Proponents of the idea of
world citizenship believe that the concept of national
citizenship is no longer valid now that technology and
commerce have united the world into a global
community. Advocates of this concept point out that
73
communications between all persons inhabiting the
world, as well as free travel between all nations of the
world. Proponents of world citizenship believe that
modern people have a duty to see themselves as part
of a singular, diverse human culture, and that all
nations should recognize and promote human rights
for all peoples, including the right to travel and reside
freely throughout the world. Organizations such as the
World Government of World Citizens typically espouse the time is right for individual humans to take
the unity and common rights of all people, and even go responsibility for governing themselves and coping
so far as to issue world passports to applicants. with world problems. Advocates of world citizenship
believe that eliminating national boundaries in favor of
The concept of world citizenship is believed to have a unified, diverse, and tolerant world government could
originated with a man named Emery Reves, an be the path to peace among all nations and help
American who renounced his United States citizenship humankind to solve the global problems that affect all
in the years immediately following World War II. Reves of us.
declared himself a sovereign citizen because he had
come to believe, during the course of his military
service during the war, that all people are united in one
human family and that nationalism contributes only to
war and disunity. In The Ellsworth Declaration, which
Reves delivered in Ellsworth, Maine, United States in
September 1953, Reves points out that historical
figures such as Socrates and Thomas Paine declared
themselves to be members of a worldwide human
community, and that the concept of world citizenship
therefore dates back to antiquity. Since the mid-20th
century, the concept of world citizenship, with its
central idea that individuals have responsibilities to the
global community, have become more widespread.

Proponents of world citizenship and global

responsibility point out that, as technology makes
global communication, travel, and commerce easier,
the impacts of events around the globe are widened.
Advocates point out that many global events, such as
pollution, deforestation, war, and economic turmoil,
now impact not just those people living in the local
region, but all people, everywhere. In light of evidence
suggesting that events in an isolated region of the
globe can have far-reaching effects on people of the
entire world, advocates of world citizenship feel that

passage72 Facebook generation
Sometimes identified as Generation F, the Facebook
generation is a title used to identify those who are
growing up in a world where the use of online social
networking is common. The use of online networking
sites such as Facebook are seen as forces that will
74
significantly alter the way people develop personal and
work related networks. As a result, the basic
philosophy for communicating with others will be very
different from the way that baby boomers or children of
the Generation X or Generation Y era connect with
other people.
In terms of creating a social network, the Facebook
generation is likely to see the melding of online friends
with friends in the local area as a natural part of
developing a well-rounded circle of acquaintances. The
online social network may or may not overlap with the
local group of friends, but it will be considered just as
important in terms of encouragement, support, and the
exchange of knowledge. Tools built into sites such as
Facebook allow users to convey emotions, share data,
and interact in ways that are much more efficient than
earlier online efforts. With visual, verbal, and oral
capabilities now common on these sites, the
interaction is very similar to a face-to-face
conversation.
Over time, the impact of the Facebook generation is
anticipated to change the way that corporations think in
terms of productivity and efficiency. For example,
online networking allows ideas to be considered
among peers with greater speed, making the merits or
drawbacks of a given approach readily recognizable.
This is in contrast to traditional methods that may
require more time to fully evaluate an idea through field
testing, opinion polls, and other commonly employed
tools.
day and into the evening, based on the tasks that must
be completed on any given day.
As the Facebook generation comes of age, employers
may find the need to adjust their procedures in order to
accommodate the different mindset of Generation F in
order to remain competitive in their markets. Even
educational institutions may find that traditional
methods are no longer effective and rely on newer
approaches to the instruction process that incorporate
the elements inherent in today’s online social
networking. It is important to note, however, that along
with the development of new methods, there will also
be the need to create new ways to monitor activity,
evaluate efficiency, and measure accountability in the
online work environment.

The Facebook generation is also more at home with

working independently. This may mean that the trend
of people telecommuting for work rather than
assembling at a single physical location may become
the norm rather than the exception. At the same time,
the networking capability may also change the way
people approach the workday. Rather than devoting a
solid block of eight hours to work efforts, short periods
devoted to work tasks may take place over much of the

passage73 Dual Citizenship multiple citizenship, meaning that he or she is a citizen

of three or more countries, although this is relatively
A dual citizen is someone who is a legal citizen of two rare. There are both advantages and disadvantages to
countries. It is also possible for someone to hold dual citizenship, as one might imagine.

75
In some cases, someone becomes a dual citizen
without having much choice in the matter. For
example, someone born in Canada to parents with
United States citizenship will become a dual citizen,
because the United States offers citizenship to people
via jus sanguinis, the “right of the blood,” and Canada
offers citizenship on the basis of jus solis, the “right of
the soil.” Dual citizenship entitles someone to all the
rights of citizenship in both countries, but it also carries
responsibilities.
foreign nationals into giving up their dual citizenship,
contrary to popular belief. Other nations acknowledge
that it is possible to be a dual citizen, but they treat
dual citizens as their citizens exclusively. This means
that someone who holds dual citizenship may not be
protected by one government when under the
jurisdiction of another; for example, the Canadian-
German citizen above could not appeal to the
Canadian embassy for help while in Germany.

For example, in some cases, a dual citizen may be

required to pay taxes in both nations. Dual citizens
also owe their allegiance to both of the countries to
which they belong, and they may need to fulfill
obligations such as military service. In the event that
war breaks out between both nations, a dual citizen
may be in an awkward position; in that situation, a dual
citizen is commonly expected to renounce citizenship
in one of the nations.

It is also possible to become a dual citizen through

naturalization. For instance, a Canadian citizen could
move to Germany and undergo Germany's
naturalization process. At the end of the process, he or
she would become a dual citizen. In nations which do
not recognize dual citizenship, naturalized citizens will
be asked to renounce citizenship in their nations of
origin before they will be admitted as full citizens.
Citizens of a country which does not recognize dual
citizenship should be aware that through naturalization
in another country, they will forfeit citizenship in their
nation of origin.

Several countries, including the United States, frown

upon dual citizenship, but they do recognize it, and
agents of the United States government cannot compel

passage74 Tudor Dynasty

76
The Tudor Dynasty was a family dynasty which ruled Some of the policies of the Tudor Dynasty were also
England from 1485-1603. During its period under the quite progressive; Elizabeth I, for example, provided
rule of the House of Tudor, England underwent a assistance through the state for people too disabled to
substantial number of political, economic, social, and work under the Poor Law.
religious reforms which dramatically altered the future
of the country and its people. Two of England's most After Elizabeth I died without issue, the great-grandson
well-known monarchs were members of the Tudor of Henry VII took over the British throne, establishing
Dynasty: Henry VIII and his daughter Elizabeth I. the House of Stuart, which united Britain and Scotland.
The House of Stuart was ultimately dissolved in 1714.
The founder of the Tudor Dynasty was Henry VII, who
emerged triumphant after the brutal Wars of the Roses
which split England between the houses of Lancaster
and York. This period of civil war is named for the
symbols of the warring houses; Lancaster was
represented by a red rose, while York was represented
by a white rose. Henry VII, a relative of the House of
Lancaster, managed to secure the throne in 1485,
establishing the Tudor Dynasty, and he rapidly set
about consolidating power in the hands of the
monarch, stripping the nobility of many of their powers
in the interest of avoiding future revolts and civil wars.

Henry VII wisely married Elizabeth York, uniting the

feuding houses, and he created a distinct symbol for
the Tudor Dynasty: the Tudor Rose, which has both
red and white petals, symbolizing unity. Henry VII was
succeeded by his son Henry VIII in 1509; Henry VIII
was in turn followed by his son Edward VI in 1547.
After Edward VI's young death in 1553, Lady Jane
Grey briefly held the throne of the England before
being followed by Mary I, who was succeeded by her
sister Elizabeth I in 1558. The Tudor Dynasty ended
with the death of Elizabeth I in 1603.

The Tudor era was marked by a drastic shift from

medieval British life. The Tudors managed to change
England's religion, breaking with the Catholic Church
to establish the Church of England, and they also
improved the health of the nation's treasury while
taking new approaches to issues like foreign policy.

passage75 Healthcare policy finance, and shape healthcare delivery. More a

hodgepodge than one actual policy, healthcare policy
Healthcare policy refers to the myriad of rules, covers a range of health related issues including: the
regulations, and guidelines that exist to operate, financing of health care, public health, preventive

77
health care, chronic illness and disability, long-term
care, and mental health.
In most capitalist, developed nations, except the
United States, healthcare policy is based on universal
access to healthcare. There are two general models.
One is the single payer system, used in countries such
as the United Kingdom and Canada and one is a social
insurance system, used in countries such as Japan
and Germany.
In the single payer model, taxes are paid to the
government which then pays healthcare providers
such as doctors, nurses, and dentists to provide health
services to individuals. In a social insurance system,
citizens are required to purchase health insurance,
usually from non-profit insurance companies. They
then use this health insurance to pay for services
provided by healthcare providers.
Countries like Taiwan have a hybrid of the single payer
and social insurance systems. They require residents
to buy healthcare insurance, but the government is the
insurance company. Most of the countries requiring
insurance have a mechanism to help people afford the
premiums if they are unable.
The United States has a combination of both systems.
Healthcare is financed primarily through private
insurance companies which individuals usually access
through their employers. It is not mandatory that
individuals carry insurance and in fact, millions of
people are uninsured in the United States. There are
three main government sponsored programs as well.
Medicare is a government health program that
provides health insurance to those 65 years and older,
as well as some disabled people. Medicaid is a
government health program that provides health
insurance to the poor. It is restricted to certain
categories of individuals, such as those receiving
welfare payments and those who are disabled. The
78
State Children’s Health Insurance program, also
known as SCHIP, provides health insurance to
uninsured, low income children.
Healthcare policy in developing nations often consists
of a government sponsored network of hospitals and
clinics, with the goal of providing universal access.
Many times this exists alongside a system of private
providers for which individuals pay out of pocket.
Typically, as countries become more developed,
demand for healthcare services grows.Aside from the
financing of health care, healthcare policy includes the
prioritization of certain health care problems and
special funds made available for research and
increasing access. Thus, when President Richard
Nixon declared a “War on Cancer” in 1971, he was
setting healthcare policy by funneling millions of
federal dollars into cancer research.
Similarly, throughout history other health issues have
been targeted for special attention such as smallpox,
AIDS, cigarette smoking, suicide prevention and
substance abuse. Typically, issues gain prominence
when those directly affected by them become
organized and lobby their elected officials for
resources or when reports come out which show a
desperate need for action. In addition to funding for
research, these public health initiatives usually include
programs aimed at changing the behaviors that lead to
the targeted health risk, or in the case of a disease
such as smallpox, providing easy access to
vaccinations to eradicate the disease.
Behavior-changing programs can include public
advertising to promote the use of condoms to help
prevent the spread of AIDS, or information about the
health risks of smoking. Programs to change behavior
often focus on the doctor/patient relationship and the
types of advice dispensed during routine office visits.
In addition, programs often include support systems to
those who are at risk of the health problem, such as
suicide prevention hotlines.
 passage76 The Difference Between
A Republic And A Democracy? Protecting Individuals' Rights

By definition, a republic is a representative form of A true democracy is rare because of the potential for it
government that is ruled according to a charter, or to turn into what might be called "mob rule." This
constitution, and a democracy is a government that is occurs when the majority makes decisions that benefit
ruled according to the will of the majority. Although itself at the expense of the minority. For example, a
these forms of government are often confused, they racial, religious or socioeconomic class that consists of
are quite different. The main difference between a more than 50% of the voting population could —
republic and a democracy is the charter or constitution theoretically — vote to give itself certain benefits or to
that limits power in a republic, often to protect the oppress or restrict those in the minority. In a true
individual's rights against the desires of the majority. In democracy, there is no legal power that protects
a true democracy, the majority rules in all cases, minorities.
regardless of any consequences for individuals or for
those who are not in the majority on an issue. In a republic or a constitutional democracy, however,
the charter or constitution typically guarantees certain
Variations rights to individuals or minority groups. This prevents
those rights from being taken away or infringed upon
Adding to the confusion over the difference between by the will of the majority. This protection is
the two forms of government is the fact that, in fundamental for the republican form of government.
practice, there are many variations of each. For
example, a representative democracy is one in which,
like a republic, officials are elected to vote on behalf of
the people on most issues, rather than having all of the
citizens vote on every issue. Furthermore, a
constitutional democracy is a representative
democracy in which the government's power is
restricted by a constitution. In essence, this is a
republic, so for practical purposes, the difference
between a republic and a constitutional democracy is
often largely one of semantics.

Government by the People

In both types of government, decisions are made by

the people or their representatives rather than by a
monarch. The head of state, in most cases, is referred
to as a president and is elected by the people, directly
or indirectly. Government representatives in either type
of government also are elected by the people. In a
direct democracy, in which people themselves vote on
all issues, government officials or representatives
merely carry out the will of the majority rather than
voting on behalf of the people.

passage77 Public policy Public policy is an attempt by a government to address

a public issue by instituting laws, regulations,

79
decisions, or actions pertinent to the problem at hand. it is believed that the government will follow through on
Numerous issues can be addressed by public policy all decisions made by the final policy.
including crime, education, foreign policy, health, and
social welfare. While public policies are most common Unfortunately, those who frame the issue to be
in the United States, several other countries, such as addressed by policy often exert an enormous amount
those in the United Kingdom, implement them as well. of influence over the entire process through their
The process to create a new public policy typically personalities, personal interests, political affiliations,
follows three steps: agenda-setting, option-formulation, and so on. The bias is extenuated by the players
and implementation; the time-line for a new policy to involved. The final outcome of the process, as well as
be put in place can range from weeks to several years, its implementation, is therefore not as effective as that
depending on the situation. Public policies can also be which could result from a purely rational process.
made by leaders of religious and cultural institutions for Overall, however, public policy continues to be a vital
the benefit of the congregation and participants, and tool in addressing social concerns.
the term can also refer to a type of academic study that
Examples
covers topics such as sociology, economics, and policy
analysis. In 1993, due to ineffective healthcare policies, the
Clinton administration in the US sought to implement a
When new public policies are created, there are
policy that would bring about a national healthcare
generally three key things involved in the process: the
system. As part of the policies being considered, the
problem, the player, and the policy. The problem is the
US federal government would protect the healthcare
issue that needs to be addressed, the player is the
consumer’s rights, consumers would be able to form
individual or group that is influential in forming a plan to
alliances to obtain better healthcare prices, and
address the problem in question, and the policy is the
caregivers would be required to provide fair healthcare
finalized course of action decided upon by the
packages. Players involved in the policy-making
government. Typically the general public will make the
process included lobbying groups and politicians.
government aware of an issue through writing letters
While some changes were made to healthcare
and emails, or making phone calls, to local government
provisions by legislators, the policies advocated by the
leaders; the issue is then brought forward during
Clinton administration were not put into effect as result
government meetings and the process for creating new
of political differences.
public policies begins.
In 2010, US president Barack Obama signed the
The rational model for the public policy-making
Affordable Care Act into law; this health care reform
process can typically be divided into three steps:
and public policy is meant to offer all American citizens
agenda-setting, option-formulation, and
health insurance that is easier to afford. The policy
implementation. Within the agenda-setting stage, the
implemented several changes in health care that no
agencies and government officials meet to discuss the
longer allow health insurance companies to deny
problem at hand. In the second stage, option-
coverage to children with pre-existing conditions, nor
formulation, alternative solutions are considered and
can they drop coverage when insurance carries
final decisions are made regarding the best policy.
become ill. Several years elapsed before the policy
Consequently, the decided policy is implemented
was finally passed, and the final stages of the policy
during the final stage; in most cases, once public
are planned to be put in place in 2014.
policies are in place, they are widely open to
interpretation by non-governmental players, including
those in the private sector. Implied within this model is
the fact that the needs of the society are a priority for
the players involved in the policy-making process; also,

80
 passage78 Welfare they do not face the requirement of searching for a
new job.
There are many different types of welfare, but each are
Many nations have a national health care system,
generally concerned with a government trying to
which acts as a massive form of welfare, allowing
provide support for its citizens. This may take place
those of all socioeconomic groups access to medical
through social welfare provisions, social security, or
attention should they need it. In the United States,
financial aid. When the government is seen as
certain medical welfare systems exist to support those
supporting businesses directly, rather than allowing the
most at risk, particularly children, but there is no
free market to cause some businesses to fail, it is
universal health care system in place. One universal
pejoratively described as corporate welfare. And when
form that does exist in the United States, and has for a
a government allows its programs to grow to a point
long time, is free education for all citizens up to the
deemed excessive by critics, they may choose to
completion of high school. The government covers the
describe the government as a welfare state.
cost entirely, including in cases of need transportation
Really, any program in which the government provides and food, and this is one of the least contentious forms
money or services to citizens who are in need is a of welfare currently in the United States.
welfare program. As such, many programs that critics
In the United States, welfare may also be used in a
do not criticize could, in fact, fall into this category, and
more specialized context, to refer specifically to what
in these cases the term should be seen to mean
was historically known as Aid to Families with
primarily programs in excess of a certain base level. At
Dependent Children, and is now known as Temporary
the same time, proponents of greater welfare would
Assistance to Needy Families. Since 1997 this system
point to theoretical programs as simply looking after
has been handled by the states, who use money given
more base needs, and therefore on a similar footing as
to them by the Federal government as they see fit.
existing social support systems.
This welfare system is limited to a maximum of 60
A social welfare provision, which is what many people months during the recipient’s lifetime, and has a
mean when they speak of welfare, is a program that requirement that while receiving assistance the
aims to give a base level of income to people who may recipient must be actively seeking new employment.
be out of work, disabled, or elderly. The idea is that
without the government stepping in to help these
groups, they would otherwise not survive, and so the
government has a moral obligation to support them.
Proponents also point out that keeping people at a
certain minimum level allows them to work, and
therefore ultimately helps the society at large
financially.

People who have been laid off, for example, may be

eligible for welfare while they look for other work. This
may come in the form of direct financial assistance, or
in the form of a scrip, such as food stamps, which may
be exchanged for necessary commodities. Those who
have a disability which keeps them from working may
be eligible for the same sorts of programs, although

81
 passage79 Apartheid
Apartheid was a system of legal racial separation
which dominated the Republic of South Africa from
1948 until 1993, However, the mechanisms of
apartheid were set in place long before 1948, and
South Africa continues to deal with the repercussions.
Under apartheid, various races were separated into
different regions, and discrimination against people of
color was not only acceptable, but legally entrenched,
with whites having priority housing, jobs, education,
and political power. Although South Africa was heavily
criticized for the system, it was not until 1991 that the
legal system of apartheid began to be broken down,
and in 1993 was thrown out altogether with the election
of Nelson Mandela, the first black democratically
elected President of South Africa. The term is also
used more generally around the world to refer to
systemic racism which is tolerated, rather than
confronted.
Apartheid is an Afrikaans word meaning “apart” or
“separate,” and one of the first pieces of apartheid
legislation was the Group Areas Act of 1950, which
segregated living spaces, concentrating whites in the
cities and forcing people of color into rural areas or the
urban fringes. In addition to separating whites from
nonwhites, apartheid also separated different races,
and fraternization between Africans of different tribes,
Asians, and Europeans was frowned upon. Whites and
nonwhites held different jobs, lived in different regions,
and were subject to different levels of pay, education,
and health care. Apartheid paid no attention to former
social or residential status, dividing people up by color.
82
When nonwhites were pushed out of the urban areas,
most of them were shuffled into Bantustans, or “African
homelands.” Because they were made citizens of the
Bantustans, black South Africans were not allowed to
participate in the government of South Africa, and were
forced to carry passes and obey curfew laws if they
wanted to travel outside of their homelands. The
homelands were also established on land which was
largely unusable, and were heavily reliant on South
Africa for assistance. Along the fringes of the cities,
Africans lived in massive, terrible slums, often
separated from their families because only one family
member could get a permit to live in the city.
Nelson Mandela, along with many others, is a member
of the African National Congress, a group which
worked to abolish apartheid. He joined right before the
Second World War, and was part of a major push to
make the African National Congress a national
movement, incorporating ethics of nonviolent
resistance, strikes, and mass civil disobedience to fight
for equal rights. In 1952, he was tried in court for
participating in the Campaign of Just Defiance, and
given a suspended sentence. He spent time in and out
of prison throughout the 1950s and became an
attorney to help blacks who had been dispossessed
under apartheid.
In 1960, the African National Congress was banned,
and Mandela was one of the founding members of
Umkhonto we Sizwe, a violent civil rights organization.
His membership was shortlived, however; in 1962,
after traveling out of the country to speak about the
situation in South Africa and receive military training,
Mandela was imprisoned for life, and not released until going on to take office as President of South Africa in
1990. The African National Congress was reformed in 1994, serving through 1999. In 1993, he won the Nobel
1991, as apartheid began to be dismantled, and Peace Prize in recognition for his efforts to end
Mandela was elected President of the organization, apartheid in South Africa.

passage80Terrorism modern world appears to involve more Islamist

extremists than any other type of terrorist, it should be
The commonly accepted meaning of the word clearly acknowledged that not all Muslims are terrorists
terrorism is any use of terror in the form of violence or and not all terrorists are Muslim. In fact, many Muslims
threats meant to coerce an individual, group, or entity are in as much danger under the radicalized practices
to act in a manner in which any person or group could of Islam as any other people, because they divert from
not otherwise lawfully force them to act. The world the extremist interpretation of Islam.
community has struggled with creating a legal
Terrorism has been around for centuries, although it’s
definition of terrorism that is globally accepted. In the
been defined or described differently throughout the
United States, it is broken down into two categories:
years. Today, it amounts to bullying, only on a grand
international and domestic.
scale, because these bullies have powerful weapons
The main characteristics of acts or threats that and fighters who embrace death as martyrdom. There
constitute terrorism are the same as in the wider is nothing more dangerous than a terrorist who
definition above, but additional details have been believes that he has nothing to lose.
added under these categories. Both include violent
acts or any actions that endanger human life or violate
U.S. laws, both federal and state. The definition further
clarifies that these acts appear to be intended to
intimidate or coerce civilians — collectively — or to
intimidate or coerce changes in governmental policy or
government conduct through the use of mass
destruction, assassination, or kidnapping.

The main difference between the two definitions is the

inclusion under international terrorism that clarifies
criminal violations as those that would be construed as
such if committed in U.S. federal or state jurisdiction.
The other distinction describes where the acts occur.
International terrorism occurs primarily outside the
“territorial jurisdiction” of the United States, while
domestic primarily occurs within U.S. jurisdiction.

Despite the legal definitions, terrorism means different

things to different people. While the threat to the
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 passage81 Political Agenda
A political agenda is one when a certain political party,
group or individual is interested in furthering a cause,
perhaps at the expense of other causes. In some
cases, that cause could be for personal gain, as is the
case with politicians who are often accused of
protecting key voting blocks. In other cases, that could
be for a more idealistic reason, such as those who
believe an aggressive environmental policy is good for
the country and planet.
In many cases, the term political agenda is viewed in a
negative context. Often, the term implies that someone
has refused to listen to the majority of the population,
or at least the voting constituency, and moved forward
with an action that most do not approve of. The
accusation of a political agenda often may involve
conspiracy theories or other conjectures that may have
no basis in fact.
There have been a number of political agendas over
the years that have been clearly distinguishable and
talked about. President John F. Kennedy had a
political agenda to return America to superiority in
space, and vowed to put a man on the moon.
President George W. Bush sought to take a hard line
against terrorism. Health care reform was one of
President Barack Obama's main points of emphasis. In
each of these cases, critics have suggested there were
ulterior reasons why these agendas were chosen.
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If a group or individual is successful in getting a
political agenda pushed through, they may still have to
deal with the consequences of that situation. Not all
political agendas prove to be unpopular. Putting a man
on the moon was embraced by many in the United
States during the 1960s, even at a time when the
Vietnam War and other social issues threatened to tear
the country apart. The future success of the politician
pushing the agenda is often determined by the way
that agenda is received.
To get a political agenda passed, several things often
need to happen. First, the proponent of the agenda
must make a case as to why it is needed. Then, he or
she must amass a fair amount of support for it from
others. Finally, he or she must use a public relations
and education campaign to explain to the voters why
there must be a change. Though the politician may not
need broad-based support to get the political agenda
passed, the more support, the less political capital he
or she must spend in the process.
 passage82 Neoliberalism
Originating in the 1960s and gaining prominence in the
1980s, neoliberalism is a political philosophy that is
rooted in classical liberalism but focuses on free
markets and economic growth. Some foundational
concepts that are supported by neoliberals, who are
also called economic liberals, include deregulation,
privatization and limiting the government's role in social
funding. This economic philosophy is based on the
idea that economic growth is supported by allowing
businesses to function freely, or relatively freely.
Neoliberalism, therefore, is more like libertarianism on
economic issues than liberalism is, for example.
Neoliberals are in favor of deregulation, arguing that it
allows the market to open to others with little
interference and control from the government. By
loosening government investments and control, the
market becomes open to a wider range of buyers,
making stock prices rise and creating a more
competitive economic environment. The competitive
market, they argue, fosters economic growth.
Deregulation also contributes to a competitive market
and can help make room for small business and other
investors to emerge.
Although deregulation is favored by most neoliberals,
complete deregulation typically is not. If corrupt
business practices go unaddressed by the free market
or regulation, economic growth might be hindered.
More commonly, neoliberals support minimal
85
regulation for the purpose of safety and environmental
concerns or to protect consumers.
Privatization
Privatization is another key policy concern in
neoliberalism, which takes the position that
government funds, such those slated for government-
sponsored retirement programs or education, should
be given to private individuals or corporate businesses
to manage. In other words, national retirement
programs for all citizens should be handled by
commercial retirement plans, and education should be
managed by private educational companies.
Privatization might even affect natural resources such
as water or natural gas. The idea behind privatization
is that putting these services on the free market will
self-regulate those industries to an optimal state.
Spectrum of Beliefs
Like most political philosophies, there is a spectrum of
beliefs within neoliberalism. Some neoliberals believe
in a limited amount of privatization. More extreme
views within neoliberalism call for eliminated
government-funded social programs such as payments
to the poor and public healthcare assistance.
Pros and Cons
Proponents of neoliberalism say that it might be
advantageous to economies by creating a more
competitive economic climate and allowing for new,
cutting-edge business practices to emerge.
Opponents, such as classical liberals, typically don't
trust that businesses that are free from governmental
intervention are capable of regulating themselves in a
way that benefits society as a whole. Moreover,
opponents argue that the neoliberal philosophy might
be detrimental to disadvantaged and underrepresented
groups in society.

passage83 Economic Policy
An economic policy refers to actions that a government
may take to alter the economy of a city, state, or
nation. It is usually comprised of various measures,
through which the government seeks to influence the
overall economy. There are three methods through
which a government typically seeks to control the
economy with its budget, known as the allocative,
stabilization, and distributive functions. While all three
functions are always used collaboratively, their
emphasis may change with each new government,
era, and global economy.
The allocative function refers to how much of the
government’s budget will be allocated to certain
projects. For instance, the government may decide
that, as part of their economic policy, it needs to spend
more money on developing a standing army and health
care. Allocating funds gleaned from taxes also allows
the government to create jobs or public venues. A
government does not necessarily need to spend
money as part of allocation, it can, for example, raise
the nation’s minimum wage.
A government may use the stabilization function to
stabilize a nation’s economy by controlling interest
rates or inflation, and by pushing the employment rate
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towards full employment. When it's budget enters a
deficit, a government needs to stabilize the economy,
this is often done through monetary controls.
Governments may reduce interest rates in an effort to
keep employment rates and wages up, because when
interest rates are high and the economy is bad, it is
common for unemployment to soar while wages
plummet.
The distributive function of a government’s economic
policy refers to the different levels of taxation and the
economic burden that each economic level must bear.
Increasing property and income taxes, for instance,
could affect the middle class and the very wealthy
more than those on the lower end of the economic
strata. A tobacco and alcohol tax, however, might only
really affect the lower classes. Governments attempt to
ensure that the distribution of taxes is fair for all who
are affected by them.
Governments may also attempt to regulate businesses
and industry as part of their economic policy. Doing so
is important because it is necessary to prevent
monopolies. It is crucial to encourage competition in
the marketplace because, if a company has a
monopoly on an area of the consumer market, it is
more likely to exploit customers by raising prices.
As part of economic policy, governments must to be
aware of events on the international stage. In the U.S.,
the U.S. Department of Treasury Office of Economic
Policy monitors international economic developments,
and evaluates and analyzes them to project what
economic conditions might be in the future. Using
macroeconomics — a branch of economics that
studies the performance and structure of an economy
— this department can create a model that helps
enable the government to come up with a viable and
efficacious economic policy.

passage84 Polygamy
Polygamy is a marriage that involves multiple spouses,
instead of two. Polygamy has been practiced for
centuries but has been eliminated in most modern
societies. There are a few different types of polygamy.
A union that involves one woman and two or more men
is correctly termed polyandry, while a union involving
one man and two or more women is called polygyny.
The latter arrangement is by far the most prevalent
demographic. While polygamy is illegal in the United
States and other countries, it is still practiced in many
areas. In fact, there is a movement that goes hand in
hand with the same sex marriage movement in the
U.S. that hopes to include polygamy in the redefinition
of marriage.
Bigamy is sometimes used interchangeably with
polygamy, although they are not necessarily the same
thing. Bigamy technically means having two spouses
at the same time, and the term is frequently used to
describe two separate marriages, often when one
spouse does not know about the other. Bigamy can
also refer to having two spouses in a single household,
but such arrangements are generally referred to as
polygamy.
The preferred term in this and similar debates is plural
marriage, rather than polygamy. Within the poly
culture, words like polyfidelity may also be used. The
terms polygamy, polyandry, and polygyny are often
seen as being anthropological in nature, and not
especially effective for describing in detail the different
types of poly relationships.
The concept of polygamy, specifically polygyny, tends
to be a fertile issue for controversial debate. While
some claim polygamy is a religious tenet, others claim
it is a simple matter of choice, one which they believe
should be open to all free people. However, the
definition of free people often includes minor children,
which leads to the other side of the argument. Those
who are against polygamy, or plural marriage, believe
it is an unhealthy living arrangement, due in part to
headlines and news stories that reflect the most
extreme cases.
Other concerns are centered on the potential for
legalized polygamy to lead to an unbalanced society.
Simple math leads to this conclusion. If one man
marries two or more women, it may leave two or more
other men with no potential mate.

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 passage85 NATO
The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) was
formed in Washington on 4 April 1949. Made up of
nations from North America and Europe, 12
independent countries originally signed the North
Atlantic Treaty. The treaty's purpose was to commit
each signatory country to the peace and security of all
other members. A total of 28 countries are now
members.
Since the Cold War ended, the structure of the treaty
has been redesigned. The emphasis is now
maintaining peace through the treaty's political and
military guidelines. Other countries who are not
members of NATO also cooperate, although
sometimes unsuccessfully, with treaty guidelines.
Apart from peacekeeping between countries and
deterring war, NATO also acts in the area of crisis
management. NATO has guidelines set out in order to
prevent conflict between countries and to help resolve
any crisis.
Examples of the treaty in action include the reversal of
ethnic cleansing in Kosovo. When hundreds of
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thousands of Kosovan people fled their country in 1999
due to repression by the government, they were left
homeless. NATO helped the refugees return safely to
their homeland. NATO also assisted in rebuilding
homes and lives in Kosovo. They were also
instrumental in developing a democratic society in
which the refugees should be able to live in peace.
Russian relations are also a top issue for NATO. The
establishment and maintenance of peaceful relations
with the Ukraine and throughout Central and Eastern
Europe are a high priority. The Alliance, as the group
of members is known, has been achieving these
peace-keeping goals for over 50 years.
Since World War II, the treaty has been the only
security organization to combine the United Stated and
Canada with Europe. After the war ended, Europe was
able to rebuild itself thanks to the written agreement by
NATO. The treaty ensures that any threat of war to
Europe is also seen as a threat to the United States.
The NATO treaty ensured that each country would
reciprocate these understandings. Political solidarity
was thus obtained by all members of NATO. Each
country promised to take a share in the others'
security.
In the years since the treaty was signed, other
initiatives have been formed as a result of NATO. In
1991, the North Atlantic Cooperation Council (NACC)
was formed, and in 1994, the Partnership for Peace
(PFP) took place. In 1997, the Euro-Atlantic
Partnership Council (EAPC) built new structures of
alliance and agreement between other countries.
passage86 Atlantis
Atlantis is an ancient island that sank into the ocean,
according to the Classical Greek philosopher Plato,
who tells the story in his dialogues. While most people
today believe that the story is simply an allegory, the
idea of a lost continent has captured public imagination
since the days of Plato. Atlantis was supposedly home
to an advanced civilization that had conquered many
nations before failing in combat against Athens and
collapsing into the ocean during an earthquake.
It is a matter of speculation whether or not the idea of
Atlantis or a similar island predates Plato, as no earlier
ancient sources are known. In the Classical era,
philosophers and historians were divided over whether
or not the story had any basis in fact. Though some
claimed to have proof of the island's existence, none of
it was definitive. Some writers of the ancient era wrote
their own stories of vanished utopias that appear to
parody Plato's tale.
89
In the Middle Ages, the story of Atlantis was largely
forgotten, but it resurfaced during the Enlightenment,
when Francis Bacon used it as a symbol of Utopia in
his The New Atlantis (1626). Bacon's account is similar
to that of Plato, except that Bacon places the island in
the Americas. In the late 19th century, the idea of the
island as a real historical place regained popularity,
and many expeditions sought proof of its existence.
Scholars theorized a link between it and
Mesoamerican cultures such as the Aztecs. Atlantis
was often portrayed as a very advanced society, with
technology surpassing that of the present, and it began
to interest those in Spiritualist circles.
Though Plato portrayed Atlantis as a flawed society,
the antithesis to the ideal of Athens, the missing island
became increasingly interpreted as a pinnacle of
culture and enlightenment in the modern era. While the
current understanding of plate tectonics has made the
possibility of it as a real place unlikely to say the least,
the vanished continent remains a powerful cultural
symbol. It often appears in science fiction and fantasy
works of all kinds, from books and films to video
games and cartoons.

passage87 Aristocracy bunch of royal families, and the term aristocracy

became more directly related to the idea of monarchs.
In theory, an aristocracy is very different from the way
There were also other aristocracies that didn’t base
historic practice has described it. Two famous Greek
things on genetics. In some countries, status was
philosophers, Aristotle and Plato, were responsible for
directly based on things like land ownership or wealth,
coming up with the idea of aristocracy. In their concept,
regardless of heritage. In others, it might be related to
it was meant to be a government where the most
religious elements. Sometimes there might be a
capable people were put in direct charge of everything,
combination of elements that would eventually allow a
and it was meant to be a direct contradiction of the
person to climb into the aristocracy, and some
Greek democracy system of the time. In practice, there
countries had different classes of aristocrats with
were some difficulties in implementing an aristocratic
statuses based on different things.
form of government, mainly due to an inability to
determine who was most suited, and it eventually Many countries eventually decided they didn’t really
became directly associated with the idea of monarchy. like the idea of aristocracy. This was mainly because
there was generally no fair way to choose worthy
leaders to make sure that the very best people were
The idea of aristocracy spread far and wide throughout always put in charge. Some people argue that the
the world, but most governments decided that the only eventual development of representative democracy is
way to determine if people where capable was to look really a kind of aristocracy, only with the people
at their ancestry. If someone’s parents were choosing who the most capable leaders are.
successful, rich, and prominent, that person would
In theory, an aristocracy with unlimited power might be
generally be given more privileges and leadership
able to work, at least for a little while. If the people in
responsibilities, and this continued for generations,
charge were truly capable and were working in the
regardless of performance. Eventually, this led to a
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best interests of the masses, many experts believe that
such a government would be extremely efficient. In
practice, many people suggest that corruption often
leaks into systems where individuals have too much
power without the proper checks and balances, and
this might negate many of the potential benefits.

passage88 Communism nor is there an upper class. In the Depression-era

“From each, according to his ability, to each according
to his need.” This is one of the phrases that crystallize
the meaning of communism. It isn’t easy to get an
unbiased definition of communism, but one of the
better ones describes it as socialism that abolishes
private ownership and seeks to create a classless
society.
Communism has been a major historical theme since
the Bolshevik Revolution of Russia in 1917. Karl Marx
and Friedrich Engels popularized the communist
ideology in their 1848 work, Communist Manifesto.
Vladimir Ilyich Lenin, founder of the Bolshevik Party,
was inspired by this work and eventually became the
first Communist ruler of Russia.
Communism sounds like a good idea. In the purest
form of communism, all people hold all land, factories
and so on in trust, as it were. In this way, all goods are
shared equally by the people. There is no poverty —
America of the 1930s, many people joined the
Communist Party because it seemed to be
sympathetic to the needs and desires of the worker,
rather than to the bosses.
Unfortunately, communism in practice tends to be
somewhat different, as those who have lived in the
20th century know. Communism as practiced by Lenin,
Stalin and Chairman Mao is an entirely different
proposition. This kind of communism sets up an
authoritarian government, with the best goods and
services going to those in government.
It was not uncommon in Soviet Russia for people to vie
for government jobs — not because they were such
fans of communism, but because they got a larger
apartment. Capitalists gripe about corruption, but
communist governments are just as rife with it as
capitalist systems. Government members tend to
rationalize that they deserve the best of everything
because they are governing for the people.

91
Another problem with political communism is that
governments tend to focus on “production” as the
ultimate goal. Production is usually defined as that
which comes from factories and farms. As a result, the
arts may suffer under a communist regime. This was
certainly true for years in China, when Chairman Mao
instituted the “cultural revolution.” Since these
governments tend to become insular and paranoid,
they also usually form a secret police force to quash
any hint of revolution by the people.
systems do, as it offers the carrot of financial gain for
hard work.
An article like this cannot delve into the minutiae of
communism. However, there are many excellent
resources on the Internet that discuss communism as
an ideology as well as a political system. Communism
is worth researching for a better picture of an ideology
that helped shape history in the 20th century.

Communism would probably function well if humans

didn’t have the unfortunate tendency toward greed.
Some argue that if everyone had the same, no one
would want more. This, of course, has been proven to
be a fallacy over and over again. If there are no goals
to achieve, and nothing to work toward except a
production quota, where is the incentive to excel?
Capitalism is not a perfect system either. It just
functions better in the face of human greed than other

passage89 OPEC are responsible for half of the world's oil exports. The
fact that the organization controls the availability of a
The Organization of the Petroleum Exporting substance so universally sought after by modern
Countries(OPEC) was created in 1960 to unify and society makes it a force to be reckoned with.
protect the interests of oil-producing countries. The
The first display of the power that OPEC could have on
organization allows oil-producing countries to
the world's politics was in the 1970s. When the Yom
guarantee their income by coordinating policies and
Kippur War exploded in the Middle East, the United
prices among them. This unified front was created
States assisted Israel in defending itself against the
primarily in response to the efforts of Western oil
Egyptian and Syrian armies. In what may have been a
companies to drive oil prices down. The original
response to this interference in the war, OPEC
members included Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia,
instituted an oil embargo that targeted the United
and Venezuela. OPEC has since expanded to include
States and its European allies. The embargo lasted
seven more countries — Algeria, Angola, Indonesia,
from 19 October 1973 to 17 March 1974.
Libya, Nigeria, Qatar, and United Arab Emirates —
making a total membership of 12. The effects of the OPEC oil embargo were
widespread. Immediate effects included inflation and
OPEC represents a considerable political and
economic recession in the United States and other
economical force. Two-thirds of the oil reserves in the
countries targeted by the embargo. Car owners in the
world belong to its members; likewise, OPEC members

92
United States were restricted to specific days on which crude oil at rock-bottom prices, then turning around
they could purchase gasoline: even dates for cars with and selling oil products back at vastly inflated prices.
even-numbered license plates, and odd dates for cars
with odd-numbered license plates.

A national law introducing more restrictive speed limits

was instituted, as well as a year-round Daylight
Savings Time. The oil embargo also drove auto
manufacturers to produce smaller and more fuel-
efficient vehicles. Even after the embargo ended, oil
prices continued to rise, and the United States
economy continued to suffer.

Although OPEC is often seen as a villain in the political

arena, the organization serves an important purpose. It
prevents its members from being taken advantage of
by industrialized countries by ensuring that oil-
exporting countries are paid a fair price for crude oil.
Because oil-exporting countries are dependent on
industrialized countries for oil products, OPEC
standards prevent industrialized countries from buying

passage90 Social Equality
Social equality is a concept seldom fully achieved,
whereby all members of a society have completely
equal treatment, opportunity and access to resources.
There would be few separating strata, such as
differentiations between genders, races, religious
groups, or income that give some people more
opportunities than others. This is different than
socialism, where everyone has approximately the
same amount of resources. Instead, true social
equality means that no matter what society members
have or who they are, they are treated equally and
have equal opportunities.
The idea of social equality is often intimately tied to
concepts of egalitarianism in both of its forms. This
concept either represents the sense, from a political
standpoint, that all people deserve equal rights and
treatment, or it is a movement that proposes a society
should specifically direct its resources toward
promoting equality of wealth. The latter stance is more
of a socialistic approach, and the former is something
adopted by many countries. It’s argued that the two
definitions are related, because in so many societies,
wealth confers additional power, and without
addressing income inequities, there can be no true
social equality.
Many sociologists suggest that few societies achieve
total social equality because there are so many ways

93
that societies separate into different groups. Income
level is a dividing factor, but other things that create
some form of social inequality include discrimination
against gender, race, religion, or ethnicity. Some
governments actively promote social equality by
guaranteeing basic rights to all citizens, such as rights
to free speech, to vote, to jury trial, and to freedom
from discrimination. Even with these guarantees, all
members of a society may not be equal. Inequities
such as quality of education, even if public and free,
can create differences in how much citizens are able to
avail themselves of basic rights.
As mentioned, economic standing represents a huge
dividing factor in a variety of societies. Many countries
work hard to correct this inequity to a degree by
providing financial support to those citizens most in
need. This isn’t always enough and may keep people
in a cycle of poverty, instead of giving them ways to
move up through society’s strata.
An example of social inequality, in countries like the
US, occurs when people are charged with a serious
crime. Impoverished defendants are given legal
representation by public defenders, who are often
passage91 Postmodern Politics
Postmodern politics is, by definition, difficult to define
and explain in a fully satisfying way. This is because
one of the major conceits within postmodernism is that
there is no universal “truth” and so no single definition
can be used to act as the “truth.” Within this difficult
political construct, however, certain ideas can be seen
as emblematic of postmodern politics, such as the lack
of truth and definite structure to things. This type of
political outlook can be fairly nihilistic in nature, seeing
the political climate as incurably corrupt, or more
positive by espousing that positive change can occur
through individual and group action.
The basic idea of postmodern politics is an extension
of fundamental postmodern thought and philosophy
into the political arena. Postmodernism typically
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struggling to provide support to many clients and may
not have adequate time to prepare a case. The person
with wealth can simply hire a criminal defense
attorney. The latter defendant has a better chance of
defeating a charge or getting a reduced sentence level,
and also is more likely to successfully defend against a
charge if they're Caucasian. The large numbers of
African American prisoners as opposed to Caucasians
in US jails points to a possible social inequality that
has not yet been remedied, suggesting that both race
and monetary standing lead to unequal treatment in a
system that is supposed to be fully fair.
The most pessimistic reviewers of human society call
social equality a myth, something that can never be
truly achieved, no matter the intent of a society’s
government, framers, or participants. Others take a
more optimistic view, and suggest that while full
equality isn’t always possible, societies can still chip
away at the inequities. A committed society can
continue to work at all times to create more equitable
circumstances for all of its citizens.
describes a world view that is considered symptomatic
of the late 20th and early 21st centuries, though it may
also be seen as an extension of many ideas proposed
during the Enlightenment of the 1600s. Major ideas
include the concept that no single “truth” can be
established about anything, including good and evil,
and that ideas should be deconstructed to find
meaning.
In postmodern politics, these ideas have extended into
political discourse and so the idea of “truth” being
subjective has become a major component within
political dialogue. This can be seen in the phrases and
language that politicians often use, which makes
absolute meaning difficult to determine. Ambiguous
language is a major aspect of postmodern politics and
establishes the idea that the “truth” of a moment, idea,
or statement lies in the perception of the listener rather
than the intent of the speaker. Political arguments and
comments are deconstructed by commentators and
critics in an attempt to get at the “truth” of a statement
or to determine the version of the “truth” that benefits
their side.

These ideas within postmodern politics extend beyond

speech, however, and actions in a postmodern
worldview are seen as equally lacking in clear meaning
or “truth.” A country attacking another country is not
inherently “good” or “evil,” according to postmodern
perspectives, but instead is morally ambiguous. For
critics of postmodern politics, this is seen as one of the
ultimate signs of decay and corruption within the moral
and political world. As actions increasingly take on
ambiguous causes and justifications, those who fear
the potential of such politics see it as a decline into
greater and greater loss of reason.

There are some people, however, who see

postmodern politics as a potentially beneficial move
within society. If there is no single “truth” that is
acknowledged by all people, then those people are
more likely to question the actions of their government.
This, some claim, is one of the greatest strengths of
such a political landscape, as people are able to create
their own form of “truth” and choose actions and
politics that support it. Such a change in political reality
requires a great deal of effort from the citizens of a
country, however, so this type of result is not always a
realistic one.

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