I

Hydrau lics
EORACE V. KINE
b Ptula4 oJ Ertu Errtuh.

CEESTER O. \'ISLER
Ptut@ cl b** Eq;,q

JAMES C. VOODBURN
Pr.t@ rI stt'@tu .4@

Filtl Edition

JOEN VILDI & SONS' tNC.

TOPPAX COMPANY, LTD'

ml(lo. laP N

MEIRIAM & WEBSTER DOOKSIORI' INC'

Meih, PiliPPiM
 Contents

{J-hb. r rlvdFlbit tu[ibc iq Gnpdbb nuid

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'l!.4

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e. b;r rd D* b i- ft,.
Htdd nRii; rd'

re M,o.L4 r? L;drd
t,i ! c{ 6. qn D3 kdr.ld D
rff c(^d ftoh,d;
r,,F.r,n.^D".."-c;,^."J,;11*,;pi;s^;;
'!
th rhn,,,, trr'u, d ,0 r* "q*Nd*,i"',D

/
 chdrb I

bmnch iuolc trliid, iiuds ot vabr or oihcr lluid in D$.ion.

',r ihcu oau,tli'q
A preltquisiie io
\srd hy flridss!r{. fhis
dudy, cJkd r,yd!F[tis, ie $uer]y
6.rd ol hydDdlic trho ioduds hy
ihelon6d.',,nllrJuD]jo!nuidsidndlioD,
t. !lri&. fl unh r( subshncscaprhl. or n !ins, hrvins Dats

li,i{ls ofrs lodi!oLry Do rcsisrtr(cc io

chmK oI lorm. 1rry reMiLy ro!ro!! io ihe drpe !I ilr $lid
rlujds Doy t,e dhjLlod ido liquidr od ss$
r. ,]t liquid Lui ! rrd sulr.c

sible and ns'auy niay be $

consdoed Niihou! inroluDs q,rrrohbh {@ on rrtr dher

'rhc ih.oryard ih. prcr,rcms !I ibk hr do,l DsiD)y {id! nuid3

Nhidi lry lt dlsidenl in.oD,D 6
nclc F0s Lrs lrhirh 8Lv. ihe

'rbcd6iindionsbdrc!35olid!d!lluidrr,d'nd b.noicd hon:

r. a sdrid ic drrohed by3 shoi,rs rrs, irn. !n,nr {J unir
delornriion up h r cDhin pont b
drs a nuid i, al.o deto.mc,r Ly 3 5rBd4 r($ bri si r er.
2.Ilibcd!{limnnDolcxccd.d]th.spllrdionofrgiv@
uir shmins drcs io a $lid produm r ed,jn hii delomalim
which ;s indetsndent of ihe iinc ol dppli.riiob or lbe ud
lore, n *!i!s Md rh. acleEii@ h e. Thus rorub rorc.lo produce
qhen the {rs is rmDvcd !h. sord rch@, b ib oisi$l Ion. ust coo8bl ot a uih oI Feigh!.
oo lhe olhs b4nd, iI s gieetr slsring drs is aFphed b a nuid, (.) Iool.Nrd-*md 3rah, t lb
deromtion connnucs to ek. plrE F€r ec p* e., i! vhich 1 31q D8 = a @Dds eei3hl dividen by
and {hen thc ses is rcnoved ihe nuid d@s nor, $oulh 10(6 An av*ae, coMoriy nBl v lu6
@nbined qlihin iGdr, rctum b iG orisiod rod
(6) M.in. &y3tn: 1 8rmloru = 1 uii olns x 1 o Fl

€Bily. l k
sho$ proDrtiies ot r sLid bui iI h4ied
bldck or.old mtiDeGE p* mond pE rond. A! svcrq€, atlDmly u!.d
'gnbs'ei8h'div]ded,Ly'
becom.t sod @d on be poucd i
TLe.lmr+ Irom solid Lo.k ro Dolhr 2. -,lr!olu& qrh, i! vhich I k lude qu 6 I by d€6ni4 th.

G) FoLpoundrl Kondsid: Un
.dbgd!abodyortlbnAs'giv6i
dtion in $hhh !sub ee pesc,rndndtnspoundal. TLador,l poudrl{ors - I Ib
Br t lb aN is d6i d rboui ol
thorcushly dudi€d i. dgine.ins !s oI mebl, knou a rho Bbd-
pound, vhi.h i€ ka! in vahin8ido, D. c.
'rd(6) M€iric ryr@i unit lorce is th
Fydftutrca. nnsiDerjns pradice in ih6
n"I.dPe $ni;qs66ot body ot I slm ma giYu il e rtc
niuldibc{nnjbcusdi
md ir Dd oili*tri* ri.d thcy sc udqdloJ. ftequetly ihc The uii oI ms n $c grrn, whicb delin.d
dimekF ot pips or orine are exprus0d n in.he pEs res de s l/1000 oI ihe Es or ! bldk or plaiinum kp! ir SlvB ud
usallr irled in pounds pcr {uuE irch, sd volumc my be brom 6 ih€ kilognm Dr!o.JF.
expEs.d in sallds. BeroE app\iq rucl de6 .o pmbllms, Tne nefic sDd lodtptud{mond skN rE lelai€d by lhc
lollowing unit ol lmsib md veishll
r netar = 3.2346 rl
hydnuric conpueiioos Esuli norc
I t osod - 2 2046 lb
Sinc€ iti6 lftqudtly .&ssry td i
poud *.ond !nih, ihe rtlriions o

F : ht/o
e ol lhdrndtal jbFrbc iD lle dudy of hrdnLdic *s
rbere I is s pbpddiona[ly rsdq
blbylvodrtr€o'3'dm3o'dctrnilBMjk' rhn t'.4?, u: Tne veishi ot a uii rolunc or ! fuid lr
r. ctuliia.bMr 44n, io vhich i n nsdc.qur ld I by defllins rm!@und smd uiG, the ui! *.ishi k expnsd in Fuod8
ltre @i! ol nrs. Irrbodyoluj
 ol voluE.. Thur BD! by Gubpiiotr 3, the onii shadng 3t8
' (tN) = a; 12)

'- ; '" '-, rce$.ietrtof Gc6ily.

tu, io sBqfy to rloLo0uod 'hem/i6!prclodiou[.yhdo!dllld
ih6 5 uF N rlbLc bd, or,t5o
lb/i3 rb*c I=1
dr.d nar n, o( eLft.qr_
aFf4 c'{dv. Nr h .,., h: e4,r
rrrc {i!drhe! r ! ! shi or ; nui 6 lic rE uii d*b{ apd lnd Eo;os wiilt
y,"-"', p ,.,, r*..ri kdrrlmr,f orrnudrru.h (6)
rs e ! +.k!r *+s
ro
^ In ihis s* ! is knom 6 lbs dFu
.d ty fhe oul.r. !f^ is thus defiDed s ile rorta ruquired io move 3 rla! sufa€ ol unn
uedtlELslvi5nL"ds|ilIuiir5 ". ';
disiance a$sy, the rp8e b€iw! ibc iut6 h.i4 6[cd {iih thc
The visGii), or riq & ddresN
IrE loorpound *.ond uni13 in s
eat!*<l ce b€ evdur&n lmm eqmlion 1. lnii shu r is i!
-&L/
mr,ahs rArpn+m€ !dn& p* stru$ foi, disisoE r
ThcmlllFDaiirdl{si!olTjms' {e, Fr &cood. Hae, ihe uih oI I oro
rh/r" x ft _ 1E4 jlq
sids lso r!.11.1 Dlst.s or irdcAnn
e\rm, rr Lr.hn,cliia rt{ 5De
n!Llcm.'d.liunhglhdhd In ihd or{ric rt€bd, ih? unir or u$osity b eUed ihe pois,
lhftlla6mk.dvijo!rJ 1 poi!€ b€ioB r dFc so per m:
bc beetr ldDd dFnmmblly ilBl iI
I rh&trh;nudFdLsmo rr rl 63" I 120' c) i! I .diiDoir.
jiJ ol oy fluid b ihE dynmic escily or ui.r 3r A"I ir
l.fued the Elerive visdity ilhdelore, vhm spre*cd in
pea4dicul'! 6 ihe dir(ro! or nolion. @li.pois, ite d@mic vkcosiiy &td ebtive visGiiy ot my
ruid N nun i.'lly eq$l
Bk of rhrnF of v€lo!,i\ Kitui.vaeia t ltu): 'thetuio oI lhc dpEic vi*Nity oI
By asu@piior 2, IroD sibirs fiogt.s a luid 10 it6 hs demitt. thu
vdt
0)
 in ihc l|br higher lhan ihe lelel ouhid. iho m.niso6 bcins co}
llsll4
lbsd!/li.*c-
li-

I! ihc ndnc sydcn .h. @ or h

i r,ch rn djeEcbr rs spFoxr-

mably si ih. $ne l€lel ss
o{sbich rh. nod $jdcr! tr*d itr iberr.jiat suks!r! iI[ sorbolr ihe oubLd. liquid, bui ,r i3
ibdtheonr. . \'is!G y is dds
!ub$ lv ..p,m6qliquid!
dAj6o uid(ra a condi lsve bsn dcvelopld qhici, eho! upplied b ihe ii'idc ol smll
lery lGe 0r rah in thelubB.
vis.osiiy or 3i a E!$ hs b(n {l.r':ni'd by iLe .ipiltq- Thc dim.Dsiois ol strtr( hncior are
lubc serhod 8nd arso by dd&'lnl;

trsl in hyddulirs uc sho{a i! ihe hblc on Pqe 3 ceftrin

sut@ r.Bin r' Gi4a):
qrrr ron$
L';nI'4llN!6hsibluim
oihcr by po ure ol4" c 13c 2" r'). ai il'is hmpeBhro Pr {'br *w4
,rt sublakd io M r&.iqn,rNn *sdr^d.rdorrp(trer rtr rir! 6uLjen.c Undr m6'
Dd boiL"i 2!2" I
suifara,d rciurcjn hrnl i,r,Aiin The qcisht dr pure vtrb. !1itu c,nps&luc or DNBun desnv

arbr dfl,F i! oslurc, it invarirbl

,&
brckcn. suta.c kNior produN I Siri r d E imp$iiics hsv al$ Le.lrned
svii[aII4sulf3(fudi.dcd irB hervier ihM vohr, i!-
slishrry hy $.tee hsioq Dlni.urs y ai iov heds &d sm&[ .ltlE ib wekhl 'l1rc inpuritid .onift.d in nvds, irlmd
lrLs, snd d.dinsiy ground vde^ do loi usutrlly idd Edre ilstr
OruD {rer seigrs rt}ou! 6!
knsi{D coDbined Niih thr! oidhc
ortr riiuid h,s rcrcBlrv ben ured I 3 1 LlLe or ths D.!d 36 luve b*n found io vejsh s
'hd
sin.e !h0 eeishi dr iblind v'kr is nol sEtly Nfiechd bv
h ris 2, ,.r ilruddb $ oPn iube o odlEryimpunLdolchMs6ofk
olwlklndybeuled$h.ht/il3]l
{i!or n adjrldly lslen a 0!.4 rb
 Ir]F!flhmq]j'Ll[.,t]}liiLl.
I dirB,l rr nrrul D(sr,sL!,!
rA tl]l
i n

!r] !k rh |i: b.l 0. [,. Bi!

sr@LT*'d,'1]til.oi.D]

6.kop€desololberlr'nds'
i- didDnr f,$Dn.d 10 bc h&nDe ooDo y.rcoDkred jn.iE
(1ef | lbt 8nd $rdad
l,trtuhdnr r($ur (2116 rb Dq !q ri, 11711pq sq it' ) is 0 0607
 lh per I.r rnd at any orho trhsohic icmp.niurc ? I F) ind
rh3oLui€ presuF ! {p.utrds p* squsre rooil js siveo by th6

:0 030? ' f ;;=-?

'
This.qutriion n brvd oo chsl€ and BdJlel kw ud siy4

Fs loDdni lor dr .hc unib bcing rs

The dFomi. vis$ity oI dry sn d 20'c * debfrined 6y

!eudctrr usi,q iLc )ot.rinsryliid.r mcihod isoix)orsre Fi* -

.t!D i3 0mm05 oojse Dft d.q,e C.Droldc The Dte oI

7. A.dn y ol conpuErioDs.
ed3G jditr. carryina ihem
ou! 1oorE iDpliB M rfturrcy lhjch d6 not e\isi aod Er siv!
Etrlh ihai en mlndy nil@dioA

rtdDphseih!flovi{3rr.IsG ic ret pd &rc ) ed.hesylihbl!

Byrtnrnngb.l[6[boDPge3,t
t'I,nd!lrl@,Nitsj1m]e[I'

t
\
 Chapt / II
IIIIICIP'ES O! FDROSTATIC FESS@E

Ois i), Li vL$ ih. sr! t. n vdi.rl, trr R l&nzo!.Al,.od,,

e=7
s{* io }li!L tlcr ru !'l,ioddr'

irur.**."-" *'^a . 't" .

!{nLfu d ''iJ' d.'pls t[4.;

"h.u
' llr Pn.,n . rl

10.[ji]'hol'lF^^rliRrl^to
ocDr .r $lioh qo bo r6hl.n
o!r! by a shari'Lg rRs l]y J.6n oni a 0urd .i re$ oDor q trq wiih the bori'
'tra].
Esirr rsrBrrosr,.:s, Md ihenrore thc pre$E nu* be,omd

r-"s,t-
",rq.4. 'r L r' hs !lqddlr"YinB

r"(ur[.1'1F,,ljl.rcn]ohcadts
SucL b cdrreE ney or ruy lor L. rutj.ctd io .J! prsuc or ihe

r or r rjlu;d d r6i h hon-

orr& r!lLirr,is d r,;rmDbt.
8Dd' E nrcrlj (riB 5)

il L]a i]DG|l4n ln\1T jl nrli!d

qt Dru ! nitruN iarr rll

l.
]+;
oslla!!g:r!31$jdc|Il"iu.noFsiljb
io h!$ur nn.nsii;!or

!r Y30uo. a.d ai sd lrd

to$.. s (Ltri tu tqlc! rharl

|'.lJi4Gl,le4]qiv!uAofihedL sre 3.sc dish b {a) rhc

ndva.uu'n* ci poundr Dk
 18 PRINCIPLES OF IiYDROSTATIC PRESSURE PRESSI'RE EEAD 19

th) t.he inner circle reads in pounds per square inch' and the outer Therefore in any homogeneous fluid at rest the difrerence in
;;;d;ht*" lhe corresponding heads in feet of water vacuum (Art' 16)' pressure between any two points is the product of the unit weight
part of the circle to the left of zero shows in
;;-i;il" of the fluid and the difrerence in elevation of the points.
mfi"" -"t"u.y "od the part to the right shorvs
pressure in If [ : 0, pr : pz, ort in other words, in any continuous homo-
"f
pounds Per square inch. gcneous fluid at rest, the pnessures at all points in a horizontal
Absolute pressures arp sometimes measured in slandard " atmos- lrlane are the sene. Conversely, in any homogeneous fluid at
nheres." Thus I atnrosphere : 14 7lb per sq in abs : zPro gage
rcat all points having equai pressures lie in a horizontal plane.
p.""""*; g atmospheres : 44.1 lb per sq in abs : 29 4 lb per sq
If the fluid is a liquid having a free surface in which point 2
in. gage. (ltig. 7) is assumed to lie, p2 becomes the pressure p" at that sur-
gage pressure ftcc.
Tie" term pressure as used in this book signifies At any depth b the absolute pressure is
--iO. otherwise indicated.
unless
P*-: uh +
V..iutio" of Pressue with Depth in a Fluiil' To determine P" (3)

th;;.;.;;" at anv point in a homogeneous fluid at rest orsuth the
t"rliii* l" p*t.ute in such a fluid consider any two-points
as I and 2 (Fig' ?) whose difrerence of elevation
is h' Uonsrder
tbat these Points lie in lhc
ends of an elernentary Prism
of the fluid, having a cross-
sectional area d,4 and length
.L. Since this Prism is at
rest, all the forces acting
upon it must be in equilib-
rium. These forces consist
of the fluid Pressure on the
sides and ends of the Prism
and the force of gravitY.
F\o. 7 Let X and I, the coordi
nate axes, be YesPectivelY
parallel with and perpendicular to the axis of the prism which
iluk* un angle d with the vertical. Also let p1 and p2 be the
pressures at f,oint's 1 and 2, respectively, aud let to be the unit
weight of the fluid.
Clsidering forces acting to the left along the X axis as uegative
and remembering that the pressures on the sides of ihe prism are
normal to the i axis and therefore have no X cornponents, the
following equation maY be written:
2F': p1d'A - Pz dA - wL d,A cos 0 - 0 (1)
Since .L cos d : h, this reduces to
(2)
h-lz:wh
'l'he correspondiag gage preszure is
l:uh (4)
10, Pressure Eead, Equation 4 may be written in the forrn
?:1 (5)
w
lLrrc /r, or its equivalent p/ur, catled in hydraulics the pressure head,
nrprcscnts the height of a column of homogeneous fluid of unit
wr.iglrt ra that will produce an intensity of pressure p.
'l'he pressure in a gas may be expressed in t,rms of hypothetieal
prowure head, which is the height.3 : -.rtumn of the gas ass.rmed
to lrc of uniform unit weight required to produce the given pres-
ruro. A gae, of couree, forms no free surfece, its unit weight de-
rrrmning with altitude. (See Art. ?7.)
I,ipation 2 may be written
ll_1,: lt (o)
uw
nruuting thlt the difrerence in presBure heads at two points in a
Irornogr:ncous fluid at reet iB equal to the difference in elevation of
ilrn ;xrilrts.
l,ilrurl.ione I to 6 may be applied only if the conditione of the
pnrbl:m rre such that the fluid may be assumed to have conetant
unil, wcight. This is usually true of liquide. In respect to gaseg
l,lrh rulurmption can be made without eerioue error if the differenoos
irr olovntiofi involved ore relatively Ema,ll. Otherwiso the thsory
mlntirrg to compreaaible fluide should be applied.

\

20 PRINCIPLE.g OF HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE
PROBLEMS
L Deiermine the pressure on the face 6f e dsm st s point 40 ft beiow
the wet€r eurlaee, in (o) pounds per squlre foot gage; (6) pounds per
square iuch gage; (c) pounds per square foot absolute; (d) pounds per
square inch ebsolute,
2. Determine tlre pressure in a vessel of mercury (sp gr 13.6) at a
point 8 in. below the surfoce, expressiug the answer in the EeEe udtg
as in problem 1.
3, Assuming eea water to be iocb-mpressible (ta : 64.0 lb per cu ft)'
whs,i is the pressure in tone Iler squ&re foot 2 miles below the surf&ce
of the ocean?
{. What height of mercury columa will cause e preesure of 100 ib
- oq in.? Whei is the equivelent
per height cf waier column?
6. berirl'e and memorize the conYersioo factor for chauging head in
fdet of w&ter to pressure in pounds per square ioch.
6. Derive and memorize the cotrversion fector for ch&Dging pressur€
in r rds per square inch to hesd in feet of water.
; whet deptb in a standpipe containing water ie the pressure 30
lb pei aq in.?
6. Whoi heighi of a columu of rpecial gage liquid (sp gr 2.95) would
exert the seme pressur€ as a column of oil 15 fi high (ep gr 0 84)?
0. Aeauming the unit weight, of air constaut et 0.0765 lb per cu ft,
what is the epproximate decrease in preesure iu pounds per squere inch
correspondin! to e riee in elevation of 10OO ft? Compare with the tablo
on paie 16. Express the decrease also in terme of equivalent head in
incheg of water.
10. Ii the pressure in a tank of oil (sp gr 0.80) ie 60 ib per eq in', wlat
(c) io
ie the equiva-lent head; (a) in feet of the oil; (b) in feet of water;
inches of mercury?
11. Whet is the preseure in poundr per squsre inch 4 ft b€lor ihe
rurface of a liquid ol sp gr 1.50 if the gas pre€sure on ihe surf&ce is 0'4
attDosphere?
"The
1!. presruro in a gae tank i8 2.?5 stmosphercs' Compute the
preasure in pouuds per Equ&ro itrch &trd tbe preasule head in feet of
*ater.
18. A gsgs on the suction side oI a pump ehows e vscuum of 10 in' of
(o) preesure heod in feet of woter; (D) pressure il
-Compute
rnelcury.
pounds per equere ioch; (c) absolute preesure in pounde per equrre ilch
if the bs,rometer leads 29.0 in. of mercury.
1i[. A prceeure gege on the dircharge eide of a pump !€ad! $'6 lb
per aq iu. Oil (ep gr 0.82) ia being puDp€d' Comput€ tlc prercum
head io foet of oil'
VAPOR PRESSURE 2I
16. In a condenser containing air and rvater, the air pressure is 3.2
lb per sq in. abs. What is the gage pressure in pounds per square looi
ai a point 4.5 ft belorv the rvater sutface?
16. A piece of wood I ft
square and 10 ft long, rveighing 40 lb per cu
ft, is srrbmerged vertically in a body of water', its upper end being flush
with lhe water surface. lVhat vertical force is required t'o hold it in
posil iun?
1?. What is rho absoluto pressure in poun,ls per square innh 30 lt
below ihe open surface in a tank of oil (sp gr 0.85) if the barom3tric
pressure is 28.5 in. of mercury?
18. A glass iube 5 ft long and 1 in. in diameier with one end closed is
inserted veltically, with the open end dorvn, into a tank of water until
the open end is submerged ro a depth of 4 ft. Il the baromeiric pressure
is 14,3 lb per sq in., and neglecting vapor pressure, how high will rvater
rise in ihe iube?
1?. Transmission of Plessure, By rvriting equation 2 in the
form
tu:Pz+uh ('i t
it is seen that the pressure at any point, such as 1 (Fig. 7), in a
liquid at rest is equal to the pressrrre at any other point, such as 2,
plus the pressure produced by a column of the liquid the height of
which, [, is equal to the difference in elevation betrveen the two
points. Aly change in the pressure at point 2 would cause an
equal change at point 1, In othel rvords, a pressure applied at any
point in a liquid at rest is tlansmitted equaliy and undimi-nished
to evcry other point in the liquid.
This principle, which is also asuibed to Pascal, is made use of
in the hydraulic jack by means of rvhich heir,'"-.y weights are lifted
by the application of relatively small forces.
18. Vapor Pressure. Whenever the free surface of a liquid is
exposed to the atmosphere, evaporation is continually taking place.
If, horvever, the surface is in contact with an enclosed space,
evaporation takes place only until the space becomes eaturated
with vapor. This vapor produces a pressure, the amount of which
depends only upon the tempemture and is entirely independent of
the presence or absence of air or other gas rvithin the enclosed sptce.
The prcssure exerted by a vapor rvithin a closed space is called
v&por pressure.
In Fig. 8, .4 represents a tube having its open end submergcd irt
22 PRINCIPLDS OF TIYDROSTATIC PRESSURE PROBLEMS 23

a liquid and having a stopcock at its upper end. Consider the air
rvithin C to be absoluti:ly dry at the time the stopcock is closed'
At the instant of closure the surfaces inside and outside the tube
stand at the same level. Evaporaiion rvithin the tut'e, however,
soon saturates the space containing air and creates a vapor pressure,
p,, rvhich causes a dePression
of the surface within the tube
equal to p,/w.
In the same figure, B repre'
sents a tutre closed at the
upper end. Assume a perfect
vacuum in the space above
the liquid in the tube. If this
condition were possible the
level in B would stand at an
elevation po/u above the sur-
trYo. 8. Vspor pressuE.
face of the liquid outside.
Vapor pressure rithin the
vessel, however, causes a depression p,/u equal to that produced
within .,{, so that the maximum height of column possible under
conditions of equilibrium in such a tube is (po - p,)/w. Yapor
pressures increase with the temperature, as is shown in the ac-
companying table ol pressure heads for water Yapor'
in. long and closed at one end is filled with mercury and then made
to stand vertically with the open end submerged in a vessel of
mercury, the column fu the tube will stand approximately 30 in.
above the surface of the mercury in the vessel. Such a device is
known as a mercury barometer. Pascal proved that the height
oi the column of mercury depcnded upon the &tmospheric pressure,
when he carried a barometer to a higher elevation aad found that
the height of the column decreased as the altitude increasedl
Although, theoretically, water or any other liquid
may be used for barometers, two difficulties ariee
in using water. tr'irst, the height of rvater column CI-
necessary to balance the qtmospheric pressure that
usually occurs at sea leve,l is about 34 ft, which
HI
height is too great for convenient use; and, second, Fif
as shown in Art. 18, water vdpor collecting in the
upper portion of the tube creates a pressure which HI
partially balances the atmospheric pressure, so that
the ba.rometer does not indicate the total atmor
e@l
pheric pressure. -- I\o. 9.
Since mercury is the heaviest krora liquid, has Baronetol.
o very low vapor plessure, and does not freeze at
ordinary air temperatur$, it is more satisfactory for use in ba-
rometers than a,ny other lQuid,

W,rrrn V,rpon Parssone lls,{pg Ir,t Fso r or W,\tEn

PROBUEUS
Temp€ra- P: Tempem- p"
Tempera- ry
tule, F l.At whrt height will water stsnd in a wstqr Lerorneter gt an slti-
ture, F ture, Ir 1t
lN ebove sea level if the tcmpetature o.' ihe water ig 70' F?
tude of 5000
-20" 0.02 0.59 llo' 6.63 Under similar conditions what would be ttre ruo'1ing of e mercur;r
.03 70 0.83 150 8.54 barometer, neglecting the vapor pressurc of mercury?
-10
0 .05 80 1.16 160 10.90 8. A roeroury b&rornet€r gt tho hasa ol e mountain reads 28.05 ia.
10 .08 90 1 .59 170 13.78 At the samo time, snother baronot€rot the top of the rnountsin reads
n .13 100 180 17 .24
23.22 in.Assuming ra for air to b€ constsnt ot 0,0?65 lb per cu ft,
30 .19 110 lg0 2r .49
whet is the opproximate height of the mountqio?
& .28 r20 3.87 200 26 .52
ll. A mercury berometer readB 26.45 in. (a) What would be the cor
50 .41 130 5. 09 33.84
reepondiug reading of s wat€r bsromet€r? (D) What i8 the atmospherio
pressure in pounds per square inch? (c) Whot ig the appmximato
elevation ebove oee level, assumiug normal atmoopheric cond.itiousl
19. The Mercury Barometer, The barometer is a device for Negloct vopor preesure.
measuring intensities of pressute exelted by the atmosphere. In L On s mountsin tho bsromofuic pressure ir 24 in. of mor'oury oi
1643 Torricelli discovered that, if a tube (Fig. 9) more than 30 32" F. (o) What ie tho pretaure in grunds per aqurro inch? ([)
 OPEN MANOMETER
24 I'IIINCIPLDS 01| IIYDROSTATIC PRIISSI]RII

,' ,.1:oing norrnal rtmospheric conditions, approxioratcly how high iI shown in Fig. 11. Since the pressure in a homogeneous liquid de-
ii,'r rrr'runt:rin abov,: sel level? cre&ses as the elevation increases, the pressure at rz is - toft- and
6. Oompulr: " standard atmospheric head," rvhieh is tiellned ag the the pressure head is -[-.
hypol)l:ticel hcight oi a column of air of uliforrn unit rveight u : Piezorneters are also used to measure pressure heads il pipes
0.010:, Lb pe..co tt, with noillrg &bove, that, would pr,rduce siandard rvhere the liquid is ir motion. Such tubes should enter the pipe
{rtlnoslrireric pressurc. in a direction at right angles to the direction of flow, and the con-
necting end shoulC be flush with the inncr surface of the pipe
20. Manometers. A manorrretet is a tube, usually bcni irr tire without burrs or roughness; oiherwise the height of the column
folnr c.,l a U. eontcining a liquid of knorvn speci{ic gravity, tiie may be afiected by the velocity of the liquid. (See Alt. 55.) A
surface of lhicli mor.es proportionally to changes oi ptessure.
vertical piezometer in the top of the pipe is simplest to construct.
X{linomctels a,rc: (1) opcn t1'pe, rvith an atmosphcric sur'{a':c in
Movhg liquids, horvever, frequently cany air rvhich rnay collect
onc lcg rnd capalrle of mcasur'1ng gr.ge prcssures; .rnd (2) drffelen-
along the top of the pipe, enter the piezometer, and a.ffect the
tial type, \\ ithout a,n aimospheric surface and capaille of rneasuring
liquid level. Piezometer connections at the sides or bottom of a
onl j' diff ercnces of pressure. pipe are therefore more reliable,
21. Piezometer. 'Ihc simplest form of manorreter is ihe The diameter of piezometer tubes at atir,ospheric surfece should
piczomctcr, rvhich is a tube tapped into thc wa:ii of a. cout:iiler or
be large enough to prevent capillary action {rcm afiecting the
height of the colunu of liquid. Usually {-in. diametei is sufifrcient
for glass tubes. Smaller tubes have been found to give good re-
sdts if a water-proofing liquid is applied to the insiCe glass surface.
Iu order to darnp fluctuations of liqurd level a short length "'f
capillary tube is frequeutly inserted between the pipe connection
and the atmospheric surface. Such a restricted passage does not
afrect the pressule indication, provided that the pressure in the
Frc. 10 Frc. 1l condrit remains a.pproximately constant, except for momentary
Piezometels, fluctuations alove andbelow the average valrtr:. A continuously
pte-ssitre Figure incrcasing or decreasing pressure is not measured accurately by
rlrLiluil lor lhe purposc of measttring 1,he 10
l pre-{.nti tlrc seclion of a tank ol pipc containing Iiquid under'
cr'oss
a piezometel because the change in liquid level lags behind thc
change in pressure.
r,rl.:srirc. Pi.z.Jrnckrrs ale tappcd into the top, sitle, and bottom
, t 1,,,11,r:.1. /i. iLrrl {'. t c,qpeirlir.ely. From tire forcgoing principlcs 22. Opea Ma:rometer, A piezometer is limited in 'its 'ange of
pressurc meaalrrement since (1) large pressures i. the lightcr
I tir.:..lr( ir u ltr.rmogencous iiquid at rest, it is obvious that
rr j(..,1 l r *lrlr'lr thc lirlrrid riscs is lhe sarne rn the lhrcc tubcs liquids require long tubes, and (2) gas pressures can not bc rneas-
ured because a gas forms no free atmospheric surface. These ob-
r ' ,L rlrLi ilrc l)rcssule rt ru1'poitrL in ttre liquid is inclicatc'J by thc
jections mav be overccme by the use of tubes which arc bent to
I, .'l'i ,ri tirc f|r:i su,flr,r,r,r. ftrrv onc of liic piezlrrncicts l'"boYe tliat
contain one or more fluids of diffe.rent speci0c gravities from thl,t
1,,,iru|. 1'llr... '.ire 1,t-cssllli'l,-t rr. 1Lc crltr:r,.ri the pipe, is
in which the pressure is desired. One arrangement of such & tubo
Pn'
': ti'it''
is slroun in Fig. 12.
Conr erseiy, h- is ilre prcssurc head at ;"n. Piezomciers measure Liquids used in malometers must form a mcniscur, that in,
gage pressures, since ihc surfacc of the liquid in the tubc is subjected odjrr:cnt liquids musi not mix. Liquids other than w&l,cr l,lnrt
to atmosphcric pressure. tre flcrlucntly used are mercuiy, oil, salt soluticns, ctrlxrn disrrl-
Ncgltilc plcssut'es can be nteasured by means of the piezometer plrirlc, carbon tetrachloride, brornoform, and alcohol.
 PRINCIPLES OF IIYDROSTATIC PRESSTIRE PROBI.EMS n
It is not advisable to rely on general formulas for the solution From 1 to 2:
of nanometer problems. Each problem'should be considered indi-
vidualti'and solved in accordance rvit'h funda- fressuro rDcress€ : t0X 13.6 x 62.4 : 4.S2 ..
12 144
mental principles of variation of hydrostatic Frolo 2 to 3:
,-L pressure with depth. Ii is ordinarily easier 0'80 x 624
to work in units of pressure head rather than Prcsgure ircresse -x0x - 0.s6
t2 t44
"l pressure. Suggested steps in the solution of Ai m: p : 5'78
open manometer Problems are:
I 1. Draw a sketch of the manometer &pproxi- PROBLEMS
mately to scale. 1. In the piezometers of Fig. 10, liquid stands 4.50 ft above What zr.
I\o. 12. Open ma-
2. Decide on the fluid in feet of which the ie the pressure at ar iu pounds per square inch if the liquid is (o) water,
heads are to be exPressed. (b) oit (sp gr 0.90), (c) mercury, (d) molasses (sp gr 1.b0)? What is
3. Sta,rting rvith the atmospheric slrface in the manometer a's the pressure head in feet of ench liquid?
the poiut oikno,*- pressure head, number in order the levels of 2. How high will liquid rise in the piezometers of Fig. 10 if the pressuro
contact of fluids of difierent specific gravities' at zr is l0lb per sq in. and the liquid is (a) water, (b) oil (sp gr 0.8b), (c)
4. Starting with atmospheric pressure head, proceed from level mercury, (d) brine (sp gr 1.15)?
3. The fluid in tr'ig. 11 is water and h^--23.5 ft. Assuming that
6o level, adding or subtracting pressure heads as the elevation
Itmospheric pressure is standard, compute ga,ge pressure and absolute
decreases or incieases, respectively, with due regard for ihe specific pr€Esure at ,x.
gravities of the fluids.

Ex.rupr,r. The pressure at point,'t in Fig 12 is to be measured by I -1

shown. Fluid '4 is oil (sp gr 0 S0)' Fluid B is
the open manometer
:
rnercury. Height g 30 in. Heighi z: 10 in'
Solu'ion. l, In tarms of gage pressure heod io feet of oil:
l I

at1 p/u = 0.0 ft of oil

Jr
rrg. A
Fis. Fis. B nC. C

From 1 to 2: tl. In Fig. A frnd the pressure head and the pressure at nr when:
=to"136:rn.z (o) Fluid .4 is water, lluid B is mercury, z : 15 it., / : 30 in.
Pressure head increase r2 0.80 (b) Fluid d is oil (sp gr 0.80), fluid B is a calcium chloride solutiou
(sp gr 1.25), z :
12 in., g 8It.:
AII points 2 have the same pressure Wlly? (c) Fluid,4 is gas (u :
0.041b per cu ft), fluid B is water, a
From 2 to 3:
5 in., -
U = 15 in. How much does the value of ? afrect the result?
Pressure hesd ilcreas" : 3i - 25 6. ln Fig. A, what is the height z if fluid,4 is water, fluid B is mer-
t2 cury, the gage pressure at ar is 20 lb per sq in., en\d y 5 fi? :
6. In Fig. B, 6nd the pressure head al mit leet of fluid ,4 when:
At ml p/u - 16.7
(o) f'luid ,4 is water, fluid B is mercury, z : 15 in., / = 30 in.
p =.5:78 lb per sq in. (b) Fluid.A is sea water (sp gr 1.03), fluid B is bromoform (sp gr 2.8?)
ood
z=12ir.,U:8|tr.
2, Itr t€rms of gego Pr€86ure: 7. In Fig. C, find the pressure ot m when:
:0.0 (c) Fluid .{ is water, fluid B ie corbon tetrechloride (op gr l,6O),
air p lb Der 8q i!.
t- 22 in., !: 12 itr-
 PROBLEMS 29
28 PRINCIPLES OF IIYDROSTATIC PRESSURE
tube. If,,{ and o are the cross-sectional areas of reservoir and tube
(6) Fluid /. isoil (sp gr0.915). B is waLer, z - 85in v: q2in' respectivelv.
i.'r" ri*. D, *""u.inl standord atmospheric prcssure' compute the .Ay: alr (8)
at, m when:
--i"i pressure
ebsolute
:
er"ia A is *orer, fluidB is mercury z = 15in' g 35 tl" If fluid,4is water and fluid B has specific glavity s, by the princi
soiutioo (sp gr l l0)'
ilj ff"ia a is cil (sp gr 0 82), fluid B is a salt
ples of vanation of pressure head rvith depth, starting at 1, in
z = 21.5ir., E - ?.5 in.
9, In !'ig. b the distan,e U + +z = 4'C ft' When fluid '4 is water' terms of feet of water,
per
und the pressure at nr is a vacuum of 5 4 lb in sq
fluid .B i. --"r"u"y, ' 0*Ls* LY's- L!-Y:?!: u ' (9)
compute z.
fd. tn fle. E, find the pressure I'esd and pressure at fl-sben: (sp .
gr
(al lfuiie is oil (sp gt 0.90), fluid B is carbon tetrachloride Simultaneous solution of equations 8 and 9 gives p*/w in terrns of
-'-tai fluid O is air, z
1.50), : 24 ir.., Y- 12 i' h, s, and a/A,
f'f"ia e is water, fluid B is mercurv, fluid C is air, a = 13 in' y
: By increasing the size of the reservoir sufficiently, the ral\o a/A
- : can be rnade so small that Ay is negligible and height h is a me&sure
fi. fn Fig. F. fluids ,4 cnd f rr" air, fluid B is wrter' z 14 iu'
ar-
Find gage prtssure at rn and absolute pressure xssumlng slanoaro
mospheric conditions.
- A i; Fis. G, fluids ,4 and C are air, fluid B is mercury' z : 5 in'
Compute gage &od absolute pressures at un'
noid d f
AU

ilt (a) (b)

'1
B
Frc. 13. Single-tube msnometers.
FlLrid 1
__r Fluid C
Fluid A of the pressure head at the contact ievel in the reservoir. Or, if
Fic. D Fisr. E ns. F Ay is appreciablc, the scale on rvhich ir is rcad can be so graduated
as to correct for Ay so that only one reading of liquid level is
described
Siryle-tube Manometers' The open manometers
2!. required.
readings of rluid levels a! or mle
in An. 22 usually require lYo \Yhen the tube is inclined as in Fig. 13b,
points, 6ince a, change in pressure causes a' fise oI hqutd ln one LuDe

irJ i..o io the Jther. lf, however, a reservoir having a large A'tY:Qlt (8)
"
cross-sectional area compared to the area of the
tube is introduced and
in Fig' 13' the cbange
ilio Ieg of the
orr" manometer, as illustrated
aT9u"l: ul{ 0-(i.ing)s-AY'"-A:+ (10)
ilii""ia i"i"Lit 'at
leg is held to a small or negligible
the liquid
;;;;;""*;;il hdicatei approximatelv bv the height(d)ofor' PROBLEMS
in the other leg. The tube may be vertieal as in
tor the
measurement of small pressures' inclired as in (b) 1. The diameters of reservoir and tube in Fig. 13rr are 10 cm ond 1
--
Wittt tirnorptt".ic pre""u,e in the reservoir and tube at level O' cm rcspectively. tr'luid ,4 is oil (sp gr 0.903); fluid B, a calcium chloridc
solution (sp gr 1.258). lYith the ze|o of tbc scale set oppc'site the
u"iir-""rit*t ir the iage liquid stand at that level, called normal liLluid intclface in the reservoir, the scale reacling opposite point 1is
p""iil*.
-fi"iJJ.optWltit inc"ease iu pressure at the interface' the gage l.(il5 ft nnd opposite m is 0.924 ft. Delernine the pressure at n.
a.tu"ce Ag in the reservoir and rises distance /r' in the

\
30 PRINCIPLES OF IIYDROSTATIC PRESSURE PROBIEMS 31

!. If the rcale in problem 1 is to remain fixed wiih its zero at the PROBLEMS
normol level of fluid b, wbat shculd be the leugth of graduation on the
-r""1" a prcssure chatrge al' n of I lb per sq inJ- 1. In Fig. A, duid.r{ is water aod fluid B has a specific gravity, s,
--i. io in"ho to represeDt L.
Io fis. 13b, fl;id A is gas, fluid B keroseue (sp gr 0'805)' Tbe greoter thau Show by writing the step-by-step pressure-head equaiion
sloDc of the tube is 6 horizoutal to I vertical The diameters
of reser- tbst
tuU are 2 in. and I in,, respectively' Computc the gage
lroii"
"oaheod at nr in inches of water when It equals 10 6 in' P-z-?t=6-r)"
pressure
- uu
4.'In p.obl"* 3 whot percentage error would result if the rise of oil
in the reservoir were neglected? 9. In Fig. A, fluid.4 is water, flrrid B is mercury, z:4.5 ft, Com-
pute pressure-head difrerence between al and a..
24. Difrerential Matrometer. Frequently in hydraulic prob' 3. In Fig. A, when fluid .4 is water and fluid B is mercury, the difier-
lems the difiereuce in pressure at trvo points in a pipe line or a sys- eniial gage reading is z, In what ratio is z magnified by changing from
tem is desired rather than the actual pres- mercury to bromoform (sp gr 2.87)?
sure at thg poiuts. For this purpose a
difierential rnanometer can often be used'
A manometer of this tYPe is shown in
Fig. 14.
Again the computation is simpler if
units of pressure head are used rather
than of pressure. Suggested steps are:
Fia. A
trlo. 14. Difie!€ntbl 1. Number the " strategic points" in-
msnolleter.
dicated by the levels of coutact of the
fluids. Some practice is needed in selecting t'he points which
permit the simPlest comPutation.
2. Starting with the unknown presstrre head pfw al olj.e oI lhe
end points, write a continued algebraic summation of heads,
pro-
gresstg f.om point to poiut, and equating the sontinued sum to
the unknown h.ea:d plw ut the other end point'
3. Solve the equation for the pressure'head difrerence and reduce
Fis. E
to pressure difrerence if desired. Fiq. D

Cornpute the pressure difterence between m aqd 8s r 4. In Fig. B, fluid,4 is water, fluid B is oil (sp gr 0.80), a : 14 ia.
Ex,rurl.s.
Compute pressure difierence between zn and n.
showu by the diferential m&nometer in tr'ig' 14'
6. In lrig. C, fluid rl is oil (sp gr 0.90), fluid B is a calcium chlorido
Sotulrozr. One system of numberiog the points ls shown in the figure'
soluticrn (sp gr 1.10), z : 32 in. Compute pressure difierence betweeo
Writing tho continued sum of heads, in leet ol water:
rn und a,

T- o.o - !+ 8.2 -3.2 x 13.6+ v : P; 6. In [ig. D, fluid,4 is water, fluid I ii mercury, z : 18 in., y : 3 ft.
ID Conlputc prcssure-head difierence between nr and a in feet of water.
lmn wtrich ' '7. Iu Fig. E, fluid ,,t is water, fluid B is oil (sp gr 0.85), z : 27 in.,
p- : y ," lt1 h. Compute pressure difference between n and ?.
:4.0 - + ft of wst€r
uu-!' 3.2 43.6 4L.g
8" In lrig. F, fluid,4 is weter, fluid B is mercury, z = 18 in., g - 6 ft.
?t - 9" = 19'2 lb Per eq in' Conrpul,e pressure difierence between ,r and z.
 SPECIFIC GRAVITY BY U TUtsE 33
32 PRINCIPLES OF IIYDROSTATIC PRESSURE
The gage is first balanced with both pressure connections open
26. Micromanometers. The manometer reading in a differen-
d ifferer ce by.(l) by bringing the meniscus in the 3-mm tube to the hairline. The
fi^l;";; catr be increasnd for a given pre"sure.
qhich closer to ihal'.ol
r

micrometer reading is then observed. With tlie pressure connec-

u.ini u"gugo liquid Lhe specific gravity of is
is desired'. and (2).in- tions made at 1 and 2, a slight difference in pressure at these points
tfrJ iiqtia"i" uuhi"h th" pressure difference
produces a considerablc changc in elevation of the meniscrrs jn the
;ij;; ';" manometer tubes at an angle rvith the vertical .Fur- small tube. By raising or lorvering bulb,,1 the meniscus is brought
ii"l ,iugoin"utlo" can be obtairr'ed by the micromanometers shown back to the hairline and the micrometer a,gairr read. The difler-
in Fig. 15. ence in the micrometer readings in inches is the differ.ence in fres-
sure heads at I and 2 expressed iil inches of fluid B.
Fluid .4 2 If the trvo fluids ,4 and B differ little in spccific gravity, the gage
is extremely sensitive. Fluid,4 is usually a kerosenc-ligroin mix-
ture and fluid .B is alcohol rvhich has been presaturgted lvith
kerosene and ligroin and colored with aniline dye. Best results
have been obtained rvhen the specifrc gravities of thc fluids diilered
by about 0.0085.
26. Determiration of Specific Gravity by U-tube. A glass U-
tube open to the atmosphere at both ends is a convenient instru-
(b) wahleo Gsg€

FrG. 15. Micromanomet€I$'

If, in.Fig. 15o, ,{ and o are again the cross-sectional areas of

reservoirs and tube, respectivelY,

a'da:o"2l (11)

Such micromanometers are generally used to measure the lifre1

i" Su" pressures atr m aid ru' If fluid C is a gas, the efrect of (a) btnahtoride (b)
"o* dft"t"o""* of elevation in the gas can be neglected The FIc. 16. Spoci6c-grav;ry delermination by U-tube.
"-utt
equation for pressure head in feet of water is then
rncnt for determining the specific gravity of a liquid provided that
p:v
+ (a - Ag)s; * hsa - hsa - (v + ty)rt:bu (12)
rnothcr non-miscible liquid ol knorvn specific gravitv is available.
'l'he ploblem is best solved by writing the equation of heads, in
-ih" can be solved simultaneously with equation 11'
which fcct of the liquid of known speci6c gravity, frorn one atmosphcric
*i"ro-uttometer illustrated in Fig' 15b was developed by hllrflcc to the other.
pressure difierenceg
Wahlenl and is said to be capable of indicating
u. * 0.0001 in' of rvater. The bulb B and tubes C and D llx,rrrrre. A quanl-ity of dislilled water (spgr 1.000) is inscrted
"-uU
irn nt"a, *n"t"a" the jointed connector tube Z permits bulb
A to be irr t glnss U-tube, then a quantity of oil is inserted in one leg until the
.aired or lowered' The amount of travel of bulb '{ is measured lirlrrirls stund as shown in Fig. 16o, Determine the specific grovity s of
by the micrometer M. t,lur rril,
,(oh./doz. Numbcr the lcvels of contact as shown. Starting with zcro
I Th4 Wahle,t Ooge, bulletia, University of Illinois Engineering Experi- gtt4o l)resaurc hcod at 1, write the equation of heade in feot of wltor,
meot Station. Urbane.
 GENERAL PROBLEMS A5
U PRINCIPLES OF IIYDROSTATIC PRESSURE
at 3: of the ffuiil is variable it is necessary to express ra i:r terms ol p or
progressing through the tube to zero gage pressure head
z in accordance with the conditions of the problem.
0+0'750-0932s=0
from which ExAMpr,E 1. Assuming isoihermal conditions at 70o F, compute the
c : 0.805
barometric pressure in pounds per square inch at an altitude of 5000 ft
if the pressure at sea level is 14.70 lb per sq in.
PROBLEMS
Solttion. From Art, 6, the unit weight of air at 70" f, in terms of
(sp gr 1'2{)'
t. In Fig. 15o,'(;fluid,4 is a calcium chloride solution the ebsolute pressure p in pounds per squere foot is
fi"td ; ;el ; gr 0.805), and fluid C sir' The diameter of the
tube mm' Compute l' for a pres- w = p/ (53.3 X 529)
*oi." i" t0 cm anJ ttrst of the 5
sure-head
---f. difrerence between m and n of { in' of water' Substituting ia equation 14,
order to
i" fig. 15b it is necessary to raise bulb -4 0 3625atin'1 isinincreased dp - - 0.0000354p dz
hair line when the prcssurc
-Jiotuio ti'" -""i""ue at the that Separating variobles,
ilt ift" p""*""" tt 2' The sp€cific gnvity of fluid d is 0'8100 ssdpoints dp lp = -o.oooolu aa
itiJ rtiiss. Compute tL pressure'head difrerence between
Integrating,
"i
-I and 2 in inches of wat€r. loc"p: + Cr
;. ;;;i"" the epecific gravitv of the carbon tetrechloride in the -0.00003542
U-tube shown in Fig. 160. where Cr ie e constant of integration. When z - 0, p - 2116 lb p€r
aq ft. Ifence dr : log" 2116, and
2?. Eydrostatic Retations for Compressible lTe: .
Tl: lly
in Art' r5' loe" Qtt6ld : 0.00003542
of variation of pressure with depth in a fluid, 8s derived
aoolies to conditions under which the unit weight
?rt ol tne nuto loe (2lt6lp) : 0.4343 X 0.00003542 : 0.000015402

U" constant. If great changes in elevation.in a.gas (The student should complet€ the eveluation of p.)
"Ii "o""ia"t"a
are i.nvolved, the efiect of compressibility may
be apprec)able srnce
Ex.rupr,s 2. Assuming th6t the temper&ture iecreases 3.57" F for
*it fluids ra is a variable depending ou the tempera- each increase of 1000 ft in altitude, cor:/*o€ lhe pressure in pounds per
io." toa o.""*." as well as the physical characteristics of thetogas'
"ornpr"oiUt"
en
oquare iuch at an eltitude of 25,000 ft, the pressure and the temperatur€.
If ihe prism of fluid in Fig T is considered shortened the &t sea level being respectively 14.70 lb per sq in. and 70" F.
of which is dlr' SoJa&on. f'rom Art.6,
i"i"ri""r,i"ii""gih dL, tbe ve'-rtical projectionprism becomes
i" p."oure on the two ends of the p
an"t*au It
dP: udh (13) 53.3(529 - 0.003572) 28,200 - 0.19032
tlp -d2 - 5.25 dz

In this equation dlr is an increment in depth below some

real or p ,2W - O-19O32 l4a,200 * z
in
;;;;"; free surface. If it is desired to relate the change
eelected
log.p : 5.251o"" (148,2O0 - z) * dr
il?"* ip l. t .;;ri change dz in altitude above some
z - O, p : Ztt6. Heuce C1 = 1og"2116 - 5.25 1og.148,200.
datum, the difrerential equation can be tritten When
(Tho student should completc the evaluatiou of p')
d'p : -u dz (14)
GEITERAI PROBLEUS
as the alt!
The ninus sign signifies that the pressure decreases 1. A vertical pipe, 100 ft long and 1 in. in diameter, hae it€ lower snd
tude increases'
'-f',o,rttloo olxn ond fluah with the inner surfece of the cover of o box 2 ft squrro
14 is the basic difretenfial equarion representing
varia'
rest' If the unit weight ra ud 0 in. high- The bottom of the box ie horizontal. Neglecting tho
ti;;;;;"t**;th altitude in a fluid at

\
 PRINCIPLES OF IIYDROSTATIC PRESSURE GENERAL PROBLEMS 37

with water' deter' ll. In Fig. A, if the pressure at d is reduced 6lb per sq in., what is
weisht of the pipe and box. both of which are filied
of the box; (b)
lirl''f.i irt" i"i"r lvat"tttii. pressure on the bottom the new difierence in elevation of the mercury surfaces?
12. Compute the pressure head at nr., in leet of fluid,4, indicated by
ii"
" o'-i
box resl's'
i",)i'ot"*ot" exerted on the floor on which thea pressure equivalent
-'i"-r.^ra* at sea level cr''ntains gas unde" open manometer in Fig. B, when:
ol air and gaslo be.con- (o) Fluid .4 is oil (sp gr 0.856), the gage liquid is carbou tetrachloride
t.;.;;":;j *;i;;. Assuming the unit weights
*flt ']t],ll
cu.ft' (sp gr 1.60), g/ : 30 itr., z : 30 in.
Ji#"'a "."ii" o.oso "oa olols lb per io a
'.:tp::tto"lv:
distrlbutlDg rrralu a! & Puurt (b) Fluid ,4 is molasses (sp gr 1.50), the gage liquid is water, gr ='
the pressure heqd in inches of water
800 ft above sea level? 3.6 ft, z : 1.2 11.
""i.'"tft" ftead in a gas ma'in et a' poini 400 ft above
sea level ie,'Io fig. C, fluids .4 and B have spccific gravities of 0.915'ancl 2,95,
n*t**
i" cnrivalent to 7.07 in. of water' Assuming the unil'weights of air and respectively, If v = 1.36 ft and z : 1.22 ft, compute ihe prdssure ai m.
L";-rT:""#,'ft'"qta i. o.ozs ancl o Ois lb per c' fi' respectivelv' 14. In p.roblem tr3, if the pressure et m is increased 1 lb per sq in.,
ffi;';ffi;;h;;;"t"ut" r'""4 in inches of water in a sas-holder at se& how mauy inches will fluid B rise in the |-iu. tube?
level?
i. ,t vertical tube, 1 in. iri diameter and 4 ft long' having its-upper end
contains equal volumes of.water cnd
me-rcury'
";;;;'tb;;il;*here,
iiii"-itl" i" rt , iete'mine: (o) the gage pressure in pounds per square
weigbt' or lhe.liquids'
il;;; ;;;;il- or rhe
"'i. e ri-itru"
tube and io) tne
t*rt both ends open to the atmosphere contains mercury
the surlace
i"iit"i"*"" p".ti"". In one leg, water stands 30 in' above in above the
'.i 80) stands 18
iit" ."t*i"' i" the other leg' oil (sp gr 0
in between Fig, A
;"f;; il ;;;."tv. lvit'i is tbe differeoce elevation
ih" of the oil and water columns?
":]';;;;;;;,
"u.fuo"" respectivelv' the closed aod open erids
of a u-tube'
distance of l8 io below '4 the
U"ii. l"ii* J*r" *me elevation' For a '
the tube
;',,# ; frll"J;i;; ;il (sp gr 0's0); for a distance of 3 ft below B'pressure is
1il1;t';i;;';;;;,'ol-tr'" the of which atmospheric
"*iu'"
tube is filled with mercury' Wlat ie
;il;. ih; ""*uind"" of pounds per square inch?-
ii" ti"a." o.".t"re at 4 in open' cotrtains mercury to e
T:ffiff;i njube, with'both ends
of the'U' Water to a
a"itri"i iti'rt. r" """t'' 'uu" above the bottom C Fig. D
oolv
lliiit "i tdt. r taded in one leg islhe iifierence inis the
(a) What gage pressure Fig.
level between tho
lIffi;;ffi;i;" ur ral wbat 16. In Fig D, cornpute the pressure-head difrerence between n dnd
free surfaces in the trvo tubes?
";H;;;;;;;'tion of an inverted U-tube is filled with oil having a r,, in feet of fluid 4, when:
of the tube is filled-with salt (o) f'luid,4 is gasoline (sp gr 0.7i5), tl'e gage iiquid is mercury, and
*""rn"'**lt'r,t it o'gs' tt'" remainder in z : 42 \tt,
oI 1'01 when tnere is a difrerence
;:;;;H;i;;; specific gravitv su'faces in the two legs of the tube'what (b) Fluid ,4 is oil (sp gr 0'908), the gage liquid is water, and z :
ilt"i.ii l"."u"tti"n ibe'water 26.6 in.
isthedifrerenceinpressure,rnpoundspersqua'reinch'betweentwo (c) Illuicl .4 is sea watcr (ur: 64 0), the gage liquid has a specific
points o[ equal elwation at-the"basen"t gravity of ?.95, and z : 57.2 in.
9. A mercurY g&ge connecteoil"r:""i:-;;". of a condenser 16. In Fie, E, determine the pressure-head difrerence in feet of wator
; : 10 Determine the absolute pressure rn
in' pourrds
botwccn 'ln and a, when z is: (a) 6.5 in ; (b) 21'2 in'; (c) 33 0 in'
"h;;;;;;id
t"t"t" ftan'"'
*'d:fi;i. & point 4 ft below the wat€r surface'
1?. In Fig. E, determine the valrre of z when the pressure at m ir 10
"." il;;Jt i" p""tto"" ir poutrd' per squ&re inch &t /?
tt" lb pol sq in. greater than &'" ,.

,ded
38 PRINCIPLES OT IIYDROSTATIC PRESSURE CENERAL PROBI,EMS 30

18. In Fig. E, let z : 10 in. If, then, the pressure at ,r is i!.creased
by 5 Ib per sq in., while the pressure a,t. a rema,ins consta,trt, determiDe
the new value of z.
19, Iu tr'ig. F, determine the pressure-head difference in feet of waier
between zr and n, when z is: (o) 3.2 in.; (b) 10 in; (c) 15 in.
20. Determine the value ol z itr l-ig, F if the pressute at, ri. ie 1.4 lb
per sq in. greatcr than ai n.
?1. If, iu Fig. F, the pressure at m is 20 Ib per sq io., what is the corre'
st r when z :
sponding ptessure 8 in.?
at the elevations shown what is the pressure in pounds per square inch
otr ihe bottom of the tank? At what elev&tioa will the-liquii
stanclin
each of the piezometer tubes?
25. In tr'ig. J assume that the,piston and the weight are at, the same
-
elevation, the face ol the piston having an area oi2 sq'Fin. and the
face
of the weight 20 sq in. The intervening p"""ug".,"" h["d with o,u;;.
Whot-weight IIl can,be supported by a force p of fOO fb appliea ai
' tne
end of ihe lever as shown in ihe figure?
- 26. In Fig. J, the diameters oithe two cyliuders are 3 in. and 24
in., the face of the piston iB 20 ft above the face of the weisht t.;nd
the intervening passages &re 6lled with oil (sp gr 0.80). Wiot foi* p
is required to mointain equilibrium if l/ : 8000 lb?

Fig. J. Hydraulic jack.

Fig. F
2?. Two 12.iu, sections and a 2-in. section of pipe are connected by &
l2-in. by 12-in. by 2-in. tee. fn each eection ihere is a piston ol ihe
same diameter as the pipe. Neglecting the weight ol the water that
ls the apace between thd pistons, what, wilt be ihe total tensile etress
El l8' in a steel rod connecting the ll-iu. pistons if a force of 20 lb is appliecl
to the 2-iD. piston?
28. A 2-iu, pipe is coorected wiih the end of a cylinder having a
ll8' diametcr of 20 in, Thero ie a piston in the pipe and a piston in ihe
cylinder, the space between being filled with n a.ier. The iarger piston
is connepted by a rod with a }in.. piston in o third pipe, the iwo pipee
El0, and cylinder having their &xes horizontal snd collinear. If b force of
Fig. G Fig. H 20 lb is applied to the small pistoo in the first pipe, what will be the
necessory intensity of pressure in the third pipe to maintaia equilibrium?
22. In Fig. G compute the pressure difrerence between ar ond n, in 29. Assuming normal barometrio pressure, how deep is the oceaD at
pounds per square inch, whetr: o point where ao air bubble, upon reachiug the surface, has six times the
(o') Fluid .{ is brine (sp gr 1.15), the gage fluid is oil (sp gr 0.92), and volume.th&t it had at the botiom?
z : 44 itt. A bottte, consisl,ing of a cylinder I ft in diameter end t ft high,
,has30,a neck
(b) I'luid / is wat€r, the gage fluid is air, and a = 12 in. 2 in" in diarneier and i ft long. If this bottle, fllled with'aii
t3. Show th&t the Bensitivity of the m&nometer in Fig. l5o, that is, undcr atmospheric pressure, is iaverted eod submerged in water until
the height i, for o given pr€8sure differetrce between zn and ?r, incrcases aa tho neck is juet filled with water, 6nd the depth to which the open end
(e,r
- sa) decreases ar,d as a/A decteases. io aubmerged, neglecting vapor pressure.
24. Liquids /, B, and C in the coutainer shown in Fig. H have specific 31. A vertical tube l0 ft long, with one eod closed, is insertod vor-
gravities of 0.8Q 1.00, sod 1.60, r€spectively, With the liquid surfacea ticolly, with the op,en end down, into s ta.Dk of ws,ter uniil tho opon ond
40 I'ITINCIPLDS OF HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE Chaptn III
is submergerl to a <lepth of 4 ft'' Neglecting vapor
pressure' how far
EYDROSTATIC PRESSURF ON SIJRT'ACES
the levei in the tank?
''"i2.th" *"^t"" level in the tube be below
n.;it
verti-
,L.r"rti.rt tube 10 lt long' with one end closed' is in'serted
28. Total Pressure on Plane Surfaces. The total hgdrostatic
I 3 fl"pt'h thrt
u. *itt ihe opon cnd down rnlo tank of water 16
"^f "ga5 pressute on any plane turface is equal to the product of the arca of
op"n *"n n,'tor connectc.l 'rirl' the Lrppnr end ol the Iubo.showc.a
"n is the thn atrton ofid thp un pressure at ils center of gral)itV.
;;;; 6 in. of rnercurv. Neglecting vrpor pressure, how far
lor"e, Jnd of the tube belorv the water surface in the tank? This rule may be proved as follows: Figure 17 shows, on two
'-ii. 50"!' and,ihe vertical planes normal to each other, projections of any,plane
-t.."*i"g thal &t se:r level the temperatrrre isdecr"rses 3 5T'F
o,n*',r"i" 14.7 lb fersq in., rn,l thTt tirp rvrnPFrrriurn ss.9
i., "*fl iOOu [t incfaf, e in i.ltitu,l^, cnn,putc tir{- lcroler:,1urc utl
rt of ft, 30,000 fi, 45,000 ft As-
f.rr"-"t.i" pressure altitudes 15,000
trtri the temperaturc is gonstunt above 45,000 It, compute the
""rrliu*
pressure at 60,000 ft altitude.

of G.
ol P.

trrc. 17. Pressur€ oo plane surface.

surface, M.l[, subjected to the full static pressure of a liquid with

a free surface. Projection (b) is on a plane at right angles to MN.
The surface M.lI makes any angle, d, with the horizontal, and,
extended upward, the plane of this surface intersects the surface
of the liquid in the line S-S, shol.n as the point S in (b).
Consider the surface Mif to be made up of an infinite number of
horizcntaf strips each having at area dA aDd a width dy so small
that the unit pressure on the strip may be considered constant.
The liquid having a unit weight of ru, the unit pressure on a strip
at depth h below the surface and at distance g from the line 8-S is
'p = 11fu : uty sin' 0
4l
42 IIYI]BOSTATIC PRES,SURE ON SIJRFACES CENTER OF PRESSURE ON PLANE SURFACES 43

Tire total pressrlre on thc strip is axis of moments, it follows from the definition of center of pressure
that
dF:uasin0d.{' pyn=
and the total pressure on MN is J vdp (6)

P: wsia| f,udA (1) fvaP

.J Up:L P, (1)
Fronr ti,e de6rrition of conir.r o[ gravity, But, as in article 28,
dp:wsin0dA
f tae:,e,
J" Q)
and
P:wsin0Al (3)
where ! is the distance {rom the line 3 to tbe center of gravity Substituting in equation 7,
^S
of ,4. Flence
w of uz d.A
P:arsind-49 (3)
sin
f a" ae (8)
wsin0A! A'
Since the vertical depth of the center of gravity below the surface is
ln which dA is the moment of inertia, 1s, of M.ly' with respect
f U2

7: g sin 0 (4)
it follows that
p : uAA
rvhere u,L represents the unit press'ure at the centcr of gravity of ,4,
29. Ceoter of Pressure on Plane Surfaces, Any plane surface
subjectcd to liydlostalic plcssure is acied upon by an infinite
number of parallcl forccs ihe magnitudes of rvhich vary rvith the
depih, belou' the lree sulface, of the various infiniicsimal areas. on
which the respective forces act. These parallcl forces may be re-
placed by a single resultant forcc P. The point on the surface at
rvhich this resuliant {orce acts is calied.tbe center of pressure. If
the total hydrostatic plessure on any sudacc rvele applied at the
center of prcssure the same efrect rvould be produccd on the sur-
lace, considered as a free body, as is procluceci by the distributed
pressure.
The posiiion of the horizontal line corrtaining the center of pres-
suue.of a plane -surface subjected to hydrostatic pres,iure nay be
detelmincd by takilg moments of all the forces ar:ting on the sur-
face about some horizontal axis iri its plane. In Fig. 17, the line
I .S ma1' be tal<en as thc axis oi momcnts for thc surface MN,
Designating by yo the distance to ihe center of pressure from the
to the axis S-S, and .41 is the statical moment, Ss, of Miy' with
respect to the same axis. Therefore,
(5)
,o : (9)
"&
Problea. Apply the transfer formula of moment of ioertia to equ&-
tion I to show that
,:* (ro)
where e : perpendicular distance between horizontal axes through cen-
ter"of gravity and center of pressure, and tying in plane of
1o : Eoment of inertia of area with respect to the horizdnta,l axis
through its cent€r of gra,vity and lying in its plane,
Ss e moment of area with respect to ihe line in which the area
exteuded cuts ihe surface of the liquid.
The above discussion refers only to the determination of the
position of the horizontal line.which contains the center of pressurc;
that is, y, gives only the distance from the axis S-S, lying in tho
liquirl surfacc, to the center of pressure, For any plane figure such
tbat the locus of the midpoints of tbe horizontal strips is a stltight,
 CENTER OF PRESSURE ON PLANE SURFACES

HYDROSTI.TIC PNDSSUIII' ()N SUITFACIiS of the g&te. Tben

&
esi :
line, as, for instance, a triangle or trapezoid rvith base horizontal,
the centcr of pressure falls on that straight line. It is with such and
f yar
figules ihat the engineer is usually concerned. For oiher figures,
, the horizontal location of the center T" 4w(5y2 * ai) da
: 2.07 It
ffi of pressure may be.found in a manner
similar to that described above by measured from O-O,
taking moments about an ax.is, rvithin (b) By substitution in equations 5, 9, and 10,
the plan'e of thesurface, at right angles
to the hodzontal axis of moments. p:whA=wX7X6:42w : 2620 lb
rs (4X 33/36) +6X 72 :
Ex,lvpr,e l Find the total pressure 7 .07 u,
Ds 6X 7
i on the vertical triangular ga,te with
Frc- l8- Triancurar Eate. water un one side as ohown in Fig 18' I" 4X 3x 136
e:z:-.." "J - 0.0714 ft
and locale the center ol pressure. SS 6X 7
Solulinn. (a\ By integration: The toial pressure dP on any thin
horizontal strip at a distance y from the top of the gate equals the unit
Note that, wiih three-pl&ce accuracy of computation, the center of
pressure, urlr, times the arca d.4, or
pressure aa,n be located more accuralely by equation l0 th&n by equs-
dP: uhdA where l.:5*V and d,A = udV tion 9.
The horizootal location of the cenier of pressure in this case is on the
Since r varies with J it must be expressed iD terms of y before inta. median connecting the vertex wiih the base.
grating. From similar triangles,
r! ,=*v
43
Thus I
r =f ae =
f" +,<ro + !') dy = 42w - 262olb ,l
Takiag moments about ihe water surlace axis, S-S, []"
k_ 6'__:1

rv,: ' tr'rc. 19, Inclined rcctangular gste.

f nae
Exaupr,p 2, Find the total pressure on the itrclined rectangular grte
where l aud dP hgve ihe same values as above. Thus with 6eo water oa one side as shown iu Fig. lg, sad locste the center ot
pre$ure

f i*rrr, n tos' I vs) dv (a) By integration r

: 7.07 tt
r- ae : .n ae = u,(5* I a0) . Mu = r62u E 10,320 lb
measured from S-S. f f ;/' coo

It is often mo.e convenient to locate the center of pressure by taking

moments aboui some other axis, ae, in thie case, axis O-O through the top
46 HYDROSTATIC PRE€ISURE ON SURFACES PROBLEMS 47

Toking noments aboui ihe top of the got'e, ft &bove the iop of the gate. Determine the total pres*rure aud the
location of the center of pressure.
o' 6. A circular gate 5It in diameter is inclined at an angle of 45.. Sea
fo I *$a + y'cos 30) ' 6dY : w&t€r Bta,nds on one side of the gate to a height of 30 ft above the cent€r
"o l62w
2,17 ft from .B
of ihe gete. Determine the total pressure
on the gate end the location of the center of {' Wster 4' s!.fsce
(b) By equaiions 5, 9, and 10: pressure.
P: whA = arX (5* 2cos30)X :10,370Ib 6, A vertical triangular surface has a hori-
zontal base of 4 ft and an altitude of g fi, ihe
Ie $ X 4a ln) + 24Q.77)t :
", - ss_ 7.94 fi from I vertex being below the bose. If the ceDter of {c) (b) (c)
" 24x7.77 pressurc is 6 in. belol ihe center of gravity,
Fig. A
4slr2 : how far is the base belorv the liquid surface?
- ss_6x
._Ic 24 X 7.77
o.r72 rt 7. A vertical, tropezoidal gate in the lace of a dike is subjected to sea-
water pressurc (rl : 64.0) on one side. The upper edge is in the water
Both ,r and s are measured elong the plane of the gete' I'he hori- surfgce and is 5 ft long. Two edges are vertical and measure 6 ft and
zontal location of the center of pressure is 3 ft from either end of the
gate' I fi each. Deiermine the iotal pressure on ihe gate and the location of
EXAMTLE 3.
In Example 2, what force tr'normal to the gst€ at itg the center of pressure.
lower edge will be required to open it? 8. A rectangular gate of height, i, with upper and lower edges hori-
The tota,l pressure, P, on ihe gate, and the location of the center of zontal is inclined at any angle (< 90") vith the vertical. Liquid
pressure being known, by taking moments about the upper edge wbich etands on one side of the g&te, the upper edge of ihe gate being in the
iB the ceoter of rotation, liquid eurface. Show (and remember) that under these conditions tbe
dietance from the upper edge of the ga,te to the cent'er of pressure i6
4F : :
2.L7P 22'450 lt lb
luo-lhitds o! h.
F: 5610 lb 0. A vertical rectangular gate 4 ft wide and 6 ft high, hirged at the
top, has water on one side. What force applied at the bottom of the
Ifthis lorce were applied at the bottom of the gate, the gote would be get€, st an angle of 45'with the vertic&I, is required to op€n the gst€
in equilibrium and there would be no reaction on the supports along the wheo the water gurface is (o) et the top of the gote; (b) 3 ft sboye the
lower edge or sides of the gate. Any force greot€r than 5610 lb would top of the gate; (c) 3 ft below the top of the gate?
opeD the gat€. 10. On one side, water standr level with the top of
a vertical rectangular gate 4 fi wide and 6 tt high,
PROBLEMS
hinged et the bottom; on the other side vet€r stauds
Woier stands on one side of the vertical getes thown iu Fig' A'
l. 3 ft below the top. What horizontal force applied
Find by integration the totel pressure on ebch gtte and the location of st the top ol the gete is required to operi'tW
the ccnter of prebsure' 11. The rectangular gate in Fig. B io hioged ad
2. Water siands on one side of the vertical gates showu in Fig' A, B and reeta on a smooth floor at .4, lhe horizontal
the waier surface being 10 ft above the top of the getes' Find by component of the r€&ction &t d therefore being zero.
integraiion the total plessure on e&ch g&te &nd the locetion of the c€lrt€r The gate is 5 ft wide perpendicular to the paper.
of Determine the verticsl component of the resction st
pressure. Ilg. B
e grte 2 ft square lies in a plone making an angle of 3O'wlth the
i. ,4 and the horizontal and ve.tica,l compotreDts oI tho
vertirnl, Its upper edge is horizontal end 3 fi below the surface ol the rtsction s,t B for the following eete of conditions: (a) r : 6 ft, y - 8 ft,
liquid (sp gr 3.0). Find by integration the total pressure on the gate r-0ft; (b) t:8fi, u:8ft, r= 4ft; (c) c: y = 8 ft, g:10ft;
snd th€ locetion of the center of pressure.
(d) r - 3ft, u : 4tt,. = l0ft.
4, A vertical circular gate 3 ft in diometer is subject€d to pressure of ll. Tho flaEhboard g&to shos! in Fig. C conrietr of a plene foco td
molasseo (sp gr 1.50) on one side. The free sudace of the molassel is 8
rutiug in a groove at d ond rupported by tho rtrut co whioh is pinnod rt
4I} HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE ON SURFACES SEMIGRAPHIC METIIOD /tg

the ends. Neglecting the weight of the gate, determine the greatest
depth, ir., which the water ean have without causing the gate to collopse'
i3. If, on the upstream side of the gate in Fig. C, water siands level
with the upper edge b, and on the downstrean side water stands level
with the hinge c, neglecting the weight of the gate, what verticol force
per foot length of crest must be applied at b in order to c&use the gst€
to collapse?
14. ihe length of the gate in Fig. C, measured normal to the plane of
the paper, is 10 ft. Neglecting the weight of the gate, what vertical
force must be applied at a, 4 ft from the hinge, to prevent collopae when
L equals 20 fi? Whai is the etress iq c€?
liquid surface are, respectively, h1 and h2. The unit pr€ssure,,
ta[1, on the top of the rectangle is represented by the vectom
AtA and B'B (Fig. 20a), and on the bottom of the rectangle the
vectors C/C and D'D represent the unit pressure rah2,
The trapezoid BCC'B' may be divided into the rectangle BCEB|
and the triangle 8'EC' , Lhe locations of whose centers of gravity
rre known. By taking moments ol ea,ch of these pressure areas.
.s,

(a) (,)
(sD cr 0,80)
FIo. 20. Craphicel represettation of pr€ssure distributiotr,
Fie. C Fig. D
about CfC and dividing the sum of these moments by the area of
16. The gate iu Fig. D is hinged et ^A ond rests on a smooth floor st B. the trapezoid, the distance of the center ol pressure from C is
The ga.t€ is 10 ft square. Oil stands on the left side ol the gate to 8 height determined. Thus
Df 5 it. above,4. Above the oil surface is gas under a gage pressure of
B'B: 5w and. C'C: + :
- 1 lb per sq io. Determine the amount ol the vertical force F applied (5 4 cos 30)zr 8.46r,
at B that would be required to open the gst€'
Therefore
16. A triangular gate having a horizont8l bese 4 ft long and an alti'
tude of 6 ft is inclin€d 45' from the vertical with the vertex pointiDg up-
C'|E:4cos}ow:3.46w
ward. The ba.se of the gate i8 8 ft below the surface of the liquid,
which has a specific gravity of 0 82. 't{hat normel force must b€ spplied
Talring moments about C'C,
at the vertex of the gste to open it? 4x5wx2+*x3.46wx* : 1.83 ft
30. Semigraphic Method of Location of Cetrter of Prcssutc. tlts'., + &46rf
Semigraphic metlods may be used advantageously in locating the '---
Example 3, page 40, can also be solved by bking moments about
cer,ter of pressure on any plane srea whos€ horizontel dimension
does not vary with the depth. The rectangular olrluce ABCD,
88', as follows:
illustrated in Fig. 19, Example 2, is shown in perspective in Fig. 4F : 4X&, X6X2 ** x 3.a6ro X 6 X t
fra BC, Fig. 20b, represents the projection of the rectengle m
s vertical plane perpendicular to the plene of the surface. Thc from which
verticsl depths of the top and bottom of the rectlagle trelow the tr' : 5610 lb
50 FYDROSTATIC PIJSSURE ON SURFACES HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL COMPONENTS 5I

For areas having a variable width, SB/C' is not a straight line The triangle GtD is similar to Cf'G and equal to CE'P by construc-
and the center of gravity of the pressure area is not so easily located. tion. The trapezoid of pressure AHKB is therefore balanced by
For such areas it rvill probably be easier to use the analytical the trapezoid ONML. The resultant intensity of pressure on the
me.thod described in Art. 29. gate is therefore constant, as represented by the rectangle O,48tr,
31. Position ot Center of Presswe wit! Respect to Center of and the center of pressure must coincide with the center of gravity
Gravity. If the unit pressure varies over any surface, the center of the gate. This is true regardless of the shape of the gate. The
of pressure is below the center of gravity. Applyiag the transler resultant intensity of pressure is urlr,, r'here tr, is the difference in
formula for mornent of inertia to equaiion I gives level orr the .two sides.
In this latter case it should be observed that it is the center of
u,: to+A'Ar2: Io , -
s" _,
lhe rewltant lota,l pressure that coincides with the center of gravity
of the gate, since the center of gravity of either of the trapezoidal
Siuce 1r,/S6 must always be positive, yp must be greater than l. areas of pressure, considered alone, falls below the center of gravity
This may also be seen from Fig. 20. The center of pressure on of the gate.
ABCD is the normal projec- 32. I{orizontal and Vertical Components of Total Hydrostatic
tion on that plane of the Pressure on Any Surface. It is often more convenient to deal
center of graviiy of the prts- with the horizonial and the veriical
sure volume.4BCD A' B' C' D'. components of the total pressur€ a,ct-
Evidently this projection ing on a surface rather than with the
must fall below the center of result&nt pressure. Thjs is particu-
gravity of ,4BCD since it larly true when dealing with pressures
would fall at the center of on curved surfaces.
gravity if the unit pressure on Consider, for example, the liquid
the surface were uniform, in pressure acting on the curved surface
which case the pressure vol- l{B shown in Fig. 22. The surface
w oltld. be A BC D A' B' E F. may have any length normal to the
'Jme Fr6. 22, Pressure oil curved
It also appears from the plane of the paper. Choosing the
FIc. 21. Opposing hydrostatic surface.
pressures. above discussion s,nd from a coordinate a,xes as shown, let 81 rep-
study of Fig. 20 that Ior any resent the trace of a verljcal plane normal to the XY plane.
area the greater its depth below the surface of the liquid the more Consider the equilibrium of the rslume of liquid the cross sectioD
nearly will the center of prgssure approach the center- of gravity, of which, as shown in the figure,. is ABF wd whose ends are
The two coincide at an infinite depth. parallel with the XIl plane. Since this volume of liquid is as-
Under two conditions the uuit pressure is constant over the sumed to be in equilibrium, 2F, : I uo6 )Fr : 0.
area, and hence the center of pressure coincides with the center of The only forces that have any components parallel with the X
gravity: (1) when the is horizontal and (2) when both
surfa.ce a:<is are the flrm of the X components of the lqrmal pressureg
sides of the area are completely submerged in liquids of the same acting on the surface dB and the normal total pressure on tho
unit weight. vortical plane 8F, which is the projection of the surface,4B on a
As an illustration consider the gate ,4,B (Fig. 21). The top of vortical plano normal to the X axis. These lorces must be equal
the gate is submerged ft1 feet on one side and h2 feet on the other in magnitude. Ae the demonstration holds true independently of
side. The distribution of pressure on, the left is reprcsented by iho location of the horiirontal X axis, it mey be stated th&t ,[€
the trapezoid ABMN s;od on the right by tbe trapezoid ,{IIKB. cornponcnt, alm4 ady horizm,l.al aris, ol the tolal hyd.roltalic presaure
 52 I]YDROSTATIC PRdSSURE ON SURFACES

on dny surface is equal to the lotal pressure orL the projection of th,atL
PROBLEMS 53
surface on a oerlical plane Lhith is normql to the cho$ul o:rzs. The The vertical component of pre.ru,.e on the gate is
equal to the weisht
localion ol the horizontal component is throtrgh the center of of the prism of water l0 ft long and having a-n ""'""
plessure of this projection. "rO -lrlac-'"
In a similar manner consider the veltical forces acting on the Area ABC: 17.32 X + 1x x
voiume of liquid ..r'hose cross sectior is,4BF (Fig. 22). The only
rO
2
17 32 10
-; x 20t = 50'48qft

vcrtical lorces are the force of gravity, represented by the weight Thercfole
of the liquid, arrd the sum of the vcrtical components of the pres- Pv : 50.4 X J0 X 62.4 : 94,400 lb
sures on the surface,4B, which forces must therefore be equal in The location of py is in iine with the center o, gravity
magniiucle. In other rvords, the uerlicel componcnt ol the total of r""tioo efC.
This point can be locrted hy summrng up area moments
hydroslatic pressure on any surJace is equal to the veight of that with rcspect to
line .48 and dividing that sum by the area. (The
uolume of th,c liqtdd erte.nding uerlically lrom the surface to the free crrcular sector ls 21i/T |rom the center.) Thus
of.* Ani
""otroia
surface ol the liquid. The locatior of the vertical compoueat is
through the centroid oi this volume. tM a6 - 173.2y sa* (ro- 19*, so) :,+r r,"
If the liquid is underneath the surface, the pressure acts upward
on the surface, and the magnitude of the vertical component, as
"':: ;::,
will be shorvn later (Art. 35), is equal to the rveight of the imaginary The location of py can bc more easily determined
volume of the liquid exterrding vertically from the surface to the in this problem hv
noting that the resultant of p;1 and py must pr."
level of the real or imaginary free Tris.Bgle D,&'O is therefore similar I o the lorce
th;il O:'"iwh;
triangre shown in Fig.
surlace of the liquid. The location 236, Since DE = 5,7? It,
of the vertical component is through
EO : 5.771 !8r,0oo : 17.2 ft
the centroid of this imaginary volume. 9q-.
and Py is 2.8 ft from ,4B.
Ex,rvplo. The sector gate shown in
Fig. 23c consists of a cylindrical surface, PROBLEMS
o of which ,4C is the trace, supported by
a structural lrame hinged at O. The th: *.-:d surface represented by ,{B in Fig. A is the surface of
..l.
rle.quaorant ol & crrcutor cylinder l0 fl long. Determine
length of the gote, perpendicular to the the horizonial
and vertical components ol total hydrosta-tic
' pafer, is 30 ft. Detennine the amount ;;11;;;.t#.
when,(a) r : rOtL,z:0; (6)
oress_"
r = 8lt.z = sft f.ir-=;1,;; ="sffi:
and location of the horizontal and the
2, Locate the horizontal and vertical cornpoo"nts
vertical components of the total hydro-
problem 1. (Note: The center of gravity of
of to"tui'o;;"* i;
(b)
st&tic pressure on the gate. , il;Jr;;;
side.) "i!"ri;;
radius r is 4rl3a- distant from each siraighi
Frc. 23. Secto. gate. SaluliorL. "fo determine the horizon-
tal component of pressure on the gaie, 9. The corner plate of the hull ot a shii(,4 a in Fig.
B; is curved on the
consider the gate projecied onto a, vertical plane of which.4B is the
arc of a cir?'le with a radiue. With submcrs"ion'ln ;;;,;";--:
frace. This projection is a rcctangle with a rvidth of 30 ft and a height shown, compute lor a l-fr'.ftlensrh p".p"ndi.ul;;;;;;;;il;"""Hj.ff
of 20 cos 30 : 17.32 ft. Therefore
and location of the horizontal and vertical
;; ,;;i;;;;;
otr.48. ""'n0"";;;
Determine graphically the amount
Ps : whA: 62.4 X 8.60 X b19.6 : 281,000 lb ant pressure.
and location til;;;lt
"f
Since this projection is a rectangle rvith top edge horizontal and lying 4. In the crest gato on a dam shown in Fig. C, surface,4B
forms the
arc of a circle of to-ft radius subtending ayit
in the water surface, the center of pressure is at two-thirds the depth, or tf," f,irgi." ti;;;;
I I 55 ft below the \YatcDsurfacc.
l0 ft long. With water surface at B compute tfr"
of the horizontol and vertical components oi totnf"_"-i*
p""ou*"rji,?-"ii"I
oo eil
I)ctcrrnine graphically the arnount ,and at.""ti.n
oiiii"li' r"J,ift'#.
 64 HYDNOSIATIC PITUSSURE ON SUR!'ACES
ITooP TENSION IN cIRcU[..da PIP-&g 3ND TANKa
A pyramid weighing 4000 lb has a base 6 ft square and an altitude 56
-6, Consider a semicircular
oJ 4 lt. The base covem an opening in the flooi
;Jl;';il;;
"f "h;;;;;;; 'equilibriurn
st
tfi;;;;il":'t*'*!.1
,r*;;;"#J, r 18' or unit lenstb, held in
there is water 4 ft deep. Underneath the floor thu the unt pressure i.s a^csu.Ded
"f Whul
water surface there is air &t atmospheric pressure. to uoiio.ri,
t
ll r€qurred to IiJt the pyramid ofi the floor?
,e*;caiior"e "
at all points in re circur
I
ference. rhe;;,#'bJ_ I -Xrn-o
'? '*h
Wf,t€r surfsce
,outar.
"o.po*..oJ;i";il
actiag on rhe lf _L'1
l-orftl
seuucucular
p.e"sures
I y. .iy
segment i8 equal t _ _Yfr_ify
.J
? *_{Jt/
Lo the norma] pressure
on thA A
L-A projection of this segment }\c. 24
tArt
32). Callirg this normal pressure p,
i."'\ siace If,: 0,
= wha = pD (')
Fis. A Fis. B
rr shourd o" ."r* ilr1l, -i?li:
Fis. C .r r""sth ;t ;J;;ilT#:1H'.l"iSIJ:Jl:
vanes axially along a pipe
or tank of ,"ir"",il a;"rn"r"{,lll" i::.H:
standpipe containing liquid,
:;r".,r,:: ;;";errical rhe hoop ren-

Exaupr,p.
Determine the ten!
pp;;;;;;;;:;Tllx'fi
.
JJ:li;bt";'"8H,fl j.l,l*;",fj
i"
Fis. rr
.! !9. D FiC. E Solution. p :4BS lb per sq in.
6, A hemispherical dome gurmounts a closed 2T:pD:10,400
_ iank as shown in
D. If the tanl. rnd dome are 6lled with gasoline (sp g" 0.22) ; Fig. ? : b200 Ib per iu. length
gage indicatrs 8 lb per sq in. gage pressurc,
til of pipe,
what is tle htal tension in -_
The required thickness of a
st€el oipe' using a wcrkiug
tbe bolts holdiog the dome io place? to per oq i.E,, would be stress of 16,000
7- The gate .48 shown in Fig. E is hinged at d &nd rests against
pertectly broooth vertical wall at B. The gate is & . 5200
20 ft long: With ': ;u'6: o "t to'
water as shown, determino the horizontal aud vertical
resotioue /. and B,
compo""it" oitl"
{he
fore€oinS theory takes account
only of the static pre$w€ in
^
a prpe.
Pipes in service are freo
Sil Eoop Tension il Circular pipes a:rd Tanks. The cir_ *'"au" to required also to resist pres-
*"t"1f;;;". ;l;:"i::ltrv
cumferential stress, or hoop tension, in a pipe o, tuof
cross section is determined by applying the rule for
of
"i"cuta,r :l:",,: el, ""r,".- M;;;;;";, i:i TJ;*T*"riLlfl TjiH
horizontal com_ prpe whjch u.ill resist shocks due
ponent of pressure against a curved surface.
A cross section of a pipe of diameter D is shown in Fig. 24. If.
arso have ,"*; .;;;;;;,1""-"".t: 'o,*, handling and wrrjch will
against breakage
.. to corrosion and other 4"r"6o.u,i^1o,-*,*rd . due
the pressure hea.d I in the pipe is relatively lu.g" tn serrrice The thickness of
b th-" riweted sreet pip" ;;:t-il;'#uton
diemeter of the pipg it is customary to consider
pr€68ure p is uniform throughout the cross
"o-pu"?d
section.
thst the unit uffijl*:{ d;;;;ft;;;
"r lormulas
irruprncat
inverse rario to the
#J,::'ff;i.'"
&re therefore in use to determine
the proper
 '. i rtrrllri

56 IIYDROSTATIC PRESSURE ON SURFACES

34, Dams. Dama are burlt for the purpose of impor;o,lipg
thickness of pipe. For example, the New England Water Works water. Since the water level is raised on the upsf,ream side. the
Association formula for cast-iron pipe, assuming a working stress dam is subject to hydrostatic forces which tend to (i) stje it
of 3300 lb per sq in., is horizontally on its foundation, and (2) overturn it about its clowl_
(p stream edge or toe. These tendencies are resisted by: (l) frictioa
t _ t2')d + o.zs (12) on the base of the dam, assisted in modern practice by keving the
base of a solid masonry dam into the bedrock, and (2) gravita-
where t : thickness of pipe wall in inches. tional forces which produce moment opposite in direction to the
p : static pressure in pounds per square inch. oyerturaing moment.
p' : allowance for water hammer in pounds per square inch. Also because of the raised water level on the upstream face there
d: internal pipe diameter in inches. is a tendency for the u'ater to seep under the dam and escape at
the lower level on the downstream side. Ieasmuch as this seepage
.. The allorvance for water hanmer decreases as the size of the pipe
is under pressure, it exerts wha,t is commonly called a hydrostatic
increases according to the accompa,nying table.
uplift on the dam.
.t p' d p' Depending upon the nature of the foundation material and upon
the effectiveness of cut-off walls and foundation grouting in reduc-
3 to 10 in. 120 lb per sq in. 24 itt 85 tb per eq in.
ing the seepage, the uplift pressure head at the upstream edge,
12 110 30 80
IB 100 36 ln or heel, of the dam may vary lrom full lrydrostatic head to a small
20 90 42 to 60 70 fraction thereof. The intensity of this uplift pressure is usually
ossumed to vary uniformly from the heel to the toe, or do*nstream
PROBLEMS
edge of the base, at which point it is approximately equal to tolrt,
where hr is the depth of ihe base belorv the downstream water
l. Compute the wall etress in a 48-in. steel pipe I in. thick under a surface,
head of 400 ft ot oil (sp gr 0.82).
The hydrostatic uplift on a dam: (1) reciuces the stability
2. What is the minimum allowable thicknese for a 24-iu. steel pipe
agaiust sliding; (2) reduces the stability agaiust ovefurning; and
urder an internal pressure of 125 lb per sq itr, with a working stress in
(3) reduces the total earth or rock pressure on the base, although
the steel of 10,000 lb per sq in.?
3. A wood-stave pipe is bound by steel rods which take the entiro itmay increase the intensity o{ this pressure at the toe.
buEting stress. Fifd the proper spacing for l-in. round bteel rods for e A typical applicaiion of the principles of the mechanics of a freo
7lin. wood-etsve pipe under a head of 200 ft of rpater if the working body to tbe analysis of forces acting o;r the cross section of a
etrese in the st€el is 15,000 lb per eq.in. gravity dam, both with and rvithout hydrostatic uplift, is shown in
t!. Find the proper thickness ol 3 in. cast-iron pipe uader a 30(!ft the following examples, In designing important structures some
bead ol water with a working strem of 3300 lb per sq ia, (o) by theory of the assumptions herein made are modified in actual p:actice.
(b) by N,p.W.W.A. ernpirical fornula.
6. A cylindrical tonk, haring a vertical axis, is 6 ft in diemeter a,nd Dx,rurlp l. Analyze the forces acting upon the concrete dam suL
10 ft high. Iis sides are held in position by means of two steel hoopo, jected to wa,ter pressure as shown in Fig. 25 for:
one at tho top and one at the bottom. What, is the t€n8ilo stress in eech
hoop when the tank is filled with watar? (o) Amount and locafion of resultant reaction ou ba"se.
6. A verticat, cylindrical tank, 5 ft in diameter and 12 ft bigh, is held (b) Resistance to sliding.
together by means of two steel hoops, one et the top end oDe et ths (c) Resistance to overturning.
bottom. Wtren molasses (sp gr 1.50) stauds to a depth of I ft in tho (d) Ir,tensity of pressure on base at heel B and toe C.
tsrk, what is the stress in each hoop?
 68 EYDROSTATIC PITI.]S8URIj ON SURFACES

following numerical values are given.

DAMS 60
, _The Area of section,4BCD _
1000 eq fi,. Area of water section 200 sq If lveight of coD- pla,ne of the section, X being the distance from C at which tbe rcsultsDt,
crct€ : r5o lb per eu fr. Lin.^, ,iio*1-1,: fi, iniersects the base of the dam:
. A section of cram r f,l;"r;tii ;; ;H:ill:fr ilijilxlr"ufsl; P,-
the actioq of the following f,,,rces:
""0". from which
nyx + 15 25P" - t,W:0
W : the total weight of the sectiotr, actiDg through X : 9.93 fr
the center of
ga\ity of the cross section ,4BCD- Thus the_resultant les.ction of i74,j00 lb per linear foot of drm
.P = result&trt total hydrostutic prcssure 4n inl,er-
Lbe face AB. eects the base 9,93 ft irom the toe of the dam.
.r - reacuon between the foundation and
the base, If the coeffieieot of friction is 0.4, the resistaqce to slidinc iB l62.F0O X
dem. This reaction rousr necessarily b;;;;; BC, of the 0.4 : 65,000 lb, and the fector of Eafety egaiast sl.idbg is=
posite to, and colliaear with, tl"
:J
,"rurt"oiii?Tri"f
95'9q: 1.s3
D
63,200
Tho factor of eafel,y agaiost overturning is

63,200 x r5
It.might be stated in passing that this fsctor of safety agoinst over_
turning would, in practice, be cousid-
ered entirely satisfactory, whereas the
above factor of safety against eliding
. could not be so considered.
The unit pressures on the founda-
tion at B and d may be louad by two
methods:
(c) By geometric analysis, a.qjrdi-
cated in Fig. 26o. The unit pressuro
is assumed to vs,!y unifoimly from r
Lt B to z * o at C. The diagrem
Fro. 25. representing the distribution of pres-
Forces on d8nr,
sure is in this case a trapezoid with g

,,:lil:l* jiil
iLs maimum ordiDete at d, as indi-
three f orcee,
;.",T.ffi :,:iJfi Jl;Hy#il n,ial cated by the iact that if the diagram
were a rectangle its center of gravity,
2F": 6' o' >nr': o'
2Po ihat is, the location of Rr, would bo
Tlru", --
14 ft from C, whereas if it were a
B" - P': 62'4 x 22'5 x 45 : 63,200 tri&ngle the distance would be gi ft.
!lo. 26
and lb
Since the actual distancs lies between theee valu€s the di&grsn mu8t bo
&- 4* W :20oX 62.4+ 1000 X rbo e tm,pezoid.
: 12,500 * 150,000 : t62,E0O lb The area of the pressure diagram represents tho total vertical preesure
on the ba.se,. or 162,500. Thus
T"X'f:'mn:*"#;,i1/.*F,"1;Jf ,#*i"*" ,r(*#):102,500
 PROBLEMS OI
60 HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE ON SURFACES
Agaio with IM":
Nal a= ll'610 E,/X + (3X 28\U+t+P"-25Pv-r,W:O
Taking momeuts about C,
X : 28 X oX 14* + X @X 28X 3e froro wtLich
162;500 9.93 X= 7.15 fi
simultaneously'
Solving the two prccedi[g equations ft from C, or in
Since the reeultant base pressure &cts at a poiut 7.15
o = ?40 lb Per sq ft other words, the c€nie! of gravity of
and the pressure diagram is at that distance
o { o: 10,8?0 lb Per sq ft horizontally from C, it follo$.'s that
(b) By the combined-stress forrmrla from mechanics: that diagram must be triangular as
shown in Fig. 27 extending from C a
PMc distaace equal to 3 X 7.15 - 21.45 tl'
Siuce the total pressure equsls 123,200
lb, the unit pressurc at C i8
a sectjon of the dam I ft long is shown in
'r,"t of the base of tt""r'ion
A nlan view
ff, be considered applied along 123'2oo
trl. !'ia. *"'"',r"-*i"ot x 2 :. ft
i" *'"'i"" "r the dam and disr'ant e : r4 - e e3 -
4 07 tl,5oo tb per eq
;l?;:;J;l 2r.45
"n
iirn ii" o^*[a gravity axis gg The terms in l'he combi-'ed+tress
The resistance to sliding is now g\o. n
formula have tbe values
X 0.4 - 49,300 lb, and, since
123,200
P : Rt = 162,500 lb this is les6 then the horizontel pressure, failure from elidiog muct occur'
.4:28sqft The faclor of safety ogaiost overturning is
M : Pe - 661,000 ft-lb
12,500 X 25+ 150,000 x 15 :
c: 14 ft 63,200 X 15+ 39,300 X +X 28
t.52

r: I X 28t: t83o fi'

'12 as compared with 2.? v.,hen tbere was no seepage under the dam.
Substitutiug,
s- 5805* 5065 PROBLEIIS
sq it 8t toe
: 110.870 lb Per
I z+o lb sq ft 8t heel
per 1. A rrasonry dam of trapezoidal cross eection, with one {ace vertical
har a thickness of 2 ft st the top ?nd r0 ft 8t the bottom. lt is 22 ft
the fo'rDdstioD- Dst€-
2. Solve Example I assuming thatvaries high and has a horizontal base. The vertical face is aubjected to water
EX^MPLE
from full hvdro- pressure, the water sionding 15 ft above the bese. The weigbt of the
.iri;;l""; aid that the uptift p'ettu'Jh"od
' ct'.tic Lead at the heel to zero et the toe' masonry is 150 tb per cu ft. Where will the reeultsnt pressure intor-
"" sect the base, ond q,hat wlll be the intensity of pressure aJ the heel and
'it"'iJ*tt" * tne hvdrosts'tic uplilt at the heel ie
ft at the toe assuming: (o) that there is no hydrostatic uplift; (D) that
62.4X 45 - 2810 tb Per sq
there ia hydrostatic uptift which varies uniformly froro that due to 8 full
head of 15 ft &t the heel to zero &t the toe'
a,ud the total uPlift, U, is
3. A masonry dam of trapezoidal cross section, with oue face vertic+1,
+ x 2810 x 28 = 39'3oo
lb has a thickn€ss of 2 ft at the top aad l0 ft st the bottom' lt
'ts fZ lt

Sioce EF, : 0, high and has a borizon$al base. The iuchned face is subiected to water
: 123'200 lb preosure, the wstpr Bt&ndiDg to & dePth of t5 ft sbove th€ b8s€. Tho
R,= Ps* w - u:12,500+ 15d'000 - 39',300
82 IIYDROSTATIC PRESSIJRE ON SURTACES PnOBLEM8 0l!
weight of the m&sonry is 150 lb per cu ft.
If there is no hydrostatic a horizontel plane. If, therefore, thero is any tende.ncy for the
uplift, where wiil the resulte,nt pressule iutersect the base? Ie ihie s
good design?
body to move it must be iD a vertical direction,
Consider now the I/ components of the hydrostBtic presssure
36. Pri.trciple of Archimedes. The roethod of determining the acthg on the ends of any Vertical prism 61b2 havilg a cross-seetional
vertical components of hydrostatic pressure on surfaces was dis- area, d,4, so small that the intensity of pressure on either end of the
cussed in Art. 32. It will now be shown that the secalled buoyant priam may be coneidered uniform. The vertical component oi the
force acting on a body submerged in a fluid is merely the resultant normal pressure on dA at b1 is ufu dA, acti.ng downward; and the
of two vertical hydrostatic forces - one, the upward component corresponding force at b2 is wh2dA, acting upward. Ttre repult-
of the total preszure exerted by the fiuid on the uader surface of ant of these two forces is upward and equal to w(h2 - h) ilA"
the body; the other, the dowrrward component of the total pres- Brit (h2 - h)dAis the volume of the elementary prim which,
sure exerted by the fluid on tbe upper zurface. Since unit preszure multiplied by ta, gives the weight of the displaced fluid. Since
increas€s with depth, the upward component is greater than t'he the entire body, ABCD, is made up of an infnite number of such
downward. The resultant is prisms, it follows that the resultant hydrostatic pressure on the
therefore an upward, or buoYant, body io an upward, or buoya,nt, force equal in magoitude to the
force. weight of the dieplaced fluid.
In general, onY bodg immsrsd. If the weight of the body is greater than the buoyant force tb.e
in a fiuid, is nrbjectnd tn o buoyant body sinks unless prevented by extemal forces. If the weight of
loru equd ln the wtight of thc the body is less than the buoyant force, tho body rises. If the
fluid, displnud. This is known fluid is a homogeneous liquid, the body rises to the free surface and
a.s the Principle of Archimedes. floats there, dieplacing a volume of liquid having a weight equal
x It may be proved in the follow- to that of the body.
ing manner. The regultant buoyant folce acting on any vertical elementaqr
Consider a body .4BCD (Fig. prism of the subnerged body is equal to the weight of the prisn
tr:o. 28, Subm€rged MY. 28) submerged in a fluid of con- of displaced fluid. Since in a homogmeous fluid the weight of
stsnt rudt weight ra having a free e*ch prism is directly proportional to its volume, the center of
surface S. If the fluid is a gas the free zurface is imaginary; gravity of the resultant buoyant force , called the cmbr ol hnganc11,
nevertbeless the following aaalysis applies approximately if the coincides with the center of gravity of the displaced fluid.
dimensions of the body are snall compared to its depth below the
imaginary free surface. The body is refened to the coordinetr PRoBLEMS
axes X, Y, ar:d' Z. 1. A rectengular acow i5 ft by 32 ft, having vertical eides and eudo,
Consider the small horizontal prism. 41o2, parallel to the X axis, weigbs 40 long toDB (89,600 lb). What is its dreft: (o) in frerh water;
to have s cross-sectional areo d"A. The X component of the nor- (D) in eea waier?
mal force acting on 01 must be equ&l ard opposite to the same lorce n. If I rectangular scow 18 ft by 40 ft, hae e draft in fresh wat€r of 5
scting otr @2, e&ch being equa.l to t,h dA. There is, thereiore, no ft, what ie its weight in long tonr?
tendency for this prism to moYe in a direction parallel to the 3, A aphere 3 It in diameter floats half eubmerged io a tank ol oil
(ap gr 0.80). (a) What is the total vertical prcsaurc otr the sphere?
X axis. Sirce the same reasoning may be applied t<-r every other
prism parallel to ap2, it follows that there is no tendency for the (b) What ia the minimum weight of ar anchor weighing 150 lb p€r cu
body as a whole to move in this direction. The same reasoning
ft thot will be required to submerge the sphere completely?
spplies to movement parallel to the Z sxis or to any other a:rie i!
|. A cubic foot of ice (sp Sr 0.90) floats lreely in a vessel coutaining
woter the tempemture of .wbich ig 32' F. When the ice melt8, will
 04 IIYDI'OS'I'ATIC PRIISSURI' ON SUIIITACES
ihe water level in the vessel riFe, fall, or rernain etationery? Explein
why.
6. In Fig. A a circular opening 4 lt in diameter is closed by a hemi-
sphe cal shell weighiug 2800 lb. (o) Neglectirrg friction, what force is
required io lift the shell vertically? (b) With what {orce is the shell
held against the seat?
6. An iceberg having a specilic gravity of'0.92 floats in salt water
having a specific gravity of 1.03. If the volume of ice above tho surlece
is 700 cu yd, what is the total volume of the iceberg?
?. A cylinder 2 ft in diameter, 4 ft long, and weighiug 75 lb floots in
wst€r with its axis vertical. An anchor weighing 150 lb per cu ft ia
attached to the lower end. Determine the total weight of the anchot if
the bottom of the cylinder is submerged 3 ft below the wat€r Burf&ce.
Fis. A Fig. B
8. A conclete cube 2 ft on each edge, weighing 150Ib per cu it in air,
reslq oo the bottorn of a tent iq which se& water (?r: 64.0) stands 16
ft deep. The bottom edges are sealed ofr so that oo water is admitted
under the block. Find the vertical pull required to lift the block.
0. A spherical balloon 20 ft in diameter is filled with gas weighiDg
0.035 lb per cu ft. In standard air weighing 0.0765 lb pe. cu ft, what
is the maxirnum load, including its own weight, that the balloon can lift?
10. In Fig. B; if ihe weight l,I/ of the gate (in air) is 1000 lb and o:
2 ft, determine the force, f', required to lift ihe gate.
11, In Flg. B, il a : 2 ft, determine the value of P when e force of
3000 lb is required to lift the gat€.
12. in Fig. B, if lf : 1000 lb, determine the yalue of o when a force
of 5000 lb is .equired to lift the gate.
36. Statical Stability of I'loating Bodies. Any floating body
is subjected to two systems of parallel forces: the downward force
of gradty acting on each of the partrcles thal goes to make up the
STA'TIOAL STABILITY OI'FI,OATINQ BODIES 65
lxrdy, and the buoyant force of the liquid acting upward
on the
vrrious eiements of the submerged surface.
In order that the body may be in equilibrium the resultants of
thcse two systems of forces must be collinear, equal, and opposite,
Ilcnce the renter of buoyancy and the center of g.u"ity of tn"
floating body must lie in the same vertical line.
Figure 29o shows the cross section of a ship floating in an upright
position, the axis of symmetry being vertical. Fo, thls po"itlon
the center of buoyancy lies on the axis of symmetry at ge, which
is- the center of gravity of the area ACL. The
c"ote. oiirr,rity
of the ship is assumed to be at G. If, from any cause, ,'. -i"a
or wave action, the ship is made to heel through an"u"tangle d, as
(6\ (D)
tr1c. 29. Cross sectioo of ship.
shown iD Fig. 29b, the center of gravity of the ship and cargo
remaining unchanged, tbe center of buoyancy shifts to a new p;_
tion, B, which is the cente4 of gravity of the area A,C,L. 'The
brroyant force F, a,cting upward through B, and the weight of the
ship lZ, acting downward through G, constitute a coirple WX
which resists further overtuming and tends to restore the ship to itg
original upright position.
If- th,e vertical line through the center of.buoyancy intersects
" inclined
the
axis of symmetry a,t a point M above the center of
gravity, the two forces F and. W produce a righting mommt. If,
however, M lies below G an ouerturning morncnJ is proauced. fhe
point M is known as the metncenter, and its distance G.rtf from
the
center of gravity of the ship is termed lhe metacentric h.tiqht. The
metacentric height_is a measure of the statical stability oi the ship.
For small angles of inclinatioa, as shotn below, the position of .fo
 HYDROSTATIC PRESSUIIE ON SUITFACIIS MI,?ACONTTIIC ST]IGHT AND I'I(IIITINC MOMENT
dms not change materially and the metacentric height is approxi- lhrt
mrtely const&nt. 8:MBoein0
37. Determination of Metacentric Height and Rightitg IvIo- 'l'herefore
nerrt. Figure 30 illustrates a ship having a displacement volume tL
I/. When the ship is tilted through the angle d the wedge,4O,4' MBo : (13)
emerges from the water while the wedge C/QC is immersed. If the
Tsind
For small aogles,
sides .r{.,4' aad C'C are parallel, these wedges are simillr 8,nd of
equal vclume, u, since the same volume of water is displaced by the MBo :
ship whether in an inclined or upright position. The wedges # @pproxinately) , n4)
therefore have the same length, and the water lines,,lC and zl'C'
intersect on the axis of symmetry at O.
. Consid.er now a small prism of the wedge CrOC, at s, distance a
from O, having a horizonta! cross_sectio;l
urea'ai.- F;;il
anglee the length of this prism : .ze (approdmatef"l.
if," Uil?-
l.#
;t-- -.iI c :l
:::
ant force produced by this immerse^d'iai-i
moment of this force about O is .rro d,A.
moments for both wedges must be equal
The
to trz.L or"u_
ij'ai,;;"ri;
oi
"J1
;h;
"-ilF ls unf*a,t=unL-wvs
" |-)
* x ,/'/ But for mall angles g : Eoa (approximaiely). Eenco
4 n
JldA:vutBo)
nt
f * a.l is the moment of inertie, /, of the
water_line rection
tr\o. 30. Iaclined ship. abou-t the longitudinal axis through
O (approximately coDctsnt for
When the ehip floats in an upright position a buoyant force F', amall angles of heel). ThereforJ
equal to ur, &cts upward tbrough K, the center of gravity of the I
TraAo:
wdge AOA'. In the inclined position this force no longer acts,
but an equal force Ft ' acts at Kt , the center of gravity of the wedge The metacentric height
i o6)
C'OC. It may be considered that a downward force F///, equal to
f'l, bas been introduced, the resultant of F"' and F' being zero. A GM: MBo + GBo (t6)
couple haa therefore been introduced equal to unL,.L being the ,h:-"-q Uui"* positive if G falls below 8s, and negative
horizontai distance betrveen the centers of gravity of tbe wedges. rf I is the moment of inerria of tt" *"t .ur" if above.
Because of the shifting of the force f'l from K to lll the line of
.
ehjp ol an even keel, the resulting value
irii"ti"
"i"ii*
action of the buoyant force F acting on the entire ship is shifted tnd. 16 ca.r: be celled the initial metaceutric
from;;;";;"jT
of GM
lrom Bs to 8, a horizontal distance ,S such thai of the geometrical forrn of the vessel and
is'ail;;;
height and
tu" ri*ti- lrr"**"il
UVS : touL of gravity for any particutar condition ,f l;"d1";.*fifij;T:
"i
I{e.nce rpproximltely constant for small angies b*1.- f.;;y;;}";
for a ship with straight sides, up_to the "f
g:1r. immerses or the bilge emerges, d
angle ut
"hi"h
;";il
is given by equatio.r, S *J i6.
f
 GENERAL PROBLEMS 69
6S HYDROSTATIC PRESSUR,E ON SURFACES
3. A cylindrical caisson having an outside diameter of 20 ft floats io
The righting moment (see Figs' 29b and 30) is fresh rvater with its axis vertical and with its Iorver end submerged 20
R.M. : WX : W'EM sin 0 ( 17) It below the water surface. Its ceniel of gravity is on the vertical axis
and I ft obove the bottom. Find: (o) the metacentric height; (b) the
righting couple when the ceisson is tipped through an angie of 10'.
Exrupr,r. Tbe scow sbown in Fig. 31 is 40 ft long, 20 ft wide, and 8 ft
deep. It has s draft of 5 fi when 4, A rectangular scow 30 ft wide antl 50 ft long hes a draft in lresh
floaiing in an upright positioo. The water of 8 ft. Its ceDier of gravity is on the axis of symmetry, 15
ft above the boiiom. Determine ttre height oi the scorv if, with one
center of gravity of the scow is on
side just on the poini of submergence, the scow is in unstable equi-
the axis of symmetry, 1 ft above the
water surlace. Compute (a) the librium.
initial meta.centdc height, and (b) 6. A sco* 50 ft long, 30 ft wide, and 15 ft high has a drtift of 9 ft. Its
the righiing moment in fresh water certer of gr&vity is it the centel of the scorv, both longitudinally and
tr\c.31 when the augle of heel d i'g 10'. transveriely. If the scow is tipped transversely until one side is just
and on the point of submergence, deterrnine the righting couple.
Sotulion. (a) By equetioDs 15 16:
6. A rectangular raft 10 ft wide and 20 ft long has a thicknesi of 24 in.
and is constructed olsolid timbers having a specific gravity of 0.60. If a
t- 40X 203:26.670fi{
'12 V = aoX20X 5:4000 lts
man weighing 200 ib Eteps on the edge of this raft at the middle of one
side, how much will the original waier line on that side be depressed
frEo: 6667 dEo: 3 50
below the water surface?
Thus ?. Show that the value of frFo for the scow in Fig. 3l is'63 ten d/sin d.
GM = 3'167 ft
Make a table shou ing values of MEo' C M ' and the rightiDg morr:ent
lor augLes of heel of t',2',4',6",8', and 10'.
(D) ffi ie now determioed by equations 13 anci 16:

, :
; ' 10 tan 10'' 10' 40 : 353 cu ft
CENERAL PROBLEMS
Y = 4000 cu ft
I : 13.33 ft 1. Water stsnds 40 ft &bove ihe top of a ve*icel gate *hich ie 6 ft
gOO0 tb' What vertical lift will be required to opel
equare and
Tso= alz dfr : 3z? ihe gate if "Jigtt"
the coefficient of friction between gate and guide"p is 0 3?
g. A plane palabolic gato *ith axis vertical and vertex down is sutF
RM' = 4000 '62'4'3'27 sin 10' - 142'000 fi-lb mersed in oil Gp sr 0.E0) to e depth of I ft. Thesidthnf!hegateotthe
oil Jurface is 4it. Detet*io" by integratioo thc tutal o'essure oo the
PROBLEMS gate end the location of the center of pressure.
in sea water with its 3. A vertical surface 6 fi square has its upper edgt irorizontal aod ol
L A ship ol 4000 long tons displacement floais tons is midship-' Moving ihe water surface, Ai whlt depth must a horizonts'l ii$e be drewn oir
";i Je;-"t"v .'urtical when a weight of 50 .
a plumb bob' 8us- this surfoce so as to divide it into two paris, on each of which the totol
tbe sei;ht 10 ft towards ooe side of the deck causes pressure is ihe eanre?
p*a"i?tft" *a of a striog 12 ft long, to move 9 in' Find the mets- {. A vertical iriangular gate h*s s, horizontol ba'se 8 fi': long and 6 ft
""i] height.
centric
bas a dnft below the water surLce. Its vertex is 2 ft above the w&ter surface'
I ."'"i-gtl* "cow 30 ft wide, 50 ft k'ng' ond 12 ftthehighbottom ol tbe What normal force musl be applied st the vertex to open ihe gote?
in sea woteg oi8 ft. Its center of gravity is 9 ft above
6. Find the horizontal and -vertical components of the hydrostatic
height' (6) If ihe scow
*"r. itl'p"".-i0e
-n"i"'t"tiiit" the initial metacentric
pre^esule per foot of length on ihe plane face of a dam ioclirred
at an
tia" is iust on the point of submergence' deterurine tbs
iogto of i0' with the veitical if water stends 50 ft deep above the base?
rightilg aouPla' or the overturning couple'
 70 II|DI()SI'^',tl(] Pt iSSLttL ON SUIU'AClis
6. Thc pl:rric $urf:rce ,'18 in },'ig. A is recta,ngular in shape, 6lt reide,
rrrd 10 ft long perpcrulic'rler to the paper. lVith oil on one side rs
,.honn, determine the total pressur€ on the gate, (o) by computing the
horizontaL and vcrtical componer!'us and their resuitant; (6) directly by
equation 5. Locate the center of pressure.
7. The reciangular grie in Fig. Il is hingecl at ,'1 and rests against a
smooth vertic*l wall at B. The gate is 5 ft, rvide, perpendicular to the
l,t-'
Fig. A Fig. B
paper. Determine the horizontal aod vertical components of the resc-
tions at.4 and B when: (o) c : $ ft, !: 8 ft, : 12Il, d,z: O; (b)
a:6ft,rl: 8 ft, dr :72 lt, dz: 8lt; (c) a: y:6|t, d,r: 12 11,
dz = 1O tt; (d.) c : y : 6 ft, dr : 6 lL, d,, : 3 ft.
8. The gate .48 shown in Fig. C is rectenguler and is 4 ft wide per-
pendicular to the paper. Compute the force I'required to open the gate
if: (a) it is hinged at ,4 and rests against a smooth
wall at B; (b) it is hinged at B and !€sts on &
snooth floor at .4.
9. The plane vertical side of a tank is lormed
as shown in tr'ig. D. When the tank is full of
Fig. C Iis. D
molasses (sp gr 1.50), compute the iotal pressure against the side and
tle location of the center of pressure.
10. An open flume of semicircular cross Bection is closed at the end
by a semicircular gate hinged at the top diameter. The flume and the
gate s,re 10 ft in diameter. When the flume is full of wate!, whai
moment apolied to ih€ hinge is required to keep the gate closed?
11. If, on the downstream side of the gate shown in Fig. C, page 48,
water stands level with the hinge at c, neglecting tle weight of the gate,
determine the rEaximum height, to which water can rise ou the up-
stream side without, causing the gate to collapse.
\
CENERAL PROBLEMS ?I
12. A conical plug closes a circular opeDing in one end oi a box aa
Bhown in I'ig. E. The box is filled with rrater. If the absolute pressure
&t B is 40 lb per sq in., with what force is
the plug held against ihe opeDing?
13. A funnel, in the shape of a core having
8D ere& of base of 1 sq ft and an altitude of
1 ft, has a small hole &t, the ve ex. If the
base rests on the perfectly smooih platform
of e Bcale and in this inve €d position the Fig. E ,
funnel ie filled with water, what downward
force must be exerted upon it to maintain equilibrium and prevent the
escepe of water between the base of ihe funnel and ihe platform of the
ocole? Neglect the weight of the funnel. What is the leBsi scale read-
ing possible under these conditions?
14, The eides of a vertical cylindrical tank 12 ft in diamet€r afld t2 lt
high consist of vertical wood staves. The bursting stress is resisted by
two horizoutal steel hoops located at the quorter poinis of the sides.
Ttre lower half of the tank contains water, the upper half oil (sp gr 0.80).
Compute the tansioa in each hoop.
16, A cubical box, 24 in. on each edge, has its base horizontal and is
half 6lled with water. One of the sides is held in position by meatrs of
four screws, ole &t e&ch corDer. Find the teosion in each screw due to
the wst€r pressure,
16. A cubical bo'x, 24 iri. on each edgo, has its base horizontal and is
h&lf 6lled with e liquid ihe epecific gravity of which is 1.5. The re-
mainder of the box is 6lled with oil (sp gr 0.90). One of ihe siCes is
held in position by meatrs of four ecrews, one at each corner. Fiod the
tension in each gcrew due to the pressure of tbe liquids.
17. A cubical box, 6 ft on each edge,.has its base horizontal and is half
6lled with water. The remainder of the box is filled with oir under a
gage pressure of 10 lb per oq in- One of the vertir"al siCcs is hinged aL the
top and is free to swing inward. To what depth can the lop of this box
be submerged in an- opeu body of fresh water without allowing any
water.to enfer?
18. A vertical, cylindricat cask, I ft in diameter ond Z ft, high, con-
tainr mercury to a depth of g in., the remainder being filled with water,
The cask is held togeiher by means of two hoops, oae at the top and oae
at the bottom, What is the stresg in each hoop?
19. A cylindrical tank with its axis vertical is 9 ft high and 4 ft in
diametei. It i8 held together by two st€el hoops, one at the top and tho
other ot the bottom. Three liquids, .4, B, and d, heving specific
gravities of 1.0,2.0, and 3.0, respectively, 6ll this tank, each having a
depth of 3 ft. On the surface of,4 there is atmospheric pressure. Find
ilro tenqile str€sg in each hoop.
 72 IIYI)IIOSIATICI'IIUSSURI'0NSultl"A(itlfl
CENDIT L pttol ,r,iMg ?il
20. A 6-in. pipe linc in rvhich there is a horizontal 90" eltrow contains
tho toe to tho poiut wher€ the resultant preneure intereects ths
water at rcst under a gage pressure of 450 lb per sq in. Find the unit bss€. atrd
thc inteneily of pressure at heel and Coo.
tensile stress in eacir of thc eight $-in. bolts in the flanges by which the
elborv is atia.ched to the PiPe. . 28. 4 block-of wood weighs 42.5 lb in s,ir. A vertical form of B0 tb
ia required to keep the block submerged i" *"t"r" Co-put"
21. The eurved surfacc represented by,4B in Fig T is the su sce of tU" ,ioii
weight ind 6peci6c gravity of the wood.
the qua{lrant, of a circular cyiinder 10 ft long, hinged at,4 aod r$ting
47. A block of metal weighs 42.i lb in air and B0lb when suspended
ag{riDst a Bmooth wall at B. fjetermine the hc zontal and rzeriical in
water.__Corupuie the unit weight and tire specific g"avity oi tie
components of the retctions at;1 antl ,8, wheir: (o) r: 1{} ft, ri: 10 ft;
(b) r: B ft, d : 16 ft; (c) r: 5 ft, d: 50 ft. ^einl.
38" The iqveri.ed timber U-fraure shown in}.ig. H consisL of a horizon-
tal 12- by l2in. timber 12 ft long, to the ends oi *t i"f, u"e uttacbeJi
no
vertical 12- by 12-ia. timbere lO ft long, exteoding downward through
openings in the bottom of a tank of wnier. Neglecting friction iu
guides at the openiogs, determine the amount and d'irection (uo .,,
i
down) of tho forces F, F, r€quired to hold ihe freue in equilib,l;, -hb"
timbera weigh 40 lb per cu ft.

Fig. F Fig. G

22. The curved su ace represented by .4,B in Fig. G is the surface

of the quedrant of a circular cylinder, hinged at,4 and resting against a
6mooth vertical rvall &t B. Considering .l section I ft long perpendicu- Iig. II Fig. J
lar to the paper, compute the horizonial and veitical components of the
reactions at -4 eucl B, rvhen: (o) r: l0ft,A:0; (b) r = 10 ft, g: 10 !9. The eolid cylindricat plug.4 in Fig. J iE B ft io diameter snd 2 ft
ft; (c) r:Slt,u:25 ft. higb. It ie made of coucret€ weigh.iog in air 180 lb per cu ft. With fresh
23. 'lVhat is the tcnsile stress in pounds par square inch due to hydro" water ou one side gnd e€o wat€r ou the other
stetic burstinA pressure in the walls of a steel pipe 10 in. in diameter os shown, a,nd neglecting friction in the
carrying gasoline (rr': 45 lb per cu ft) under a pressure head of 400 ft guides, 6nd the vertical force f.required to
of gasoline? I'he pipe rvall thickness is 17'8 in. hold the plug in positiou.
24, A rnasonry dam of trapezoidil cross section, with one face vertical 30. The solid cylindrical plug,4 in Fig. K
S€!
and a horizontal base, is 24 ft high. It has a thickness ol2 ft et the top is 2 ft in dia.mel,er snd 2 ft h.igh. With oit
and 12 ft at Lhe bottom. 'Ihe rveight of the masonry is 150 lb per cu ft, (l,:r,{.0) on one gide and
What is the depth of wat€r on ihe veriical side if the resultant pressure 8ea water oo
intersects the base ot the dowugiream edge of the rniddle third, or 2 ft the other as
from the middle of the base? Assume (o) ihat there is no hydrostatic shown, and neg-
uplift, and (6) ihat the uplift head varies uniformly from full hydro- lecting friction
-- K
Firr.
in the guidee,
,static head at the heel to zero at the toe. 6nd the required weight of tbe plug
26, A masonry dnm of irapezoidal cross sectio(is 50 ft high. Ithas& Eo
thickness of 5 fi ai the top and 35 ft ai ihe bottom. Tbe upstream face
tbot it will be in equilibrium.
31. A &in. by iu. timber, 20 ft tong, !U' L
ns. I,
has a batter of 10 ft in 50 ft. '!Vi(h the upstreem water surface at the top
of the dam, assuming rro hydrostatic uplift, compute thd distance from weighing.40 lb per cu ft, is hinged at one end and held in a horizonfal
position by su onchor at t,he other end as ehown in fig.'L. ff it6

\
 74 HYDIIOSTATIO PIIESBUND ON SUTT,ACrS
tnchor woighs l50lb per cu ft, determino
the minimum total weight it GENERAL PROBLDMS
may have.
A cylinder weighing 100 lb and having a diameter
.32. of B ft dodts itr
dslt wat€r (sp gr 1.03) wirh its axis verti,.aias
F;.'Ml"T;;
anchor consists of l0 cu"h";;';
ft of concrel weighing
(in air) 1b0lb per cu ft. What
will
rise in t]de i
be_ required to lift the aochor ofi the
bottom?
3il. The timber showu in Fig. N ie lZ
in.
square and has a specific gravity
of 0.80. A

man weighing 150 lb and standiop

et s point 2 ft from
that end l,o be just submerged. i{o* tong
Fig. N

one end caug€a

ffi
rs the timber?
34. The timber shown in-Fie. N
has a specifc gravity of 0.b0. i
and 20 ft long and
"n"i*

ffi*N*ffi
-"'l li.'
end causes *,""i j',"' u"
i
13^

il'#.i:::",i.;l; l""j x!., J:,tfi ;:

*"
"" ".,

.^36. A solid r:ylind cal block of wood (sp gr 0.b0) has a diometer of
l2.in. ond a length of 15 in. Determine
will foat in water when in stable equilibriom.
tiri p""iti"r'i.if]i"ffi;ffi;i
do. A. tlmber 6 in. square and l6 ft long
has a specific-f gravity of 0.50.
^ end js hinged to a wall, the
one other end n"ij"* i'if,"",""". "i.
shown in Fig.

rs &t a drstance

^
o.
D
For vatues of a oI 2 ft
of trmber eubmerged in the weter.

*l"f",,!lr, /2 from the

et"onna""dtlu
the center of gravir.y or the
end CD.
37, A timber 6 in. squcre and 16 ff long
One.end is hinged to a wall. the.other end
til:'"fi;l ;,.tt,;ffirfi
""u"iio-n;r;:li#]
"ubme"g"-J
i;;#;#;
has a specific gravity of 0.80.
floatingin *" i;"t".'"*fr.J"
*ffimmw$
is. O. Derermine rhe smaliesr valu"
in f
be in stabtc equilibrjurn in a vertical
nr o foi *nilt
position.
,h";ffiffin" g*Etr$tr,,,p'g,ifr",'i*i,i#",,$-l
 7A EYDROSTATIC PRESST'RE ON EURFACFS
Dr€vent the production of perpetual motion
aud tho gcneratioD of &n
urlinited amount of Power?
:;ilF;. a it no endless belt composed of layere of cork
with a centrsl core of rope gr wtr€ cabt€' In|E
"i,or",,
/:R idt ou""". around the four pulleye aa sbowu' and
gllAJlq}l tbrough a stumns-box in the eido of the tenf,'
r,rrl"ri mr"a with water. The portior of the
t Chapter
belt thst i8 eubmerged in wattr is rubjected to e
truov&nt force equgl to the weight of the weter
li"i"""a, whereas the portion outside of the tank
is oot suUiected to t similtr couutorbaloucing
fo.".. Wttot will prwent perpotual rnotionl
\
IV
RELATIVE EQUILIBRIUM OF LIQUIDS
38. Relative Equilibrium Defined. ln the preceding chaptcrs
liquids bave bcen lssrrmctl to be in.ecluiliblium and at rest vith
respect.both to thc e&rth and to the containing vessel. fl'he
present chapier treats of the condition where every particle of 4
liquid is at rest rvith rcspect to every other partiele and to the con-
taining vessel, but the rvhole mass, including the vepsel, has a uni-
formly acceleratei motion with respect to the earth. The liquid
is then in equilibrium antl at rcst rvith respect t6 the vessel, but
it is neithgr in equillbrium nor at rest rvilih respect to the earth,
In this condition a liquicl is said to be in relntiue equiUbrhnn. Since
there is no motion of thc lirluid rvith respcct to the vessel and no
movement bctween the iluid particles themselves ihere can bc no
friction.
Ilydrokineiics, rvhich is treated in lhe follorving chaptdrs, deals
rvith liquids that nre in motion l'ith respect both to the earth and
to lheir containers. In this case the retarding
ffi
effects of friction must be consi'lered.
Relative equilibrium may be considered as
an intermediate state betrveen hydrostatics
and hydlokineties. Trvo cases of relative
equilibrium will be discussed.
39. Vessel Moviag with Constant Lineat
|w lh
Acceleration. If a vessel partly filled with
rny liiyuid moves horizonially along a straight
line with a conslant accoleration o, the surface
l--'l
Fro- 32
I
of the liquid rvill assume an angle d rvith the
horizontal as shorvn in Fig. 32. To determine the yalue of 0 for
lny value of a, consider the forces acting on a small mass of
tiqxi<l M, at any point O on the surface. This nrass is moving
vith & constant holizontal acceleration o, and the force producing
tho &ccclerntion is thc rcsultant of all the other filrces octin* up(,rt
tlrr: rnrws- 'l'hese forccc lro thc force of gnrvity l'l, urd,itrg vtut,i-
 78 RDLATtvr,l riQutllnnruu
oF ueulDg
VI'sBEL ROTATING
#ifftr-Tt'; Tj,lf"lT'::".:t t' the cootisuous parricree or ABOUT A VENTICAL AXIS

t*"fi :;,il* fj::i".lff il:T'T,i,HlJXf " lf; y*i;iJi''"".1:kTx"i*,i;

lii:"i,{i,F';::in,
af ;::li ff Tf#:ffi il;"ffi ;ffi1rj:
poyo=Vs
g (r)
and from the figure

::lit.::T:=X,'ff ,'*T:",ffi :f ;l#l

P
"w l*no (2)
Solving these two equetions
dnult&neou'Iy,
yJl1' jl'ifi:'iliT :t"i j:*:*ffi f
tqa _ rhe.force p, producing
i, (3) llr"1i ,il,r:_Ti.
i" u," the
:;"::l:.ir,.:,
rl"".l:l ;riilJ' r,::: ".*.
which gives the slo* tr,"r
atant a-"cele.atioili_-,
r;n.,*l
*surface .49 will ^ ...
assume for any con_ i:"':f :I
"u.uri"nior,
""*;
consisrins or g..uiry uqu.i *",r*i
. ii*,1.I
::#"ffi":Tf
"1T:Tix"xi,,it *:.jff *,""*,".
^
i,""#;.ff #*,fr
:tfl".F#',"jlliT;f i{}}**f#T P= po dA - whda = ao:!L!!g o
*ilT frffi#ltj|l-H ]:l ror a vesser moving to the righr from which
u nusuii'" moving to the
u"""lu.u;i#;;:;:.o}:rLT* lert th
Po- uh+wh! e\
g'
u fli*"lffXr*j:::"ll{,ri**" at any poinr b ar o deoth
This shows that the intensitv
ot.pressure at any point
withii
a tlquld containsd in a
#lt**,**"'*$*{ffi iii:i",,li*i,J; navrng a,n upward acceleration
a rs greater than the st&tic
vessel

tudA-wh6n*o"On pressure by an amount

eoual
(4) ro-uha/g. Evidently, if the ac_
celeration were downrvard.
o& negrectins
* o" (6) srgn
the
of the last term in the
&tn*oo"""ojr]'u
*"t" *hrougnout' aDove expression would
beeome
ol';;t"o negatrve, and if a
= g, pb
rn other words, if a vessel = 0.
trlo. 34, Rotating con_
vessel. rarnrng ary liquid falls freelv
in
& v&cuum, so &s not
t;:.*:''r'" p'"*JJ"JiiT" to be
I"ff :l'"li l;J; re_
ffiffrlf' fil"
*t+gn*di;ug*$sg***'.1-..*p:
*:lhil'ti*ff;,.**lil:k1ifrir:H:i,{*{ffi'
 80 IIEL TIVD UQUILIBIUUM O[ LIQUIDB
PRoBLEMS tT
rotading the vessel with & con8tsnt angular velocity cr radian8
D€r rrrr llro prism cc,, huving
Becond about iLs ' :rtical axb OI. Consider th" f;r"e" a cross_sectionel area d,4.
;;il;
a sm8,ll mass of liquid M, at a, distant, from the axisOi.'- --
rrts no vertical acceleration, : As this nrism
Iy 0, and p" di:' ,n;-ii."" frliii
Since this maes has a uniform circular" motion it is subjected
a. centripetal foran, C :'Mo2r, wt ict p.oau"es an
to Pc : wh' (11)
l#il;;
directed loward the ccnter of rotation and is the. resultant
of all That is, the relative pressur
the other forces acting od the mass. These other fo"cu"
aru th"
h""d ii;;; ;;;;il ffiU: ;:,ili"'ili;j*:"T:::, li"'l:
"r distribu-tion
force of gravity, - Ag, acting vortically d"""*";,-;J fore' the of pressure on the bottom of the vesser
Y th; is
fres.1ure. eler_ted by the adjacent irarticles of the liquid. The
resultant F bf this liquid pressure must be normal to
face of the liquid at c.
tn" C."e e,-tr_ i"[]Ti:lf ,-,T",",,:JJ,li,:ffi
vessel is the same as though the
#ir_Jl."tr;:li:lu;
vessel we.e filieJ t;;;;",;r,
lengTting by 0,the angle between the tangent at c and the.
,horizontal, and were not rotating.

PROBLEMS
ra,nd: dh C Ma2r
*
-drWMg c
1. A vessel containins liauid m
or yh,ir"i;;'f ;;;:11,1"#,il;::ll;1"J;i:"":*f ff'::'ii,f 'el
a-const&nt velocity of l0 ft per
sec; (a,) a con"taut ac""f".rri,
an=&a, (8)
per sec per sec?
"iiO,,r,
which, when integrated,
I 2. A partly filled with tiquid and moving
vessel
horizoirtally with g
beco*es constanr tinear acceleration has ir.i
mine its acceleration.
liquid ,""f.";-L;ii;;;;,j.,
;,"t.-
29
(e) ,3..Atr open cylindricat vessel 2 ft in diameter
rhirds full of liquid. tf rhe vessel is rotated aDd 3 ft hiah iB two-
(a).what is the grertest speed in revolutions ;b*; idffi;'l #:
per minu;";" ir;; ffi:
of integration equals zero, because when r
zero ,l."T:"*
1T equals causins any tiquid to spill over tr,",ia"r;
_without ioilv-fr"l"epJe;ffii;
&lso eq'l&ls zero. it have in order thst the deoth ri tl
_
Sll": I *.d
: ll" the onlv variabies this is the equation of a ft h,,.i.;;t;;;il;'il:fi ft:;il::r'-;:ilf iJT,"fJii,;Hl
pqratrot&,.and the liquid surface is a paraboloid of revoiution aboui exis?
.ne / &xrs. As the volume of a paraboloid is equal 4. An open cylindrical vessel. 2 ft in diameter,
tha,t.of the circumscribed cylinder, and
to one-half thirds filled with wst€r, rotates about ite vertical 3 ft high, and two_
the volum" oflln]ia g0 rpm.
ait"-*i;"lr';;;#;
wrthm the vessel has not been chauged, "inc" b,b : !bt'n, = '
speed. of Determine; (c) the depth of
' ilu vessel; (6) the totol pressure on ifr"
water; rh#;ffit
linear velocity at a is u = arr. Sobltit"ti"g
, fJ" - i" d;""r. sure on the bottom of the vess€l. "yfioai*f "rfi"ft;'il ffi,;*;
An open cylindrical vessel 2 ft in diameter
-rr .5. conteiDs wat€r B ft deeo
when &t rest- If it is rorered auout i*
"*il;; il;';"fi6
;
(10) ve.ti"ni
2s rpm, determine the least depth the vessel
can h""" * ;;;;;;;";;
epilled over the sides.
Expressed in words, this means that any point 6.. A.veesel 12 in. in diamel,er and 6[ed
on the surface of the with water i8 roteted sbout its
nqurd wllt nse &bove the vertex of the p&ra,boloid vertical axis with euch a speed thst the water
to the velocity head (see Art. 4g) at that point.
a height equal
in. from the axis melies an angle of 45o with
surf;;;;;il#;;
-;;;;:
th;;;;;;;;j
T9
d:,":+* the relative prcssure &t any point c at a depth lr, the Epeed in revolutions per riinute.
vertically below the surface at c, consid* tti" **i"al f"i*, .7. -A closed cylindrical vessel, 2 ft irt diameter, 3 ft high, and com_
i"ii"g pletely filled with weter, rota.tes about its verticai
"_iJ
;;;'r;;#;;
83 RELATIVE EQUILIBRIUM OF LIQUIDS
2{0 rpm. Arsuming that the veseel is rigid aud ineluetic, determine the
gage prossure, in pounds p€r squsre ioch, juet under the cover at the
circunfercn@ and st the axis, under the followitg condition8; (@) with 8
sm&ll hole in the cover &t the circumfercnce; (6) with a small hole ia the
cover st tho center.
& A cylindrical vessel, I ft deep, is half fitled with water. When it
is rot&ted about its vertical exis with a speed of 150 rpm, the wster just
rises to the rim ol the vessel. Determine the diamet€r of the vessel.
0. If the mercury U-tube shown iu
Fig. A is giveu an acceleration of 16.1
ft per sec per sec toward the right,
determine tho gage pressure at A in
pounds per square inch.
10. If the mercu.ry U-tube showr
iu Fig, A is rotgt€d about a vertical
axis ihrough the leg BC, determine
the height of mercury columu iu ths
leg DE, when the speed is (a) 40 rpm;
$s. A
(D) 60 rpm.
11, If the mercury U-tube shown in Fig. A iF rotatrcd s,bout e v€rticsl
erie through .4 until there is no mercury in the leg .BQ determine tbs
low€st speed pocsible for this condition.
1& If the mercury U-tube ehown in Fig. A is rotat€d about s vertical
axis through the leg DE with o speed of 60 rpm, determine tho gege
pressurc at .d. in pounds per square inch.
19. A cooic&l veseel with vertical axis hs"s alr eltitude of 3 ft snd iB
flled.with hater. Itr base, which is 2 ft i! diemeter, is horizontal and
upp€rtnost. If the veesel is rotated &bout its axis with a apeed of 60
rpm, how much w&ter will remain in it?
1t[. A couical vessel, with base uppermoet, ig rotated about its aris,
which is vertic&I. Although tbe vesoel wea filled with water when at
rcst, efter it ir rotating at & speed of 60 rpm only 0.50 cu ft of water
r€mei!8 within it. . Determine the ratio betweeD the diameter of the bale
snd the sltitude.
16. A cyliudrical bucket, 14 in. deep and 12 in. in diameter, contaias
wet€r to e depth of 12 in. A man swings this bucket through a vertical
plsne, the botiom of ihe bucket de€cribing a circle having a diameter of
7 feet, Assuming th&t the speed of roietion iB cortant, what ig the
loweat speed, il revolutions per minute, thst tbo bucket q8n have with-
out p€rDitting sny water to e€cspe?
Clnpter V
.
FTINDAMENTAI,S OF FLI'ID FLOW
41. Inkoduction. The principles r€leting to the behavior of
water or other fluids at rest are based upon certain definite laws
which hold rigidly in practice. In solving problems involving
these principlesit is possible to proceed by purely rational methods.
the results obtained being free from doubt or a.mbiguity.' Ca.l-
culations are based upon a few natural principles which are uni-
versally true and simple enough to permit of easy application. In
problems ordinarily encountered in hydrostatics, after the unit
weight of the fluid has beeu determined, no other experimental
data are required.
A fluid in dotion, however, presents en entirely different condi-
tion. Though the motion undoubtedly takes place in accordancc
with fixed laws, the nature. of these laws and the influence of the
surrounding'conditions upon them are very complex and have thr.ls
far defied complete expression in mathematical form. However, c
great nu.urber of engineering problems involving fluid florv have
been solved by combining mathematical theory with expedmental
dsts.
Although many of the laws goveming the flow of fluids have been
well known for centuries, it has been, as in other branches of sci-
ence, only within comparatively recent times that applications of
these laws have beep-widely extended. Moet of the early knowl-
edge of hydraulics applied only to water, a.6 the neme indicates.
With modern use and transportation of oils, gasoline, chemicals,
stoarn, and gases, it has been necessary to oxtend the laws of
hydraulics botlr, mathematically and experimentally to include
these fluids. A gre&t step in advance wss made when it was dis
covered, lorgely tbrough the research of Osbome Reynolds, that,
from experiments on any particular fluid, it is often poasible to
predict, at least approximately, the characteristics of flow of eny
other fluid.
 & FUNDAMENTAI,S OF TLI'ID FIOW
It cannot be emphasized too often, however, that there is stitl
much to be leamed regarding the behavior of all fluids in motion
' even of water. Practical problems f. fli.*f f"r-"""J;;il" ;;;
which are apparently simple to explain or solve by theory or by
laboratory technique but rvhich prove extremely baffiing because
of lack of thorough determination of the fundamental properties
of the fluids involved. As a result, many experimental data, ob-
tained with water and other fluids are conflicting, a conditiol due
partly to the fact that recdrds of temperaiure of the fluid were
not kept.
42. Path Lines aod Stream Tubes. A fluid in motion can bs
considered to consist of s great number of individual particles all
of which move in the general direction of flow but usually not iu
parallel lines or even rvith continuous motion. The irregular rise
of large volumes of smoke in air. and the boiling and eddying of
rivers are familiar phenomena which illustrate this point. Yet,
at times a thin .column of smoke in still air will rise in almost a
straight yertical line, or a thin stream of dye injected into a liqqid
moving at slorv velocity. rvill continue to move in a straight line
without being dispersed through the hquid.
These phenomena are cited to indica,te the complex nature of
fluid flow. It is possible, horvever, to arrive at a solution of meny
engineering problems by making certain simplifications. To aid in
understanding these sirnplifica.tions a brief statement of the nature
of fluid flow rvith celtaih definitions is given here.
Any particle of a stream of fluid has at any given instant,a
certain velocity, u, which is a vector qu&ntity and therefore pos-
sesses both magnitude and direc-
X-.Un tion. At the next instant forcee
u-_%' c t'F*_?4 acting on the particle may cause it
r{\ " %' vr to have a velocity which is difrer-
trto. 35. Peth line. ent in amount and direction. The
path follorved by a particle, called
a path linc, is ordinarily a curve in three dimensions. A two-
dimensional projection of a typical path line is shown in Fig. 35.
If path lines were drarvn for all particles in a strcam their com-
posite efrect would represent the motion of the entire stream. Most
problems in applied,hydraulics csn be solved by considering the
entire cross section of the stream. It is sometimes advisable, how-
ever, to consider only a small part of the cross section, For this
I,AMINAR AND TURBULENT FLOW
Y
purpose a small bundle of path lines culled. a stream tube can be used.
Such a tube is boundcd by an imaginary surface forrned by sur-
rounding layels of the fluid.
tlil. Laminar and Turbulent Flow. Florv is said to be laminar
when th€ paths of the individual particles do not cr:oss or intersect.
With this type of flow in conduits having parallel sides the path
lines are parallel. I,Ioleover, ihe stream tubes are of constant
cross section and have direcl ions parcllel to l,he sidcs of the conduit
and to each other. The velocities in the various path lines are
rot the same, hou'ever, but increase with the distance from the
walls of the conduit. (See Art. 93.)
In conduits having non-parallel sides, the path lincs in laminar
florv converge or diverge. The cross-sectional area of each'stream
tube'varies proportionally lith that ol the conduit, but its relative
posiiion in the cross section does not change. Converging path
lines result in increased velocity in each path line, rvhereas diverg-
ing path lines result in decreased velocity.
' Any fluid will florv rvith laminar motion undet cer.tain limiting
conditions. Conditions rvhich tend to produce laminar florv are
lorv velocity, smali size oI conduit, and high viscosity of fluid.
(See Art. 92.) Laminar florv is flequentlyencounteled in the flow
of oil in pipes and in the florv of fluids through small tubes. The
percolation of underground rvater or oil through sandbeds is an
exlmple of laminar flow,
Beyon.i these iimiting conditions of laminar florv the florv be-
comes sinuous or turbulent. Florv is said to be tulbulent rvhen its
path lines are irregular curves rvhich continually closs each other
and Iorm a complicated netrvork rvhich in the aggregate represents
the forward motion of the entire stream. 'I'he particles of a
stream flowing rvith turbulent motion occupy successively various
transveme positions without any regularity, and their paths are
neither parallel nor fixed. A particle that at one instant is near
thc ccnter of the conduit may an instant later be near the outer
walls, and vice versa.
Thc lass goveming hminar flort have boen derived by mathe-
mntical theory, and the results agree closely rvith experimental
rhta. However, the flow of water and other fluids in engineering
problcms is nearly always turbulent; and laws of turbulent florv
Irlve thus far baffied all attempts at complete mathernetical ded-
v&tion. l'u her studies are continually being mode of the ceuses
 FUNDAMDNTAIS OT ITLI]ID FI,OW PRODLEMS AI
rurd velocity occur, the flow is
and effects of the complex naturc of turbulent florv. Pending a said to bc.non_uniform. With gs8e8,
more complete analysis than is now available, applications of the
drictly uniform flow seldom occ owing to the expansion tesult-
lng from the rJu;;#;;r"J,"tt
hydraulics of turbulent florv must still be based on a combination e that usually td<es place
pnth of flow. along the
of mathematical analysis with experimental observation.
Thus. dteady flow involves
tl4, Discharge. The volume of fluid passing a cross section of particular &rmanency of conditions at snv
cross section. whereas
& Btream in unit time is called the discharge. The symbol Q rs used implies simultaneou'e
to designate the discharge, the usual units being cubic feet per u"ir.".nity
"i"-niiil";;T::"Hi:Ttrow
4?,.Continuous Flow. Wren, et
second (cfs). any instsnt, the number of
psrtictes.passing every cross
It is customary in certain lines of engineering to use other units, secrion
Ilow is said to be continuous. or th "r
til" ,L*.,i"'ii""Jt;'r#
for instonce, cubic feet per minute (cfrn) for measuring the flow
of air, gallons per minube (gpm) in connection with pumping ma- Q,. d, and v il;J;, ;l;:;;i::i;:Tjil['J'j.J:*r1,ff
velocity, with simitar subscripts apptyirg
chinery, and gallons per day (spd) or millions of gallons daily
continuity of flow with non-coiopressibl;
t. th;;;;;.;';;ff
(mgd) in connection with municipal water supply. i;i;;;# ;;;*"""
If equal velocities at all points in the cross section of a stream Q : ArVt : AzVz: Asys, etc.
were possr'ole there would be passing any section, every second, a G)
Equa-tion B applies when the number
volume equivalent to that of a prism having a base equal to the unit volume that is, the dennit
of particles of fluiC pr
cross-sectional area ol the stream and a length equal to the velocity. -
withgasn,-;;;";;il;.'";';"I;r1x.,".'fr
Because, however, of the varying eflects of friction, viscosity, and
depends not onty on their mean i:'*":'"jfil
velocity *air," *T,li iti
surface tension, the individual particles in a stream have difierent eection but also on the density of
tinuity for compressible fluids thus becomes d"';;;il*;;;:
velocities. For this reason it is common in hydraulics to deal rvith the gas-.
mean velocities. If 7 is the mean velociiy in feet per second past
any cross section, and ,4 is the cross-sectional area in square feet, mAtVr = psA2V2 : ..,, etn, (4)
Q:Av (1) or, since p is proportional to unit
weight ra,
g"nd
:
u2A2V2 _ .. ., etc.
uyAyVl
v:1 (2) Ifowever, the discharge past anv
- section measured
(6)
in volume per
unit of time is still
stil
46. Steady Flow. If the discharge Q passing a given cross
section of a stream is constant with time, the flow is steady at that
Q-Alr (l)
cross section. If Q at the cross section varies with tine the flow is ff, between any two points of
;t"#ilil i,:lYT' flow.is added tbrough a
r

unsteady. mbut"y o. t"t"i

Nearly all problems in this book deal with steady flow. Exam- t,opoiot"i"ooti#ffi ;ilr""i:Tl:,?illllif ?"rrll,,Hrtl
ples of unsteady flow are discharge through orifices under a falling
head (Art. 72) gnd sudden stopping of flow in pipe Iines with the
PROBLEl[S
resulting phenomenon called water hammer (Art. 156).
40. Uaiform Flow. If, with steady florv in any length, or l. Comput€
velocity
th€ discharge of woter through
is 8.S ft per sec.
a &.in. pipet if the mee,n
" reach," of a stream, the average velocity at every cross section r
is the same, the florv. is said to be uniform in that reach. For . the.answeE at.tbe end of the boolr
fluids considered incompressible this condition requires a stream of
uniform cross section. In streamg where changes of cross section
ilfr tr?-{*:{_.Jl*ti;tfr:%ff ffi:"*.":"JHffi ilHH
 88 FUNDAMENTALS OF FLUID FI,OW
ENERGY AND IIEAD 89

same v^elocity a, in feet pcr second, the kinetic energy of the mass
2. The discharge of oir thtough a 24-in. pipc is 8600 cfm. Compute js
+Muz, a\d, ince trf : ty/g,
the mecn l'elociiy in feet per second.
3. The diameier of a 6-ft length of pipc decreases uniformly from 18
in. to 6 in. \Yiih a flow of 5 cfs of oil compute the mean velocity ot crms
. K.E.: W t
2a
sections 1fi apalt along the pipe. Plot velocity as ordioate against
length os 3bsci.sa. *91:"1"," /zs for a rveisht of unity. The expression
4. A pipe linc consists of successive lengths cf 15-in., l2.in, and.1O-in. u
il*h.
/zg ls ot Lne torm
u2

pipe, With l1 continuous florv through ihe line of I cfs of wo,ter compute (!L/sc t2
ihe mean velocity in each size of pipe. : lt
6, The diameter of a 6-ft length of pipe increases frcm 6 in. to 24 in.
ft/."",
The diameier is to vary so thrt the mean velocity of liquid florving and. it therefore represents a linear quantity expressctl in feet. It
through the pipe will decrease unilormly with distonce from thb 6-in. end. is the heighi through rvhich a body must tuti in o lro",,u_
Compute the diameter at each foot along the pipe. Draw to scale ihe
acquire the vrlocity r.r. \\'hen applied to a moving mass
t"
longitudinal pro6le of the PiPe. ii is called
the rclocit! iead. Alfhough rcpresenting a linear quantity,
6. A city requires a 8ow of 25 mgd for its water supply. Compute the the
diameter of pipe iequired if the velocity of flow is to be: (o) 2 fi per sec;
velocity head is directly proportitrnal io the kinetic
;".gu ;i ;
(b) 6 ft per sec. mass having a velocity u and is equal to the kiaeiic
ene.iy of t IL
?. What diameter of pipe is required to carry 10 gpm of gasoline at a of any mass moving with that vclocity.
velocity of 7 lt per sec? 2. Eleuqtion energry is rnanifested in a fluid by vir.tue of its posi_
8. A vertical cilcular stock 100 ft l,igh converges uniformly from a l,ion or rvith respect to some albitrar.ily s,:lected irori-
_elevation
diameter of 20 ft st, the bottom io 16 ft at the top. Coal gas with a zontal datum plane, considerecl in connectiori rviih the
. unit weight of 0.030 lb per cu ft enters the bottoD of the stack with a action of
.
gravity. Elevation energy may be explained by consicleling a mass
velocity of l0 ft per sec, The unit weight of the gas iucreases unilormly )raving a rveight of }[ pounds the elevation ut ,ut,i.tr
to 0.042 lb per cu. ft at the top. Compute the mean velociiy every 25 ut i.,u uny
horizontal datum plane is z feet. With respect to tt,is ptano
ft up the st3ck. rrrass has IIrz foot-pounds of energy. A ma,ss
ih"o
u,cighing 1 lb ivili
lrLr,ve,a Iool-pounds of energy. lf
a mass rvcighing t ll, is pla"cdz
r[8. Energy antl liead. Since the principles of energy are ap- fr.r't belorv the datum plane, its enorgy with rnspn,.f to
plied in the derivation ol fundamental hydraulic formulas, an ex- the planc
will be -z foot-pounds, being negative becausc this .rnount oi
planation of such principles as will be used is here inttoduced. cncrgy will have to be impar.ted to the mass to raise it
Energy is defined as ability to do rvork. Both energy and rvork to the datum
phnc against the force of gravity. Here again th"
are measurecl in foot-pounCs. 'fhc tlvo forms of energy commonly orp.es"ion io"
rrnrrrgy,in this case z, represents a linear quantity called the eleua-
recognized are kinetic energy and potential energy Potential tirm head, of the mass, but it should be kept clearly
energy in fluids may irr turn be subdivided into energy due to in rnincl that z is
nlso the energy expressed in foot.por.rnds contained
position or elevation above a given datum plare, and energy due in 1 lb of fluid
Iry_virtue of its position with respect to the datum plane.
to pressure in the fluid. The ihree forms of enelgy which must It thus &ppearc that the amount of enerry of position posmssed
be considcred in connection rvith florv of fluirls are therefore usually
. stated as: l. I{inetic energy. 2. Elevation enelgy' 3. Pressure
l,y r mass depends upon the elevation of thi-datum plane.
f"
pl,r'l,icular problem, horveir6r, all references should
enegy. Other forms such as hea,t energy and electrical energy be made to""Vie
r,trnc_plnne. In i his way the relatiye amounts of energy
have little bearing ogr thc larvs governing florving Iiquids, although containc,l
in rlillcrent m&sses or the relative amounts of mergrln th";;;
thermodynamic effects are impol tant in the flolv of gases.
rrrrr* in rliffcrcnL positions may be determincd. Since
l. Kinctic cnerpy is the ability of a mass to do work by virtue of r l[tivc, thie is all tha.t is requirtd.
all cnercv ix
its velocity. If, in any mass Mr every individual particle has the
 90 FUNDAI{IjNTALS OF FLUID FLOW
ENERGY AND HEAD OI
It
is evident from the foregoing paragraphs that any m&ss of
weight IZ, every particle of rvhich is moving rvith the same velocitv be greater than before, for the reason that the pressure head at
,, Irasan arnounr uf kir.ri" orro,sycqurl io ll o2 29, rngal.llcs.,f point 2 has been increased Lo po/w I h. Moreover, if the pres-
all other conditions. In a sirnilar manner, any mass of l,eight lll sure on the surface of the liquid is reduced below atmospheric
at a distance z above a datum plane has an arnount of elevation pressure, the florv will be decreased.
energy equal to trIl2, rcgaldless of n.hethel therc is air, rvater, or an Pressure energy should therefore be considered as energy tra,ns-
absolute vacuum betlcen the nass and the datum pla,ne. mitted to or through the mass considered. If pressure head is
3. Pressure cnergy diffets fundamentally lrom kinetic and eleva- expressed jn feet, it rvill also represent foot-pounds of enerry per
tion energy, io the extent th:rt no mass pcr se can have such en- pound of fluid, as has been shown Lo be true for velocity head ind
ergy, Any mass har-ing plcssure energy acquircs that encrgy only elevation head.
by virtue of contact rvith other masses having sorne for,m of energy. The action of pressure energy is also illustrated by the piston
Consider a reservoir of liquid (I'ig. 36) flom s,hich a horizontal and cylinder arrangemenl sho\vn in Fig. BZ, rvhich is operated
pipe ieads to a valve rvhich is closcd so that there is no florv. As- entirely by waler under a gage pressure of p pounds per square
foot. The area of ihe piston is ,4 square feet. The cylinder is
supplied with water through the valve .R and may be emptied
h=# through the valve S.
Daturn
At the beginning of the siroke lhe piston is at CD, the valve ,S is
closed, and -B is open. W&ter enters the cylinder and slorvly drives
Frc.36
the, piston to the right
sume that poini 1 represcnts a srqall mass of liquid at the surface against, the iorce P. Neg-
and that point 2 represent:j anothcr small mass opposite the center friction, the amount
Iecting
line of the pipe. Assumc the datum througli point,2. of work done on the piston
It is evident that if thc valve is opened licluid rvill florv from the while it moves through the
open end of the ltipc bccaitse of lhe clcvation of the liquid sulface distance I leet is Pl: pAl Frc. 37. Piston.
in thc reservoir- 'Ihe cleyation hcad at point 1 is z leet, and the foot-pounds. The quantity
elevation head at point 2 is zclo, of water required to do the work is ,41 cubic feet, and its weight
The plessulc at point 2, horvever, assuming atmospher.ic pres- is ro,4l pounds. The amount of
sure on the liquid surface, is p: ,1t (rfri. lb), so ihat the pres- \tl ! I t: work done per pound of rvater is
sure head &l poinL 2 ts p/w : I feet. Thus from point 1 to point 2
n_J
tt -Zo therefore
the elevation head has decreased fi.om z to zero, rvhereas the pres- PI
UE pAl p"
sure head has increased flom zcr.o to /r. ----; : - IOOI-pOUndS
UAL ID
Since z : h it, is seen that the clcvation head at point 1 is trans-
formed into an equal amount of pr.essure head at point ?, and that, The three forms of energy which
this pressure head is thc immediate cause of liquid flowing into the afluid may have are illusl,rated in
pipe on the openirrg of the valve. z Fig.38. At any point, ,4 in a stream
l
Consicler nol. that the rescrvoir is covered and that gas is forced of fluid rvhere the velocity is u1, the
into the spacc between the coyei and the liquid surface so that the ,-__1. __-_Lr velocity head isuA2/2g, the pressure
pressure on ihis su|face is raisecl above atmospheric by an amount t,\c. 38. head is p1/u, and the elevation head
Threc forms of energy.
pr. Although ihe elevation head of point I is unchanged it is referled i.o ihe datum plane M/y' is
evident that if the yalve is norv opened the florv from the pipe will z,{. 'l'lrus, with respect to the plane MN the total head at point
,4, ot ils crluivdcnt, the total energy per pound of fluid at ,{, ex-
 PROBLEMS
FUNDAMENTALS OF FLUID
FLOW
92 ,rf fluid which rvill pass any point per second is Qio pounds. Since
Llre, total energy at any point in the stream is E foot-pounds pet
nressed in foot-Pounds, is
' o,'+p!+r^
^
(6) ;xrund of fluid, the powerr or rate of doing rvork, at that point is
En: Zn w
Qru-E foot-pounds per seeond
problems is ottainc!'11
A praetical solution of mc'st hyrlaulics llrc equatiou of units being
strcam e{ a sinllc rite:r-m
considering the entire rtubl-t::,::1,"J ft3 lb ft-lb ft-lb
cross seclion of rvhich the ", I". "r --\./-v-
and the elevation
""" iiri romput(' ,"l^-,r^""
hcads are usllrlly "tffilinio
ll-
r.,"
"".,-'. tr'"
sec It3 ' lb
A oi the
lil;;;:;;';;;:' iht's, the totri hcad at noss s€cr;on ^c I,ipation 7 can thus be changed to units of power by multiplying
stream tube shorvn in Fig 38 is l,lr lough by Qu:

n :u^+ !+ z (7)
QwE Qw
V2
: Q*! + Q*, (s)
fi+
of
vrith Non-uniform Distribution
ttl"^-:1;;;;;r*s,.nr" lolrcpolcr is obtained by dividing each term by 550.
49. Kinetic Enersv in rh" kin"tic
I

velocity. In cquetion t 'n"-&.s

ene:gy at a cross section ol
" ll,; ;l ,ll,l,li,''"iivelocirios
o^''.r"i"" "*
Ire oi lhe PROBLEMS
assumt'J to have lhe same veloctiy Howevet r

l.A ltuid is flowing in a pipe 8 in. in diameter wlth a mean velocity

narticles alc o|rlinalily no, "nttu';"r,n tl"
is rhe average of rhe velo,'ity tll l(l ft pcr sec. Thc pressure at the center of the pipe is 5lb per sq in.,
Thc retrtol \elocilyheadof a stterm " ".'':'-:.;;^:. "'; ''; hrrl Lhr! clcvation of the pipe above the assurned datum is l5 ft. Com-
thc ale|age of the squa'r'es
tJ;J;i;ilil;;Jior fo'tict"s' Sincc t)ri'n thn squalP ol llrcrr
'
lrrrtr tho tatal head in feei if the flurd is (o) water, (D) oil (sp gr 0.80),
tt,"'fr".'s is always grcaier gleilter (r) rrurlmscs (sp gr I.50), (d) gas (ro - 0.040). '
"i-*t"l"f -r - hoa,l of the sltnrnl is al\\lI5
SVeIagc Ll'r ^^...-t '.'t^";t- lho tncrn vctcttt'J
l. A lirlrrid (sp gr 2.0) is florving in a 2-in. pipe. The total energy at a
iflin itt" t"to.ity hoad conrpute'l ftom tl": livlr tx)int is found to be 24.5 ft-lb per lb. The elevation of the pipe
""tit" of correcting f or non-ttnlfct nr l"r::l*-y- 6lruvr, l,lro rlotum is 10 ft, and the pressure in the pipe is 9.5 lb per sq in.
""""1--""*od hcr'l comnriPd l'om rnc
i' ,n"u'ort tl'e rolocitr than rrnrty''
( lrrrrlrrrl,c thc vclocity of flow and the horsepower in the stream at iltat
";l'Jii;;
L""il '"a ocfllcicnt a I'hi"h i' alruays glcaier lnrlrl..
"","aitr:ut '
Thegenc.alexprc'sionr""n"il^"ii"""ntjyf,c'poundoffluifl !, 'l'l',r'jct of rvater from a noezle discharging into bir has.a diamet€r
is therefore l $ rrr. rurrl u, mean velocity of 120 ft per see. Compute the velocity
V2 hrnrl rrrrrl tlrc horseporver in the jet.
2g
L Al, r rrrnrmit in a 12-in. pipe line in which 6.0 cfs of water is fiow-
lil Lh" (,hrvrrtion ebove datum is 30 ft and the total head is l5 ft. Com-
fulr lhrr rrlrnolutc pressure in the pipe.
rvhere Y is ihe mean Yelocity : r, but
l,l'j;,i:f;'ff'li:lm!ngl-rncomcs a t.
A l, grrint rl wherc the suction pipeleading to a pump is 4 ft below the
Tlsrrallv no serious error ls lr of a tm- p$Irlr nr r'lx.n rrrnnometlr indicltes a vacuum of 7 in. of mercury. The
t" X""tti"''r""il^"t" I rtno"r"og" of l)'e valuc Flln t. t ir. irr rliarnctl'r, und the discharge is 1.1 cfs of oil (sp gr 0.85).
oo#"bo'"'' L ll€lrl"rl.r, llx! totrl hcrd rt point ,4 wil,h respect to a datum at the pump.
"ri"il: :"*::;* Jx"J:H ))ll'iili lilliiil
equarion ? Icprcs{'nts r lincrt'qurntttv ::lll:-':i.;,l,;,,",i ,,i tl,o''
0, 'l'hn rrorrtl scr:tion of a pipe rvas divided into ten equal areas by
ol crrru:cntrio circlcs. I'he me.r.n velocities in the areas, beginning
gv in toot-p''un'''-
r,. ruwr-1"'q""" llrn fi'rrl,r,r of thc pil)e, rve$ meusured, in feet per second, as follows:
amount o[ cn.
rmount' ol cnclgy "o"i'rlll ]1,::::t
lLrrr :]':i'll'\ l;i,llil
is e Irrl,ir' Ir.ol n bri, lt.50,5.3u, 5.13, 4.00,4.54, 4.04,3.36,2.52. Compute o.
flrid at ilrrt hcad ff the sctu"tl ",.,u,,nnri,,tru pr"tr"ls' ilr. rv.i14ltt'
foot ol flrri'l
cul-'ic
;:,::.l.o^i;";;h 'r'cigl'*
 94 FUNDAMENTAIS OF FLUID FLOW
BERNOULLI,g ENERGY THE0REM 95
61. Frictional Loss. A fluid in motion sufiers a frictional loss,
tion bc rvill, a little later, pass the section de, and no p&fticles
u hich is an expenditure of energy required to overcome resistance will
pass lhe section de rvhich have not previously passed bc,
to florv. The expended energy is transformed into,heat. After
Consider norv the forces acting on ihis stream tube. On the
being so transformed it cannol, through the ordinary processes oI
scction ,c the arca of rvhich is o1 lhere is a normal pressure irr ihe
nature, be recooverted into any of the useful forms of energy con-
dircrr ion of florv of intensity p1
taincd in a florving fluid and is therefore often referred to as lost
producing motion. On thc sec-
energy or lost hea.d,.
tion de lhe area of tvhich is og
The exact manner in which this loss occurs is not completely
therc is a normal intensity of
knoqrr. The loss must not be thought of as caused by sliding pressure p2 parallel rvith the
friction between the stream and the walls of thc conduit, since,
direction of florv and resisting
when any fluid rvels lhe rvalls oi thc conduit through which it,
flor,ls, as gencrally occunj, th(j outcrmost particlcs of the fluid
molion. On the lateral sur-
faces of the stream tube, indi-
adhcre lo thc wail and havr: no motion rvil,h rcfcrence lo it. There
ca.ted by the lines bd and ce,
can thcrcfore bc no friction lx:trvrr:n tho fluirl l,nrl thc conduit.
there is a system of forces, act-
The loss must bc thought of rather as occurring within the tr\o. 39
ing normal to the direction of
strearn itsclf. It may occr.rr as 1,|r: rcqrlt of frir:liorr ltciwecn the
varioru fiuir-l particlcs as tlr:y rub againsl, {)nc anolhcr, or it may
motion, r'hich have no efi'ect on the flow and can therefore be
neglected. I'he force of gravity, equal to the weight of the stream
be due to k-rss in kinr:tir: r:rcrgy n:sulting from thc irnpuct of molc-
tube, acts downrvard. The rvork performed on the stream tube
culcs ()r rnirliscs mnving with tiiffcrcnt vclocitics.
rrVitlr larnu*r flow, as ii slro\vn lttcr (Art. 98), thc magnitude of by the three forces will now be investigated.
Consider ihat in the time dt eaeh of the particles at bc moves
the frir:tir-,nal loss is indclrcn|g1t ef the d.grce of rougbness of the
to b'cl rvith a velocity u1. In the same time interval'each of the
conduit. !\ itlr turbulent florv, acr;ording to Prendtl and others, particles at de moves lo d'et :viLh a velocity u2. Sin;e there is
whcn th(i fiuid wets thc conrluit walls thcre is a laycr of the fluid
cont inuity of flou,
adjacent t{) tho rvalls in which the {iorv is laminar; but thc rough-
ness of thc rrrndujt wall docs, howcvcr, have a t.lircr:t cffect upon ap1 dt : a2u2 dl
the amount of frictional loss riince turbulcnce increases with the The work G1 done by the force acting on the section bc in the time
degrcc of rouqhness. dl is the product of the total force and the distance through which
62. Bernoulli's Energy Theorem. In 1738, Danicl llcrnoulli, it acts, or
&n emincnt European mathcmatician and philosophcr, demon- Gy : pplol dl foot-pounds (e)
Btrated that in any stream flowing steadily without fr.icl,ion the
Similarly the work done on the section de is
total energy containcrl in a given mass is the s&me at evcry point
in its path of florv. In other words, kinetic encrgy, pn:ssure G2 : -p2a2u2 d,t foot-pounds (10)
energy, and cnergy of position may each bc conycrtcd into cithcr
bcing negative because p2 is opposite in sense to pr end resistg
of the othcr two forms, theorctically withorrt loss. 'l'hug if thcre
motion.
if s reduction in the amount of energy conteincd in any onc forrn
The work done by gravity on the entire m&ss ih moving from
there must be an equal gain in the sum of the other trvo. -
t,hc position bcde to b'c'a'e' is the same as though bcblc/ were toved
In f ig. 39, bcde represcnts a, stream tube in which all t,he particles
l,o thc position d.ed'e' and the mass btc,d,e were left undisturbed.
in any cr<.rss scction florv with the same velocity. Iror the present, 'l'he force of gravity acting on the mass bcb,c/ is equal to
frictional losseg will be ignored. Every particle passing the sec- the volumo
olu1 cll times the unit rveight ra. If z1 and z2 represent, respectively,

\
9O FUNDAMI)N ALS OI- I'LUID FI-OW II,:ll ]\Ol Jt,l,l'S I,;Nt,;llcy t, t,I)kt,iM 9?

the clevations of the centers of gravity of bcb'cl and d,el'e' ubove ir so consi<Ilrrrl, t:r.Jritill lctter.s or.l orrlirrrlrily usul to rlr,nol,.
the datum plane MN, the distance through which the force of velocity, elevation hcad, and lost lrcll.
gravity would act on the mass bcb'c' in moving it to the pcsition
dd,'e' is z1- 22, and the work done by gravity is
,l statement of the cnergy equation for thc entire cross scction
cf a continuous slream inciucling lost head then becomcs
G3 : wa14 dt(21 - z2) foot-pouu& (ll)
H .+n t,
:Y# +4.+ z" + H" (r5)
The resultent gain in kinetic energy is
Mo22 Murz: tta.lvyd.t a ,,. The statement of this form of the energy theorem s[ould be
- o o^ \v2'-Dr') (t2) memorized: With continuout, steo.dy fluo, the totnl head dt any point
4-g
in q stream is equal to the total.heod, at all! d.otlrlstream point plus the
From fundamental principles of mechanics, the total amount of lnss of hcad. belween the luo puinls.
work done on &ny mass by any number of forces is equal to the If energy is added to thc stream between pornr's /
I and 2, as for
resultant.g&in in kinetic energy. Therefore from equations g, 10,
ll, and t2, lnstalce bV a purnp, the l;ft side of the energy ;;;l
include the added head 11.7, and the compiete energy "qurtio;
equation
plapldt - p2o2u2dt { rmpl dt(21- 221=
yfi! (1g)
theu becomes
Or, -r.h2)
Ytz f, v"2 b"
- H, ='Zc
Dividing through by dt and transferring, and rrmembering
tua1u1 6 +'- +zL+ +ry +zz+ Ht (t6)
that c1o1 : o2u2, thete resultg
If energy is given up by ihe stream to a turbine between pointe
I and 2, the right side of the energy equation must, include a term
i***,,:tr+b.+n (14)
I17 to represent the head,given up.
This is knorvn as Bemoulli's enerry equation. It is the math- Equations 14, 15, and l{i apply to any stream of fluid which can
ematical exprcssion of Bernoulli's enerry theorem which is in be considered incompressible, regardless of the area of its cross
section, if it is assumed that ail particles in any cross section move
reality the isw of conservation of energy applied to fluids which
may be considered incornpressible. It rney be stated as follows: with the same velocity. This assumption ordinarily gives results
of sulficient accuracy- Therefore,. in nearly all the problems and
Neglccting fiiciion, the total hcad, ot th.c total amount of meryy per
unil ol ueight, is examples in this book the velocity head is computetl frosr the
lhp ssxnc at eoery Wint in the polh oJ flow-
mean velocity.
Fluids in motion invariably sulTer a loss of energ5r through fric-
tion. (See Ari. 51.) If the direction of flow in the streem tube is For streams in which the velocities at all points of a cross
section cannot be considered the same, the energy equations may
lrom section Ito_section 2, the total errerry at 2 must be less than
at l. fn order to make equation 14 balance, e quaatity, lrr, equal be written between any trvo points on the same path llne, but in
to the loss of energy, or what is equivalent, the loss of head due to applying them to the entire cross section a coffective l.actor must
friction betrveen the two sections, must be added to the right-harid be inttoduced. (See Art. 49.)
side of the equation.
ExAMpr,r I. llne fluid in Fig. 40 is water, with the Burlace 20 ft abovo
The foregoing discussion is related primerily to the flow in any
the datum. The pipe is 6 in. in diameter, and the total loss of heai
stream tube. Most problems involving continuous steady flow in betveen point I iD the water Eurf&ce and point b in the jet is lO ft De_
pip€s ar open cbannels can be solved satisfactorily by considering
iermine the velocity of flow in the pipc and the discharge 0.
the entire stresm &s a single stream tube. When the entire streai SoJtltozr. Consider the entire stream from reservoir zurface to jet sc
 98 FUNDAMENTAIAI OF FLUID I'IOW Irtroltl,lrMs s0

s stream tube haviog steo.dy, coutinuoue flow. Write the energy 'l'lr.gri;rc is 0 irr. irr rliotnetcr. Compu(e the discherge
end the ores_
theolem frorn 1 to 5. $rrc rrt point 2, if thc loss of head from I to 2 is S ft, and from Z
to S is
Total head at 1: Pressure head is etmospheric, therefore zero. Veloc- lt ft.
ity head is zero eince the reservoir is large and the wat€. i9 proctically Solution. lVriting the energy theorem lrom poiDt I in the oil surface
etationary. Elevation head is 20 ft. to point 3 in the jet,

8b.
Totsl head at 5: Pressure heed is zero since the jet is sprioging lree in
Velocity ig unknowu but represented by V2/2g, where 7 is
0+o+15:#+o*0+5+8
.u
\head
from which Vi/2c :
2 ft of oil, I/1 :
11.3 ft per seo, &nd, since .4! =
0.196 sq ft, Q :2.22 cfs.
J€t in ri' The pressure o.t 2 can be found by wriling ihe energy theorem either
from I to 2 or from 2 to 3.
It is advisable to do both in order to obtain
trlo. 40. Pip€ discharging from rerervoir. a check on theresults. Since the pipe is of uniform diameter,
the veloc_
ity and the velocity heed are the same at 2 a6 &t 3.
the mesn velocity of flow in the pipe and in the jet, which is the seme From 1 to 2:
diamet€r 6s the pipe. Elevatioo head ig zero. o+0+ls=2+4.+2t+5
By the ene46r theorem:
o+o+m:5+o+o+ro
2g
from which 7tr/w :
-13 ft of oil and p2: -4.51b per sq in, gege or
f.10.2 Ib per sq in. absolutc, assuming standard atmosphe"ic
Ttrer. ':rro
From 2 to 3: "oolittru.
v,
%:m-lo:1oft' 2+PJ+ 21: z*o*o*8
8d l/: )5.3 ft per sec. Since,4 : 0.190 Bq ft, e : 5.6 from which, os abote, p2/u : - 13 ft of oil.
Quesrror. If the liquid in the above example ia oil (ep"1,
$ 0.80) in- Ifthe absolute pressure &t the summit of a eiphon sirould be found to
atead of water, what, if any, ch&nges musi be made in the computation
be negative (an impossible condition), this resuli is obtained becouse
of 0? the
siphon does nbt now full et the ou et as was ossumed. Under euch
./.naaer. No change, provided that the unit of head ue€d ie feet of conditions the absolute prcssure st the summit moy be close to zero,
oil. Thuo, as the problem is qt&t€d, the elevation heed at 1 ie 20 ft of
and a portion of the siphon near the discharge end doee not llow full,
oil, the loes of head from I to 5 ie 10 ft of oil, aod the velocity hoad
being a function ol V ard, g only, ia inde-
The problems in this chapter are intended to illustrate applica-
pendent of the epecific gravity of tho
_J tions of the energy theorem. A complete solution of such p"oblems
fuid, but is mearured in feet of oil.
ExaMpLE 2. In Fig. 41 is ghowa a would include a determination of the head lost, but, in order not
oiphon with ito upper end immers€d in a to complicate the problems unduly, reasonable losses of head have
lorge reaervoir of oil (dp 910.80). A8 long
)t
Datum l--
been predetermined and are given with the data. Methods of
as the siphon ir frlled with air, thero is, of determining head losses in pipes are described in Chapter vIL
cours€, Do tcndency lor flow to occur. ff,
Fro. 41. Bipbou.
however, air is exhaueted by euction ot the free end or by other meano. PROBLEMS
stpospheric preeeure will cause the liquid to rie€ in the upper end. If,
after oll the air haa been exhaustsd and the siphotr completaly filled with l. In Example I sbove, assume the following head losses: from I to 2.
liquid, the lower.end of the riphon ir opeued, oil will be diecbarged fiom 0ft; from2to3,2 ft;from3 to4, ? ft;from4 to5, I ft. Make s tsble
ths regervoir. ehowing elevatioa head, velocity head, preesure heoo, and totel ilead ot
rOO ITUNDAMI]N'fAI-5 OF ITLUID I'LOW
PLOBLI.IMS r0r
eech of the five points. How higb above the center of the pipc will
10- A horizontll pipe carries 30 cfs of watcr. At,4 the diameter is
vrat€r siand in the piezometer tubes at 3 and 4?
8. A U-in. pipe is connected by a reducer to a 4-in. pipe (I'ig. A). l8 in- and the prcssurc is 10 Ib per sq in, AtB the diameter is 36 in.
Points 1 anC 2 are st the seme elevation, The pressure at 1 is 30 tn<l thc picssure is 10.9 lb per sq
lb per sq in. Q : l cfs flowing frorn 1 iu. Deterrnine the head lost be-
12' PiDe til'o points.
-......-{:_E!!-_ to 2, and the energy lost between 1 ond tweeD the
2 is equivalent to 3lb per sq in. Com- U. In Fig. D, a 2-in. pipe line
l.+.2 leads downhill from a reservoir
puie the pressure at 2 if the liquid is
(c) water, (6) oil (sp gr 0.80), (c) Ero- and discharges inio air. If ille
EI.
fts. A loss of head between ,4 and B is
O

, lasses (sp gr 1.50)-

& In fig. A, with 0.5 cfs of water flowing from 1 to 2, the pressure at
1 io 15 lb per sq in. and at 2 is 10 lb per sq in. Compute the loss of head
between I and 2.
4. With water flowing in Fig. A, what pressure lnust be main-
1 cfs of
tained at I if the
pressure at 2 is to be 10 lb per sq in. and the loss of
hegd betweea 1 and 2 is 5 per cent ol the difierence in pressure heads at
1 and 2?
6. If the smaller pipe of Fig. A is cut ofi a short distance past ihe
reducer so that the jet springs free inlo oir as in Fig. B, complte the
pressure at l if 0 : 5.0 cis of water, D1 is l2
in., and Dz 4 in. Assume.that the jet' has the
diameier D:, that the pressure io the jei is
etmospheric, and that the loss of head from
point I to point 2 is 5 ft of water. Fie. B
6. Compute the velocity head of ihe jet in
Fig. B if D1 is 3 in., D, is I in., the pressuie head at i. is 100 ft of the
liquid florving, and the lost head between poiots 1 and 2 is 5 per cent of
the velocity head at point 2,
7. In Fig. C, with 1.2 cfs of sea vater (sp gr 1.03) Ilowing from 1 to
2, the pressuie st I is 15 lb per sq in. and rt 2 is - 2 lb per sq in. Poiat
2 is 20 ft higher than point 1. Comput€ ihe
lost energy in pounds per squ$e inch be-
tween 1 and 2-
1 8. The diameier of a pipe carrying water
F changcs graduolly from 6 in. at,4 t, 18 in.
at B. l5 ft lower than -B. IYhat will
,4 is
be the difference in pressure, in pounds per
_l square inch, tletwe€n ,{ ond B, whel 6-2 cfs
is flowing, loss of energy being neglected?
Fig. C 9. The diameter of s pipe ca.rrying wete.
cbanges graduaily- from 6 in. at .4 to 18 iq.
ot B, r{ is 15 ft lo$er th&n B. If the pressur€ .t A is lO lb per sq in-
and ihat I is 7lb per sq in- vhen 5.0 cfs is flowing, determine: (c)
the direction of [ow; (b) the frictional ioss beiween the two points.
145 ft, compute the discharge.
Fie. D
12. A 6-in. pipe line (Fig. E)
(onducts N&ter frorn a reservoir and discharges st a lower elevatiol
through a, nozzle which has a discharge diameter of 2 in. The rvater
' Fis. E
surface in ihe reservoir (1) is at elevation100 ft, ihe pipe iptake (2
und 3) at elevation 80 ft, and the nozzle (4 and 5) tt elevation 0i The
head losses are: fxom 1 io 2, 0 ft; from 2 to 3, 2 ft; from 3 to 4' 30
ft; from 4 to 5, 10 ft. Compute the discharge and
make a table strowing elevation head, velocity
head, pressure head, and total head at each of the
five points.
13. lYatcr discharges through an orifice in ihe
side of a large tank as shown in Fig. F. The oli-
Fis. F fice is circular in cross se(ition und 2 in. in diam-
eter. The jet is ihe s&me diameter as ihe orifice
The liquid is water, and the surface elevation is maintained at a height
n of 12.6 fi ebove the center of the jet. Compute the discharge: (o)
neglecting loss of head; (b) considering the loss of head to be 10 per
ceni of i.. Make a iable of heads &t points 1, 2, and 3.
1{, A pump (Fig. G) takes rvater from an 8-in. suction pipe and de-
liver8 it to a 6-in. discharge pipe in which t'he velocity is 8 ft pet sec.
At.4 in ihe suction pipe'the pressure is -6lb per sq in. At B in the
discharge pipe, which is 8lt above,4, the pressure is -F60 Ib per sq in.
What horsepower would have to be applied by the pump iI there were
no frictional iosses?
/16. A pump (Fig. G) draws woter from an 8-in. suction pipe and dis-
6-in pipe in wLich the velocitv iB 12 it p€r sec The
charges through a
 IO2 FUNDAMENTALS OF FLUID FLOW VENTURI MT,TER IO3

pressure is *5 lb per sq in. at ,4 in the suction pipe. The 6-in. pipe dis, 19, The 24-in. pipe showu in Fig. L conducts water from reeervoir /.
charges horizontally into air ai C. i
To:vhat height above B car the to a pressure turbine, which dischorges through another 24-in. pipe into
water be raised if B is 6 ft above.{ and 20 hp is delivered to the pump? tailrace B. The loss of head from ,4 to 1 is S timee the velocity head io
Assume that the pump operates at 70 per cent efficiency and that the the pipe and the lose of head from 2 to B ie 0-2 times the velocity hesd io
frictional loss in the pipe between r{ a,nd C is 10 ft, the pipe. If the discharge is 25 cfs,
16, In Fig. H is shorvn a siphon discharging what horsepower is being given up by
water from the rcservoi! r{ iato the air gt 8. the waier to the turbine and what am
Distance c is 6 It, b is 20 ft, and the diameter ia
the pressure heads at 1 arld 2?
Di!.hryce 6 in, throughout. If there is o frictionsl loes
6il. Venturi Meter. An illus-
tration of the practical use of the
energy equation is provided by
the Venturi meter. This instru-
ment, which is used for measur- trts. L
Fig. Tis. E ing the discharge thrciugh pipes, was invented by sn Americar.
engineer, Clemens Herschel, and namd by hiin in honor of the
of 5 ft between r4 oud the eummit, &nd 5 ft between the summit and B, origiual discoverer of the principle involled.
wh&t is the &bsolute prcBsule &i the summit in pounds per square inch? A Venturi meter set in an inclined position iB illustrsted in l.ig.
Aleo determine ihe roie of diecharge in cubic feet per second and ia
gallons per minute.
42. It consists of a short converging tube BC connected to ths
1?. Figure J shows a siphon discharging oil (sp gr 0.90). The eiphon approach pipe at the inlet end 8, and endhg in s cylindrical section
is composed of 3-in. pipe from / to B followed by 4-in, pipe from B to CD, colled the throa,t. Usually built as an integrel part of a
the open discharge at C. The head losses ere: from I to 2, l.l ft; from Venturi metcr is the divergiag
2 to 3, 0.? ft; from 3 to 4, 2.5 ft. Colopute the dischorge, and make section Dt, connected to the pipe
table of heads at poiDts 1, 2, 3, &trd 4. &t the outlet end E. The angle of
divergence is kept snsll to reduce
the loss of bead caused by turbu-
lence as the velocity is reduced.
Let V1, p1, and 'Z1 represent
the mean velocity, pressure, and
elevation, respecfively, st point I
tr\o. 42. Veaturi mete!. in the inlet. Also let I/2, p2, a,nd
.Z2 represent {he correspondiug
qua.ntities at point 2 in the throat. Writing the energr equation
Fig. Fie. x between points 1 and 2, neglecting friction, and assuming uniform
distribution of vel@ity in each cross section,
18. A pump drsws water from reservoir / and lifte it to reservoir B
as showu in Fig. K. The loss of head from.4 to _l iE g times the velocity (4guq4 r, s,=
head iu the gin. pipe and the loss of head from 9 to I is 20 times the
velocity head iD the 4-in. pipe. Compute the horsepower output of the Transpoeiag,
fi +';+2, (17)

pump and the pressure heads et / :!trd g B'hen the dieoharge is: (o) 200
vt' vr'
gpm; (6) 600 gpm.
?4- %=\;
/p, *rr)- (;*',i (18) v'
104 I,'UNI)AMI,INTAI,S Ol,' l),tJI I) l'LoW . :' rirtii f,iltflrll 10n

This equation shorvs that the increase in kinctic cncrgy is cqual (l.1rli trxl {).1i}J, r irr:r,r,;. ir fL,r'reLt,ir,-r11, srrlrill flo',vs;t drops to som.-
to the decrea,se in potential energy, a statement whjch has been i" ir;r,l j tr','er viliu:r;.
called the " Ventrrri principle." The decrease in potentia,l head is \/criur! urttrs a.re :rr;riaily inst;r1led irr rrn apploximrilcly iiori-
the difference in levels of li- z],1i,?ri Fos;tror.r. i [':,..va rr:i, fo| a gir''en di:char'61c the dtllorcnee be-
quid in piezometer tubes con- i,',rc.rir 1.1-,1 elcvaii.:,rl oi tl'.e liquir.ls ir the t,i|o pi,-:zomelcrs (rig.'12),
nected to the inletand throat, or thc dillerenliai rrra];cincl,el rea-dirg (]'ig. 43), rlill be the same
as in Fig. 42. It is com- lep-ar.llcss oi tire rirel,er is holigotttai ol irclined. 'fhis is
'lbclbc,,r
monly measured by means ,)pparerrt from a corrsitleralion of crlu:.lion 18. Siucc it is aesurncd
of a diflerential manometer l,hr,i thir rrr,ic r-;{ tiisci*,;ge rrmrrins lhe s&rrirr, tlie inciease in kinctic
Fro, 43. Venturi meter wilh diFer€n-
tia,l maDometer. connecting inlet and throat, erj:erfl] rrirl likcr.,'isc lhi, Curcase ir ;<rtentiai cnergy rnust ,.lso re-
as in F ig. 43. r:ira;i urichsnged. regailiicijs of i,he position of lhe mrter.
With the decrease in potential head lorown, the only unknown
terms inequation 18 arc Vy2 /2g ar'd V22 /2g, These velocity llillur,r-l;. A 1'ellturi )r:(tler lre\'iilg r' throdl '1 in. in ditrneter is
heaCs are related, horvever, by the equation of continuity, @ : irstaiied !r r horiz.riri,al i2-ir. pile lile c:rrrving u light oit (sp gr 0.,!2)
.,1I/. Thus, for a given Q, tr/ varies inversely as,4. With circular A ne.curl. U-iube colne,j|ed as shrrvn in l"ig. 43 shorv.i a (liffcronce in
ir.right of rrrer.:rr:,eolumrrs of il in., the rcrtreinder 0l ihe t,qLc bcinB IllcC
ctoss sections, ,4 varies directly as the square of the diameier D.
Therefore V varies inversely as D2, and the velocity head Vz/fu i'rith oil. Finc ;he;rrtl ol rliscir:rrg:, S, ir r:ulric leet pcr secr,'nd, if'C
,= fJ.S?5.
vsries iDversely as the fourth porver of the diameter D. Hence
lVriting lhe energ5' cquatio:l iletwc.n p.rtrLs I ald 2, ncglceting losi
vr" /Dr\a vr2 (re)
iead,
| p2,
?": \D,) ^ ?" " '.'
--r' I L
zau'2!u' - I -
-t I't
By combining equations 18 and 19, the velocity head at either ince Z: - 5:,
1 or 2 and the corresponding velocity can be computed. With the v,:!, ." :,] : p*t
- #'['-"4
area knorvn, Q1 can be computed. This 0r is the " theoretical " 2.9 29 7a

flow computed by neglecting the loss of head between inlet and

thloat. In the practical use of the Yenturi meter this loss of hesd, I'rorn ihe differeutiei rnaooi,rcler reading,
though small, should not be neglected. It causes the actual flow,
Q, to be less tha,n the theoretical flow, Q1. The correction is usually
;:1_ ', _ , :ii.i _:r , .Z ii or orl
made by applying a factor less than I to the theoretical flow. This u u i2 " {l5l 12

factor is called the meter coefficient. Thus, if C denotes the meter Fron the diarneiei r:'r.tio ai poir:.ts I snd 2 e"nd the equrtion of conti-
coefficient, nuitJ,
Q:cxQt V,?_2t.t:urI!
ifhe Venturi met€r coeffcient is best determjned by measuring
29 2s 2s
Subsiituting
the actual flow Q through the meter by volume or by rveight, com-
lf: rt.z n,'6 II2s : s.146
puting the theoretical flow Q; from the manometer readings and
tLe meter dimensions, and finding the ratio of Q to Q1. The value
so
2s 11

whenoe
of C is afrected by the design of the meter and by the roughnms of ?*r = 3.06 it Per sec and Qt: 2'44 ek
its inner sudace. It has been found that the coefficient of a Thus
stanilard Venturi meter usually has a fairly constant value between Q : 0.9?5 )( 2 {0 : 2.3'l cls
 l0i; lr{JNI"}n ttirN I',\lli oir lrLUlD l'Low NO/,Zl,t:,
PR,OB[,EMS inlct ond thrott, nnd combine thc two oquotions to compute
r:|arge. Ifow docs the fact thet the meter is vertical il." dis-
1. .A Venturi raeter haviag o diamet'er of 6 in. at the throat is installed insrl.;; og 1ro"i_
zontal afrect the solution?
in e holizontal 18-in. watcr main. In a differential gage partly frlled
with mercury (the remcinder of the tube being filted with waicr) and
connected with the meier at the inlet and throat, the mercury column
stands 15 in. higher in one leg than in the oiher. Whot is the tlischarge
through the meter in cubic feet per second: (o) neglecting friciion; (b)
if the loss of head between inlet and thloat is I ft of water? Compute
meter coefficient in (0).
2, A Venturi meter having a diameter of 6 in. ai the throdt is installed
in a horizontal 12-in. vater main. In a difierential gage portly filled
with mercury (the remainder of the tube being 6llcd rvith water) and
connected with the meter at the inlet and throat, rvhat rvould be the
difrerence in levet of the mercury columns if the discharge is 5 0 cfs?
Neglect loes of head.
3. A 3-ir. by I}-in. Venturi rneter is installed in a 3-in pipe to measure
the flow of oii (sp er 0.852). A difierential gage connected rvith inlet can thernfore also be used for the
and throot contains water in the lo\ver part of the tube, the remainder of mcasuremcnt of flow. The base Frc. 44. Norrles.
the tube being filted with oil. The difierence z in height of lrater col- of the nozzle at its connection with the pipe
or hose corresponds
umns in the two legs of the tube is 1832 ft. If the coefficienl of the to the inlet of the Venturi, and tip oi it norri" ;;;;il;
meier is 0.957, compute the discha,rge. .the
to the lhroat, Thc flow conclitions " are therefore
rt. In a test to determine the discharge coe6cient ol a 2-ilr' by $-in' in a nozzle de_
6,ned by writing the energy equation from
Venturi rneter the total rveight of rvater passing through ihe meter in th" b;;;;;i;;;
the jet.
5,00 min wes ?68 ib. A rnercury-water difrerential gage connect€d t'o
inlet end throa,t of the meter shoNed an average mercury
Thc pressure in l,he throat of a Venturi meter
may have anv
difrelence during thllt time of 1.18 fi. Determine the value. u hereas the pressure in an unconfined jet
of Ii;;iC ;;;;;_
ing into a medium of low density such a.
meter coef6cient. g;i"];;;;;';;
6, A Venturi meter is installed in a pipe line carrying that in the medium surrounding rhe jet."ir"r" ThiJmav ;; ;;;;
air, The meter has a diameter of 24 in. st' inlet and lnvestrgatrng lhe conditions which would resull,
from o".*",,"o
18 in. at throat. A U-tube connected to inlet and greater or less than in the surrounding
medium. If,
throa,t coniails waler, the difference in levels in the two
fo,;;;;;1;:
legs of lhe tube being 4 in. Considering ihe unit weight
thc internal pressure in a cross sectioi ,f j;t*";;;;;d';'fr;
the extemal pressure, there would be "
,"U"fr"""a'i."i*^ri"i*
of &ir constrnt at 0.08 lb per cu ft, determine the op' ",
of rhe secrion, and since an unconfined liquid
proximato discharge in cubic feet per minute, neglecting :::y,,:"1i"
capaDre ot resrsl,ing stress thjs force would cause l,he jet
is inl
iriction. to expand.
In a similar manner if the lnternal p.ur.ur" *ur"
6. A l2-in. by 6-in. Venturi meter is insta,lled in a ver-
external pressure, the unbalance.d force
i*u-dffi;;
ticai pipe line can'ying vater, as shown in Fig. A. The would *rr" ifr"l"r"t"
flow is upward through the meter. A difierential ma-
contr&ct. Since neither expansion nor contraction
Fig. A - occurs- or."o.,t
nometer containiqg carbon tetrochloride (sp gr 1.50) is by acceteration due ro gravity or air re."Lr."ljit
:.r"."y:"d pr"":y"* ilr#"
ettached to inlei arrd thro&i, the difference z in gage levels being 2 50 ft' :i.l: l.nu
in the jet mugt be the seme as thst in the su._
Neglecting loss of head, write energy equation from inlet to throat of roundrng. medium. If this medium
is the atmosphere the gage
*"t"", Atuo write step-by-step equation of difrercntial gage betweeu pressure in the jet is zero.

I
 I)I'LO l ',l trlll to1)

108 FUNDAMENTALS OF FLIIID FLO1V

A magnilir:rl slietch of florv cotrrlil,iorrs rrt'rrl l,lrc rrtrl of 1,lri: t,rrlrrr rr
'Ihe energy equation for a horizontal nozzle rvritten between sho*n in Fig..11i. In the tube is i\ r'olurnrr oi rrrolionkrss li<1rrirl, ilrc
points l anti 2 (Fig. t14) is upstrcam lirnit of rvl;ich is not definitcly krrorvn bul, is a sur'[rrr:r:
Pt
att rt2 lhich m:'y bc represented by sone
_Lvt :11 + loethead (20) lino .uc1r c. uu( oi db'r ur hy tlre intor'- -: -I
w'2s 2(l
nrcdiatc linc ab"c. l)n thc adjacent
in which p1 is the gagc piessure at the base of the nozzle, I/1 is upstrcarn sidc of this surface, particlcs
the mean velocity at the base, and Ir2 is the m€an velocity in thc ale moving rvith an ciitrcmely lolv
ict. lhe uolo,i'y heads lre rcleleJ as in the Vcn'uri hrct'er velocitl'.
-!-h" lost hcrd he expresscd as a pprc' ntage
ie,luation l9). "au Lct c reprcscnt l.he apcx of this sur-
of the velocity head in the jet. face, called a point of st:rgnation. I et
The nozzle is discussed further in Art.75' d r',,nresent :l point in t hc undistulbed
strearn, th:lt ir, [lt enorrgL upstr.t!:rr
PR.OBLEMS
so thll t,ht: vdocity is noi elTcctcrl by the prcsence of the tLrlri'.
1. A 2|-in. fire hose discharges water through a nozzle having n jet l'..,r':.irnplierrl, I, t ,./ L" on 11,. r,ris ,'f rhe tube rnJ :rt tlrl srirrr,.
diamctcr of 1 in. The lost head in tlte nozzle is 4 per cent of the I'elocity
"levalrrrn r:
I.
head in the jet- If the gage pressurc at base of nozzle is 60lb per sq in': As a palticie florvs from d to c its veJociiy is gradually retarilrrrl
(a) compute the discbarge in gallons p€r minute ; (b) whai isthe maxi-
from rr to plactically zelo at e. The vclocity head at, e may tliolr'-
mum horizontal range to rvhich the stres,m can be thrown, neglecting air
fore be callctl zero. \\iliting the energy tlreorem for palh line dr:,
resisiance?
2. A- 2|-ir. fire hose discharges a l|-in" jet. If ihe head lost in the the elevation hea,Js being equal and fiiciion rreglected,
fi, what gage pressurc must be rraiirtained at the base of the
nozzle is 6
nozzle to throw a stream to a veriical heighi of 100 ft, neglecting air
t,*t'''-n*P" (2r)
resistance? 2gue
3. A power nozzle throws a jet oi water which is 2 in in diameter' From Fig. 45
The diameter oJ the base of the uozzle and of the approach pipe is 6 in' P"
_:n., _:
na
rld, t\\\d h" hn : h
If the power in the iet is 42 hp wu -
and ihe pressure head at ihe
base ol the nozzle is 180 fi, com- Thus from equation 2l
pute the head lost in the nozrle. a2:?: p,l

66. Pitot Tube. A bent 29u u

Lshaped tube with both endg
open, similar to Fig. 45, is
called a Pitot tube, aft€r the
French investigator who first
used such a device for meas-
Trc. 45. Pitot tube.
urinq the velocity of liquids.
When the tube is first placed in a moving stream in the position
shown, the liquid enters the opening at e until the surface'in the
tube rises a distance /r above the sur-face of the stream. A condi-
tion of equilibrium is then established, and the quantity of liquid
in the tube remains unchanged as long as the flow remains stcady.
v: lw
llence the velocity hcad at d is tlansformed into pressure head at
e, and, bccause of this increased plcssule inside the tubc, a column
ft." is maintained the height ol rvhich is u2f2g a,bove the level
outside.
I.igure 47 illustrates several tubes immelsed vertically in a
stream. 'Ihc upper cnds of the tubes are opcn and exposed to the
atncsphere. - At t\e same depth, /ra, there is an opening in each
 rIO FUNDAMENTII.9 OF FLUID FLOW
tube rvhich allows free communication between the tube and the
atre&m.
Tube (o) is similar to the tube of Fig. 45, and [ : v2 /2g. Ttbes
(b) and (c) are similar to (o), being bent through an angle of 90o,
the tip of each tube being open. If the tube is placed with the
open end directed dorvnstream as in (b), or with its lower leg
transverse to the stream as in (c), the pressure head at the opening
is less than 17 an& the surface of the liquid in the tube is a certain
distance, [1 or h2, belorv the surface of the stream. Experiments
by Daicy showed that 1.1 is approximately 0,43 uz/fu end iz ie
approximately 0.68 u2/29.
(n) (6) (") (d) (,)
tr\s, 47. Tubes ext€nding into flowing liquid.
Similarly for (d), which is a straight tube open at each end, there
,is a depression, [3, of the column in the tube. The conditions of
flow afrecting the height of water column in tube (d) are similsr
to those encountered when piezometer tubes (Art' 21) project
through the conduit walls into the stream. Piezometer tubes are
designed to measure pressure head only, a,nd' in order that their
readings may be afiected a minimum amount by tho velocity of
the liquid, their ends should be set flush with the inner surface of
the s6nduit and they should neVer project beyond this surface.
Tube (e) is the same as tube (o) except that the tip of the tube is
closecl and there is a small hole on each side of the lower leg. If
this tube is held with the lower leg parallel to the direction oI flow
the surface in the tube remains at about the same elevation as the
surface of the stream, thus meastrring the static pressure at the
depth of the onening.
l'l't\ )'l' 'l'lllrl': I ll
Pitot tubes of the type sholn irr l,'ig. 47 rrrc noi pltcticlblo for
measuring velocities because of thc tli{liculty of determining thc
hcight of ihe column in the tube obove the sur-
ftcc of the stream, In order to oyercome this
difflculty the tubes of Fig. 47a and b can be com-
bined as shown in Fig. 48. The open end of one
tube is directed upstream, rvhereas that of the
other is dorvnstream. The two tubes can be
joiried at their upper ends to a single tube con-
nected rvith a suction pump and provided with a
stopcock at ,4. By opening the stopcock and
dlawing some of the air from the tubes, both
coiumns are raised an equal amount, since 1he
pressure in their surfaces is redrrced equally.
The stopcock can then be closed and the difier-
Fro. 48. Pitot
ence in height of columns can be read.
tube,
This difierence is a function of the velccity
head, or
h: K..!
u29 (23)
The velocity measured by the tube is thus
u : co{2si, (24)
where
n- |
"r-.fn (25)
For tubes of the type shorvn in Fig. 48, li. should be the sum of /r.
and lrr in Fig. 47a and b. Therefore, approximately, Ke: 1.43
and Co = 6.34.
Forms of Pitot tubes adapted {or measuring velocity in pipes
are shorvn in Figs. 49 and 50. Provision must be made for in-
serting the tube into the pipe through a fluid-tight connection.
A difrerential manometer is ordinarily used to rneasure the pressure-
head difference.
The arrangement shown in Fig. 49a is sirnilar in principle to
that of Fig.48 except that the horizontal part of the tubes is cut
off short to permit insertion in[o the pipe ihrough a corporation
l\2 IUNDAMIiII IIALS Ot" Flllll r' I'LOW (i lll.lultAl, l,rlL)Bl,t,lNlr-i I l3

6top of I in. inside tliameter' Figure 49L sholvs an arr&rrg€-
me;t in which lhe open end of the velocily or " kir'etic " tube is
clirecled upstream, while the open entl of thc " st'atic " tube is
normal to the direction <if florv and is flush wi'"h thc side of the
" head " of the tube. The coeffisients of such a Nube should have
vslues close to 1.00. Anoi,trer ar-
iangemeot is shown in Fig. 5{t lrr
fluid at rest. It is convenient and usually sullicir:rrLly accuratc to
consider the motion of the fluid relative to the body, ds in Fig, 51.
At poini 1 in the undisturbed stlea,m of fluid rvhere the velocity
is a lhe pressure is p1. Somervherc on i,he forrvard portion of thc
body, as at 2, there is a point of stagn&tion rvhere ihe velocity is
lrrought to zero. Writing thc cnergy theorem fi om 1 to 2 assuming
lrolizonl,al motion
u2 pr
^-f-=0+&

jhff
2!wu)
Velocity frorl which
,: nir' 4"-.) (26)

Thc usual case rollcorns m.'asurpmcnt of lho speed of a body

(6)
ld) ilirough air. If the velocity is not too great, approxirnately cor-
tr\G- 49. Fornle of Fitot tube. Frc. 50. Fjroi tube itr PiPe.
rect results can be obtained by consideriog the unit rveighd of air,
uo, constarrt. Iror high velocities, horvever, appreciable eror is
which the velocity tube ie inseried into the pipe, and ihe static made if effects o{ compressibility are not considered.
pressure is indicaied by a piczometer in the pipe rvall' If the pressure at 2 is measured by means of an open manometer
For accurate fire&surement a pitot tube mtrst be calibrated or inside the body, *.ith atmospheric pressure at 3,
rated. This can be done by moving the tube t'hrougli still water ai
positiorrs in a Y:P3-zw'
a kaown velocity or by holding the trlbe at various w\
pipe in which a known quantity of flu'd is flowing ln t.he,latrer wa wd w4
^l the tube'
'c-s;e projected arer
correction should bc made ior the rvhere arl io the unit rveight of the gage liquid. If p1 : p3, from
equaiions 26 ar'd 27 ,

,8"(fl: "oa (28)

l'here l. is the head of ail equivalent to height z of the gage liquid.

As r.ith the Pitot l,ube (equation 24), an empirical coefficient
C, must usually be introduced in equation 26 or 28 to give the
Fr6. 51 rctual air speed of a body. More lrequently the pressure at the
point of sta.gnation on the forrvard portion of the body, as, for
The foregoing discussion has relat'ed to mensuring the velocity instance, on the leading edge of the wings qf an airplane, is mea,s-
principle of the Fitot
of n *i."u*-of fi'uid past o flxeil point' The ured by a pressure gage calibrated to read air speed directly in
itt" *" "f.t be applied to irrdicate the speed of a body relative railes per hcur.
to s fluid through which it is moving' GENERAL PROBLEMS
Consider,for instance, a body moving rvith velocity u through a
1. The dior.eter of a pipe line is 6 in. at .4 and t8 in. gt B. ,4 is 11 fi
Art soc Mech' Engs 281' lower thar 8. If the pressure st,4 is l0lb per sq in. and at B Z lb per
r Cob, ' Pit'ot-tube Practic,e," frnas' '1935'p
114 FUND.dMENTAU} OF FLUID FLOW OENERAI, PNOIILI|M$ IIb

sq in. wh€n the flow is 2.5 cfe, determine tho direction of flow and the
ft;4 to 5, 10 ft.Compute the required horeepowcr output of tho pump
frictional loss between ,4 and I when ihe liquid is: (o) water; (b) a rnd make a tablo of the heode ot the lir.e point8, I -
2b0 Spm.
10. The pressure head difrorence between inlet and throot of the B_in.
regular gasoline at 60o F.
2. .4 and B are two points in a pipe line. The diameter is 6 in. at /. by 1-in. Venturi mcter shown iu Fig. C is measured by means of a
mercury differential manomet€r equipped with s ecale which reads in
and 18 in. at B, .4 ie 15 fi lower than B. Delermine the discherge of
inches. With wal€r flowing through the meter ond filling the gage tubes
w&ter \yhen ihe pressure iB the Eame at the two points snd the loss of
head between ,4 and B is 1.5 ft.
3, A pipe discharges 5.0 cfs of weter inio a reservoir at s point 6 ft
below the watrcr surface. At -4 the diameter is 10 in, aqd the center of
the pipe is 4 ft above the water sulface. At the dischaige end the pipe is
lio2: l0i
12 in. in diameter. If the loss of head from.4 to the reservoir is 2.2 ft, 2ro3:30&
determine the pressure head at.4.
aao6:20O
4. A pipe, 12 in. in diometer et,4, discharges 4.0 cfs of a heavy fuil 2'14
oit at 100" F into tbe air at B, where the diameter is 6 in. If B is 12 G
It above ,4 and the frictional loss between the two points is equivalent to Fig. A
3,0 lb per sq in., determine the pressure at A in pounds per square inch,
6. A jei oI liquid is directed vertically upw6rd. At,4 its diameter ie to the tops of the mercury columns: (o) Computs the numerical con-
3 in. and its velocity,is 30 ft per sec. Neglecting air frictioo, determine Btant N in the equatiol for theoreticel fow, Q. : j\ry';, where,i is the
its diameter at a point 10 ft' above.4. mercury difierence in inches. (b) Compute the meter coemcielrt if the
6. A 6re pump delivers vater through a &in. main to B hydmnt to averago mercury difierence 2i : 11.86 ilr. durin8 a test run in which lg.g
which is connected a 3-in. hose, terminating in a f-in. nozzle. The cu ft of water were discharged in 130.5 Bec.
uozzle is l0 ft above the hydrant and 60 ft above the pump. Assuming l'J.l
& tot&l frictional loss of 28 ft from the pump to the base of the nozzle,
and a loss in the nozzle ol6 per cent of the velocity heod in the jet, and
neglecting air resistaDce, lvhat gage pressure at ihe pump is necessery to
throw a stream 80 ft, vertically above the nozzle?
7. A fire pump delivers water through a 6-in. maiu to a hydrant to
which is connected a 3-in. hose, terminating in a f-iq, nozzle. The
nozzle is 5 ft above the hydrant and 35 ft sbove the pump. Assuming
frictional losses ol 10 lt from the pump to the hydrant, 7 ft in the hy- Fis, B l,re. C
drant, and 40 ft from the hyrlrant to the base of the nozzle, and a locs
in the nozzle of 6 per cent of the velocity head in the jei, to what vertical
1L The Venturi meter in Fig. C1s being used to measu.e the 0ow of a
medium fgel oil at 600 F. The difierential gage fluid is wotar.. The
height can the jet be thrown if the gage pressure at the pump is 80 lb per
met€r coemcieDt is 0.975. Compute the discharge for the followinc
sq ill.?
values of zi: (o\ 7.2 in.; (6) 14.4 in.; (c) 28.8 in.; (d) b7.6 in.
8, The pipe line shown in tr'ig, A takes watcr from a reservoii ond
12. A diverging tube discharges water from a reservoir, into the air.
t€rminatcs in a nozzle having a jet diameter of 2 in. With the pipe
at a depth of 6 ft below the water surface. The diameter craduallv
losses shown in the figure, and assuming a norzle loss of 8 per cent of the
velocity head in the jet, compute the discharge and make a table Ehowing
increaeeg from 6 in. at the throat to g i!. at the outlet. N-estecii;'!
friction, determine (o) the ret€ of discherge in cubic feet per r""o'na; (d
(to the nearest foot) the elevation head, velocity head, pressure head,
the corresponding pressurc ot the throat.
and total head &t each of ifie eix etstions"
13. A diverging tube discharges water from a reeervoir at a deoth of
9. The pump in Fig. B draws water lrom e reservoir and discharges
30 ft below the w.t€r Eurface, The diametcr gradually increases from
through 2!-in. hose which terminates in o nozzle having a jet diameter
B in, at the thrcst to g in, at t&o outlet. Neglecting friction, cletoi
of t i!. The h€ed losseg are: I to 2, 5 ft;2 to 3, aegligible;3 to 4,30
 (inNl,ll{AL l'ltoBLEMS I l7
116 FI}NDAMENTALS O!' TLUID I.'LOW
V62/29 leaL pnr loot .Com-
mine: (a) the maximum possible rate of discharge in cubic feet per
in, in diamel,er snd l,ho loss of head.is004
;'d the tpipe 1 f t below point '
he
second ihrough this tube; (b) the corresponding pressure at the throat. ;i,$#il;;; '4

14. A diverging tube discharges water from a, vessel at a point 10 ft ' Fi*. l, 3.0 cfs of^pressureioad-in
zz. tn waler enters
below the surface od which ihe gage pressure is 8.5 lb per sq in. Il the tlauxtt tf,""l-i^ diameter pipe et '4 and
Ji."tt"lt*n" rrdially in all directions
be-
dismeter of the throat is 4 in., at which point ihe absolute pressure is 10
24 rn
lb per sq in., determine: (a) the discharge in cubic feet per second, neg- t.ween ihe tr,;o cilcullr plslPs 'ninto
lecting friction; (b) the diameter of the tube itthe tiischarge end. aiu*"'.. ""a I in c|art, di'' hergirrg
16. The center of the intake end of a suction pipe is 5 ft below the the air. Negl"clin* friction dcl'ermtne
water surface io the river. The pipe has a uniform rise of 1 ft per 100 r.he aLsolute pr(i5ule in pounds per fis. F
ft to the pump. The velocity in the pipe is 8 ft per sec, the frictional squxre inch at B, .. . :- ..rich is florving is connected lo o
loss at the pipe entrance is 0.5 it, and the lrictionel loqs in the pif'p is 23. A Pitot tube in a PtPe rn wtri air
1ft per 1000 ft. Determine the greatest length the pipe can have with- Ji;;;';;;;;.c *lri' * jn Fir' 5o' Ir the difrerence in wrtpr
of fiow in tbe pipe'
out causing ihe pressure at the pump to il"ti.t;;;";;.eter is 3 5 in \\Lct is the velocitv
drop more than 6.0 Ib per sq in. belorv ttU" coemcieot, CP' of 0'99?
atmoipheric pressure. """*.i"* "
16, Figure D shows a siphon discharg-
ing from a reservoir into the atmosphere.
The pipe diameter is 6 in, The loss of
head is 1.2 V'/2g from A to the summit
a\d, 1.4 Vt/29 from the summit to B, I/
being the velocity of flow in the pipe. If
Fig. D
o: 6 ft and b: 2O ft, compute the
discharge arrd the absolute pressurc at the summit if the 0uid is: (o)
woter; (b) oil (sp gr 0.82); (c) brine (sp gr 1.15).
17. In problem 16, with wa,ter flowing, what length of vertical pipe
added to end B will cause the siphon to florv at it's maimum capacity?
What is the flow then? Assune that the loss of head
isO,04V2/29 per looi of pipe. Neglect vapor prcssure.
18. Water is delivered by a scoop from a track tank
to e locomotive tender that has a speed of 20 miles per
hour. If the entrance to ihe tender is 7 ft above the
level of the irack tank and 3 ft of head is lost in fric-
tioo, et whs,t veiocity will the water enter ihe tender?
' 19, Water is delivered by a scoop l'rom a track
tank to a locomotive tender, the point of delivery be-
iDg 7 ft above the level of the track tank. Neglecting
friction, what is the lowest possible speed of the train at
which water will be delivered to the tender'? Fig. E
7 2O. Figure E shows a vertical pipe discharging water
from an elevated tank into the atmosphere. If the pipe is 6 in. in di-
smeter and'the loss of head is 0,04 V2/2,g leet per foot of pipe, compute
ihe discharge and the pressure head in l,he pipe 1 ft befow point -{..
li - Frorn d to B in Fig. E the pipe is 4 ru. in diameter and the loss of
bead ie 0.075 Y a2/29 leet per foot of pipe. From B to C the pipe is 6
 vt,;tocrTY oF Dtgcltt.ttot,t ltn
rnd,eincola.{z*h,
r---F--.
," =
Jr[o .';.(T -,;)] e)
Chaplzr VI
cxprcssing the general relation between velocity and head forany
ORIFICES, TI'BES, AND WEIRS path line.
-
Since particles at difrerent elevations discharge through a ver-
Orifces tical orifice under difrerent heads their velocities are not ihe same.
In orifice flow, however, the mean velocity is ordinarily taken as
66. Description. An oriffce is an opening rvith e closed perim- the velocity due to the mean head. The mesn velocity thue
eter through which a fluid florvs. The usual purpose of an orifice obtained. is represented by the symbol 21, while the mean v-elocity
is the measurement or dontrol of the flow. in the channel of approich, called the velocity of approach, is
The upstream edge of an orifice.may be rounded or sharp. An
orifice with prolonged sides, such as a piece of pipe two or threr
diameters in length, is called a tube. Au orifice in. a thick wall
has the hydraulic properties of a tube. Longer tubes such as
culverts under embankmeqts are lrequently treated as orifices
although they may also be treoted as short pipes.
Orifices used for measuring flow are usually circular, square, ot Fro. 52, Discharge from orifice.
rectangular in cross section. Because of simplicity of d€sign $nd
construction, sharp-edged circular ori-fices are most common for
represented by Va. ll, then, the energy equation iB writt€n for
the entire otresm, neglecting unequal distriibution of velocity
fluid measurement and have been most thoroughly investigated by in
the cross section,
expcriment, although much remains to be learned about the laws
goverhing their discharge, particularly for fluids other than water.
67. Velocity of Discharge. Figure 52 represents the general case
of a liquid discharging through a verlical rounded orifice. There aie and
ffnn*+:#.+ (3)

tu'n charnbers, A and B, the gas pressures in these chambers

being respectively pA a\d pB, and the relative amounts of the v,-J,fi;W4#-Tf (4)
prcssures being such that flow is from u{ to B. The liquid particles
follow path lines of which rnn is one, nr. being a point in chamber 4 The cordition rnost comrnonly encountered ie that in which
the
and z a point in the jet. The pressure in the jet is pa (Art. 54). nurface of the
liquid in chamber,{ and the jet in chamber B are each
The path line mz passes through thd orifice at a dista,nce h below cxposed to the atmospbere. Then p,{ : pr,
a,nd
the surface of the liquid. The point zr is a distanbe lu below the
surface and a distance z above zl, Yelocities at zr and r are rospec- (5)
tively. u- and r;". The energy equation betwedd these points,
neglecting lost, head, is: If also the cross-sectional u""o olih" rcservoir or channel
leading
to the. orifice Iarge in comparison with the area
!. .f th" ;n;;
a*$*?)*
ll8
"=a*H (1) the velocity of approach becomes negligible, and

v, = J6i (6)
lfl) oltl l,'I ( ll'lli, 'I tlltlis' ANI) wltllLs COEFFICIENT Or DIECIIARCE ,21
In equations 4 and 5, the riuantitics ir bratket"s, arrd irr cqutrt'tort The rstio of the crose-sectional erog of tho jet
at the vena con-
6 the quantity l, represent lhe total head, protlwing f'ow trt t\n tr&cta to the area of the orifice is called the coefici"ra;i;;;#_
total head is represeni'ed by if, the i,heoretical 'relocity of di's- y o and z{. are, respectively, th"
charge from &n orifice, ihat is, the velocii;r rvhi':ir worrlC exint if 1t::,
or T*,
ine Jet at the vena, contract!, and the area of the "-.""".;;;;i;;;
orifrce, and Co
there were no lcss of hea.d, is 6iven by the ertruaiion ie the coeficielt of contraction,
Vr:@ (7)
C"=; or o=C*i
Equation 7 is also the forrnula for the vejocity :rcquired hy o.
body in falling from rest through a heig.hl IJ. 'fhe iheoretical If 7 is the actusl mesn velocitv in 1[s vena contrscta the
discharge
velocity of discharge frorn an orifice is thereiore the velocity ae- through the orfice is
quired by a body falling freely in a vacuum through a heigtri equal
to the total head on the orifice. 'fhk principie. disccvered by Q - aV : C,A xC;'/m .(e)
Torricelli in 1644, is knorvn as Torricelli's theorem' Beyond the vens cgntracta the croes.sectionat areo
of fte jet,
68. Coe$ficiest of Velocity. l'he actual velociiy iu il-'e;ci; is less neglectiag air resistance, dgea uot undergo *"
tha,n the theor€tical velocity becarise of the frictional resist'a:rce "d;-;;;;fi
ihe,t occurs as the fluid enters antl passes through ihe ori{ice" T'he
ratio of the &ciual meau velocity 7 to the velocity Vr rvhirh would
exist withoui friction is catrled the coeficient of velocily aod is
desigoated C,. Thus C,: V/Vrand t/
Y : C'Vt: C,nzsfr (8)

69. Coeffi.cient of Contractioa. Fig'.rre 53 !€presents a crc'ss

&ctisn ol a vertica.l sharp-edgpd orifrce discharging a liquid from a
reseryoir into the aturospheie. The
llo. SL llorirotrtol
I
part.icles of the liquid approach lhe ori- orifico trlo. &5. Ilorizontel FIo. 56. \ VerticJ
fice in couverging paths from all direc- diochargiag upwdrd. oridce dischs.giog oriffco ualor br
tions. Because of the inertia of ihose dowarpard. head.
particles with velociiy compolents par- eo far ss it b a,frect€d by gravity aDd surf&ce tension. If the dirsc_
allel to the plane o{ theoriflce, they can- tion of. the jet ia veiticelly upward, as in Fig. 54, or if it has
not make abmpt ohanges in their direc- an
comrynent, gravity retards the velJcity'of the
tions the instant they re.ach the ori6ce, ,u,nw1d t;;
tnus rncreases its cross*ectional ar€s, wherras in a jet discharrinr
and they therefore follow curvilinear downw*rd, as in Fig. 55, gravity 1""*r"* it;fiil
patls, thus causing the jet trl contract crrases its cross€€ctional ares. -dt;;
for a short distance beyond the orifice. veryJow hesds the top elemente of the jet from a verticrl
.Unde-r
This phenomenon is referred to as the oruc€ do not bave euffcient velocity to become horilontal at any
tr\s, S. Verticsl sbsrp- contraction of the jet. The section ab point and the exact iocotiou of the Vena contmcte
edged onice" becomes moi
rvhere contraction caused by the.orifice
{imcuh, t' e fqm of jet from an orifice uoae" s to* hJ ;
ce*ses is ealled lhe wna urdracia The vena contracta for s shown in Fig. 56.
sharp-edged circular orifice of diameter D has been found to be 60.. Coefrclent of Dis.haqe. It is usual to replace.the prcduct
a.t a distance of about ]D from the plane of the orifice. ^ in equatioD 9 with a singte coefrcient
C.C, C, calied O. ."lim"i"ri
 IIEAD LOST IN AN ORIFICE
oBrllors, TrttBES' AND WEIRE
tt,
for ths discharge of e fluid throuSb
p a$ni.Uou, V" -
Q/(iD.t/4), whero D" is the pipe diuetsr.
o[ discbsrgs' Thir"squrtion Substitutiag this value of I'" in oquation f i *f-l,,iig f* al*"
on orifce thus beconee -a
(10)
a-c^6fr a CA \/6@tTul
' - \/r=-e@E# (t2)
.r m9'od; -$f*
0L vcrocny
r:*t#""#?;IJl*l"T
i" t" o" T.-Cgq+S the denominator by the binomial theorum rives r
Hf'.Y"fftffiI ; i:tlfr:T#'i"ir*.ppu.'ti* :TTtuS Td?, and dropping as negtisibte BI termg exJpt the
nret two, a ctosely spproxim.st€ equation of discharge is
obla.inea:

a= ceJ66J6U+*e@/D.rtl (13)

,D being the diomgtpp of the orifice. The qrantity in bractete

ia the corrective factor for velocity of ,ppr*"n, it -".f-""lJ
.proanhes
unity es the ratio of orifice a;i,''ster to pipe dt
becomea moalt. -"-t!r
Simila,rly for on oriffce in a pipe:

Q 7 cA \/m,; .p;6t $ + te @/D.)11 (14)

,,6?.
nT.d Ga. E tbrough.Orifices. If a gas under pressurc pr
dirch8rg€B through an orifice into a space in which the
tlslightty lees.than pl, variation of de*ity
oree$De ;
tr\o. 57. Ori6co ir eod of PiPe' *" t"
."gf*t"al" i.'tl
efiect included in the value of the orificl coefrcieni Th";;
plato either on t'he end of a PiPe' I epplyrng
f,rt ! the flow liquids through orifices their hoH
"'"fr.fflmf
tbrolgb
f,ow en orifice in s

fi :'tr#trl$'?l:*;*fy
metely. In
this
-of
c&si r, (equations $ ond t4) i, tn"
;;;;:
rf"nit'f,Agilt
of the ges under a preesure of p1 or p2, or the avemgepi S"ai.
- "'
id;.;5j;;-f"i&' rh" totsr head on Tbe value of p used to determine ra a,fiects tbe
"oeh"i"oi'c.
"ff"ffifi'T':
the onnoe ur 116' e'' '-- ffi
As the prcesue drop thrurgh the oritce iacreases, Ar"moay-
u,mic- efrects of compreesion or expansio4,pf the 'gas t eco;o
f"ti"-i"L-*1"-stmdphere' 1" 1--
-a)
i#l#;"T lffi'i'| u#-1'=-ffi
plu * v I /2c, -wherc. Prll,,2
-7 r" uE-
nolu important and t&e formulas fot liquidt gir" t&
leeilts. r --
"""u""t"
68. Ecrd Lst h ar Orifce, Oriffce flow ie no erception to tho
i#**tlpt - u)/v + v"'/zc ---qr.*'"- genera,lmle thet f,uid motion is always aecompanie<i by ea ex-
;il; a-'* ry -n""tryt1
td;,&; 'ili al poinb r 2 :*i*
6& and F'ro' Pipe oti6ce'
penditure of energr. Loos of energr, or of neaj, in no*tn-uJn
an orifce ia illusiirated in Fig. 54. Even if air.resistadce coutdE

uxtrea,m end downstroo'm tP, TTp.l"d{ €liminat€d, the jet from the borizontal o"in"e wJJ
ttre orifice Ptsto' From €quauo! ,0,
,- the orifico on the end od
1ot
n1 as high as.the tiquid tevel in the eupply tanl because of,tho
lcs of energr which occurs betweon points in the supply tsnk whe6
rPiF tle velocity ia practically
tr"\ or)
zem and the vens cont";'f;
e-ca (3* 24 I For use in hydraulic engineering probl"-., tha l* of hd d*
 ORIFICEA, TUBES' AND WEIRA PNOBI,DMS

expr€sd in two waye: original form and continuea to pass through the cyclo of changs
to flow throrgtr an orifics is conveniently
iii;" tu"*"-,il; the velocitv herd in the iet; (2) as o function deecribed.abov€ a8 long as it flowr frcely or ie ooi b-ton up 'by
of the oricinsl head. wiad or afu friction or modified by surface tensioD,
"' i:^"c;#il;t;d a total
to be discharging from an orifice under
.Il. nt" velocity of discharge tB V - C'!ZqH' from wncn PROELEr[S
nuua
the original head 1. Figure A represents two largo tauke with on orifics in the
lv2
H= c7'2c (15) partition. The orifice
dlvidiar
has a diometer of 2 in. and is rcund€d so tlui
C.:I.ffi sld C,:.0.97. Pressumr p; snd p! aI! stmo6phori0.
The liquid is oil with Ir = 16 ft. Determine the iheoreticst volocitv itr
/2g' The lost
Tte head rernaining in the jet is velocity head''V2or the jet, tho actual velocity, snd the discharge..
h@A'

ffi;g" :;.tcbJ hesd mirus remaining Tte orifice in Fig. A ir 2 in. in dismeter and ie sharp-edgpd, rrith
C. = O.62 snd C, : 0.98. Prcssur€E p,{ ald pp are atmoepheic. ' tho
-.1.
liquid ia water with [: 16 ft DetermiDe th6 di-
H"-h #-x=(# - tH 8m€tar of th€ jet, the actuol velocity of the jet, BDd
tbe dircharge.
2. From equotion l5 t'he velocity head in the iet 8, The liquid in Fig. A has a opecific gravity of
,,2 3.fi). The gage pressure p,{ : l0lb per sq in. snd
, p.e ir atmoepheric. The orifice diametsr is E iL
= Cn"H
a and C: C, - 0.95. Wjth h= 6 ft,.doteruins
lct the diacharge and the head lost iu- the orific€.
Iloce the hoad
I In problem 3, mointaining the liquid bead i
IIo-E-c.tr=(t-c")H 07) at 6 ft, to whot pr€ssure must p,r b€ raisod in ordor
to any orifice c tube for to double the discharge?
Eourtions 16 and l? are applicable 6. lhe orifrce in Fig. A is 4 in. squaro with a dir. ns. a
rr5' ,r
charge coefficient of 0.02, The liquid is oil with mecific rrsvity O.8t
'Tf ;1gfl"zuiif"'?"iffi^;med bv iets or riqrid
* : -; 311il1'#"'l;'J[1ffiffi';
of' difierent ehapes
;*?irt"'-"""n - prcsents an intcrcstirg Il pa + p5, what head I otr tho ceBter of tho orincc is requhd -to db
cherge I cfs?
0. The liquid io Fig. A has o specific grevity of t,!0. The srr
-rL
tr O qF 1r plr!8ur€ p,r is
ii giaT:tgr
+6lb
per eq iD. snd pa is
with
-2lb peirq in. f.h" o"l6Ji"
C : C, : 0.95. Determins. iho velooity in t[o
;:f;tf:H5:Yffi""1; 1. |lr.
jet aad the dischsrgo when [ : 4 ft,
liffi;*;;; ot i"ts issu- 7. In problem 6, maiateining f.lA Uquid he8d i rt 4 ft, rnd neglecling

a ovY*;fl;r'"m;*:f# vapor pr€Esure, whet i8 fhe maximum p€rcontsae by which tle dii
chrrge can be increaeed by decreaaing ps?
T" i
hgry"og,t,orifrco in Fig, 64 is in, iq di.meter rrith d.*
l#"#*HftT"i.iffin: ^ ^1
9:S-, 9'-: 0.08,. _Wlen H
:7.6 tt, aeghcting sL rcsiltono€, comptrte
o ooom."nr'if;Ti,:*Til:
Frq 50. Iurnnioo o[ iet' Gvelv gre8t€r distmces from
thr hoight to which the jet will riae above the ptane of the orifice. liili
rill be tho dismoter of the jet 3lt above the vena contncir?
_
0. The orifice in Fig. 67 id 2 in. in dhmoter and ir rhr,rp*dgsd ,itt
C. - 0.03 a'Dd C, = 0.97. Th6 dianeter of O" ptpo ii O-ii- Cil
is common to all shapes
the orifice. This change in form' which liquid is wrter and staEds st s hoight n of S,g ft l! thc picro-eta.
of the iet After pessins
H".h . b ;;; the inveraion
its
Compute th€ diochrrge, the dioneter ot tho jetl thu rn-"'r,€b"i;ril
ilrl.fr-*i" f*",1 stage shown in the figule the iet reverts to tbo ieg and tbo loat bod.
 III'ANDARD ORIFICS (X)IITICIENI'S IN
ORIFICES, TUBE8, AND WEINS
,r roprtent ths coordinates of any other point in tho jet.Nog-
10. The liquid b Fig. 5? is oil (8p gr 0.82) dieoharging fron a l0iu jet
lecting air rcsistance, the horizontal component of the velocity
oioe tbrourh o &in. rounded orifce with C.:1.00 rod C' = 0.90'
fi" U-t"Ui' ."otti* mercury with s difer€Dcg g ia mercury levob of is constsnt with the time l, from which
-'ff,ir. wbilo heiSht Y = 2.2 tt. Computo
6.5 Q' r=Vt
e f-i". Bh-uetdgod orioce in ths end of a &in' pipe (l'ig' 67)
dirchargeg air into tbe atmosphere st s t€mperstur€ of 8f I' -A lte jet has a downward ccceler&tion which conforns to the law of
U-tobo-"ont"ioing wster ghows a difrerence ' iu wator levels of 8 iD' falling bodiea, and therefore
y : 3 ft. 1l C, based on unit weight of air at point I il thc
"uif"
- 'd. ;0.597. comnute the dischargo
DiDo. h cubic feet per mioute' u:+cf
the pipe oaico in Fig. 58 has a diameter of 4 in' and a gocfidcnt
ot dirchorgs of 0.650. Th; pipo diameter is l0 in' The mrnodet'r
I'li'nihating ! between the two equations
oonnectioni are sttschel to i difierent'iol gsge psrtly 6lled wiJh n-er1
,a^ :
2V2
oury, the remainder of the tube being fitled with the aomo liquid
as tba0
Fro, 60
i"*'.c t" tho pipo, which is o heovv fuel oil dt ?0'F qnel{€-t!: -y(,
diacha-rge when tle difrerence.in uercury levela ir th€ Itge
i!: (4) 2'lO
in.; (d) i\. which is tbe equatiou of a par*bolr with its vertex 8t the vens
in ; (D) 13.5 in.; (c) 2?.6 52.2
contrscta. Solviry for I/'
66. Erpcriraental Dctcrmistiotr oI Orlfice Cosficicats' Silco v -4'or:
{y
(ls)
in practG it is usually ttre discha,rge from orifices t'hrt ia required,
it ii the coefrcient of di""lt"g" t6*t i" of greateat value to engineers'
Thir coe$cient, C, can be comPut€d from equation l0 if t'ho f,oy ltig coordinste method is otso of practical value in detarmining
Q, tlu of the,orifice C, and the totsl herd Il 8r€ determined' the
.
flow from the open end of a horLontal pipe.
""*
d'ir oot otUi"..ly constent for a given orffice, but vrriea with tho 87. Strrdtrd Oriice Cocfrcients. The values of orifico coef'
head, with approcnh conditions, and wit'h the visccity of tbe
fluid' fici€nts cited on the follorving pagea src typical, but it should bc
Onp"ii-""td a"t rmination of C. and C' is mon diftcult' lto remembr€d that slight variations in deeign end instrllstion of
'!
A"rit". of thsjet from s circula,r orifice be cen meagued ot the orifice nray cause appreciable vrriation in the coefficieai. Hencc
of contraction com- rn orifice'to be used for flow measurements should, if posdble, bc
vor contracte with calipen and the coefficient
putod fmn tlie reletion C" = a/A' l! lhe vens contrrcto ia difr- calibrate{t in plbce.
lrrlt to locate, as in Fig. 56, an arbitrary locstion for determining Coeficients of disch*rge of sharp'edged circular orifices dir'
contraction mutt be chosen, as for instsDce plane cD which is lD c[arging water, as determined by Medaugh and Johrson, are
glven on psge 128. Ilre orifices tested lere drilled in smooth
-Iron the plrne of tbe orifice. grcund brass ptateo, r'hich rvere bolt€d to the side of a tank large
fl" tality i" tl" iot can be computed from the area of t'he iet
and the measured Q. If tho totsl head i8 hown, the coefficient of *oogh t" -"1" tl" velocity of appmlch negligible. Special care
velocltv can then be computed from tbe relgtion C'
: Y/Jm' *"" trk* in the construction of the orifice holea to make the up-
fair with stream edge square.
i;;;i";t; b ;h" jet can'also be measurcd with accuracv
ir follow- It is seen tlrst C decrcases as the heod and the size of oriice
; Pit i til; or by the coordinate met'hod outlined t'he
increose. A pmsibte r€osdn is thst th€ coatractio of the jet then
ing article.
J"r I4 becomes more neorly perfect, the coeftcient of Eontrlction C. 8F
-0S"-OOC"""dl-t lf8thoit of Detaninlog V'iocity of proeching s minimum value of oppmximately 0.61. Tte coefficient
n". * side view of a iet from a vertical orifice', Tbe
meann'hile increases slowly to a msximub volue of
i.i"t the venl mntncto is traveling horirontally wit'b velocity v'
""otouot of
"Ao"ity 0.98, but the product C"C' decrcasea.
the force of gr8vity cuue the iet to cuwe downward I4t t and
rpproximetely
r28 oRrflcss, TUEEs, AND WDInS
VAIUA'I'ION IN OI FICU OOTJITFICIENTS
.AN
DrgdanoE Coltzcrrltm loB VtmtcrL 88 [FDD@ Tho orificq is thcn
Crrcsr.an Onrttq&a in efrect sharp{dged, and tho coeffcionte
eharp-edged orifices apply. for
For ratq ot 60" F disch.araing iDto ait at soDo t4mperatuts At, lorv heads, horveverr or with
viscous liquids there is a
cncy for the jet to clinr to the Cend_
Orifco Diametcr in Inches jlff na* or t'he orince as shown in
Eerd rig. it;;;;";;5"""#e
oro,
iD Fe€t
0.2[ 0-50 o.75 I .00 2.6 4.m contraciion of the jet andincreas_ n r.l
0.8 0.047 o.6n 0.810 0.600 0. m3 o. ml rng the value of Co. A sliehr I )
1.4 .035 .619 .610 .606 ..ml .6{X} rounding or dullness of the
Jo-
I
q-----
I

2.0 ,629 .615 .607 .@3 .600 .600 stream edge increases this tsr + (D) t
4.0 .621 .@9 .6fit .600 t98 ,89n ency, snd fudher rounding of
teni_ .
the n
.

0.o .017 .w .601 .690 .507 .!6 d,sle may ceuse the jet to fill
f\-.-..".-
8,0 .0r4 .8t)6 .6m .508 .690 . !06
onlice,
the U U
l0.0 .0r3 .m4 .6m .397 .500 .!06 aa shown in Fig.'60c. Wi.th
12.0 .612 .603 .500 .w .506 .595 this condition C" = l, whereas C-
14.o ,6ll .60it .508 .690 .505 .594 may be little changed from its *1t6D|-
r0.o .010 ,w2 ' .508 .696 .595 r04 sharp-edged vatue of 0.98.
_
m.0 .frn .602 .598 .596 .595
.

. t94 For
the bell-mouthed orifice shorvn
ll I I

.o .008 .601 .397 .596 .504 .5e4 h T--rI-.....-

80.0 .w .600 .69I .505 .504 .504 f r8. 614 C 8nd Cn may be reduced !r-- --- b ---
40.0
60.0
o.0
80.0
rm.0
.006
.005
.005
.004
.m0
.690
.600
.698
.506
.506
.506
.8S5
.595
.696
.594
.w
.591
.604
.503
.603
'.t93
.503
.503
.d03
.603
to O.95 or less.
-,i*,lJ:-i,i:,,J.,11;;"#::i,
an
.onlice of diameter D, Schoder
[f 'JI;; L

r20-o
.604
.003
.508
.698
.595
.505
.594
.5S4 .593
.608
.w2 and l)arveonr state that the D .Ll
cent increase r" b-t"ra"r,"""""Tj trto.6t. Foror ofieL
Sourc:.F. W. Medaugb aad G. D. Johnsoo, Cpil Enn., Jnly, lS4O, p. ttZL

The valuea of C given ebove egree closely with values obtained

msny yesrs ago by Hsmilton Smith and long considered stendard.
Other experimenters have obtained somewhat larger vdues, the
most prcbsbls csuse of the discrepa,ncies being slight difrerences
in the ornount of munding of the up6ir€&m edge of the orifices ffigtr-H*'*iffiffiftfffiffi-#
t€et€d, It is tlso possible that tempersture difler€nces causo such
discrtpsncies since Medaugh found that lowering the air ternpet*'
ture 20o F while keeping the lYater t€mpersturc approximately
m*frn*g*r;*r*-*.f ,*tr*ffi
clents-
congtant incrcased the discharge about f per cent.
68. Vodradon ir Orifice Coeficierrte. A sharpedged oriffce is *H"m,^.":i*"jr_glfo r28) as rho size.of r,he orifice
ffi"ffi #t fr*i*"* *l"[F:FG h: ;r;: ff ,.ff;
I jhl
usuatly noi knif€{dgpd but preferably of the form showa ia Fig:
6lo snd b. This form is €asier to mschine and avoide the iendency J*.,tr#*""::-:,.3i."#;F;;#:J:""ii#xifi
of a knife edge tn wear dull. In order to ensur€ full &nd complete'
contmction of the jet it is essential that the upstrea,m coner be
orifice. No square
aq6'." ," great€r
:Ifr J:tr1*:",:*ai''eJr;;""e?".L-*'J"',:Iltr;:ffi
"o-"i
tor t'he smaller
.*. ii mrcroscoliically perfect. i
! s r' d-r , _
- Slight
squorscut so thst the jet will spring clear as showtr iu Fig. 6lc.
tt;.l;,ffn*"
ls34 p. aoS. -o F M. Dewsor, Eydroutizt,";;;;;:
 ORIFIOES TIUBEE' AND WETNS VANIATION IN ORII'ICE COEFFICIENIA Itt
to diameter oI approach nioe D
included pdrJH;-#fi"r":,..IP Tfthead on tho orifico

p:f:-*q#E'e*"i**#"$;"#
iftJir#ti:r"r":Hsk*#3u*1##H
Xf*l***'Fp-'p'ff "ll;"r:ffirx
Ys,lues of the dischsrgc coetrci
uvxo,"ar",snt*,ild"'ffi ffi lif,il,Tl"jfl:Jifl,ljH*
florving through pipe orifices (tr.
&rc shown in Fig
a-inu*oi?iifi;;;;';ii'oa) 6{t ror

ffi*r#**ffi+:,t'w**l#* rou"

g;*g.t*_ru;#mj,f; * jl{*"#
onnce la ree-t_per second, and r the kiaenatic visc;r" .iil" i"Tj

*-O 4 so. y.t * &o. 08, Va,rietioa ol C vith Re,nollr,

tr-d+6 numbor for pipc qlaq.
squarc\ feet per eecond. pr€s
ir T
offi:"Tffi .i},*
messur€d oae pipe
0?. Vlrirtion of C with Il
e"d ot dpc'
Fro.
for orifics drrmeter uDrtr€arn .^--*-r.15
r.r_ ,*e!e -
area of t'he chanml thrryEb
ffi";;"*"*g31:"j""*n"r6inf
the orifice. Th" ^".r
o_t fr o much",la,,.ercr
oorynstteam frm
lowcr values of R€ynolds
A rcduction of the cross€ectional "urr*
number thah tha rohr- .^_ __r-
fr::lli;T# #:tLH'H.T:f j"::1":r.ryf
j, ";";J;!:11ff
til" *alfrT;#:?""HiHf, iit
;t"#ft *imh:",mn'#ffi
dischargp. rc'son thst sidq
The
sppToch
rs as t'he 9f
th3 l?;f"X,3jlf
ilH
More ll;_tl"
",ni:
;ril?4! rauoB
y:p:n og", io ai,"-"t". roe'r' #ffiff tboye O.it. .tt
cient of
near€r to t'he edge of tle orifice tbe contrac-
reliable values of d"r" tmJ--
etorc be obt8iDed with
Iff#,il h+i_
draimar., rstios.
dieirreter the lower
"*ffiint
tion of the jet is deme'aseoi . -.-.a
f"* totu by Blackbural on tho
?:i:',1Hil'T-ill5ff ffi
ffi;+i;'fi.' ioa roio' gipes
""$fi
.;;idl* o'rnv *t 11"
Each cuwe shovs t'Iro vsna'
g#*uffiflqffi{fr##ffi
coertctents vary with the ratio
oI

ffi 1ffi;trli:l1*'sxlm'i#"*'"lxt'gB
Orifica tr Uota,trbg ltcti'qr #kt#.,HJtrh:ffiH'""H#;H
,.*3ffiffi##,a;'*'*'
PiPo
' ' I Bqeou of
funA pop
Btrad8rdr ,rL,f04g, p. ,et.
 PROBI.EMS
ONIFICES, TUBtrA, AND WEIRS lE8
o,nd the cooffiolent of volocity ie 0,9g,
preesure p2 toxp' detaruine tbe head nndc whioh
eter D" and with the ratio of dorvnstroam obsolute the orifice is diecharging, negiecting oir friction.
ri*"- pressure ?1. Tho preesures were detcrmined at u, A sherp-€dgd ori6ce, 4 in. in diameter,
"tt.rut" in the vertical wall of a
t"p" i"""t"a at dltances D" upstrerm and |D" do*nstream from tauk, dischargee under a constirt heed of
4 it. il" ;;;
ilI up"t.*. f"* of the orifice plate' The coefrcients given in tho dtu:h""r:9.h 2.rninures weighs 6Bb0 fU. et ;fH;;
teing the unit weight of air at t'he
priniZ.iil b"il;;
trtf"'"ppiv i" equation t4, ur center.of ths orifice the cenrer of the jer "
is o.ze?dil;i i"f;;J#I"
mean absolute pressurc (tu + P)/2. from the vens contracta. Detcrmine
C., C- ar,d C, --
-v'r..u.-rJ
0. Aa orifice 6 in, in diameter, fr""iog'"
CoEirrcrcNr C pon Ar* DrscnlaotNg eraouoE SalBFEDoED
- discharges oil uoder
0.02,
of contraction ol
a hesd ot Zl.S it. """m"iu'"t
Th" ,r";; ;ilil:;l;;
CrBcutaB OBII!(E rry hta odfice i^ 24.6 ft per sec. Derermi!€ C,
C,, s\d *"Trl-"iaJil"l ",:"
10, A vertical triengular orifce has .
o.55 0.0 U"!" g rt- f;.g, i'iiU"'r#.ru
0.3 0.4 o.5 v.:+x, snd 4 ft below the water eu*8ce.
?h/Pl(6bs.)
o.2
dIrylarge, leglectbg velocity of epproach.
Det€r;i;o,ilffi;r#"
0.507 0.604 0.616 0-624 ,0.6:16
l.m 0.600
.625 ..11. A sharpedged orifice in the vertical wall of a large
.95
.s
.509
..600
.601 .606
.606
.617
.617 .625
.636
.646
p-:9 d r io. c. ia 0.62 &Dd c, o.ea. riit. tenk haa a
i"i"L;;sffr;
-fi;;;
.602
.6(r, .625 " tUu
in a-horimntsl dist&nco of g.l? ft froo
*o
.85 .6(n .603 .617 .630
the head and the dischane, ""* "ti
.a) .600 .603 .607 .616 .624
12. A eharp-edged ori6ce 2 in. in diameter
.?5 600 .w2 .606 .615 in tbe end of g gitr. oiDo
.59S f .p Fig. A is to
.70
.507
.601
.599
.604
.003
used mesaure
inditated by a morcury-wa0er manometer,
wuter. the presEi; il;fi":T
.65 the mercury lovels bein
.€o .595 .597 *{ ol . verticat scale which at the ruu"f oi *," j;t#X
.55 ..593 r0od8 6.0i15 ft.
Determins tbe dischorge for the tollowil; ""ili ffi.-ofu;:
r€odilgs of mercury levels: (a) left 9.2l:6
.5{) .590
ft, ,lsht #;;:
ft, right 1.989 ft; (c) 6l#;fr;
g.aBaleft & ;eht
0.100 ft.
PROBLEMS J6t
13. 6-in. cirsqlar eharpedged orifco ir
g
1. Comnute the discharge of water through standard shatpedgod
tol -A
a.Bt€€l pl&t€ is plsced on the end
of 2, 28, and 72 ft' .
orifco
ppe. of s Uli!
oriice I in. in diometer under heodg Witb weter flowiug s prce lto gsgg
-;. d-;"; the discharge of woter through a 2-in' circula'r ahr'4>
edged oridce under heads of 0.8, 1.6, and 3.2
--i. ft'
a 2| in' in diameter digcht:8o.I1$
orifice
fttoa of "harp'edged
unaui t"tandnrd 15 fi' Compute the discharge' {orv much will-the
Ji"i..g" b. increased if tbe upstream edge irf the oridce ie rounded on
o -l 'Wfrlt'ii"."t"r
- radius of al in.?
will be requirtd
of stendard, sharp-edged orifice
to produce a discharge of 125 cfs of rvater under a hesd of ll 5 ft'? -
d, Und"r what hJad rvill o standord, shoip'edgqd orifice, 3 in' in fis. A
diemeter, discharge 0.250 cfs; 1.25 cfs; 2 50 cfs'? fis. B
i'r'
6. If tie orifrJ shorvn in Fig. 52, page 119, has a diamoter of 2 the gide I ft from the orifice ahowe a presalr
of the pipe
c,ith a coefficient of contraction of 1.00, det€rmine the diabharge iI 9Sry .i"h
p,: l'3 lb per sq in' eod the bead
of_35.0 lb per sq in.
Compute the dischorge.
[- g.O ft, Pr= 9.7 lb per sq in', 14, The flow ol a light dust_proofi!-g oil si60"
F is messur€d
lost i8 0.8 ft. The liquid is oil (sp gr 0.85)' Det€tmile C' of a l|-in. circular sharp-edged orifice in a Gin. pipe.
by meaDs
?. A shorp,eclged orifice, 3 in. in dirmeter' lies in I horizontal
plaug
drop across the orifice is deterrniued by
il;r;;
to s height 6f 26'5 ft . difr;;;';;i ;;;#;T
*t" i"l u"irg diiected upvord. If'the iet riees rhown in Fig. B. When z : 4.Eo ft, *ti* ar""f,..* *.-lilii*Tt"ii
 olltFIcEE, Tutllrll, wulila OnII,ICES UNDIR f.oW Hf.lrns
^ND
in. in diomeier is iortsllod in e &ln'
l!. A rhorp+dged pipo oriflco I
pipe' b"Ltli""- tft" ii""h."gu of t ho""v fuel oil at 40' F if the . ?0-. Orlicol undor Iar Ecads. Tte diocharge of orifices undsr
low heads coo be determined by the formula
preaeu.e dtop oc.o"s the orifice is 0.130 tb pe-r eq
' A eharp-eaged pipe orifce 6 in. in diameter is iDstslled in an
10.
d;.;;;il;;;i t'p" ra in.'upstreem and e in' downstr€sm
Q - CA {2sH (10)
'Air-wahr b-tube open m&nometerE sre connected to if the velue of C is known. Ilowever, wbere the
iaa-t["-otm"". head on a r/ertical
the tapa. Determine the discharge of orifice.is small in comparison with th" h"ight
.f til;.itr; ;;;
i:r,:Y:ff[ffi theoretically en appreciable dif-
snd "T"grtt*i
the dowBstre&lo DaDom€tor ference between the discbarce
reoda 3.6 in. of water. obtained by assuming the ne-i"
velocity to be that due to the
69. Subnerged Orif,ce. An mean head and the dischame
orifice with submergPd di8chsr8g obtained by t.t ing into conail-
is illustrated in Fig. 6a. The eration the variation in head.
gtester dePth on the center of Because it afiorde ttrc simplest
the orifice is ll1 and the lesger tt?athent, the rectangular orifice Fro. 65. nact Dtuh orifcc
depth is lb. The assumPtion (Fig. 65) will be investisst€d. un&r low hced_
is usually made thtt every fila' Both. the surface of the liquid and the jet
Fro.6tL SubD€tlodoti6cc. ment passitrg thmugh the orifice . oru subjectcd to
etmoepheric preasure. The wjdth of the
ir7 *a-tii
ir beine ected upon by the head, hr - Iu: H' the difference ths
in heisht is D. The respecrive heada "p""i"g
wdthg t"t;"d';;l;;iu,l""rffJ
lJ"frJ tn.iiquidiurfaces. on this a'ssumption'
T! ". wil b"da;;:*;;
it..-9./tr.. Velocity of approach
;"l6r-th;*; fmm point I to point 2 in the iet' negled'ting lost rneoretrc&l di8charge through any elementrry
rtrip of area idl
head, at r distance i below the water surface ia
,rr-rrt+V itu= LJffian
frm wbich wiich, integrated between the limits of
v,-{';o.FE, cieut of discharge C/ iat:oduc€d, gives
D2 and f,1 and with coeffi-

Applying the urud orifice coefrciente Q : c'l vfi t'6o' - hrx) (tg)
a-cA{m (10)
Ae i! approar:hes zero, the diacharge approechea the
volue
orifices a'!o
Coeficients of discharge for sharpedged zubmerged Q * c't lfr u",
into air' (D)
.t il" same 88 for eimilBr orifices discharging
"i
T;";;at." thst ,h b ttre pressure he-ad on ths *"j:l."f which is- the formuls for discharge over a weir without
velocitv of
tfaJnc" .t'it" lowe" side is not strictly tru€ unl""E sll .tho approach correction. (See Art. g0.) Because ,f
th;;;;*;
Ua due to the velocitv of the liquid lerving the orifice drggdown curve, weir flow begins befo.e t, decrral;;:*"
"Jo"it"
i"-i]-';" m"tio" and turbulence as the velocity is r€duced to Eince the value of C, in equation lg varies with Ireaa
even oron
9O p"t ..
t"-. lt has b€en shown experimentelly that less th* tDaB u tn equr,tion 10, there is no practical advante*e
in urinr
of this velocity head may be lost' With 8lo€8 of 90 p€r c€ot equation lg, but its derivation i8 Siven to show the
coi
th.;;; leaa at tle center of the oriice i8
,-O'tUf /24' betweqa qri6co 6.w altd weir flow, "fil d;t
'I4
130 oRIFlCns, tUBIlg, ANrl WEIRS CATES
137
head equal to the
?1. Gate8. As the term ie commcinly uscd in engineering prao- depth, and omitting lost,
head,
tice, e gate is an opening in a dam or r.rther hydraulic strtcture vr, , v"2
to control the passage of \r'&ter. Gates have the hydraulic proper-
ties ol orifices. Flow may be either free or submerged. The $-ra'=E+0"
from which, introducing
coeficient of discharge varic rvidely, however, rvith the design, the the velocity coeffcient,
points at which the head is meesured, and the conditions of flow, v" _ C,\/r,s@,,@;_A;
Calibration tests of a given installation are advisable if accurate _ +W
flow measurements are to be obtained,
Gates ordinarily have the contraction partially or entirely sup.
;ililTftil:.t ;?'J:etion
c" = Bd2/ Bv - dz/a, whereB is
the
pressed on one or more sides. If & gat€ hes any portion of its Q : C.nyC, \/rc (
edge flush with the bottom or s side of the channel of approach,
contraction for that part of ths get€ is entirely suppressed. II = ca \/zs(TA; +W e\
,"t". f;; :,.1^":1
HUm:lX'j
diverting
l;;;ff";T,*:" such. as is commonry used in
TJiJJfil"ill;. H* I

(.1 ftln lor (61 sllltotttd lot

trlo.68. Flow thruWh sluice 8tt€.

one side of a r€ctangubr gate is flush with the bottom or a eide of

tbe approoch channel aud there is opportunity for complete eon-
trsction on the other sides there will be larger velocity components
porallel to the face of the gete on these sides and the coeficient of
contrsction will be very neerly the same as for a gate with com- &o. 67. H€ad goto.
plete contraction on all four sides.
curtain wall extends between
A gpte which has its lower edge in or neer the bed of a chruel i8 t!
catled a sluice gate. Typical profiles of flow through a sluice gate
brving o sharp top edge and no contraction at sides or bottom sre
;::,#,"-","ditJ.,"""'l*J:"i{*rEL:ffi ffi '#,il1t}
st has suppressed contraciiou
ehowD in Fig. 66. The flow may be free, as in (c), or eubmerged, .the bottom,
t"""ly ;;;;;:"|:ng
alBin (D). With free flow, at fairly lerge ratios of upstreem depth
tiurry supp,us.uJ"ioffii;ffi;;:::l?ction at rhe top, and par-

to height of gate opening, the zurface of the strca.m issuing from l":llto^".5",r;;;ff;,;".";fl?;,,?l:::;H,"ly;Hijr
the gat€ is quite smooth, Witb submerged flow the downstream e--:lHJ[":ff -*""0'^i""u''r*,*""""i',"il
ouface may be extrenely rough 8nd turbulent.
Writing the energr theorem with respect tb the strese M 88 ;i,,,ili j:*ilfl "ffillli,r'"',f
fiJf, ,"11T,",'XTTf *Hiil"lT:#;
datun from poiirt I to point 2 (Fig. 66o)' assuining the preseum

,:-ii'l
l3fJ (t I,t(ll,;s, 1'lllll'jlt, ANI) \\'l':llls
PItOtsLEMg
Gates are frequcntly plu,<r:d on tltrr i'o1r ol rr spillwry dlm to
t:ort- r30
trol the florv an; heJ. Such ;H:il[:i'jfi-:ff;9: *:::1,,.1o! inteeration ,, = o. ,*
;;;T;;f;
gakrs ntty lx: r'il'lttrr planc rtr ctrrvcd
tTP"".:_
nurfaces structurallv designed to withstond the water
pressure
n
":"f
tfii:T-, "t:; ;
of the dam or Lry the end abut- "
jlTr,,:'+*"*r?Til'c.arorincrinedori6ces
and supported by piers on the crest
ments' Such g&t€s act a"s orifices if il
ffi fi*q!";,:fr*fj
li:_"ilxT,,,:#
the edge which forms the toP of the
opening makes contact with the
I jirffi*J:",ih::_Fffi :*"" "1HT*ffff
i,"#j'3Tsr,"_tr#
d"r""#;-;#"ff
water surface, otherwise the dis-
;ffil:f,ll,ff ff X:""n',;"1,Iffi
;'f :t"'ilT*;;";:.f*y""*":.il""',T'#:':"*"#ffiT
I charge follows the lawe of weir flow.
?2. Discharge under Faling
low,
wlich .&
l,ort€x ;ri.'U"- r",#,i
materially
ol8ctrarge coefrcient."lr";'ffi
"H
flead. The vessel, Fig.68, is shown 2
to be discharging a liquid through
au orifice under a head hr. If there ,"i flriil d:'J1ffi;# tr-^--=41-,
Fro, 68. Discharge under
{alling hesd.
.
is no compensating inflow, the depth
or head will gradually decrea'se.
'Ihe time that will elapse while the head is treing reduced from
,rr to i2 is required.
At the irstant when the head is li the discharge is
it*1i:iH*i{f;iii# %
A: CA ./W
C being the coefficient of discharge and .4 the area of the orifice'
r:ffi,*frh-;ltfrIi,:ffil1{
In the infinitesimal time dr, the corresponding volume which flowe
out is
dv : CA lzsh dt (n)
In the same infinitesimal time the head will drop dlr and the volune
discharged will be
*ff##*;+$s*o##***:$
dV : A,dh (23 )
ar = 192!!5:
35
where -4. is the area of the liquid surface when the hesd is n. Equoting values of
d" *rr*;;"
Equsting the values of dV *** ;H,l]o
A,dh: cA lwdt ':,f*: I'H:ru.u*.
a.. = ---_==
A, dh (%) PROALEIIS
CA !2sh

By expresaing.A. in terms ol b and integratirg between the- limite rt*i{",;i,i:Tt[,,#1iT.#'ri3#",t j,T":,ll;:

L, a"d Lr, the time required to draw the reservoir dorvn the desired
amount can be determiaed. If the time required to empty the ,-ffit{E-tfiy (25)
l,to oRII"ICF)S, Ttlnll9, AN I ) W l')l lrll S1ANDARD SHORT TUBE I4I
where ,4, i8 the croes-section&l oree of the tutnk, '4 ie the orea of
tlte ori- high hcul, tlrr:jct may spring clear of the walls (Fig. Z0o)
(assumcd constonl and the
6ce. eud C i8 the coef ient of discharge ) coef[cients will then be ihe same as for a sharp_edled
Sho* from equation 25 tbat for a vbrtical cylindrical tank the
!. irt a,
thin.plate. By temporarily stopping the outlei .rj, Ur", ".in""
time reqrdred to lower the liquid level a given &mount is equtl
to.the
the liguid ro escape, the lube can be macle to fl"* f"U
,lf"*i^"
tot"t toio-" of liquid discharged divided by the average of the initiol aFi;. t;;i
if, as shorvn below, the head is less than uUout al it
aJ 6o.al s of discharge. liial multiply aumerator and denomi- of *uie.l Wiii
"tt the tube flowing full C" : 1.99 g : C, : about 0.8i, ;h; ,ri;;
nator uy (Vnl + /6). varying slightly rvith the head "o4and diameter of tuUe. ' Tt e di_
S, e iytinatic"t vessel 4 ft io diameter and 6 ft high has a round- charge is thus about one-third grcat€r th&n for a sharp_edEJ
edced circular orifice 2 in. ir diameter in the bottom C for the orifice
orifice of the same diameter, but, the velocity
i" 6.gs. tt the vessel iE 6lled with wst€r how long will it take to lower di"";;;lL:
the r,/ater Burface 4 ft?
"f
& A tank, which ig the fruetun of a cone having its bases hoizontsl
and axir vertical, is 10 lt high and 6lled with wal'er' Ii has a diameter
of 8 ft at the. top and 3 ft at the bottom. What is the time required to
empty the teoL through a sharp-edged orifice 3 in. square with a C of
0.61?
6. A tanL 20 ft long and 10 ft deep is 8 ft g'ide at the bottom and 18
ft wide at the top. In the bottom is an odfic€ having aa area of 24 8q
in. and e coefncient ol dischorge o10.60. If the tgnk is 'ull at' the begin-
Frc, 70. Stsndard short tube.
nin6,'how long will ii take to lower the wet€r Eurfsce 6 ft?
ol fne unt in Fig. 68 beiween a where the depth is 20 ft and b
whele the depth is 4 ft is a frustum of a paraboloid with vertical sxis' . 3: b* hea.d
tube flowing full is
(Art. 68) in the enrire length of a standard short
The side elements between o nnd b lollow ihe curve a2: 9i', the origil
'being
in the plane ol the orifice. The orifice is sharpedged, 4 in in
alars=etar, with C = 0.607. Comput€ the time required for t'he liquid
Ho= (#-,)# :o*X (s6)
levet itr the tanh t,o d.op lrom o to 6.
This case is important since the entrance to :i pipe
?. hemispherical ehelt, wiih base horizontal end uppermost, ia
A set flush with a
waier. If the radius is 8 it determine the time required to vertical wall i-e usually considered to act &s a
frlled with
: 0'60) located
.arra
"t i*'l"l
empty through n sharp-edged orifice 6 in. iu digmet€r (C a.nd the head lost ai entrance is taken ,rs one-haulil;i;t;;;;
"f,".,
at the lowest point in the pipe.
The jet contracts on entering a sharp-edged short
L Two vertical circular cylindrical tan-ks are connectpd near the tubg, as shown
at. rn r:r_Fig. 70b, and then erpands to fill tfr" mU". fn"
bottom by a short tube hoviug a cross-eectional area ol0'78 sq ft' Tho irff"*i"l
indde diamet€n of the tenks &rc 10 ft end 5 ft. Ttre tonkg contein oil theoretical analysis shows that the pressure h""d
;;;;.;
qnr-
(sp gr 0.80). With a vslve in the connecting tube closed, the oil tracted section is about
-0.g2H, where ff is thu t"rJ nilu"ir*
faLin the larger tsrk ie 12 ft above the tube and in the smaller tanl 2 flow through the tube. This relation t * U*"
fi obove. Assuming a constant discharge coefficient for the tube of mentally. "r"nr.JJ'J[ril
0.?5, 6nd the time in which the oil eurfacee in the two touks wiU r€8oh Amuming the coefrcient of contractioa at nr to
be 0.62, the sane
the seme elevation lollowing a quick opening of the -aive' as for a sharp-edged staudard orifice,

Tubes o^ = 0.62d", V^: 1.61V., *rd A:zffiA

?9. Stanalaritr Short Tube. A tube with squarc-comerctl entrance
29 29

and a length about 2| timcs its diarrreter is tcrme'i a standard shori

the velocity coefficient at point m is probably about 0.98.
The
tube. If flow from such a tube is staried sutlJr:nly at a relatively velocity 7- is, of course, considerably grcatcr than
0.g5.,/41I

)t
I42 ORIFICES, TUBE8, ANI) WIIIRS
NOZZLEA r4g
6ince the hea.d producing flow to point nz ts H - p^/w, the latter
rerging, conical tubes with sharp-comered entr&nces, interpoleted
terrn being negative. With C" : 0.98, the head lost between the
from experirnents by d'Aubuisson and Castel. These results sre
reservoir and m tB 0.04V-2/2g - 0.10V"2/2g.
interesting in that they shorv the general larvs of variatign of
Wril,ing the energy theorem between point .A, wherb the total
coefficients, but, on a,ccount of the small models used in the experi-
head is 11, and point rn,
ments, they should not be takeu as generally applicable to all
tub€s of this type.
H:U+&+losthead
2g It)
Coerrrcrr*m ron CoNtclr, Colrvpncr*o Tosrg
Substituting values shom above,
Aogle of Convergence, , (Fi[. ?1)
u: z.aoli n,. * o.rov ^' :
2gw2g2gw ,.ro!-"'- *o= 10" 15" 20" 25. .30" 40.
But 0.911 0.947 0.965 0.971 0.973 0.976 0.981 0.084
.999 .S92 .972 .952 .935 .918 .S88 .859
I/, = 0.82 JEF o, *: o.ezzu .910 .939 .938 .924 .911 .896 .87r .845
29
Hence The coefficient of velocity and therefore the coefficient of dis-
H: t.szH +2! charge are increased by rounding the entra.nce since this rcduces
u the head lost in the tube. The coefrcient of contraction is not
and materially changed.
p-y
u)
: _o.azn 76. Nozzles. Since a nozzle is a cow.erging tube, the discharge
through e nozzle cun be determined lrom equation 10 as well as
by the method of the energy theorem given in Art. 84, Velocity
Sbce p^/w cannot be less than *34 ft of watr:r, H cannot be of approach must not be negleited.
greater than 41.5 ft of wster if a short tube is to flow full- The follorving mean values of coefficients for water discharging
74. Converging Tubes. Con- from smooth fire nozzles, similar to Fig. 44, having a diameter ai
ical converging tubes having a the base of 1.55 in.,,and a Co of 1.00, were ileterrniaed from experi-
circular cross section are frus- ments by Freeman:r
tums of cones with the larger
end adjacent to the rcservoir Trp Draupror rN INcEEs t & 1 lt ll tl
(Fig. 7l). The jet contr&cts C:C': 0.983 0.982 0.980 0.9?6 0.921 0.950
slightly beyond the end of the The loss of heed in a nozzle can be computed as for any other
tube. The coefficient of con- orifice or tube for which the coefficient of velocity is known. The
traction C", based on the ares uozzle loss is usually expressed as a factor Ko times the velocity
of the tip, decreases as the angle head in the jet, where

Fro. ?1. Converging tube.

of convergence d increases, be-
coming 0.62 for d : 180" when
the tube becomes a sharp-edged
orifice. The cobfficient of velocity C,, on the other hand, de-
cre$es as 0 decresaes.
The table gives coeffcients for wster discharging thmugh con-
*: (#- t
A short converging tube, of the general design shown in Fig. 72,
which can be inser0ed between flanges in a pipe line for the purpose
! John R. Frce'naa, . Expedpente Relating to Hyd.adics
_ of Firg gttEanr,"
?'of,tt. Arr.. St,,. CA,il E tgt ., rol. 21, pp. lF4S2, f S8g.
 \

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SSSNT J,Nl|rITNA-fiU 8urfiia cNY 's.q6nJ 'ssclJruo ,ll

 AA ORIFICIIS, TUIlllS, AND wldllts
momentum. The reservoir is assumed to be so large that the
velocity of approach may be neglected. Also the pressure on the
resen'oir walls is assumed to increase uniformly rvith the depth,
es indicated by the lines ry. Thus with such a tube the pressure
in the comers o and b is full hydrostatic pressure conesponding to
their depth below the free surface. The variation of pressure in the
vicinity of an orifice without the inward-projecting tube is more
nearly represented by the dotted lines, a,nd in this case the pressure-
momentum theory is less exact.
Excepting the pressure acting on the projection dz of the mouth-
piece on the opposite wall, the horizoutal pressures on the walls
balaace each other. By the pressure-momentum theory, the
unbalanced force qn d€ must equal the resultirrg change per second
in the momentum of the fluid.
II the area of the tube is ,4, the pressure on dc'n whA. If lhe
area ol the jet is a and its velocity is 7, the mass of fluid per second
passing any point is aVw/g. Since sush a mass st&rts from rest
every second and acquires a velocity 7 the change ia momentum
ts oYzu/g. Equating force to change in momentum
,6:{2
from which
ghA = aV2
Since
v:c,\/m
o |
- "" - zc,z
A -n
With ideal flow; C, : 1.00 and C" : 0.50. When C" : 0.98,
C. : 0.52, a value approximately verified by experiment.
78, Submerged Tubes. The discharge through a submerged
tube, as through a submerged orifice (Art. 69), is I : CA1/%H,
C heing the coefficient of discharge, d the area of the opening, and
Ii rhe difierence in elevation of the liquid surfaces. It is probable
that as witlLoriices the soemcient is not materially chdnged by
submergence. Loss of head in a submerged tube is affected by
entrance conditioru, being greatest for a re-entrant inlet and least
for s bell mouth. Even moderate rounding of the entrance mate-
rially reduces the loss of head. Terminating the tube with a
SUBMERCED TUBtrts 14?
diverging end causes a gradual decrease in velocity and reduces
loss of head at the outlet. To avoid vortex formation
and loss
of capacity through entrainment of air, the entrance must be sub-
merged not less than the sum of the velocity head and the loss of
heed af entrance (Art. 7g), the minirnum submergence for a
square.comered entrance being thus about f.5v2/2g, where I ig
the mesn velocity in the tube.
Culverts to pass natural drainage water through embantrnents
are an example of tubes which may flow submerged. Culverts
usually have lengths of l0 or more diameters. During much of
the time they may carry little or no flow, but they rouJt be large
enough to csrry d€sign floods without damage to the structui
tley safeguard. The discharge of culverts fl<iwing partly full murt
be determined by use of the laws of non-uniforrn flow in open
channels (Art. 138).
Under conditions of flood flow the outlet may be submerged ar
in Fig. 76- and the culvert may flow full. In tiis case it nly be
considered eittrer as a short pipe (Art. ll3) or as a submerged iube.
A field examination frequently will be required to estiiate the
two water levels, the difrerence ia
these levels being the head Il under
which discharge occurs. More than
3000 experiments on varirjrx kinds
of pipe and box culverts for deter-
mining C were performed at the Uni-
llo. 78.
veEity of Iowa by Yamell, Nagleq
and Woodward.l A sumurary of the results of these exDerimenta-
ss they spply to concrete pipe culverts of length L up to SO tt uoj
.liometer D from I to 6 ft, is given in the table on pete
14g.
A siphon spillway ia illustrated in Fig. 27. Under normel
operating conditions, both the intake and the outlet are submerced-
eealing the ends of the tube and fonning an iuclosed chamLr-
'When
the upper water level gets high enough for flow through the
siphon to begh, air in the chamber ie ca,rried out by the moving
wetcr and in a short tine the passagervay is flowing full. Floi
continu€s until the seal is broken by lowering of the water surface
below the lip of the intake, or below the top of the air vent, wheu
such is provided. Such a siphon, if of airtight construction, has
tD. L. Ysnell, F. A. Naglor, oa{S. M. Woodward, ,,Ftow of Water
thmugh Culverts," Sludies t t E'tti'^.irni: UniverBity of lo.Fa, lge6,
 I)t,:s( r(lt,lloN ANI) l)t,J,tNt'l.t()Nti r.r1,
oll "lclls, rulll,is, AND WIillN
PROBLEMS
Cor:nprcreilrs oF DrscEARcE ron Colrcnnrr Pl'n Cgr-vDnrg
1. A stondard short tube, 4 in. in diametcr, disclrurgcs wirlor under u
herd of 20 ft. What is the discharge: (a) in cubic lccl per second; (b)
irr gall<-rns per daY?
10 0.86 0.s1 0. s2 0.93 0.94
2, A Venturi tubedischarges water from a reselvoir. The diDmeters
20 .79 .a7 .90 .91 .93
the throot and at ihe outlet are 3 in. end 4 in., respcctively. Negicct-
30 .83 .A7 .89 .91 at,

.80 .85 .88 .90 ing all losses, delerminc the maxinum head under rvhich t'his tube will
4{ .68
it.
50 .65 .77 .83 .86 .89 flow fuli throurhuut lcnglh.
3. A llorda's mouthpiece 6 in. in diameter discharges rvater under a
10 80 .81 .so .79 .77 head of 10 ft. Determine: (o) the discharge in cubic feet per second;
20 .74 .77 .78 .17 .76 .75 .74 (b) the diameter of the jet at the vena contracta.
30 .69 .73 .75 .76 .75 .74 .74
4. A standard short tube 4 in in diameter discharges water under a
4$ .65 .70 .73 .74 .74 .74 .73
head of 16.5 ft. A small hole, tapped in the side of the tube 2 in from
50 .62 .68 .71 .7a .73
the entrance, is connectcd rvith the upper end of a piczometer tube, the
prodtrcing lower end ol which ii submcrged in t pan of mercury. Neglecting -rcpor
ttre hydraulic properties of a submelged tube, the head pressure, to what height rvill mcrcuty rise in thc tubc? Also determine
being H, th" difi"t",,"" in elevation of rvater surfaces'
discha"ge
--irr" "prt"" the absolute pressure in pounds per square inch ai the upper end of the
it *hi"tt the cross-sectional a'tea, A' should be piezomcter tube.
experi-
.""ro.JJ lt"* been the subject of much discussion' Somebased 6. A nozzle similar to those tested by Freeman hgs a tip diameter of
{ in, and is attached io a hose having a diameter of 1 55 in. If the
coefficient, C, have been on
mental values of the discharge
lhe area of the throd,t, or highest point, of the siphon' It appears' pressure in the hose at the bsse of the nozzle is 40 lb per sq in., determine
horvever, that much more uniforrn the discharge,
values of C rvill be obtained if A rs 6. Determine the probable capacity of & concrete pipe culvert 4 ft in
measured at the discharge end in a diameter and 40 ft long discharging as shown in tr'ig. 76 under a head
plane normal to the direction of flovr' /1 of 5.0 ft. The entrance is squ&rc-cornered.
That ihis is true maY be seen bY ?. What diameter of concrete pipe culvert 50 ft long with beveledJip
entrance should be insielled to carry 500 cfs of water if the difierence in
considering the efiect of rcducing the
water surface elevations at the two ends of the culvert is noi to exceed
cross-sectional area at the throat'
?7. 8.0 fr?
Fro, Siphon ePillwaY. For a givea value of 11 (Fig. 77) a
5O ner cent reduction of area in the
region cf l'he throat- would
reduce the dis- Weirs
i;i; ,t,e pro",rr" upptou"tted absoluteinzero) the loss of head' but
)n".* t"i due to a slight increase ?9. Description ard Definitions. A weir is an overflow st:ruc-
"fi*nrf",
*o,,i-d ,r*.ly dorrble the value of C based oo l'hroat arer''
ture buiit across an open channel for the purpose of measuring the
pressure h3d a! the
sil-; siphon spilltov is operating, theheads less than about
flow. lYeirs have been commonly used to measure the florv of
tftt rii"l*" tft"" u,tmosphetic' Pre*sure design ol con-
water, but their use in measuremcnt of oihcr liquids is increasing.
ihe h5draulic The same principles apply io all liquids, and the fundamental
-fii, oi*u*. be avoided in
"ftoul<I
siphon spillvays in order to avoid the danger of occur-
formulas based upon these principles are in all respects general.
"."toll"a
*"""-"i ift" pft"rro-""oo knolll as cavitation' with resultilg Classified rvith reference to the shape of the opening through
nittine of the concrete. which the liquid florvs, rveirs may be rectangular, triangular, trape-
'';;;o;.o;"* o[ design, the presept tendency'rs to treal' siphon zoidal, circular, parabolic, or of any other regular forrn. The
soillwavs as short pipes in accordance rvith
the pnnclpl€s ot lirst three forms are nost commonly used foq mcasurement of
iUrptei vtI rather than as zubroerged l'ubes'

\
150 OIl.Il-lCUS, TUBljS, AND WIiIILS
water; the triangular rveir is usually best adapted for meixurement
of othcr Iiquids.
The edge or top surface with which the flowing liquid comes in
contact is tcrmecl the crest of the li'eir. Classified lvith reference
to the form of the ciest, rveirs may be sharp-crested or broad.
crested. The sharp-crested rveir has a sharp upstream edge so
formed that the liquid in passing touches only a liue. The broad-
crested *'cir has either a rounded upstream edge or a crest so brood
that the liquid in passing comes in contact with a surface.
Fro. 78, Path lines of Bow over rectangular eharp-crested weir.
The florv over a rveir may be either free or submerged. If the
water surface dorvnstream from the rveir is lorver than the crest,
the florv is lree; if this dolvnstream surface is higher than the
crest, the leir is submerged (Art. 89).
The overfalling stream is termed the nappe. The nappe of e
sharp-crested wcit, I'ig. 78, is contracted at its under side by the
action of the vertical componenLs of velocity just upstream from
the weir. (See Ari. 59.) This is called crest contraction. If the
sideg of the opening also have sharp upstrea.m edges so that the
nappe is contracted in width, the rveir is said to have end contrac-
tions and is usually called a contracted weir. If a weir has a
length .L equal to the u'idth of the channel, the nappe su.frers no
contraction in width and the rveir has end contractions suppressed.
Such a weir has commonly been called a suppressed weir although
the name full-width weir is also used. If constructed in a,ccordance
t, uNDAMtrNTll, t'I )ORY 16l
with certain dcsigrr spccifications (Ari. 82), a weir of this tlpe has
been called a standard weir-
'l'here is a downward curvafirre of the surface of the liquid in
the vicinity of the weir which is called the dropdown curve. The
vertical distance I{ between the liquid surface and the crest of the
weir, measured far enough upstream to be beyond the dropJown
curve, is called the head. Surface curyature may be perceptible
for-a distaace of several times the head upstream from the'weir.
'Ihe channel immediately upstream from a weir is termed t\e
channel of approach, and the mean velocity in this channel is the
velocity of approach, 7. The height of weir p is trhe vertical dis-
tance ol the crest above the bottom of the channe! of approach.
Typical path lines of flow over a sharp-crested weir are shown
in Fig. 78. These lines were determined by tracing on a glass-
sided flume the paths followed by globules of earbon tetrachloride
and benzine adjusted to have the same specific gravity as the water.
The paths are approximately parallel until they reach a point
about six times the head upstream from the weir. From this point
they gra.dually curve upward to pa,ss over the crest.
The path liues at about two-tenths the depth, rvhere the velocity
is usually close to the maximum, are the first to show upward
cury&ture, and those near the bottom of the channel are a,frected
last. At o is a dead-water region in which particles may remain
for some time and from which they ernerge i:r up-
ward spirals or eddies in the cornerg betrveeu the
weir plate and the sides of the flume. ={"p*
+\\
The crest of a sharp-crested weir is not neccs-
sarily knife-edged bui preferably of the j.-,rm Cre6tli\
' -)--'
ehown in Fig. 79. If the upstream corner is I
square-cut, the weir is still in effect sharp-cresteC, E
and excessive wear which would result from s, thin '
knile edge is avoided. FIo.79. Detdl
of crest'
80. Fundamental Theory. Developmert of for-
mrrlas for weir discharge dates back into the early history of hy-
draulic theory. The base formulas are here devetoped- for the
rectangular full-width weir (Fig. 80) rvithout end contractions,
The velocity head in the approach channel, corrected for un-
'equal distribution of velocitjes (Art. 49), is denoted by ci,,
where [,: V2/2g. 'Ihe depth of flow in ihe upp.ou.h
at the point where the hea.d is measured is denoted by d. "Lrro"i
 A(X)UNACY Or WEIE MII)A8UruCMtrNIB
oltIFIClifl,'rultl"H, ANlt wltlllH t68
Multlplytns a.nd dividing tho rlght stde of (2g) by
Bv orifrce theory, thc thcorctir:ll
tlixr:ltrut gt: tlrrough tho clcnrcn- I/r,
under tutol lrt'^'l rr 'l- alu i'g
irt]J.ip;;;tdh a - cmxf(r. *)" _ e)J (32)
aQ,-LanlZsA+"h; By binomial expaneion the quaatity in bracketr
from which becomee
^q
Q': J,'\/2s{h+oh'dh r+lbu+3(*)' .- (*)'
- tr Jzs I't@.r- ;r,')q - 1ah,)etl @) Dropping as negligible
becomee
f,I terns €xcept the ffrst two, eqgation 32

for vertical contraction of

Introducing a coefficient C/ to correct
loss' o= s7s"f1a2b1
y .zEJ
the naPPe and for frictional
A = ?\/%ctLl(H+dh')ei - (dh")e'l (28)
Eubetituting for ln its appmxinate value

o-X:#*=ffi -fr, #
the equotion for discharge becnmes

a-cL*"lt.o(sJJ (a8)
end cootrections'
Frc. 80. Re"t*ngrrltr sharpc"ested s'et without

It is common practice to combine

? r'4i C'into a single eoefficient c,' -2f
22s - o.o2BBC3

; ;ff;;"ffi; a : 1'
The geie*l fo"oul"
-weir
for discharge
lboueards of experiments have been nade with
ili"Jr"g "4".t of velocity of approach ihus becomes water fowinc

Q : cLt@ + t|Jet - (h;T l (2e) :J* yrye1rl-.. sharpdrested weirs to determin, th"
rD€ coeltcrents rn equatiol BB or to pmvide
;"h;;
a basis for nodifvinc.
coeccients or exponents to fit bett€r th",.dJ;;;;i;;;?;i
If the ratio of head II to height oi woi: {
t:':T:::"lY:T*L*l Theee experiments have covered a wide range
t"#rJi itru:;ffi ig"*"'t" in which case the weir
efthonq! thev sulstentiate the senerat f; ;irh;"f
;ilil;.;;
""*r""ted'
discharge is given bY the equation aDof/e.tDey contaitr many incoasistencies. The "q;;;"ft;J
experiments of an
q-cr(H*tr")' (30) indtridusl investigator arr usualty i" til;;;;1il
the formuL experiments by difierent inveetigator8""*i"t"";
*-"ti;;;;';;,;
--w
ll HIP tssufliciently small to make h" nesligible'
difrering fron one another by seuulor p"" 6"v rEqE
for velocity of approeoh,
frr'*ii. ai""rt-g", without correction 81. Accuracy of Weir Measurements. "u"t.laboratory
becomes
CUtt (31) .iq .f flowiag water, as, for instance, inIntu$ine ;
measure
ivdffi;
Q= ltoqer tq rng, err ecruracy within per cent is
]
suca aacuracy can he obtained ,n weir measuremeots
usuettv desL€d-
29 or 30 for
Sincef is a function o{ Q,- the solution of equation
form o[
Q
equatiol (l). a stenderd design is followed rn the construction only it:
t";;i;'il;tt" ,,i*tt' 't more convenient of the weir
a,ud approach flume; (2) a formulo l"
il," i" i..i""a uv the following transformation'
"*d;hfiil;il.;
 oRIFICES, TUBE8, AND Wnlna StrANDAND WEIN, rORI,rUr,r"8

Euds:
lisble tests of s weir of simitar design rvith eimilor rengo of headl
and (3) the neceesery test measurements, particularly of the head
on the weir, are conduct€d rvith the utmost care and precision.
82. Standard Sreir. Out of many years of study of aharp
clested weirs have come certain fundamental principles of design
which, as ihey apply to rectanlular weirs without end contractione,
o -Q.*as.a%&)Lu,x (88)
arc ss follows:
l. The upstream face of the weir plate shall be verticsl and
wtd€ E- E * 0.0086
smooth. Eenh:
2. The crest edge shall be level, shall have a square upstr€a,m
comer, and shall be so narrow that the water will not touch it o -p.n +tr+'.'(#[* (8e)
egain after passing the upstream comer.
3. The sides of the flume shall be vertical and smooth and shall rhore o vlrleo teith tb€ watar temperature frtu 0.OZl at ggo F
extend a short distance dorvnstream past the rveir crest. to 0.018 at 68" F.
4. The pressure under the nappe shall be atmospheric. Iu using any weir fornula, it is important to lrrow the deeign
5. The approach channel shall be of uniform cross section for conditions of the weir and tbe range of heads used in the tests in
r sumcient distance obove the veir, or shall be so provided with which ths foroula was based. Only brief notea regarding the basio
baffies that a normal distribution of velocities exists in the flow for the foregoing formulas ca,n bo given hore, but tle ;;;J-r€foF
eppmaching the weir, end the water surface is free of wav€6 ot ooes o eit€d for eacb.r
surges. the Francie formuls2 was based on a vely few teetr m a weir
A weir built in accordance with these specifications mey be obout l0 ft long ond 5 ft high with a range of heads from about 0.?
called g standard rveir. to f.0 ft. The head was neasured 6 ft upstresm from the weir.
83. Standard Weir Formulas. Practically every set of experi- A,e origilaly etst€d, the Francie foruula was
ments has been used as a basis for a rveir formula rvith the result
thrt many diffeient formulas have been proposed. The following Q-S.wLI@+t;et-h''1 ({0)
list of six formulas contairs those which have been most comnonly Eubstituting 3.iIl for C ia equation Bil teads to equation g4, whid
used in the measurement of flowing rvater by means of stsndard des not rcquile trial solutions and givea r€sults practically tho
r€ctangulsr sharP{rested weirs. The forrnulas as st&ted have be€n eame as a1(). If velocity of appn:ach is negligible the Frnncie
reduced as nearly as possible to the general form of equation flil, fomula rcduceg to lhe frequently uoed form
snd ere expressed thmughout in foot-pound-second units.
Q = 3.33LEx (41)
Frencis:
The Badn formulal was basd on s€verat hundred tets on weirs
e : a.Ba + o.ru (f)']r"" (34) from obout 0.8 to B./ fl high, {rom 1.64 to 6.86 ft long, with e range
[' tl'or e noro ertcnrive eumuary oco .'Check List of Wefu Folbulrr.,
Badn:
BlClnetq Bdlaln 63, St te Co[€8e of Warhi!8ton, putbu,r|"
o : (a.za. ry)[' + o.ss(fl
]
mr (35) IJ. B. FtsDcis, I^&11 Ht.havtic Erpin,r.u, ltU ea., feea, Abo ?ruar,
A* Bo'..C$t Eiqt, vol. 13, p.303.
IfingS Brdn -larda ikt rEaU at cl@r!r.., Octobo!, fSSg trenalafion by
--rl
a - a.ar fr + o.so (fl-*l zr'" (36) Mrliobll end Tnutwine, &oc. .Ery. CkD, PNladetpbie, Jrnusry, 1800, D.
Arard.t da cl ctazrn&e l$l It triulo.
"{'|lt
 r5O OruIICES, TUBE8, AND WEIRA
of heads fron about 0.2 to 1.8 ft. The hesd was measured 16.4
ft upstieam from the weir. The Bazin formula was verified by
Nagler,r who rcproduced Bazin's " standard " weir 3.72 ft high,
and 6.56 ft long, and tested it under heads from about Q.4 to 4.0 ft.
The King fomiula2 was based on an analysis of the experiments
of earlier investigators including Francis, Bazin, and Nagler.
The Srviss forrr^ulaa rvas proposed by the Swiss Sociel.y of Engi-
neen and Architects and ll'as substa,ntiated by tesls on a rveir about
2.6 ft high and 9.8 ft long with a range of heads from about 0.35
to 2.6 ft.
The Rehbock formulaa was based on laboratory tests covering
o.period of many years on ryeirs from about 0.4 to 1.6 ft high with
e mnge of.heads up to about 0.0 ft, a.s well as on tests by other
experimenters on weirs from 0.5 to 4 ft high with heads rlnging
from about 0.03 to 2.7 ft.
Use of the 't substitute head," II., as proposed by Rehbock
results in a comparatively simple formula. If the measured head
Il is read only to the mcond decimal place, the addition of the
0.fi)36 term is superfluous and the messured head can be used
directly in the formula, which io its approiimate form then be.
oomeS
o - (t.* +o.+tflnnx (42)
The Harris formulss was derived from a etudy of experiments
atd fomlulrs of other investigotors supplemented by tests on a'
weir 4 ft, high and 2 ft long with heads up to I ft, the bead being
measured 4 ft upstream from the weir, The Harris Iornula is
unique in including a correction for rvater tcmperature. The per-
centage varidtion in discharge indicst€d by the formula with
ordinary variation in water temperature is appreciable only at
low heads.
I F. A Nagler, " Verificeiion of Bezin Weir Forrnule by Eydrc-Ctemicat
Q4iaig" Trar'r Am. Soa. Cioil Engrs., vol. 83, tglg, p. tos.
tE. W. Kin& Hdtrdboh qf Hydradrbr, Mccraw-Hill_Book Co., 3rd ed.,
1930, p. 87.
t " Contribution d l'6tude de! lbethod€s de
ieugeage,', Bd.lglrin 1& gwigs
Bueau ol Wsi€r na6outce!, Bern, 1926,
.t
'Th. R.bboct, Wassertaesairlrg mit schoitkeDti8etr Uebedallwehra,,'
Zeiltclvil .b Vercifu.t del./ltctlg lagatizutc, JvlLe 15,1929.
! C. W. Ilrr;s, Ifgdrardn:r, John Wiley & SoDa tSgS.
MDAAUREMEI{T Oh EEA.D T[?
If the etandard design requirements of Art. 82 arc met, and if
the preceutions noted in Art. 84 in regard to messur€ment of head
ar€ observed, it appears that any of the formulas 34 to 39 will give
fairly accurate r€sults. Under certain conditions, however, there
may be differences of several per cent in the results obtaitred.
The.fonnulss in general are more reliable if the
following limitations of flow conditions ore ob-
served:
l. The head is not snraller than 0.2 ft.
2. The head is not larger than one-half tbe
height of tho weir.
3. The head is not lsrger than onehaU the
length o{ the weir,
84. Measurernent of Eead' In. ueing e weir
to determine ihe rate of discharge the head is
meagured with some form of gage set in a fixed
position. The elevation of the zero of tho gsgg
with rtference to the cr€st of the weir mugt be
oceurately determined.
The head may be measured either in a stilling
well connect€d to the channel by,a small pipe or
tube or directly in the chennel itseU. The
stilling well provides a meens of measuring tho
head in etil wat€r and reduces the efrect of
wav€s or 8uryes which may be prceont in the
channel of approach,
The pipe or tube leadiag to the etilling rvell
should not project into the chsnnel but ehould b6
flush with the side or bottom as witlt a pieloneter no. Bt. EooL
tube (Art. 2l). Ihe stilling rvell moy giv€ ilcoF
-- --
.-t*-
rect readings if the temperature of the liquid io
tihe connecting tube or in tbe stilling well iteetf is difior€Dt fm
that of the liquid in the flume.
Ihe water*urface elevation in the stilling vell is noet accurately
measurd with a hook gage or o point gage. the book gEge, Fig.
81, consists oI e graduated metillic rod with I point€d hook at the
bottom *fiich slides vertically in fixed supports. By neoni of o
vernier &tt&ched to one of the supportsl readinge to thoussndths
of a foot may be taken. For most prccise lvork the gogo can be
constructed rvith a micrometer head by mea s of which readinGF
' rnay be taken to tBn-thorisaudtbr of. o foot,
 oRrFICEg, TUBXia, AND Wurrta PROBI,EMTI r6e
The gage ehould bo of such length and ohould be rigidly attachod LErrorg Egroxl
to a Bupport at euch In elevation that the movoment of the hook Werlr
covers the range of water<urf4ce elevatious to be read. In making
Foa!(utr or WEIB
L (.tt) '""?,;r* ;ifr Tlrrrrr*trel
a reading the point of the hook is lowered just below the surface (a)-Froncis (s) t.o (l) 0.5 (r) 0.2 (s) 39'r
and then raised by means of a slow-motion screw. Jugt beforc tlo
(D) Bozio (h) 2.0 l.o
(m) (e) 0.4 (r) 68" F
point of the hook pierces the skin of the water a pimple is s€€n on
(c) King (t 3.0 (r) 1.5 (.) 0.2
the surface; the book ig then lorvered slowly unt'il the pimple jut
(d) Swiar 0) 6.0 (o) 2.o (r) r.o
(c) Rcbbock ('g) r0.o (d 1.0 (u) 1.6
dierppears and the vernier is read. (/) Bauio (g) 10.0 (rt) 2-O
A point gage is like e hook gage except thst it torminat€s b s (') 3'0
poiot e.xtending vertically donrlvard. With a quiet water sudrce
the instant of contact of the point with the writer su{oco as tho !L Compute by the Francie, Bazin, and .Hgrris formulas the vclue of
point is slowly lowered can easily be detccted. The point gage C in the base formule Q: CLH9I [or a weir 4 ft high with the Eeven
bdrds indicatrcd in problem 1. Assume a water tempereture of 6Oo F.
csa be used either in e stilling well or in the approach channel. U
For each formula plot & curye with C as abscissa and -tI as ordinste.
ttre head is measured in the approach channel, it is neceesary, for
3, Compute by the Ha,rrie formuls, the discharge over a rtaadard weir
pr€oiEe r€Eults, that the water surface at the gage be free of wavea
4.0 ft, high in a channel 3.0 ft wide under helds of 0.465 sDd l.g2 ft for
lDd surg€s. *at€r temperature of 39', 50" 60i ond 68" F.
If accurary is essential, the head used to compute discharge over
a weir should be the meon of at least 10 and preferably 20 eepa,rate - r[. Compute by the King end the Rehbock formula^e tbe diacharge per
toot of leugth over o standard weir B ft, high uuder herdg of 0.280 and
melsurcmetrts taken at equal intervals. By this means the dect 1.250 ft.
of gesll fluctuations in head mry be largely eliminated. 5. A t€st messurement of flow over a, etsndald weir 1.00 ft high in a
.A.nother device for determining hesd is a plummet attached to iume 1.996 ft wide at a hea.d of 0.5171 ft ehowed a total volume of
the end of a steel tepe. This iB used to measure the vertical dis" 941.4 cu ft of wet€r discharged in 362.3 sec. The water temper&tur€ wE6
tance from a fixed point above the channel of approach to tbe 42o F. Assuming the measurement of llow to be correcl, compute the
perce_ntage of error in the dischorge computed by each of
water surfoce. The bead on a weir can also be read by holding a tho weir
formulae 34 to 39,
roale on a hub in the epprooch channel,. A close approximatiol d
0. A shorpcrested weir 4.0 ft high extendr across a rectangubr
the head can be mrde by holding a scale which is at least 8ri inctr channel 10.0 ft wide, If the measu.ed besd ie 1.22 ft, deterrnir,e the
wide on the crest of the weir with the flat side to the etrcan. The dircharge using the Francis and the n€hbock formulss, Compore with
velocity of the aappe piles up the wat€r oo the soalo to a heigbt the discharge given by the approximbte Fraocis aud Rehbock formulaa
practically equal to the head on tho weir. 41 and 42.
Tbe head always should bo measued fa.r enough upstrea,n from
_
7. A eharp,crested weir 8.5 ft high extends across a rectangulrr
i.he weir to be well above tbs €fiects of surfsca contraction. The chennel 12 ft wide. If the rneasured hea"d is 1.54 ft, detelmino th;diF
distorco uaed in the experiments on which the weir formulas ia Art cbdrge, using the King and the Swigs formulas,
8ll werc based was in general from 4 to 6 ft, The distance eelectad 8, A sharp-creeted weir 2 It high extends acroes a rectangular chonnel
a,qd ths method of head me&surement should conform approxi; 8 ft wide conducting irrigotion wster. If the meesured head ie ll in.,
mately to those of the experiments on which the formula to be determine the discharge.
uaod in computing discharges is bas€d.
0. A rectangular channel 20 ft wide hae a 3It, depth oI water fowing
with_ o mean velocity of 2.45 ft pe! 6ec. Detersine the height oi
PROBI.EMS standard sharpcrested weir that rpill increase the depth in the ci^..q1
of approach to 5 ft.
he diacharge over a sta,ndard roctongular sha4Fcr€6tcd 10. A eharp.creeted weir 3.0 ft high extends acroao o rectoagulcr
pombiu,t'ior6 of tbo followiug formulaa a^ud dote. channel, 20 lt wide, in which there is 100 cle fowing. Detsrni; tne
depth of woter upstreco from the weir.
 t@ oRrFrcES, TUBEq AND Wf,Ilt8 TRIANCUI,AR WEINA 16I

86. Rectangutar Coltracted Woir6. l'he futl,width woir is not To obtain. complete cont.action, the midmum distance I (Fig,
adapted for u;e i[ a flume or channel bf other than r€ctangulsl 82) from any point on the ddges of the weir to the sides or bottom
croes section. fn euch a channel some fbrm of notch in a bulkhead of the charinel should be at least 2Il, The head should be measured
is preferrcd for measuring the florv. at least 4il distant from the
The rectangular sharp-edged notch (Fig. 82) was one of the nearest point of the crest to
earliest forms of weh. Such a notch has end contractions the avoid surlace curyature.
effect of which ig to reduce the 86. Tdarrgular tteirs. the
flow.belorv that which would occur triangular or Y:notch weir ie
under the same head over o ete[d- preferable to the rectangular fts. 88. ltlsagulal w€ir.
ard weir of the same length. weir for the measurement of
Francis stat€d that the dis- widely variable florvs. Figure 8i| represeats a trianguler weir over
no. &. nootaDsulor coDttroct€d chargb through such a sharp-edged which e liquid.io flowing. The measured head is Il, and the dis-
woir- rectangular notch of length Z un- tanee between the sides of the weir.in the plane of the liquid
ls copputed $y
der a heod .El nqn gurface is tr. The sides make equa! angles with the vertical.
substituting in place of Z ia the standard weir formula the valug Tte anes of an elementary horizontal 6trip d[ in thickness is
L'= L-Q.2H (43)
Z'dn. Neglecting velocity of approach and friction loes, the ve-
locity tbrough this strip for a head ft is V-29i, and the discharge i8
This conection for end contructions is approximote, so tbgt
grcot refinement in computation is not o.""..r"y. The use of tho lffiah
itQl.: t" (45)
Fraucis correction leads to an absurdity when the length of weir From simitar triangles / - (H - h)L/H, Ineerting thiq.va,lus
becomes smoll in proportion to the heqd, For ineteuce, for a weir
ofZ' in 46,
equation
0.2 It long under a head ot I ft, L - O.2H-O, so tbat 0 = 0,
\69-:-D {fr
wbich is evidently not tme. Tho us€ of the tr'rancir correctioq is da, = L il. ({6)
therefore ordinarily lirnited to weirs irt which Z is st least 3Il.
Although the Francis formula lor conputing correction for end
' controctions was originally recommended for use with the Francig Integrating between the limits 0 and Il a.nd reducingt

formulr (equation 4o), it is equally applicable to other ste& g,: #\nLHe1 (47),
dard formulas.
A more prccise fomula based on tests by Qouel for the 0ow of If 0 is the notch angle, L - 2H t$ 0/2. Subetitutins this vslue
water through rectangular shary>crest€d weirs with complete end of tr ia equation 47, and. introducing a discharge coeficient C,
snd bottom aontractions ig
a: c *lzct "or# (4s)
e -!.247yp.ra _
1ffi)a'" @)
It ie rrcommended thst Z be at least equal to The nost comrnon angle of notch is 90o, for which, with a value
E for the uss of
equatiotr 44. of C of about 0.6, the approximate formula for discharge ie

r V. i,,[, Couo, flow through Weit Notches vith Thia Edges Q - 2.6H2'6 (le)
" a,utl F\tt Coa.
lr*tioas," Jotmnl $ Agritttltutal Rla,eatch, U. S. Departhent of Aglicdtue,
Marcb, lgl0. see also " Measurement of Woter in Inigation Chsdebj, Experiments have shown that the coefficient and tbe exponent
V, S. fuNarnent d Agridtlhto Fannod Brrl"ri4 1883, in equation 49 are not e*ectly 2.5, but that they do not vary far
1ol ORIFICES, TUBEA, AND WEIRS 'I'RAPEZOIDAL WEIII6 r00

frum this value. Fron tests by Barrl with water discharging over rounding of tho upotream edgo reaults in appruciatrlo incrcaso in
9O' weirs, Barnesz derived the formula flow.
E7. Trapezoftlal Weirc. Figure g4 rcpr€s€nt8 e tr&pezoidal woir
Q = 2.48H2'48 (50) _
heving a horizontal- crest of length Z. The eid€s are equally
in-
Tests by I6nt' with various angles of notch fmm 10' to 90' and clined, making angles 0/2 wit!
with oil and weter at various temperstures indicate that the value ths vertical.
of C in equation 48 varies with the head and angle of notch as well By writing the equrtion
as with the density, viscosity, and zurface te.nsion of tbe liquid.
For cotd water, the water t€mpersture wss foulrd to have little
tlQc - L'lWan
and exprrsaing Z' in teror of Fro.84 Traperoidelwei!.
I
efiect on the coefrcient, which in thai case is a function only of
bead Il and notch angle 0' Ienz derived t'he following formula and known quantities in a msnner eimilsr to that us€d in the pro,
for trisngulrr wein, for water onIY: ceding article for triangular weirs, and integating and rcduJug,.

o =(z.zw +
\
l*),""in" (5r)
the formula for the discharge over trapeaoidal weirs .without vi
locity of ryprooch correction becomes

Vduee of /V end tt art given in the following table. llg minirm'n A - C! {q W. * s,ta* ^/fr b"f,fr (r3)
value of the ratio lVlfi" is 0.090.
0 90" , A tnpeloidel weir, having. a value of tan 0/2 of l, is csled .
Ci!'ollettil weir. This slopo of the siaeo is appro*matcty tnrt
]v 0.068 0.087 0.102 0.131 required to securc a discbergo through the triangular poriion of
a 0.688 0.582 0.579 0.676 !.he
weir opening that equalo thd deorease in discharge, r,esulting
Tbe net comnon angle of notch is 90o. For any liquid of
frm end contractiong. The advantoge claimed for tni" typ" j
denaity p, kinemrtic viscosity v, a,ad surface tension c, Lenz derived leir is that it doee not require a corrtction for end ontrlctiolr,
tho nethod e-Floyed for arriving et the vcluo oI tu e/2 b u
tla following formulr for 90' l/-notches only:
follows:

o-[z.aer+ F-rffir*n" (62) The decreage in

ording to Fraacis (Art, 85),
discharge ruulting fmm end coatractiou,
is
ro
tte ninimum vdue of the second tarm in the brscketo being 0'090. a - c'l fro.zns'
The efiect of velocity of approach on triangula,r wein is simibr
to the dect on nctengular weirs. From the nature of the triaa-
fLe dischrrge through the dilugular portion of the rrob (Ast,
80) i8
gular weir, however, tho croestectional area of the nappo is usirally
iuch maller tban tlut of the channel of approach. The velocity Q-ct'p':y'fr1n\!Hti
of approech is ther€fore small, and the enor introduced by neglect'
ing it i8 ususly inaPPreciable.
thr,"po"o of crest edge is as important with triangular weirs as $*tqC tho rigbt-hand membem of these equationr, asgunhg
with any sharp-€dged orifices or weirs eince a slight dullness or C' - C', and reducing,
r Jaoeo

'| E lrd $,
Asll
Barr, " Flow ol
fs10.
Wotcr ovet T.riaognla'r Notrhes"' Ettg*tttfu' *;-i
.el
tubtd, E. ard t..N' gpon' Ltd' 1910.
E$raufu Flop
I frurr .{'t! 8oa CbA 8,8... tga:t. p- O.
lC. Glmllet4 Ccnaf vrl&rcrl, 1887, I de*riptiou ol. ttgD.roilll ,oir.
 wt/it ltg N(ft' $ll\ttl'. cIulH'IltD 106
IO4 ORIFICES, TUBE8, AND WEIRS
lX. What longth of Oipolletti weir should be constructed so th&t the
The forrnula given by Cipolletti for determining diecharge ovor mea.sured headwill not, exceed 1,50 ft when the discharge is 120 cfs?
a sharp-crested weir of this type is
(64) 88. Weirs Not Sharp-crested. 'lVeirs in rvhich the water touches
Q = 3.367LH*
the surface of the crest rather than merely a line can have an
Later experiments indicate that this formula gives too great dir' infinite variety of form of cross section. Weirs of this type in
charges for the higher hesds when the velocity of approach'is low, which the crest is a flat surface are ordinarily called broad-crested
Complete contractions are assumed for the use of the Cipolletti weirs. Overflow dams are also in the class of weirs not sharpo
weir formula. The design requirenents for otrtaining completo crested.
contractiong &re approximstely the s&me as for rectangular weirr. The discharge over weirs not sharp-crested may be computel
The Qipglletti weir is used qqite extensively ia westem Unitsd by any of tho base formula: of Art. 80, provided the correct value
Btotes for measuring irrigation water. of the coefficient C is knovm, These formulas are repeated here
for convenience,
PROBLE![S
Q-CL\(H+k)et-h,ttl (28)
1. A contrscted rectangular sharpcrested weir 6.0 ft lorg diechargea or its equivalent
water under r head of 1.55 ft' Cornpute the discharge. by: (o) Fraucis 21
corr€ction applied to Francir formula; (D) Cone formule. a= cr'Pft +o.oznc'(I (33)
!. A contrrcted rectangular weir 10.0 ft long dischargee water under a J
he.ad of 9rt iu. Compute the discharge by: (o) Froncie correction ap
nlied to Rehbock formuls; (b) Cone forrruls.
Q=cL(E*k\* (30)
8. In a river 60 ft wide, having an everage depth of 3.4 ft snd a m€aa Q: CLHI (31)
vslocity of 1.15 ft per sec, a crntracted rectangular weir 30 ft lory ir to
bo conrtructed. Determias the head over the weir, assuibg froe Since experimental values ol C may be based on any one of
ovorf8ll. these formulas, it is important to use the one for which a given
lL A coatrrcted reitairgulsr weh 10 ft long is built in tbe center of r value of C was deterrnined, especially if ve-
rcctangular channel 20 ft wide. How high is the weir if the deptb of
wstar uDotrdlm i8.3'60 ft when the discherge ie 40 cfs?
6. D;termire the diecharse of water over a @o triangular weir if the
messur€d he8d is (o) 0.623 ft; (6) 1.15 ft.
Iocity of approach is appreciable.
Figures 85 and 86 show examples of flrt-
crcsted weirs with square upstream comers.
If the crest breadth b iu Fig. 85 is less than
1_d
0.. The diacbarge of watel over a 45o triaugular weir is 0.728 ofl.
about 2/3 ff, the nappe will ordinarily spring
Whst is the hesd?
" cleor and the woir is in efrect sharp-crested. Frc. 85. Weir Eirh
z AJp"t" ifrJ aischarge of r hedvv fuel oil at 80e'i ovor o 90p ttL Greater crest breadth, as in Fig. 86o, changes rect&ngder sross sec-
anguler weir at a he8d of 0'542 ft: tion, nappe springing
6. The discharge of o light dust-proofing oil at 50' F over a 90o Y' the form of the nappe, and sharp-crested weir clear.
notch weir is 0.245 cfe. Compute the head. coeftcients no longer apply. As the breadth
g. The heod of wster on a,90o triangular weir is 0.725 ft. Comput€ increases fiirther (Fig. 860), the weir becomes in efrect a short
tbe discharge by: (o) approximote formula; (6) Bgmes formulo; (c) flume.
Lenl formulc. For flat-crested weirs I to 10 ft broad with squsre upstream
10. Compute the discharge of weter over a Cipolletti weir 5.0 ft tong comer and for values of b/H ftom 2 to 5, Kingr gives a value of
under a head of 0.85 ft. Compare with the discharge over a st&ndard about 2.7 for C ia equation 31. As b/{, decreases below 2, C in-
rccteiguler weir with the 8sme leogth and head' I E. W. King, Iloadtoo& o!
11. l strtah 80 ft wide carries 65 cfs. Determine the r€Eultitrg heod Egdradbe,Mcetaw-gill Book Co., 1939, p. 164.
ovgr r Cipolietti weir 3 ft higb aod l2 ft lorg, essuming free overfall'
 t06 oEIpICES, TUBES, AND WErRS Wl,illl"B NOT 8I{ n"p-(jtUraTlljt )

creases, r€sching a v&lue of about 3.3 when the
crcst.
The separation of nappe from crest which ooeurc at a sharp-
conrered entrance can be avoided by sufrcient roundiirg of the
entr&nce, as shorvn in Fig. 87. Rounding reduces the amount of
contraction and incredses the coefficient of discharge.
The theoreticsl discharge of a broad-crest€d weir has been
derived on the assumptioir that flow over the weir occurt at critical
nlppo clears tho Profilea of flow at various depths over a broad-crstod weir l,ith
n level crest and rounded entraEce &re shorvn in lrig, gg. At the
lower heads a succession of smooth *ur,"" upp*o on the crest.
The position of the tave at a given head remaine fixed, and the
number of waves depends on the ra,tio of head ff to breedth 6 of
the weir. Ae the hea.d increases, the spacing of the waves increases
and the waves disappear one by one over the downstream fall until
a head is retched at which the strcam surface over the weir forms
a smooth double-rrverse curve without waves, The w&vea are
accounted f<ir by the fsct th&t the depth of flow over a weir of this
type is very close to critical depth, a condition which always
ciuses a disturbed etrea,m surface because a slight change in enerry
can rcsdlt in a considerable chenge in depth.

86. Profiles of f,ov or€r ftt-crtsted rtoit vith

trto. rqua.re
=i.-
-

upgtrcrrn comer. _d
rtl t(1L'a D-10'
P-r.?5' \6' Rrdiur -

--tr
, I

,I
L Frd. 88, hoffles of flow over fLst-cr€€ted w€ir.
Teetsr on the weir showa in Fig. 88 in a flume 2 ft wide showed
1., o)
a yelue of C in equation 30 incrersing gradually frou 2.78 at s
Fto. 87. - Proile6 of 8ow over fsLcrested w€u with rounded head of 0.5 ft to I constsnt value of 2.85 at heeds of 1.2 ft snd
updttelm corber'
higher. Tte value of C increases as the ratio b/l decreasee, that
depth; Under this condition, as will be shown in Chapter VIII' is, as the weir becomes narrower in proportion to the head; giving
the velocity heed is equsl to half the depth, or one'l,hird of the total the weir surface s slight downstr€a,m slope from the entrence also
head. In Fig. 87b, assuming no loss of he-ed between points I and 2' increaa€s the value of d. Such gn incresse in elope may so increase
the velocity of flow acmss the weir tbat the depth becomee less
V,2 H th.sn the critical and in thst event i:o waves appear on tlre crcst.

The discharge ig
as Overfow masonry.da,ms should be so designed that the creat of
the da,m follows approximately the lower curve of the nappe of a

Q - AV : In"V.: L.tH . 'tH eharp-crested weir discharging at somdgiven head cslled the design
head, which is usually that of the maximqrn flood to be expected.
from which The theory is thet at this discharge the under surface of the nappe
Q - LNLH* (65) will follow the sur:fsce of the dam without exerting prcssur€ otr it,
and, what is more important, without tending to pull awey frum
Actualty, loes.of head rcduces the coefrcient below the theor€tical I J. G. Woodbum, Teatr otr Broad-Crest d WG|r!
" " with oppendir by
value ol 3.09. rL 8" Webb, Ttvlu- Am. Sc*. Citil&ryrl, $n.

t
168 ORIFICI'6, TUBD8, AND WEINB
SUBMERGED WDIRA
it and thus to create o region of partial vacuum which would
increase the overtuming moment on the dam- Laboratory testsr llonloNte V,rr,rrns or \[nrn Coarucrrrl, C (DauarbN lo)
of model dams have eubstantieted this theory. for weir aectione showa in Fig. 00
The discharge coefficient C in equation 31
for an overflow dam of this type with neg-
Ilead in Feet, fi
Croes sectiol
ligible velocity of approach can be shown to 0.5 1.0 1.5 t.o 2.5 3.O 4.0 4.!r 5.0
be about 4.0, the head 11 being measured fiom A 2.70 2.& 2.U 2.70 2.80 2.89
the high point of the crcst. With rcference to B 3.29 3.29 3.32 3.36 3.40 3.43 3.48 3.53 3.62 s.72
Fld.80- D€tsil of Fig. 89, the height z to which the under zurface c 9.27 3.38 3.46 3.6r 3.58 3.61 3.67 3.74 3.8:!
crest oI dam. D 3.26
of a weir nappe rises above a sherp crest has E
3.28 3.38 3.47 3.59 3.63 3.66
3.72 3.8S 3.85 3.82 3.76
been found to be from 0.1111 to 0.1311, When z = 0'12H,-H - F 3.58
3.68 3.68
g.o2
3.73 3.89
3.56 3.58 3.00 3.65 3,68
0.88lr'", and, assuming the Francis coefficient of 3.33 for a sherf
crested weir, the value of C for the darn must be 3.33/0.88t : 4.0.
If the head on the dam inoeases above the design held, the Ilorton'e v&lues of d for a few models of weir crests shorm
nappe tends to spring free from the dowustream face, thus de-. fo Tiq. S. Sectiors resembling these or other models r-ay be
crrasing the pressure under the neppe, drarving more \r'ater over used for oyerflow dams or for spillwayrs fmm resen oirs or cgnals
the da.m, and increasing the coefficient' This reduced pressure or for other eimil'rr structures-
on the downstreasr face increases both the overtumiqg snd the
sliding tendencies and rcduces the safety of the structure. A reduc-
tion in head below the design value decrea.ses the coefrcient. It
has been found2 that as I/ varies from 0.5 to 1.5 times the deeign
head, C vories from about 3,6 to 4.3.
It is often convenient to use an.existing.weir or overflow dam for

* 'Iz
neasuring disch*rge. In such cases it is not likely that the shape
of crest n'ill confoim exactly to one for which C is known. If thele *tF0.83'
&r€ no Batisfsctory experimentol data and continuous dischrrgo
!:--o-..ql -
-
Q,
records are required it rray be found desirable to obtsb coehcieDtg
correspondiag to difierent heads by means of current-neter neas- Flo gO. Seotiou of weire std denr. (FloF is froh left to ighL)
ur€ments. Existing dams are eonetimes used for estimating flood
discha,rges of streams where direct m€asur€ments of discharge by 89. Subnerged Welre. If the elevation of the downstrea,m
other mesna are impracticalile. waier surface is higher then the cr€8t of a weir, the weir ie eeid to be
Hortons prepared tables and cuwes of C for use in equrtion 30, rrut),'Joerged, The ilepth of submergence is the difierence in eleve-
corresponding to difrerent heads, for many shapes of weir seotions tiorr between the dori'nstream surface and the crcst.
for which experimentsl drtg werc availatrle. J,he teble fiveo ifatcr flows over the crest at e velocity which is higher than the
vdlcity of the wat€r downstrea,4, and a portion of this velocity is
I iI.
nousa rnd I noid, Model Res€arch on gpillpay Cr€sts, Citii En{nh.6t'
retained temporarily after leoving the weir. Wbere the slope of
in , Jalusry, 1935, L p.
. t lhd. ; slro J. Hindq W. P. Creager, and J. D' Jruslin, En$inzerittg for Da,ns, the cba,nnel is not sufficient to maintain this high velocity a
John Wiley& soiu, 1945, Chapter 11. piling-up effect is produced. This condition is illustrated in Fig.
t Robert E. HortoD, ,. Weir Experimeate, Coeficieote aod Foranrla4" (/. L 91. The water has a higher velocity at o and a lower velocity at
G@L Slrtaay Ward Srapda oi'tt lttfgdrm Pqa N' L9tl .
0 t',r,n the nornal velocity in the channel. This produces a stand-
ing weve, o being the trough and b the crest of the wave. Below
r7O ORIFICE8, TUBES, AND WEINS OENEML PROBLEMB l?r

the main wave a series of smaller waves form which gradually CEITERA! PROBLEMS
teduce iri size ond finally disappear. L In I'ig. A, the orifice in the side of the closed tonk ie 2 in. equare,
Cox foundl by an extensive series of tests ol submerged eharp- with d = 0.60 snd C" = 0.62. An open mercury manometer indicatee
erested veirs oi .,ario,rs height's that the coeftcient of dischlrgg the pressure in.the.air at the top of the tank. Co-pute the disch;ige
is sfunction of the submergence ratio D/(H * k)but' ulso depends wbeu: (o) the liquid in the tan-k is $ater; (6) the
on the behavior of the nappe. At small submergence ratios it is upper l0 ft of liquid in the t&n& is oil (sp gr 0.82),
oossible to hgve tbe nappe plunge belorv the sdrface and retum to and the remoinder is water; (c) the liquid in the
ih" at some distance downstream, from which point tho tank is oil (sp gr 0.82); (d) the liquid iu the tenk
"u.frce is molasses (sp gr 1,50); (e) the upper 8 ft of liquid
surface velocity is direcd both upstream toward the we-i1 1n$ in the tank,,is oil (ep gr 0.82) aod ths remainder is
downltream' A surface roller conditioir is thrrs created which ig eea weter (u = 64 lb per cu ft).
unfavorable for use of the teir as a medsuring device'
- 2. Compute tbe head tbst ia eoch caeo in prob-
lem 1.
8. A Charp.edged orifice 6 in. in diametcr did- rrs'A
FIg. A
charges oil urder o bead of ll.Z ft The avsragg
velocity at the vena cotrtract& is 26.0 ft per sec. Iiow nuch head
is lost
in friction? Compute C,.
{ An orifice itl tho side of a tank discharget water under a head ol
0.0It. If the diarnetor of the orifice ig 2 in., the roefficieat ot
Fro. 91. Submeryod weir'
tioD is 0.630, and the head lost i8 0.80 ft, determine the dis;i;gs."ont*o.
Compute C, and C.
submergence ratio is incressed sufficiently, however,trhe
If tlie 6. A circular orifice I in. in diameter, in the vertieel gide of a vessel
nappe no longer plunges below the surfaoe but remsins above' The diecharger vster under a hedd of 2.60 ft. The jet
*i1"" i" thln directed downstream at all points and the "tril*
""r""itv
stonding wave condition of Fig. 91 rezults. There is a renge of
plane 5.0 ft below the center of the orifico et a point
flns"-f,-iioit.j
ii al"t"*
horizontally from ths vena cotrtracta. The rveighi of wate" di;;-*;
submergence ratio in rvhich either type of flow can take-place' - in 2 rrir lb. Compute the three oriiee .o"moi*t .
0 aec is 556
----''-
With the nappe on the surface Cox found thst the velue of the .0.
Oil (ep gr
0.90) is diecharging through a 4-in. circuLir sharpedced
weir coefrcient in equation 30 is given by the equation orifice ir the end of a &in. pipe. The pressure l,ead .n thu
;;;L;-fi;;
oI th6 prpe just upstream from the orifice is B0 ft of oil, aud di8charco
totes place iato a closed tank in which the vapor o."""u"u i" _i.o ii
c=ca[r -(#'.o'ooz)]"" -o'sz (57)
per rq in-. Tho di,schargo ie not eubmerged. The orifice
coemcient" ---
tor
i,ltis coadition areiC= 0.68; G = 0.92. Compute the di""fr""".- -
submerged sharp ?. A colibratioa tcet of a {-in. circular sharp-cdgea o,in"u-ii tn"
A fomrula by Kiug for the discharge over eld of s 2-in. pipe showed a discharge of 0.0225;fs of
crested weirs is n,fri" ifr"
pressure head on the center line of the pipe ""tu. trom iii
lust upstream
e : s.uLz'1''lt*'.* (#) ]('+ o',e)(l + tr2 orifice wte 3.34 ft. The diameter of the
Compute the three orifice coemcients.
lei was l"rira t U Ojif i..
(58) 8.. A. cslibratio! test of e |-in, circulor sharpedged orifice in the
vertical.side of a large tank ehowed a discharge oi t3flb
d di
Cox, " The Submerged W& ae e Me-esuring Device"' Btndbt
tG. N. d|, eec-at-a heod of l5-E ft. Meaeurement of the jet
ehowed that "";;l;
it t;;;;
Medieon, Uaiversity of Wircolrrin lngiDccling ExpedmeDt Stsiion' 7.70 ft horizontelly vhile dropping 12 in. bompute the
c!€ncletrta.
th;;d;

t71t oRIFTCES, I U rr!,S, AND WEIrul
0. A nozzle hoving a tip diametcr of 1 in' is attoched to the end of a
2-in. hose. A cslibration test tholeed a total discharge of 129 cu ft of
water in 5 mil. The a,vera,8e pressurc iu the hose at the base of the
nozzle was 41.5 lb per sq in. If C" = 1.0O, compute C, and the loos of
heod in tbe nozzle.
t0. A sharp-edged orifice, 2 in. in diameter, in tbe verticel side of e
large tank, discharges water under e head of 10 fu. fi C, i8 0.62 end
C, is 0.98, how fer hodzontally from the ven& contracte wilt the iet
strike a horizontal ptane which is 6 ft below the ceuter of the ori6ce?
Compute tbe discharge in gsllons per minut€.
tl. A pump raisee woter from a well and discharges it into a pold
ihrough a horizontal 3.in. di&met€r pipe wbich is 4.5 ft higher tban the
pond level. The horizoutsl distance from the open end of the pipe to
the poitrt where the jet strikes the pond is 15.7 ft. Compute the dir
cherge in g&llons p€r minute.
12. A sharp.edged orifice 4 in. in diameter, in the Eide oI e t&nk
haviug o horizontrl crons sectioD 6 ft 6quar€, discharges weter undor a
constant heod. The rate of in{low by which the heod is kept conrtaat
is ruddenly changed from 0.80 cfs to 1.20 cfs. IIow loug will it be,
ofter thie chonge occurs, until the head on the orifice becomes 7 ft?
The coefrcient of discharge may be considered constent &nd equal
to 0.60.
13. A rtaudard ehort tube 4 in. in dismeter, in tho side of a cylindricel
tank 6 ft in diameter, and hsving its axis verticsl, dircharges under a
conetant head. The rate of inflow by which ths head is kept constant
,ie suddenly cha.nged from.l,0O cfs to 1.35 ct8.
How long will it be, after this ohange occurs, until
the hea.d becomee 5 ft?
14. In Fig. B, tho cylinder weighs 175Ib and is
empty &t the timo the orifice is opened. Neglect-
ing the thickness of the cylirder walls, deterrnino
the valu€ of lll iI the cylinder sinkr 3 ft b
minutee.
16. Iu Fig. B, the cylinder weighs 175 lb aod
Ftg. B F: lb. If the cylinder is empty at the time
600
the orifice ie opened, determirie the tine requir€d
for tho cylinder to sink 2 ft, neglecting the thickneea of the cylinder
'valls.
16. A shrrtr€dg€d sluice gate provides a rectanguler opening 1 ft
high in o channel 6 ft wide. Side and bottom contr&ctions are entirely
suppreesed. When the water ir,rmediotely upstream from the gete i8
7.5 ft deep, and the dnwnsircam flow is free, compute tbe probable
depth of dow just dowosl.eam from the ga.t€ aod the probable
discherge.
CENIJII,AI, PIIOIJLIdMS I'J
17. A cylindricol tsnk with ils axir vcrticol hur o diurnotcr ol 4 fi
BEd depth of 16 It. A etaodard shsrp€dgod orifioo 4 in. in diamets! is
I
located in the side 1 ft abovo the bottom, Whon st re€t, water stenda
to a depth of 10 fi. Assuming that the volume of water in ths tank ir
tept colstsnt, detormins tho rgts of discherge from the ori6co: (o)
when the tsnk has s constsrt velocity of l0 ft per sec in a directiou
opposite to thst of tho jet; (D) when it h8s s conEtant acceler&tion of 1l
tt per sec p€r 8€c io a direition opposite to tltat ol the jet.
1& A tauk 20 lt long and 10 ft deep is 10It wide &t the top and 20
ft wide st the bottom. Iu tho bottom ir an orifice heving an srea of 3{,
sq ia, and s coemcieDt oI diecharge of 0,60. ff ihe tsnk is full of oil
(rp gr 0.90) at tbo beginni.g how long will it take to lower the oil
lurfoce 5 ft?
19. A ta* 12It long has it8 ends vertic&1, top and bottom horizontal,
and is 6 ft high. The top and the bottom sro rectenguler, having
widths of 8 ft end 5 ft, r€Bp€ctively. A stsodard Bhort tube 4 in. ir
diemet€r is locsted in one end I ft &bove tbe botiom. If ot the begir.
niog the tauk is lull of water, 6nd tbo time rrece:sa4r to low€r tho wator
surface 4 ft.
20. A rectangular chaaiel 16 ft wide sarries water at a depth of 2.6
ft and a meau velocity of 2.85 ft per eec. lf a stendard sherpcrcei€d
weir 3.0 ft bigh ie built, aarosE tbis cbannel, whet will be the depth of
wst€! upstre&m?
!1. A trapezoidal c&nsl, 20 ft wide on the bottom aird haviog ride
slopes of 2 horizontal to 1 verticsl, csrries water at a depth of 1.2 ft and
a nean velocity of 2,0 ft per eec. What length of contract€d rcctengulr!
weh 2.75 ft high should be placed ia tbe middle of tbe oaual iI tbe depth
of water upstre&m is to be 4.0 ft?
8ll. A chsnnel ie corlying 10 cf8 of nater. Assumirg that an error of
0.m5 f'" is made in measuring the hoad, determine tbe rcsulting pen
centage of error in dischorge: (a) if a 90o triangular weir is ured, a^url
(D) if I Cipoltetti weir 10 ft long is used.
2 llll. If there is a messured head of water of 2,05 ft on a g0' triangulrr
weiq vrhat length of Cipolletti weir could be substituted Bo thst the
length of weir would be lour times the head on it?
24. A contracted rectangular w€ir is to be construct€d in s stream of
water in which the discharge varies froqr 2 to 50 cfs. Determine a
lenglh of weir, such that the measured head will never be less tlran 0.2
ft or greater than one-third of the length of weir,
25. A contracted rectangular weir 18 ft long has a herd of 1.82 ft of
water over it. 'lVhat length of dam eimilsr to C in Fig. 90 would be
required in the some Btreem in order to have the same heod?
26. A submerged sharp.crested weir 2.5 ft high extends &cross a rec-
tangulur channcl l0 ft rvide. The depth of woter in the channel qf
 t74 ORTFICES, TUtrE8, ,rNl) Wurng
&pprooch ir 4.0 ft, ond 35 It dowrutroom frorn the weir tho dopth ol
$8t€r is 3.0 ft. Determine the diochargo, usumiug thot tho oappo
remeins on top,
41. A gtandard ehorp'cr€8t€d weir'2.5 ft high is built &closs a r9& Cho$.r VII
tangular flumo 30 ft wids, 'lVith watcr flowing, the measumd boad b
PIPES
1.26 ft. Some distance upstreom in the 0ume is another eherpcrcctad
woir having e height of 3.5 ft, the middle ol tho woir beiug on th6 csntsr
line oI the flume. If the measured head on the oecond weir io 1.02 ft1 .
90.
leltinfion. A pipe may be defined. as a clos€d conduit
through which liquids or gases flow. In hydraulics,
what is the length oI ire6i? Acsuoe free overfall. .pipeo aro
' 18. The measured dischorge over s dam 100 ft long ie 620 cfs whol -
commonly understood to be conduits of circular cross seciion rvhloh
the head is 1.28 ft. Dstermino the weir coefficient for thia besd. flow full. Conduits flowing partially full are considered to be opea
19. An overflow maronry dem ie to be constructed &cross o strssn. c_hannels, (See Chapter VIII.)
The stream is estimated to have a maximum flood discherge of 3{t 000 City weter and gas mains in which florv occurs under presaure
cfs when the elevation of water surface at the dam sit€ i8 1132.0. gir are examples of pipes. Sewers and drainage tite, which nornally
sluice gates eacb 8 ft high and 6 ft wide (C: O.E5) aro to b€ col.
do not flow full, are claseed as open channels. ' Since frictiona'l
structed in the dam with their sills at elev&tion 1122,5. Tho maia
loeses in general are independent of pressure, the eame lsrvs aopiv
overflow weir for which C : 2.63 will be 200 ft loog with a oreat olevation
of I184.0. An auxiliary weir 600 tt long witb a cr€st elevation of 1186.3
to flow in both pipes and open chaanels, and the formulas for ;ci
will operato during floods. For this weir C - 3.a0. With all Bluico teke the same general form.
gotes open, whst will be the eleyatioa of the water surlaco upstreon 91. Criticsl Velocities in pipes. Th€ lixriting conditions (sc
.from the weir when the diecbarge is 30,000 cfs? Neglect velocity of
Art. 43) which detcrmine whcther florv will occuirvith l"-id ;
approoch. turbulent motion were first h-
vestigat€d experimentally by
Reynoldsr by the method illus-
trated in tr'ig. 92. Water was
drawn through a small glase
tube c from a large tank D rvith
glass eides. A cock c regulated
the outflow. By means of the
arrangement shorvn in the figure
tr'ro. 02. Reynolda' expe.imelt,
s fine Btream of colored rvnter
was a.dmitted into the entrance of the glass tube. The experi-
menta were extended to include tubee of difrerent diametcrs and
water a,t various teilperatures.
With the water in the tank very quiet, and when the velocitv
in tube a was low enough, the colored water appeared as a straighi
line extending through the tube, showing the flow to be lamin-ar.
As the rate of florv was gradually increased, a velocity was fin&lly
obtained st which the thread of color suddenly broke up ani
lOabome fuynoldg Ttotts.
fug. S.x.. (roadoa), 1882 ad 1895.
t75
 u0 fIP!6 ANALYEIS OF VELOCITIDS IT'
mixed with the surrounding watar, showing tho flow to be turbu- irre,gular paths l,raversed by the fluid pa,rticles,
the averase lonsi-
lent. If, then, the flow rvae gradually decreaeed, s velocity was f,uqrral ap€€d ot each particle is spproximately
the sami, Tils
finally obtained at which the flow changed bsck from turbulout to h.uho:T.bv .udden_ly injecrins"
laminar and the thread of color formed aa b€fore.
111
a prpe tn ! hlch.$?ter is flowing and observing
of'"oioiea
"hu.g" the water
flo"fa *il
atit e oui
The velocity at.rvhich the change from lsminsr to turbulent re[. rhe colonng matter will be found to remain
. in & comD&ra_
flow occurred wss found to be higher then thst which ceus€d ths tivell short prism having a lcngth equal t"
change from turbulent to lsminor flow. Reynolde celled theso dntance trsveled- Ttris principle is "fr""i-"rr*t"r,t"fr'"i ifr
---
velocities respectively the higher and the lower critical velocitiee. sometimes utilized in measuring the
As a result of extending his experiments to include the flow of velocity of flow in pipes.
water at difrerent temperatures thrortgh tubes of difrerent dia'm- The fow of a fluid with laminar mo.
eters, Reynolds estsblished a criterion applicable to all fluids for tion between two parallel plates of in_
determining the type of flow occuning under stet€d conditions. definite width is illustrated in Fig.93.
The numerical value of the exprtssion T'he velocity varies as the ordinates to
Frq. 93. Lsrninsr 0op.
DTc a parabola, from zero at each plate to a
maximum velocity at middistance, the average velocity
P being
twothirds of the maximum,
where D is the dismeter of pipe, and I/, p, and / orc resPectively When laminar,flo$, occuni in a- conduit of circular
- cross-seciion;
velocity, density, and viscosity of the fluid, is connoaly called tho the movement of the mass of fluid can U"
Reynolds number and desiguated by .rVp. In this volume thess ing of a la,rge number of extremely thin "o"rpo*Jloir,iuli.'"Jp-
concentri. tubo. ;;"
slaobols are expressed in'foot pound*econd unite, but sirce the Iiquid wets the conduit wall, the outer trl"
Reynolds number is dimensiouless its value is indePerdent of tho
i" ifr" *"if
"af,.*, The veloc-
wnrle the next one rnoves with extremely lorv velocity.
system of units enployed. ity of each zuccessive tube increases gradually until the ;;;;;;
Since p/p - r, the kinematic viseoeity, the value of Reynolds' velocity is reached of the center. In- this case th"
number caa elso be written as, the ordinates to a paraboloid of revolution,
;;;;;
,"d ;il-;r;;;
veloctty ts one.half ths maximum velocity.
Nn -DY
v
(1)
In turbulent dow, there are transver; as well as longitudinal
components of velocities of fluid particles, but
it is ontv tf,e iatter
It hss be€n fou[d and verified by mony careful experiments that that have any_ effect iri producini noti". trr tm n"iJ'L-"
.for commerical pipes of circular cross'section when Reynolds' rE spalklng of veLocities, therefore, we alvays
rcfer to the"i"i".
com_
number is less than about 2100 the flow will be la'minar and when ponents in the direction of flow.
greater than about 3000 the florv will in practically all instanses be The.distribltion of velocity in the cross eection of a
. circular
turbulent. By exer:ising extreme c&re, laminar flow has been ptpe_with turbulent flow has been found
to vary with Reynolds;
produced in laboratories when the Reynolds' nurober was far number. The velocity is again practically zero et the ,,d;;;l;
greater than 3000, but it is unlikely that such a condition will be but rncressca more rapidly for a short disl,ance from
the walls thsn
encountered in practice. rn lamxrar,flow. Throughout the central
core, however, the mixine
08, Analysis of Velocities, In laminar flow, although the fluid resulong from turbulence tends to equalizc the velocities
particles rvlrile moving forrvard occupy successively the same rela- of the-
qarticles. Turbulence increases with Reyholcls, L;;;
tive trensverse positions, the fluid near the a,ris advances a given the velocity distribution beiomes
-or. uo-ifo.- * "umi;
th" il;;i;
disl,ance in a shorter period than tbat nearer the conduii walls. number increases,
(ftei Art. 43). In turbulent flow, horvever, uotrvithstandiag thq Velocity distribution curyes for a circular prpe ere
ehown in

\
 I,O88 OI IIEAD 179

Fig. 94.1 In lamin&r floq'the vclocitictr &long any diametcr very
*'"no*n by curve.A, which is a parabola, thc maximum velocity
i st the center of the pipe being twice the averrge velocity Y'
a pipe, for example, couses the lino of maximum velocity to
movo
|y* * yl t tn9 pipe tolyerd the concave side. figu." O6.l-r.owi
tho actual distribution of velocitiee of water with
in a curved pipo from measur€ments ny Sapl and ScUoJer.
thil;;;;

ho. 06. VoLoclttes iD ourved pipe

fto. 94. Velocity distdbutio! in 8trsigbt pipe'
08. Veloclty Eead tn a plpe. The velocity head st any cross
With turbulent flow the velocity distribution curves are much ssction of a stream oI nutd is dV2 /2g, where yls the
flatter, as indicated by curves B and C' Tests2 have shown
thst ave*u;
in a pipe of circular ity. et the crms section_ and o (Art. 49) is o coeffi"iuol g""uiu" ";i;
ti*
-il_
lfr" t"iir of average io ,nt*imu^ velocity .:ni!r whigh correctg for unequal distribution of
rr*"lJr"t variJ rvith the Reynolds number approfmately os perirnents by Badn gnd others indicate that for ""1;;i;;.
shown in the following table:
water flo;;" rvi-t'i,
DV v lu1ldTt motion iu a etraight pipe c has u .u*
L06. It can be ehown thgt when laminar flow "utuuio n pG
oi?Uoui
iYn-- h c has e valu€ of 2-
o..*
lm ood uDd€! 0.m In pmbleme invdviig flow in pipes it is common to assume
2000 0.66 _. that
tho v-elocities at all points of a cross eection arc equal,
8000 0.71 or thot c
equals unity and that, thercforc, the kinetio energr';;;il;J;
6Un 0.70
lb of fluid is equal to V2/20. Tlte enerry equatiiln,
i
10000
sm00
0.78
0.80 between two points in a Btr€Bm, then
;; ;ili;
ow! 0.81 frplies t" ti"
100000.srd B€ction_ in which the points lie, fne "iij""-"--J
introaucJUr-L"-_l
"".o,consequencs.
c eqlal to unity is not ueually of serlous
Eince the velocity of flow of wat'er in pipe lines is almost elwayt
l0'0fi)' it 0{.-Contlnuity of Flow ln plpos. In sny plp,e carrying liquid
Buch that the value of Reynolds' number is larger than
velocity water in a pipe aad flowing full, within the limits ot error'resutiing fi;T;
* tu uttt"a io g"neral thal the average of
is ;Uout O.S0 ol ihe maximum velocity' The circle of meen veloc'' assumptions thet the liquid is incompressible
-d is th" pi; ;;ilti":
et any given inetant the ssme quantity of liq"id ;;;;;;;;
itv has a radius r (Fig. 94) of approxirnately lD' cross €ection of the pipe. This etatement impties
With either laminar or turbulent flow, any irregularity or ob- low (see Art. 47) and holds true even when the flow is"ontin'uitv
Jt
or any condition which causes a change in direction of uDst€ad-v- a
["* *iU *""s" the regular distribution of velocities' A bend il
"t*atio" condition w_hich exists when the head producing dl";il; '
variable, With gases, which ore highly compressi[te, ;;;ffi;;
;
" tUoau- Conceptions of the Mechanics of Fluid Turbulenoe"'
'il. nour",
goc. Civit Etrgtc.,1937'
of f_ow_ia a pipe can exist only wlen now i, ,Lav.
' 'ii.
trans. Arn.
90. Loss of llead. Ioss of head in fe€t of fluid,-meaninc
f. SL"t"t an<t J. R Pannelt, " gimilerity ol Motion ir Reiotioq to loss of
ftsfl. qoa' (Iaibt), lal4' onerry erprcssed in foot-pourda per pound of fuid
tn" S,r"f""u H"d"" of Ftuidr," Rar ' 'gf,a' ia*.
6l ; ;;;
 IO88 OF HEAD DUE TO PIPE F'RICTION $I
in any flow of fluid through & pipe. 'Iho lose is caueed by: (l)
" pipe friction " along the straight eections of pipe of uniform Changes.in density of gases which result
from larger droos in
diametei and uniftirm roughness; and (2) changes in velocity or pressure introduce factors which will
""""ia*"?.- iii ari-
not be
direction df flow. Losses of these two types are ordinarily referred cursion,.so_far as it applies to flrrids in g*"r"1;;;;;;*
to respectively as msjor losses and minor losses. to this limitation. *ijil,
Major Loss. This is a continuous loss of head, [/, e{Bumed to Coniider a straight pipe of internal diameter
D in which fluid is
occur at a uniform rate along the pipe as long as the size and quality ^
flowing at a moan velocitv y. r"t trr" Io.. Jilra*i;ffiffiT
of pipe remain const&nt, and is comnonly referred to as the loss denoted by iy.
of head due to pipe friction. Certain general laws ba.sed upon observation
Minor Losses. These consist of: appearto govern fluid friction in pipe"
and experirnint
1. A loss of head, i", due to coatraction of cmss soction. This generelly acceptcd pipe formulas.
uod u." il;;:
These laws"*p*u";
Uil"C, *rl"l
loss is caused by a reduction in the cross-sectional area of the
stream and the resulting increase in velocity. The contraction
t._I'rictional loss in turbulent no* guouru
roughness of the pipe. As will
J;;;;ffi1". "'il
be shoJn l";;iA";.;;*#
may be suddei or'it may be tapered. The loss of head at the flow is laminar the frictional t*" i" #:
entrance to a pipe lrom a reservoir is a special case of loss due to
indepenjeni;i#ffit#:
2. Frictional loss is directlv proportiona'l
*"tt"d-;;.-f;; to the
area of t'he
contraction. io}"""
2. A loss of head, /r", due to erJargement of cross section. ThiB "r?
3. Frictional loss varies invereely as some power
Ioss ia carised by an increase in the cross-sectional eree of the streem diameter, or x l/D. o{ the pipe
rvith resulting decrease in velocity, The enla,rgement may be 4. Frictionel loss varies as so:me power of the velocity, or ae
either suddcn or gradual. The loss of head at the outlet end of a
pipe rvhere it discharges into a reservoir is a special case of loss of
head due to enlargement.
. 5, Frictional loss vari$ as some power of the ratio of vigcoeitv
to de',sity of the fluid, or as (p/p),.
3. A loss of head, f,r, caused by obstructioru such 4s gates or
vslves which produce a bhange in cross-sectional area in the pipe
, Comb-ining these factors, a ratlonal equation for loss of head due
to pipe friction for any fluid can be wriiten
t" d;f;;'-*'""
or in the direction of flow. lhe result is usually a sudden incrcase
or decrease in velocity follorved by a more gradual return to the
original velocity. b-Kxp""*xy"x(4)' (3)
4. A loss of head, ha, caused by bends or curvee in pipes, in
addition to the lo*s which ocQurc in an equal length of "straight inrvhich Il' is a combined roughness coeficient
and proportionolity .
pipe. Such bends may bo of eny total deflection angle es well og
any radiui of curvatur€. Occasionslly, as in o reducing elbow, the +I is substituted for r, equation B csn be writt€n in the
loss ilue to the lpnd is superimposed on a loss due to change in fo*r
velocity.
If the slrnbol llr is used to designatc all losses of head in a pipe , :[","(:,)']x
fixv. (4)
line in whish there is steady, continuous flow
The historic development of hydraulic_flow
Hr,:htlh"*h,*ho*h (2) ,
alrnost entirely to wat€r 8,t n*tu*t
formulas was related

96. Loss of Eead Due to Pipe F iction,' The followfug discus- viscosity and density of water
t".p""rlu"*1,- ilglfiliT
on roo iroa u"oaiil;;doil
sion epplies to all liquids and approximately to gases when the ties is so small that it was long "r W;i "i
prtssure drop is not more than 10 per cent of the initial pressure. wae cculd be easily included
neglu"t*d. f;;;;;;il;
in a general coefficient.
bemg substituted for the quantity
^ in brackets in equation 4,
 182 PIPES
the bnse fomulr, for lms of head in pipe flow was thus stst€d as:
n,: x!^v"
A deterrnination of K, nr, and n is necessary for practical appiica-
tion of equation 5 to flow problems. Cherv (f775) pointed out
that the loss of head in the flow of water in conduit€ va,rid spprox-
imately as the square of the velocity. About the middle of the
nineteenth century, Darcy, lVeisbach, and othen, accepting
Chezy's value of 2 for r, further modified equation 6 by propoeing o
volue of I for n, and divided and multiplied by 29, so thet
.h'
= (K" xut xf,xfi
K'
By substituting a eo-cslled " friition factor " / for
well"known pipe formula, celled th€ D&rcy-Weisbech formulg' was
obtained:
n,:t*xw
This formula is of convenient fom sinen it e4premee the loes of
head in t€rms of the velocity head io the pipe. Moreover, it ie
dinensionally correct'since / is a nunerical fizetoi, L/D is o retio
of lengtbs, and [y and V2 /2g $eboth expressed in utits of length.
The defects of the Darcy-Weisbach fonnula are:
1. The loss of head with turbulent flow varies not as the square
of the velocity but ae sone power verying from 1.7 to 2 or more.
This discrepancy must be taken care of by varying the value of /.
It will be shown in Art. 98 that with leminqr flow the 1068 of he&d
variee as the first power of'the velocity.
2. Since l/ - Q/ A - A/(; D*), 1""' st'en Q, / aad tr, the loee
of head by the Darcy-Weisbach formula varies inv'erdy as the
fifth power of the diameter. Tests have shorvn, however, that the
actual variation is clmer to the 5.25 power and that the exponent
of D in the formula should therefore be in the neighbofiood of 1.25.
Again ihe disoepancy is taken care of by varying the value of /.
It witl be shown in Art. 98 that for a given Q with la.ninar flow the
loes of head varies iuversely. as the fourth power of the diameter'
t
v LUDB OF t FOR WATDIa l8s
3. Tho friction factor / must therefore be a functlon of velocity
and dis,meter as well as of the pipe roughness and of tho viscosity
(6) and density of the fluid. Much research hss been direct€d, without
complet€ success, toward the discovery of a comprehensive formula
for /. Reliance must therefore be placed on tables and diagrams,
which are usually limited in scope to the fltrids and test conditions
on which'they were based. With modem research, however, ad-
vance is continually being made toward a complete mathemalical
evaluation of friction loss. Meanwhile empirical methods of detei.
mination of / have long been used successfully by mfieers.
97. Values of / for Water. Since pipes ere most frequently
designed to cerry wat€r, that liquid will be considered first. The
(6) table on page l&lshows average values of/as given by Fanningr for
the turbulent flow of w&ter et natural " cold-water " t€mperatur€s
X 29, lke in straight smooth pipes. This description probably repr€sents
the conditiots of new cast-iron pipe, welded-steel pipe, wood pipe
.
made oI planed staves, concrete pressure pipe of best quality, and
o)
cenent lined steel pipe, Brass and copper pipe, glass tubing, and
asbestos.c€ment pipe may be expected to bave slightly lower
velues of /. The table also includes lalues of J for fire hose as
conputed from teet data by Underwriters' Laboratories, Inc.z
For any given velocity of flow, the value of/ is seen to decre-ase
as the diameter of the pipe increases. This decrease in / is lergely
accouat€d for by the decrcase in " relative roughness,, of the
material in the pipe wall. By reiative roughness is meant the ntio
of the magnitude of surface irregularities to the pipe diameter.
Of two pipes constructed of the same kind of material, a 6-in. pipe
is thus relatively twice as rough as a 12.in. pipe. The relation"hip
of/ to relative roughness aud to Relnolds' number is. discuss€d in
Art. 99.
Some kinds of pipe become rougher with oge with resulting in-
crease in/.This possibility is usually taken care of in design by
increasing the value of/ for new pipe by a certain percentage. The
increase in / for cast-iron or steel pipe may be 50 to 100 per cent
aftcr some years of service, due to corrosion or tuberculation of the
surface. On the other hand, wood pipe and asbestos-cement pipe
have shown little or no increase in / after nany yeanr of serviee.
I H. W. King, Eandboo* o/ If3rdrcd:icr, McGtew-Ilitl Book Co., 1930, p.
20b.
t Bu edn o! Lese4tct 12,l 3g.
 VALUFE Or / ft)ll, w.,l'l'tr]ll 180
PIPDE
second. signifir:a.nt ligure is therefore seldom u'arrnntod. I4ore-
over, &n answer: ba^sed on these values of/ can eoldom be coneidered
V&vEs ot t E{ ras Darcv-Wlrss,roE foauuu, U - t}f; correct to more than two signi.ficant figures.
For water flowi.qg itr strsiSht sEooth pipo A ferv examples are given to show the use of the table on page lg4
Mean Velocity (V) i4 Feet per Secontt in connection with the Darcy-Weisbach pipe formula.
Disbetor ol Pipo
i! Idchosr 0.5 1.0 2.O 3.0 4.0 6.0 10.0 16.0 m.o
Ex,lupr,p 1. Determiue the lose of head in 2@ ft of Gin. naw c{st
t.o42 0.038 c.0:14 0.032 J.040 t.029 ).025 r.024 l().(Dir iron pipe carryiog 250 gpE of wa,t€r.
.o4r .os7 .03:) .031 .029 .028 .0% l .0']'Al .aB
Solution. Sioce 1 cu ft - 7.48 gal, 1 cfs - 449 gpm; hence I*
1

.0{o .035 .82 .030 .o28 .027 .o24 -(D31 -m3 0.652
.028 .a27 .Ml .o2s L023 cts, V -Q/A:2.83 ft pe! eec, Yr/2g ^ 0.124 tt.
.038
.0it8
.0:14
.&E|
.031
.fit0
.m9
.ta .wI .028 s24 .*1.* ,f = 0.025. Thus
From lege 184,

.0it6 .ct2 .029 .027 .(}26 .v25 .(}23 .f}z2l '-an

-an
.034 .03r .028 ..0}4 .026 .026 .023 .otil
.d2t
.q21
.@1 ..022' .0221 .0t2l
.C2t
b= o.025X TX o.rz= 1.2 frofwsror
1
.03:l .030 .027 .026 .o25
.032 .029 .026 .u25 .M4 .021 ,an lml .s2t
fi21
.og) .028 ,025 .v24 .023 fi23 .021 .(ml Jtlo
-fixt Ex.rupr,p 2. Determire the capacity oi a BGin. wocd-etsve pipe
carrying *at,er with a loes of head of 10 ft p€I mile.
l0 ;028 .M6 .0,4 .023 ,cz2 .M2 .02r .020 ,cx)
t2 .vt .@6 .v23 .oz2 .ov2 .021 .020 .m0 .019 Solzlioz. Since / depends ou the unknown velocity of flow as well aa
l4 .026 .d}4 ,tn .022 .021 .021 .020 .019 .0r9 on the known diameter, &n essumed value of/ is used in a trial solution.
t0 .u24 ,023 .w2 .021 .020 .020 .019 .019 .018
Tabular valuee for 3Gin. pipe vary only from 0.019 to 0.016. Uaing 8rr
t8 ,@4 .072 .g2t .0m .020 .020 .019 .018 .018
itrterm€diate v&lue of 0.018,
m .om .01s .orc .018 .018 .018
2l
g)
.023
,021
,019
.w2
.w
.019
.020
.019 .0r9 .ol8 .018 .0r8 .017 .017
.0r8 .018 .017 .017 .017 .016 ,010
ro: 899*
o.ol8 X'2.5"% I
36 .018 .017 .017 .016 .010 .016 .016 .016 .01!
4' .016 .016 ,016 .016 .01.6 ,0r6 .016 .016 .01{ from which V212g : 9.263 and I/: 4.1. For this tdal velocitn /:
48 .016 .015 .oi6 .016 .014 .014 .014 .014 .014 0017. Correcting the solution, V,/25:0-275, V: 4.23, snd Q:
54 .014 .014 .0r4 .014 .014 .014 .013 .013 .018 2l cfe.
00 .014 .013 .013 .013 .0r3 .0r3 .013 .013 .01,
Exmrrr,p 3. What size of best-qual.ity concrete pip wil ccrry l0 cfs
n .013 .ol2 .012 .012 l'012 .012 .ol2 .0i2 ,0r,
* -otz .ol2 .011 .0ll .011 .011 ,011 .011 .011 of water with a loss of head of 2.0 ft per 1000 ft?
Solulion. Agait a tri&l solution can be made by asaumiug e velue of/
although with ueither the velocity lot diamet€r knowtr the error may bo
For wstor flowin8 iD cottoa rubber-liaed 8re hos
greaier theD in Example 2. Assumiag l: O.02O, and sinc€ I'
-
Nouinal Velocity in feot per seooud a
Dir,Eotos 4 6 l0 16 m (r/A]trl'
ll in. 0.v24 0.023 0.023 o.t2 0.021 2.0 = x lojo
o.o2o
100
D x" A.785r X DtX2c
2l in. o.020 0.019 0.018 0.o18 0.0I8

r Vilu€a giv€r !t€ DomiDsl dia&et€ts. The sctual diooeterir ol conootdal l.h're Dr : 25.2, D : 1.91 ft (: 23 in.), .4 - 2.86 eq ft, 7 - 8.6 ft por
pipe 116 rlightly difiorsDt re:. Rcvising / io 0.019, D6: 23.9 and D - 1.89 !t, indicating no
change from the 23-in, eize.
Methoils of cleaning imn and steel pipe have been developed which Checking iy: ,{ : 2.88 sq tt, V : 3,47 lt pr eec, V2/2g : O.tgZ lt.
c8n restorc l,h6 pips pr&cticslly 'to its origiha,l smoothnees,
Even under the descriptions of pipe shown in the table, elight lr- o.o1eX ffi x o.taz: r.aot
difierences in ngnufacture or iu ls,ying the pipe may change tho
values of / by eeversl per cerrt. Interpolation closei than l,be
 PIPtrS tit (;'t.toN^L I.o8S wI. l !,AMtNAtr t.tr)w 18?

which is slightly.less th&n the allowed 2 ft, and therefore oatisfaotory' lb per sq in, grcotor thon at,4, determino tho dirootior, nnd amount of
The next larger commereial size of pipe (24-in.) would prcb&bly be 0ow.
eelected. 98. Frictional Loss reith Laoinar Flow. Figure g6 representa
PROBLEIIS a longitudinal section and a crqss section of a straight pipe in which
t. A new cast-iron pipe 1200 lt long and 6 in. in diameter carriee 1'5 a fluid of uniform unit weight ra is moving from left to right with
rfe of water. Determine the friciional loss of head. cteady laminar motion. The velocity distribution curve is pictured
2. A,lGin. wood-stave pipe discharges 100 cfs of water. Determiue in the longitudiaal section.
the frictional loss of head per 1000 fi. of pipe. Consider a circular cylinder of fluid, aicd, of length -L extending
3. A city-water-Bupply pipe line consisis of new 24-in. cast-iron pip€' fron section 1 where the unit pressure is pr urlr to section :
Compute the frictional loss of head per mile ol pipe when the discharge
i
if 8 mgd (millions of gallons per day). l2
4, Determine the discharge ol waier through a uew 12-iq. cast-iron
pipe if the loss of head in a 3OOGII length is 30 ft.
6. Deternine the dischs,rge of water through a 3&in. wood-stave
pip€
- if the lose of head is 15 ft in a length of 5000 ft.
6. Determine the discharge in gallons per minute of water through &
}in. wrought-iron pipe if the frictional loss is 12 lb per sq in per 100 ft IansiMinal section 60{9 lection
ol pipe. tr'Io. 96
i What diameter (to the nearest inch) of new cast iron pipe 1 mile
long is rcquired to discharge 4.4 cfs of water with a loss of head of not where the unit pressure has decressed lo p" = la,lrr, The difierence
more than 55 ft? in total pressure on the two ends of the cylinder is thus
8. If the frictional loss remains tho same, what will be the capacity
of the pipe of problem ? &fter ten yeals of service if ihe lriction facior/
w(h - = uhrf
hz) ov2 (8)
ie doubled in that length of time? It is considered that the cylinder is in equilibrium between this
9. What diameter of smooth concrete pipe 8000 ft long is required to pressure difierence and the shesr resistance exerted by the surround-
discharge 40 cfe of water with a loss of head of 8 ft? ing fluid on the curved surface of the clinder.
10. What diameter of wood-stave pipe should be installed to carry Fron the definition of'/iscosity (Art. 4), the unit shearing stress
50 cfs of water 5 miles wiih a loss of head of 5 ft?
on this surface is
lf, A 4&in. wood-stave pipe is laid ou a downgrade of 3 ft per mile'
The pressure at.4 in the pipe is 5.5 lb per sq in' If the discharge is 45 _ _ /:d,\
..
cfe oi water, determine the pressure at point B, the distance from ,4 to '-u{dul
B being 1 mile.
12. Points,4 and B are 3000 ft ep&d aloirg a 10-in. new eteel pipe' since, as indicated in Fig. 96, for each increment dy in distauce from
B is 220 ft higher than ,4. With a flow of 3.2 cfs of water from ,4 to B, the pipe axis, there is a decrement du in velocity. The total shear
what pressule - must be ma,intained at ,4 if the pressure at B is to be 50 stress on tbe Brirface of the cylinder is thue
lb per sq in.?
i3. Water is pumped through a vertical 2-in. new galvanized-iron dt
-2"gLp; (9)
pipe to an elevated tank on the roof of a building. The pressure on the tu
discharge side of the pump is 200 lb per sq in' What pressure can be
Equating (8) and (9) leads to a simple difrereatial equation
expected at s point in the pipe 250 lt above the pump when the flow is
150 gpm? , uht
14. Poiuts ,4 erd I ere 3 miles apart aloog a 2'1-in. new casLiron pipe au - -rI;yay (10)
car4ring water. d is 30 ft higher tban 8. If the pressure at B is 2O
188 Plrrff8 (it,tNl,jlt^r, MllrHoD oI l)lin,;rtMrNrN( j/ 189

Int€grating, from which it, is cvident that, for larninar llow,

.= -ls *,, (tr ) & (18)
The coastant of iqtegration C1 is evaluated from tho condll,ltttr lt
the pipe wall wbere it is assumed thot the velocity is mro. 'lhue, The relation between the maximum velocity V" and the aver&ge
wheng = D/2,a=O,and velocity V can now be shown. Equation 12 shows that the velocity
wh1 D2 distribution curve along any diameter is a parabola, the maximum
^
,_r = loZf velocity being at the c€nter of the pipe (g : 0) and having the
vahre
Substituting this value in (11),
v": hfiD2 0e)
"-#,G-r) 02)
Transposing equatiou 16,
16Lv

This equetion gives the velocity a at' any distanco 7 fmn the v= hD2
32Lv
(20)
pipe axis. The discharge through the ring of width d7 ir
From the last two equations,
dQ : t X2q du
v" =2V (21)
Substituting the value of a from equation 12,
uh, / D2 -\ 99. General Metlod of Determining / i.q Dsrcy-Weisbach
* -'"ir\Z u - v')av ltr) Formula. The va.lues of/ on page 184 are intended to apply ooly
to the turbulent ffow of water &t temperatures less than about 75' F
Integating, the limiis of y being0 and D/2, i.n pipes of a certain smoolhness, For rougher or smoother pipes
diflcrent values of/ must be used. Moreover, modcm engineeriag
a: nuhl Da
L28Lp
04) praciice frequently requires ihe determination of the loss of enerry
in pipe lines carrying fluids other than watcr. This article de'
or tbe loss of heed, substituting pg for w' ar.d, v lor p/p, ecribes methods of determining / for any kind of liquid flou'ing iu
pipes cf various degrees of roughness.
. : 128LvQ
_;D,c If the Reynolds number fol a fluid florving ia a circular pipe is
06)
^t less than about 2100, the flow Lc &lmost cedsir io be laminar.
Since Q = @/$D2Y, In this case the Hagen-Poiseuille law applies, as develop€d in the
32LvV precedircg article, and
h1 06)
sD' 64
(t8)
which is a msthematical statement of what is known as ihe llagen-
Poiseuille law for loss of head with laurinar flow'
The loss of head with laminar flow ie soen to bo iadependeot of
Equation 16 can be put into the Darcy-Weisbach form ly ruul-
the degrea of roughness of the conduit ntrface.
tiplying nunerator and denominator by 2I/ and replacing DII/I, When the Rel'nolds number is Srester th&n about 3000, Ihe flow
the Reynolds number, bY i{n. Thirs
ir practically always turbulent and the vahie of / then may bo
M L'Vz dependent not only on the ReyuolJs number but also on the reb-
nt- nraa 07)
tivo rougbnees of the pipe. Relative roughness is defined as thc
 (ll,lNI,jlrAl, N{DTIIOD Or l)l,Il'1,:llMlNlN(i / l0l
190 PIPIS
equation for/ for use with commercial piptts:
ratio of the average height fr of the protuborances on tho pipo
I
surface (Fig. 9?) to the diameter D of the pipe'
It has been determined tbat even with turbulent flow thort .f7 -,^,C++#) (%)

exists next to the wall of the pipe a very thin byer of fluid in
which the fiow is laminar' Tho This transition equation merges at one end into the smooth-pipe
_l thickness of this boundary layer do- law, and at the other into the law for fully developed turbulence.
creas€s with increase in the ReY- It is seen tbat for perfectly smooth pipes, when /c/D = 0, equation
nolds number' 24 becomes equation 22, whereas at the other limit.of the transition
A pipe is spoken of as " hYdrau- region, when lfa becomes large, equation 24 becomes equation 23.
lically smooth " if the heiglt of the Recommended values of /c for common pipe materials are given
Ito. 07
in the table. These values, however, require further substan-
protuberances on the piPe wall is
lees tha,n the thicloess of the boundary layer' In such a pipe, tiation.r
variotionr in relative rougbness do not afrect the value of /' Krro or rnr (new) L (in feet)
If, on the otber band, the protuberances ere greeter in height
Wrought, iron and stcel 0 .00015
tban the thiche,ss of the boundary layer, their presence a'frecto Aspha)l€d ca.st iron .0004
the smount of turbulence and hence tbe value of /' Tho pipe has Galvanized iron .0005
then c€ai€d to be snooth. As the height of tho protuberancea Cast iron .00085
increaoea, or as the thicloess of the boundary layer decreasee wit'h 0.0006 to 0.0030
im@dd Rc.ynolde' numbor, the turbulenco insreas€s to r maxi- CoDcrete .001 to .010
Rivr:ted gieel .003 io .030
num valuo et which it is rsid to bo "fully develop€d'"
Etudie by Prandtl aad voa Karnan led to tho following egua'
tiog for dst€rmiring,f iu the Darcy-Weisbach fornufa for tho two 'fhe application of equations 22, 23, and 24 is facilitated by the
use of Fig. 98, which shows the variation of the Darcy-Weisbach
eoctr@o coditions of 0ow in PiPea:
friction factor / with Reynolds' number NE as given by the Cole'
For rnooth pipee:

4-"*ffi
{t
tuthltoco i! fully daveloped:
(n,
brooke-White equation for the transiiion region fdr a number-of
values of D/k, the reciprocal of the relative roughness. The
diagram also shows the curve for smooth pipe and the minimum
value of/ for each v ulue oI D/lc, in accordance with the Prandtl-von
For pipo in rbich
I(arman equations. The relationship of / to N1s for laminar flow

Tbs
i-,*Q,n)
equationr, which have been aubstantirtad by exporimont'
(2s) plots as a straight line on logarithmic paper and is ehown at the
left. The dashe<i line showing the practical upper lidrit of ths
transition region was suggeited by Rouse2 and il defiaed by the
.
*"t tt t tot turbulent flow in pipoa which am }ydnulicolly equation
/g.z 2\
luncllol D
rnool,h, / ir independsat of ths relstivo roughn6fE and !8 s JVn=a00;r..-a eb\
J'ifr" -i"Sependent
Rcvnol& number, ond that when turbulenco ir fully kt
""f"
aiaopna, t t of tho Raynolde number and dopedr r For a more extended discursion of the subject of pipe frictlon lormulaa
oa tho rehtive roughnu. ee Julian llinds, " Comparison of Formulas for Pipe !'low," Jatmal Am.
--iiJ*"*
onlv
tho two limiting conditioru ol flow b a tnnsitlon Wats Wotks r4eroc., Nov., 19'16.
t hoceedings of tG Secotid lly&aulica Conlerelce, University of lowa,
r"gi* fo" whicb Colebrook and Whitir dovolopod the followiag 1942.
I Joun.l, Iartltullol o[ Clvll Eujlooor'' VoL rr. reoe'
rg2 PII'I'S (]HNI,)TAL MDTSOD OF DI:Ir tMtNlN0 t toa

When the value of l{a givet .by DY /r is larger tbon thet given by
equation 25, the velue of /.i" determined by equatiou 23 can bo
used,
ln the critical region, where Reynolds' number is approximately
e ns
s ds
2100 to 3000, the flow mey be either lam.i:rar or turbulent and there
js no mcthod of
.predetermining which type will occur. In order
€
L-l to be on the side of safety it is usuelly considered edvissble to
sssume that the t14)e of flow giving tbe lrrger value of/ is the one
-I "lF ^al- F
that prevails. This means that the flow should be sssumed to b€
?"rt
'rr
i!
-ll.t t
turbuient whenever the Relnolds number ir grest€r tban 2100.
trt is probably safe, for design in the critical region, to use values
g' of / corresponding to an ly'a of 3000.
li.o
I 4 t> Exlurr,r 1. Compute the pressure drop in pouudr per square inch
3;-i per 10@ ft of pipe ond ihe horsepower loet il pipe friction when 0,5 cfs
of oude oil (sp gr 0.86, /: 0.0001 eq ft per rec) ie pumped througb
level 4-in. nerv csst-iron pipe.
.tJ si
Solt.Jior. From page 191, l: 0.00085. Hencs D/,t = 392. Y:
6.73 ft per Bec. ,lIr: 19,100. Interpoletitrg betwe€r Dft curver in
Fig. 98, /: 0.031. Hence
3i
a7 )ir: 0.031 X 3000 X 0.51 : 47.4 ft oI oil - 17.? lb p€t Bg iD-
t
d'I g'. !q Dp:0.5X 63.7 X a7.a/550 - 2.3
-1i: F Exlldpra 2, Wlat ie the discharge copecity of l0&iu. wood-otqvs
,l:.s c pipo of best quslity c&!ryiDg w&i€r at 60" F with s loss of bead of 8 ft
+ -l- por rnile?
E
Sotrulioa. D/k= 9/0.0006: 15,000. rVn is evideutly lerge, hcaoc
iit;1. from Fig.98, dtimsted / - O.Al2. L/D - 587. HsDco,
l9
ri iI
0,. '9
5
'c V'/zc
8= 0.012X 687 X V'/2s
: l.l3S, 7 : 8.56, aod Nr - 0,300,000.
l-rs
!r d
A clooer value of / of 0.0115 could be used. Recomputiug.
Yt/2s = 1.193, V : 8.72, ,{ : 63.6, and Q : 554 .1u.
E Exeurr,p 3. Whet sizo of dteel pipe ghould be installed to catrv
$999$3ggg 6m,0m gpd ol a heavy. fuel oil at ?5" F a distence of I mi.le with ai
ellowable pipe friction loss of 50 lb per eq in.?
Sordiofl. Frbm p&ge 10, 8p gr: 0.906, r,: 0.00135 eq ft per soo.
Q = O.774 cls, fu : 127 ft ol oit.
To obtain an idea of whether the flow ig turbulent or laminar, a€8urno
I norm&l economical velocity, such as 5It per eec. Th€! i{ : e/y
-
 194 l'll'l',itt
0.155 sq ft, D = 0"145 ft, end 'lv/t: 1050, indicoting laminar fiow'
From equation 15, ?r = 0.0550, and D : 0 484 fi' Use 6-in pipe'
Ctuck: A : 0.196 sq ft, y: 3.95ftpersec, V2/29:0'242ft', Nn-
1460, and /: 64/Na = 0.044.
hr: 0.044 X 10,560 X 0.242 = 112 ft of oil : 44 lb per sq in'
PROBLEMS
t. A 4-in. Des 8t€el pipe carrieg 25O gpm of a heavy fuel oil at t
t€mperature of 80'F. Determine the pipe friction loss in pounds per
aquare inch per mile of PiPe.
8. With the seme oil and the eame friction loee as in problem 1, what
would be the capacity ol &:in. new stcel pipe, in gallone per minute?
3. A horizontal &in. new steel pipe carries 600,000 gpd of a medium
fuel oil 8t r temp€raturc of 40" F. Determine the preesuro drop ia
oounds oer square iDch per l00O ft of pipe'
f. Itihe t€mp€rsture of the oil in problem 3 increased to 90o F,
determine in gallons per day the discharge capecity of the in' pipo
s'ith the some pressure drop
6. Determine the discharge in gallone per minut€ of a new lfin.
caet-iron pipe if the friction loss is 5 lb per sq in. per 1000 ft &Dd tho
liquid ie: (o) wet€r at 60" F; (D) a heevy fuel oil at 60" F'
0. A oew ,!in. cast-iron pipe cardea wat€r &t a velocity of 3 ft per 8ec'
Determine the loss of head in feet per 1000 ft oI pipe when the tcmpera-
ture of the wat€r is (o) a0' F; (b) 100'F; (c) 200' F.
?. Compute the difference in horeepower lost in pipe friction in prrte
(o) aod (c) of problem 6. What horsepower applied in the form of heat
would be required to rgise the tempersture of the atream continuouely'
from 40" to 200" F? (Note: ??8 ft-lb of energy is the mechauical
equivalent of I Btu, which ia the average smount of heat required. to
raige I lb of water l' F.)
8. Whet Bize ol brsss pipe would be required lo carry staudard gare
line at 80' F ot a velocity of 10 ft per sec with s loss of hesd of 15 It p€E
r00 fr?
9. In pumping 14fi) gpm of a hervy fuel oil through new steel pipe
at a ietnpersture of 90" F, a pipe friction loss of 30 lb per sq in. per 10(X)
fi is not to be exceeded. What diameter of pipe (to the nearest inch)
rhould !e used? With thet diamet€r, what horacpower per 1000 ft
will be required to overcome friction?
10. Determine the pumping horsepower required to overcome pipo
friction in 50 mileg of 2Gin' new 8t€€l pipe through which 9,000,000 Cpd
of Basoline st 50' F are being pumped.
11. Points .l{ rud I are 3500 ft rpart along a Gin. new ateel pipe. B
-
io 80 f t higher than A. With a fl ow from rl to I of 700 gpra of a oediurn
l"
llyl)ltAl,t,t(i (;ITADIIiNT AND l,iNl,itr(ty (ittAt)IltN.I 106
fuel oil ut (i0" Ir, what pressure in pounds per equare ioch muet be
meintained ot.4 if the pressure at B is to bo 50 lb per sq in.?
12. If the roughness of the pipe in problem 11 incresses l0 per cent
of its original value each year, what per cent oI increase iu th" oi"urrury
prcssure &t .4 can be expected alter ten years of service?
13. lYhat ig the maximum velocity of flow in feei per second of: (c)
water, (6) heavy fuel oil, (c) air, ai a temperature of 6g. tr, in a l2-iu.
pipe if the flow is to be lominar? Assume ihe air to be flowiug ai
standard atmospheric pressure.
14. What diameter of glass tube 5 ft long will convey 1.0 gpi of
c&stor oil &t 50'F with a pressure-head drop of 10 iu. of oil? (r:
0.027 sq ft per aec.).
L6. An oil with a specific gravity of 0.902 flows through a 4.O.ft
length-of |-in. glass tubing with s head loss of 6.5 in. of oil. The
measured discharge is 0.405 lb in 5,0 min. Determiue the viscosity of
the oil in poisee.
16. lvater at 180'F is piped through 2-in. golvanized iron pipe.
What will bc the frictional loss in pounds per square inch per 100 it of
pipe when the ffow is 150 gpm?
17. I'}oints .4 and B are 4 milcs apart along a 120_in. riveted-eleel
pipe of the best grade of smoothness. .4 is 350 it higher than B. With
waier at 60' I flowing from ,{ to B, the pressure head in the pipe at .I
is 20 ft, and at B is 340ft, Compute the capacity of the pipe.
18. If the roughness of thc pipe in problem lZ became the worst gra.de
for riveted 6tecl in$tcad of the best, what per r"ent reducti^-l io ce;c.tv
could be expectcd for the same prcesure-head con,Jiti, ns?
100. Wetted Perimeter and Hytkaulic Radius. The wetted
perimeter P of any conduit is the line of intersection of its wetted
surface rvith n cross-scctional plane. Thus fora circular pipe ffow_
ing full, D bcing the diameter, the wetted perirneter is equal to tho
circumference, or zrD; if flowing half full it is |rD.
The hydraulic radius 1? of a conduit is the area of cross section
of the strcam which it carries divided by the wetted perimeier of
the section. Iror a circular conduit flowing either full or half full
the hydraulic radius is D,/4. All formulas for loss of head due to
'friction iuvolve either the diameter or the hydraulic redius. It
has usually been found more convenient to write D directly into
pipe formulas than to use the hydraulic radius.
' 101. Hydraulic Gradient and Energy Graalient. Loss
of head
in strsight pipe flow is illustrated graphicaUy in Fig. 99, in which s,re
ehown two lines designated respectively the bydraulic gradient
 r )lIl l,ita I'Il,l, I'I)nMl]t,^rr t$7
196 I'IPDE
thc Irytlrrrrlil r.rr,rlirrs in place of thc rlirlrrrcl,rrr. flrun thc relatiorr
and the energy gr&die;lt. The formcr is rkiirrctl by the locus of
elevations to which liquid rises in successivc piczomeier tubes, and V = (Ct X4t) R/S.
is thus a graphical representation, with respect to ary selected
datqm, of the potential (pressure f elevation) head or energy Or, substitutiag Ctt for (Ct X 4/), the base formula for velocity
whidh the liquid possesses at all sections of the pipe. of flow ia pipes is obtaiaed
The energy gradient is above the hydraulic gradient a distence V : g,tpugz (28)
equal to the velocity head at each section, and is thus a graphical
representation, with respect tq the selected datum, of the total Formulas for flow in pipes are commonly written in any one of
head or energy possessed by the liquid. the three forms expressed by equations 5, 27, and 28. T[ey are
generally applicable to all fluids. The nurnerical values of coeffi-
r cients and exponents must, be determined from experinental data.
103. The Chezy Formula. The Da.rcy-Weisbach formula can
be put in the form of equation 28 by substituting S lor h1/L and
4R Ior D. Thus, from equation 7,

v : l-;[2"x \/4R x /S: !'7l%VEB

-
Subsl,rtutiag a coefficient C for J-Ag/1,
Fro. 99. Frictional loss in PiPe' V: C \FS (2e)

102. Alternate Fonns of Pipe Formulas. The base formula This formula for velocity of flow in terms of the hydraulic radius
(equation 5) for loss of head in pipe flow of a conduit and slope of the energy gradient is called the Chezy
(pronounced Shay-zee) formula. The Chezy coefficient C is a

u: xftv" (5) function of the Bame variables es the Darcy-Weisbach coefficient

/, and the Chezy formula is therefcre subject to the sa,me defects
as noted in Art. 96 for the Darcy-Weisbach formula. Tables of
gives the loss of head hy which occurs in length.L of the pipeWith
empirical values of C or J are n€cessary Icr its use.
ieference to Fig. 99 it is seen that th e rutio h1 / L is the slope of the
104. Other Pipe Formulas. Many exoerlrnents a,re available on
energy gradient, denoted by S, which thus reprcsents the loss of the flow of water in pipes and open channels r;L'hich cover a wide
heaJin ieet per foot of pipe. By substituting S f or fu/L, equafion' range of conditions and which form the basis cf a large m;nber of
5 may be transposed to the form empirical formulas. fn each investigation of these experiments
it has been the aim to secure a formula il which the coefficient
v : (|)''" o^'"s''" (26) would hnve a minimum range of variation and particularly one in
which the coefrcient would, so far as practicable, be a function of
or, substituting C'ior (l/K)Lt",ylor m/n,url.d'zfor 1/n, ' the degree of roughness of the condrlit surfaces and uot a function
of .B and 8. It has not been found possible, however, to secure
v - CtDtS @) any formula that more than roughly approximates these conditions.
The most satisfactory formulas have been of the fomr of equations
This equation expresses the velocity of flow in terms of the diam'
5, 27, ot %3 with values of exponents which in the opinion of the
etcr D oflhe pipe and slope S of the enerry gradient. Introducing
108 l'tl'li)ll ( I':tt ,'n'[: llottM t,AS I tl)

investigators have appeared to c<trrr*ilxrttrl lx:st with tho lvailnblo ff exporentr corrlrl lrt: gelectcd agrceing Jrcrftr:l,ly wil,lr tlru frr.ctn, thc
vdue of C1 woul(l dcl)end upon the roughness orrly, tnrl for tny giveo
experimenLs.
^The degree of roughness Cr would then be s constant, It is not possibie
fo.^ulat given in the following pn'ragraphs are intended ior to
use only with water at temperatures less than cbout 75"
F' For rcach this actually, because the va,lues of the exponents vcry *itt
din"._
ent surfaces, and also their values may not be exactly the same for lerge
problems involving the flow of warmer w&t€r and of other fluids, diameters and for small ones, nor for steep slopes and for flat ooe-s.
ihe Darcy-Weisbach fot*ul" with coefficients obtained by tho Exponents can be selecied, however, representin! approximately
aver_
method described in Art. 99 shouid be employed' In the ordiuary age conditions, so that the value of C1 for a given condition of su.face
problems in hydraulic engireering which deat with n&tural wat€r€ will vary so little as to be practically const&Dt. . . ,
prefer-
ihe choice of formula is to a }arge exirnt a matter of personal
enie. Condiderations of comparative simplicity or oi convenienco Vturs ol o to Bn Uepo vlarr fgE MaNNrNo Fo*laor^ '
- expediency may detennine
or the chnice'
ts Variation Use in Designing
ii. tw*ntng formul.a one of the best-known open-channol Khd oI Pipe
fomrulss (Art. iZZ;, and it, is quite commonly used for pipes' In From To Froro To
the form of equation 28 the \{anning formula is Brass aod glass pipe.
Aibe6i.s-cement, pip€
.0r009 0.013 0.009 0.0r I
1'486 .010 .012
Ir : 4tgx (30) Wrougbt-iron aad welded-steel pipe. .010 .014 .011 .013
n Wood-oteve pipe. .010 .014 .011 .013
Cleau cast-iron pipe.
in which z is a roughness coeflfrcient' It is more conveoiently C,oncret€ pipe .
.010
.010
.015
.017
.011 .013

epplied to pipes in the form of equotion 27: verysraooth....,... .011 .0t2

" wet Dix," 6t€el forrlrd .o12 .014
Y -9j4 Pxsu (3r) "dry Eir," rough fornra.......... .0r5 .016
I v/iih muth joints . .0r6 .017
Common-oLay dninage tile. ......... .011 .017
obtained by substituting D/4 for R. Transposed to the form of Viirified sewer pipe. .010 .017
.012
.0r3
.01.1
.015
equation 5, the Ms,nning formut b Riveted-eteel pipe... .013 .017 .0r5 .017
,,,, Dirty or tuberculat€d castiron pipe . . .ol5 .035
b:2.87n2"fr (32) Corrugated-iron pipe. o2{) .o22

The coefficient n increases with the degree of roughness of the The exponents in ihe formula used wero .rrlected a"s representing a6
fn" table on page 199 contains typical vslues of tl ueorly ae possible average conditions, ss ded:l"cd from tbe best availeble
"ooJ"it. for water flowing in pipes'
-.-'iln*-W;tlioms
recommended
tcccrda of experimeuis upon the flow of walcr il guch pipes and channele
aa moat frequently occur in waterworkr preetice.
lorm nbax been used extensiveb for de'
.igoiog-t"ot""o"pply systems in the United States' Written in The following table contains values of C1 recommended by tho
if," fofo equation 28, the Hazen-Williams formula is authors of the formula for flow of water !:r pipes.
"f
I/ : I.3l8Cr Ro 63S0 5a (33)
pipea and
DDacRrr4roN o! hpE V.rl,ur or C1
This formulr was designeil for the flow of water in both Extrcmely smooth and strsight 140
o* but is ;ed more commonly for pipes' The follow- Very smooth 130
"n-""1"
in8 iB written by the authorsr of the formuls: Emooi,h woodeu or wood si,svo r20
li New rivet€d st€el ll0
rG. g. Willirbr sld ,L Ealetr, Evdradit fablrg, Sd ed'' Jobo Wiley Vitrified tr0
go!!, l93il.
 t'It'I,:tt
PIPA DIAGRAMS
For estimating dischargcs of ltipo linrrc wlttrro thc ctrying !o
c&pl!c'
it',, uft". u series- of years ia tho cont'rolling foctor, values of Cl - &
idO fo, pipe and Cr:95 for riveted steel &re rccom- @

**a"i. "ust-itoo
l'." tft"imaller sizes of pipes a sonewhat lower valuo -of 60
ol
C, rfr""fa m used. For olri iron pipes in bad co-ndition'
C1 =80
* OO, for snall pipes badly tuberculated, C1 may be as low 30
"ta
lO. O" the other hand it is claimed ihat a"sbestos-cement
"r
pipe has retained a value of C1 of about 140 a'fter many
ye&rs b
of service, t6

Since the Manning and Hazen-Williarns formulas

have exponento
l0
dlfrering lut little i; their respective values, the range in variation
is practically the sane lu bottr fornulas
tho .l
oiit uli"oum"i""ts
extent to which the coefficient varies rvith velocity and diameter II ul
il small, and in this respect they possess a m&rked :l
"ornouruliu"ty formula' T
--rdi, orrer the Darcy-Wcjsbach
advaniage
of problems on fow-.of ,l
fip" Diagrams' The solutiou { zol
of graphs called pipe dia"
*ut", in pip., is-facilitated by the use
f
t il
t00 and l0l'
erams, lwo'types of which are shorm in Figs .
" ;il; 100"; plotting on logarithmic paper of the variation of
"
Jf head vith discharge lor a range of pipe diameters
.6Ol".
loss
from 3-to
* Uv the Manning formula vzith a value of zr of 0'u11'
ei"""
Similar diagrams iould be drarvn for other values of
a'
"'ii; per 1000 ft' aud
0t
,b".itrs represent 'h1, loss of head in feet 05
tfr" ,"pre""tt discharge in cubic feet per second' tho
".ai"tt"" up to the right represent pipe diameters. in" incheal
n*. ;;;;c at
ti"* .f.oitig do,vn to the right represent velocities in feet p€r qr6
rire knowa' the othor
.""""a. tn"t., if any trvo of these quantities
two
"
can be read directly from the diagram'
"ri*"t"'rot shows a pipe diagram of the straight-line type basod
onl-h'e Hazen-Wiltiams formula tuith Cr = l2O'
The four quanti'
olGtosor*ffi
ties
- clischarge,
loss of head, diameter, and velocity
that the
- are repre'
corresponding
l" linei so spaced and graduated Flq. t(x). Ftow of *ater il pipeg by Mauiug fonDuL with a
""*"a f""t quantities lie in a straiglrt transverse ling' Jhus = O.0ll.
"ni""t "fift"
it unu trro of ,tt" quanl itics are known, a straighl edge
joining theae
her t$ o lines at the values giveu by
t*o poi.tt will intersect the ol
the formula.

Ex,lnpr,p 1. lVhat is the loss of head in 5000 fi of 12-in'

pipe carrying
3 cfs?
horizontol line repra
Soiutionba Manning Diagram Follow along the

',mm,gffiitrfiffff*ff
 II)8N OF HEAD DUSi m coNTtrrr(;noN 20s
ia 1.,0. I{}0ste ot the bottom a lose of 1.9
fi por 1000 ft. Follow
vsrfi-
cslly to interse.i rhe
left r"r,ti.. "
BO-in. rliarnete,
vorue 4f 22 4Iq
tir" fl"" i"rr"" r,*r'i"rl"if""
R" Ha?n-'/ilthqs Wgrum _
e 19 "1"
70oo @ or pipe diagrams a number
34
6000
48
"T.H;*ililt'il;:l'!o";:*ro"'"ans
5000 l(ts. Minor f,osses. In discussing loss of head
12 - due to pipe fric_
tion (Art. 97) it was ehom that, other things
U"i"g ot
head varies as the velociry raised to "qoJl,-fo*
buleat flow, usualiy is lessihan i "";;;";;;#;,i.'ffi;_
zc
26
r*lr*$Jx'fr iiH":f *i;h-#ilffi*"t,T
head, the value of coefficient to be apptiecl
24
.6
wir.hrrhe velocity, but the range of tful,
to th"-f;;;;;ls
?2
I ,r"r1l* t .i-?r"frlfv
a
t6- .9 T" a eimilar maaner it has
been found that minor losses varv
! t6- 2z- roughly as the square of the velocity, ,"a
tn"y corffi" ?j_
t o
B 9 ptessed by appgng variabte coeftc-ienrs
to tri- "* ,;r"atl"Ji,ll,
t t4-
4 t.a ueing nomenclature given ia Art. vq
E lz.
6d
i
tg
I
too t0
+ J
I t: -"r n"'= x"fi, n" = *.#, n" = *,#, *,
o
a c
9
whcro the aubscripts c-, e, and D
^- *Y
E a 6
t- 9, denoto contraction,
ealargement.
.9
8o

A
.2
7
;
LO
6 l: gata, or bend, snd rcfer to the
source of ru
dir.ection of velocity which gives rise "U"gu'io
to trr" r*"
an?,ii1j
.r"""i#"*" "'
.6
e 6 1.3 rn ge}\erst, the loss occurs in the eddyiag
1 which is sei*up at the
Eourco of the loe6 and which is supenmpoced
on tho normal tur_
.6 5 flow. Thia eddying takes pr_*-_*U" jrffiril-
.5
.ol3f
lI,oE_ ito :f
Bource and decresses gradually
unti.l,
b P dtol"t"o, the noraat i*url**liltoi;;ffi";i "t;d";;";;
again established.
llc loss thereforo occurs not ot but in the vicinity of the
source.
eostly- dov:rstream. fn measuring mfr",
i*"* fi'" ,*-#S?

&
ilru:"y**,::LTf, fl .#trS.tn*tiffi
O$:y1rc, the entire loss may not be included.
t! 1ol. f,oes. o{-Eead Due to ContractioD" The
behavior of the
6 pory qd hydnulic gradiente in tUo vicinitf ot"i*jdi;'#
traction in a pipo io hdicerod in Fig.
50
rou. m.i*t ff #iJ
.I I t *. ,. ,.u.tt, pldn vdi s{Pdiq' Fotr.l "r"i*"
n oii',dw o6n;on h^ , fi,!"Tf.ff'r"L" n t"ro.
"""",
llazen-Williams formula with Cr -
l,D'
fro. tol. trlow of wrtet in pipee by
 PIPAS

of tho gradlentr botweon IO88 OF HEAD DUE TO CONTNACTION

in the larger pipe is indicated by the stopo the bvdraulic
1t6
;#-lLT I-"iJ u. r.tt" u to / t'tt" location ofgradieut before and after contraction becomes
:;;;";;;#"".nt for difrerent puth litt*' The shown
pipe
along tho , Vrz nVz
flf#I"'.l;;;;;il"iav lji"shown
""i"ti"'
of pressure Pr
h"
J;: ;il il;;;;rs i'e tuut, between b and / for tho rcason u29 ;+ 2s + (34)
ffJ rh";#;;pi"^-"tu. *hich is set flurh with the pipe
'-"".tt* ptuoot" at the wall but does not necesssrily _.
the_ loy. of head due to contnction expressed as a fUnction of
-Ji ibu the velocity head is
at points in the same cross section at somo
;#;";;;;; lr2
;;;;; il; the wall. In snooth straight pipea the difrorence n"- u"a (35)
in K" is an empirical coefficient, and I is the
thich velocity in tho
tmaller pipe. The table gives experimental ,"1;-;" C i;
sudden contraction

V,rr,urs or rso CoarrrcrsNt K" ron Ssoopla

Connr,ctron
Velocity in Ratio of Smaller to Larger Dameter
Smaller Pipe,
v 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.0
2 0.49 0.49 0.48 0.45 o.42 0.3t 0.28
6
0. 18 0.07 0.03
.48 .48 .47 .44
10 .46 .45 .43
.41
.40
.37 .28 t8 .09 .$
Iro. 102. SuddeD coDtrociioa itr pipo'
n .44 .43 .42 . rtO .37 .33
.28
.27
18
19
.10
.11
.0{
.06
40 .3Ii .36 .3il .31 .m .25 m .13 .00
between pressures at the wall and interior points i nrobeblV
lot
grest, bui it may be quite large near sections wher€ chs'ng€c ln Ptoblem. Dptermine the loss of hesd due
to eudden contraction
*: "udd:,ry..h";;;l;. l'
jr"lL"i,'lffi lf e
""iiililt
dioneter ocsur.
following the contraction there is a resiog 1t d
llT (6) 12 in. to. 6 io., 1c) ui in. to ? in" -
6 ia._",1lyl-.._r:o- li',,,1'tto
Ab";;r";#;t:ffi.ft;
ta preseure
;"d";;J;;** sidLr to that described in t'he stondard rhort rcaulting from these cbanger.
"f
t"l"-iltu iel. As the fluid exPan'Ig to fill the smoller pipo at o If the change to a smaller diameter tek€s place grsduallv.
as in
*t" tfu*.lightly. From e to/ the drop in hydraulic and a uaiformly tapering section, if th";;;;;;;ril#ilil;
"I*.-*
**ai*t" i. iu."a by both pipe friction and lhu .*pu*: ".
Lre roulded so aa to reduce contracuons,
values of ff" will be much
"."t:o-
r*"Tf&" due to eddies set up by the contrsction and zubsequont smsller than thoee given for a sudden
;i;.;;";;
inl,argement. Beyond / whele normal turbulence i8 t€stot€d the *" is made. as gradualty as i" ""d*d";
9: :F connection V""ir.i-o';;;r;;l"li:
nva*tf" and Lnergy gradients indicates the rgt€ of lot! mouth between the two pipes " is used, K"
;;;-#;;
"ilp"'.i so small as to be practically negligible.
- to piPe friction
due onlY'
ff tft" .o"tgy gtoaienli between a and b is extended downgtrear . The_ loss of head at eotrance"to pip"s is a special
case of loes of
to tUe tine C? *ftlu the energy gradient between / ahd g i8 9'' hesd dueto contraction. If the bod'v *rtj. il"ilrrr"
t""JJ tp"t*r- to C-C, the loss in head caused by the contrsotion tions conform approximately to a raiio"f
di"."t""t;;:;; "Hal]
b; ti be [". If the entire change in pressule, velocitn aod tor a, squsre{omered entrance. wherc "f
the ;i ; il; il;ffi;
toisf h€ads is pictured as occurring * C-4, lhe enerry equrtioo with a.wall having a plane eurface, the
values of f"'a;;;;;ffi
with the values for 0.0 ratio in the precediag
table.

to- a
Since the first two or three diameters of a pipo aro eimilf,r
co-neidertd-to be
uUlJ t rU", entrance losses for pipes are usually-
in".r-" r" for short tubes. 'fhe general forrnuh for lmg of hosd
.at ontrance to a pipe is, by equation 16, page 124'
II)I+I 0T HEAD DUE TO I,iNI,AIIOf,MUNT
probably cloeer to tho larger valuo of tho 20 to 60 diimstors moa-
tioned ln Art. 106.
If norrnal turbulence is established by the time the stream rcache8
pierometer, &nd the energr gradient from / to g i8 extended bsck-
ward to the line .0*{, the loss in head caused by the enlergemont

G+-')H =""x
hc= (36)

in which the coefficient of velocity, Co, depends for ifii value upon
the conditions &t entrance, and K" = (l/C"z) - l For conven-
ience of reference, values of C" a.nd K", given in Chapter VI' a're
repeet€d in the following table'

V^t oEa or rEE CoErrIctENl K" rca DDlEBtrDnNs I.068

or IID,{D Ar ENT&INcE to PtPEa
Entrsnce to Pipe r.. . tr:o. 108. guddea edbrgeroent in pipe.

Inword ptoiecting AJr.17 0.8

Ltb.73 0.5 i8 [.. Again picturing the entire c]range as occurring at s€otion\
Squate corneled .
Elighrly rounded. 0.2 E-E the energr equation before and after the enloigeroent beoono
0.1
Bell mouth p.vz pr vrt ,
(87)
;t ?a--+6-+^.
Since the efrect of entrance conditions cannot be determined
accuretely the sglection of a proper velue of'K" is to ebmg extgnt Tbe loeE of heed due to sudden enlargement, illustrotcd in t.hc
o matter of judgment. Unless the entmnce is known'to be other 6gun by tbe drop [. in the energr gradient, expreesed as a fulo.
tlnn square'comered, a value of 0.5 is eommonly used tioa of the velocity head, agaia in tbe smaller pipe, is
108, Loss of l{ead Due to Enlsrgemeot. The behavior of the l12
energr end hydraulic gradients in the vicinity of a sudden enlarge' n. - (r8)
meniin a pip; is indicated in Fig. 103. Again the slope of hydraulic
r€presents the rato
",4,
and energy iradients between piezometers irand b
Archert has ehow! from an iavestigation of his own oxporinotrta
of loss of-hiad in the approach pipe' The hyd'aulie grodient im- aud ths €reerimetrts of othen thgt for wator [. ia quite acclrntaly
'mediately preceding rnd following r'he onl*rgernent followa apploxi'
t"PtBut€d by th6 equstion
urately the lino shown- As the streern expands to fill tbe larger (V
pioe ihe velocity head decresses and thers is an incr€ase in the [. = r.t0 '' - V )t'ez (40)
2q
pressure heed, the &mount of the increese depending on t'he lcs llm equationa 38 and 39,
of h""d ," well &s on the decrease in velocity head'
In general, with an enlarging croes sectidq and a reduction of
velocity th" eddying which is set up is much more extensive than
r. - y"*,rll [r - (il''" (to)
with s coniraction of cross section end an increase of velocity' It lW. E. Arobc,'L6 of gsd Ds. to Eolrts@Dta
ie therefore even more inportant with an enlargement to exteurd ir Pfpr,r fru+
the study of the gradients a comiderable distance downstrea'ro,
An 8(r. Cb &Vrt, vol. ?6, 1018.
 I.o8tl Oli' lIlrAD DUE m OB8TRUC:TIONS ru
D/D1 beiag tho rotio of the maller to ths lorger diameto, Tbe for very emdl anglee. Experimental valu€s of K. have not been
following value of K. are computed lrom equatioa 4O. well determined for gradual enlargements, but those given in the
Ver,un or rt! CoDtttctrNT K. ron SsuoDlr.Err.esolr@rr table on page 208 are the approximate meon of such dato as ore
availsble. There are not sufrcient experiments to deteruine tho
Velooily i! nrtio of gtbrUsr to L8rgar Diseoter variation with the velocity.
9oallot pipo 109. Loss ol Eead Due to Obetnrctions. Gates or valves rrhen
v 0.0 0.r 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.6 0.0 0.7 0.8 0.0 partielly closed obstruct the flow and cause a loss of head in addi-
2 1.0 1.0 0.96 0.86 o.74 0.00 o.4 0.20 0. 16 0.(x tion to the loss due to friction. If a pipe has ihe same diamet€r
5 0.96 0.96 .89 .g) .09 .65 .4r .n .14 .u on both sides of the obstruction, the hydraulic gradient and thd
l0 .01 .89 .84 .76 .05 .62 .39 .8 .13 .04 energr gradient drop the same amount, end eoch theroforc indi_
m .86 .a .s .72 .02 .t0 .n '. .12 .(x cates the loss of hesd. Following the fom used for oiher loesea,
{o .81 .80 .76 .08 .68 .4t .35 .22 .11 .G
the loss of head in pipes due to gates, valves, or other obstnrctionr
Problem- Det€rmiqe the loss of head dus to tbe audden eolarge- is written
ment if a pipe csrtying 2.0 cfs auddenly chaagee from a diameter of: rt2
(o) 6 in. to I in., (D) 6 iu. to 12 in., and (c) 0 in. to l8 in. Aloo de- no: Kok (41)
termine ths difrereme in prceue roaulti'g fr,om theae changee.
7 being the mean velocity in the pipe. Valuee of K, as determined
The loee at eubmerged diecbarge from s pip€ into e rsrcrvoir is by Corp and Ruble for varioue heights of opening cif gate valvee
I special cas€ of loss of head due'to enlargement in which the rotio with nominal diameters from ! to 12 in. are given in the table
of smsllsr to larger diametet is proctically lero. Experimente at below. The valuo of Ko decreases with increase in ratio d/D of
the University of Michigan indicete that Archer's formuLo holds opening and in eiro of valve. Slightly open gate valves showed
quite &ccur&t€ly in the limit where 71 is ,ero. Valu€s of K. for
equarecornered exit may therefore be taken from the 0.0 ratio Loa6 or II!^D DgD ro CarE V,.nvrs
col"r"n of the preceding teble. Since these values arc near{y
unity for the ordinary velocitiea elrcountercd in pipea; it ie con- Ysluesof&in4=&#
Dody coDsider€d that the entire velocity heod ie loet.
Norninal R.etio of Ileight d of Valve Opening
Veluza or rsr CorracreNr (. rol Gaelurl, Ent:raotlerT DiBrnet€r to Diemeter D of Full Valve Opeaing
of Valve,

-.Anglo ot CoD€
Rstio of &$Udr io Iarf,or Dia,Bot r Inches x % % % % I
o-1 o,2 0.3 0.4 0.6 0.0 o.7 0.8 0.0 % 450 00 1l 2.2 1.0
% 3r0 N t2 6.4 1.1 o.2g
0.u 0.(N 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.0{ 0.0:t o. 020.01 I 2n 9.0
.10 .16 .16 .10 .16 .15 . .13 .t0 .00
a2 4.1 0.90 o.B
L% 170 7.2 3.3 0.76 0.18
30p .10 .40 .{8 .ta .18 .1t .37 .r0 llo m 6.5 3.0 o.08 0.16
,u .63 .Gt .@ .60 .55 .49 .38 .n 4 s2 l6 5.5 2.6 0.55
00" .n .72 .71 .70 .af .62 .54 .43 . 0 73 14 5.3 2.4 0.49
.0.14
0. t2
8 66 13 6.2 2.3 0.46 0.10
Tirc lm of head due to €nlory€m€nt moy bo reduced by oh.'rging t2 66 12 6.1 2.2 o.4:2 0.0t
the dia,meter graduelly, for rioical trangitionr the loes of fui Souoo: Co_rp rd Rublo, Vni]I{'.itf d Wi&rlld,n Blc/6i,nr ad,
decreases with the rate o{ diverg@cg aod it is pnctically aegligible -
O No. l, 1@. '//.0it(5dl9
 rlo PIPBE PIPI0 DISCHARCINO FROM N&8I'I[VOIN 2I1

yerv hich valuee of Ke. Even wben the valvo ie wide open Loeees of h€sd in 45' bends ar€ uarrally. about 60 per cent lees
and causd
<iJb -"1, the volve seat obetructs the flow slightlv snd in 180" bends about 25 per cent groater than in 90'bends.
--iio,-Lo
eome l$E of head' It has also been shownl that for a given bend and a given mte of
of Head Due to Bends. Bende or curvee in pipes flow the loss of head may be large or small depending on the dir
occur in an equal
cs; a lo88 of hetd in excess of that which worldcenter the pipo
tribution of velocitie.s in the approach pipe. TVhen the velocity
h*tt"i atraight pipe. The velocity &t near theofpipe
the
walls
in the approach pipe ras high toward the inner side of the bend a,nd
ttie fend Ueing greater than thet low toward the outer side, the loas of head wae found to be two to
""i*"ftio*
Hrl" it "1oit"fi"g of the flow in the bend and the formation of four times as much as for the same bend with normal distribution of
boforo velocity in the approach pipe. With high velocity toward the anter
JA* *fti"ft -w p"*ist as far as 60 diameters doYtnstreom
aiitmti"i of velocities is restored' Ag with contractiou eide of the bend and low velocity toward the inner sido the l6s
"""-rf
,"a Jtg"-*t, therefore, o large part of tho loes of head oscurE may be even less than with nornrl distribution.
*Th;-i;;"i from the bend itself'
dowastresm
of that which would
l"ta
au" to a bend, in excess
occur in c str8ight pipe of equal length, is usrrally expresssd aa a
iunction of the velocity head in the pipe, that i8'

K,E (421

and co-nfliot-
Although teat daie on bend losses are fragmentary
r""]il" -?ii"fr"lle tests hdicate that the valueof pipe coefficient
of the
axie r' to
iil n"ti"t *,f, the ratio of radius of curvature
at"-Jt p, *th the roughnens of the surface in the bend' and Fro. lM. Pipe dieehargirg lroo roservoir.
"*'fiIi" n"*.ira" number' If tho
"il" flow is turbulent' tho efrec!
n""t"lds'number ie thought not to be of
il practiel Ut. Pipe Dischargtng from Resewoh. Figuro 104 shows condi-
"i*i"ir"-t
importance, and in that case Xl is a function
of tho ratlo r'lt,l &no tions of fow in a pipe of uniform dia,meter leeding from o reservoir
and discharging into air, If there were no frictional losses the
of the roughness of the bend'
"'vJ""t-"'i rl f"t 90' smooth pipe bends, as determined by Beiir velocity of discharge would be V : JzgF, the same as the theo-
for variour vslues of r/D, are as follows: retical velocity from an orifice. In any long pipe or syetem of
pipea, however, by lar the greeter poriion of the total head Il iB
rlD I(r
ueed in overcoming friction.
I 036
If there is no chonge in the diameter of a pipe, the difierence in
2 .19
4 .18 heigbt of columns in piezometer tubes at any two sections meeaur€B
6 '?'2 the loss of hesd due to pipe friction betrveen those sections. fn
10 '32 Fig. 104 the lms of head between sections at zr end n b h^ - h".
15 .38
In the entire length of the pipe the loss of head due to pipe friction
n .u2
is lr1. T'here is also a loss of head i" due to contraction at the en-
the gbove valuc' trance and indicated by a dmp in the energr gradient at /. The
Values of KD for rough bends may be double
I Flxil Floo ir st Pipc Bulelu ot gtrad!* I B, L. Ysrnell end F. A. Nsgler, triow of Wator arouad Bel& il
Pr.t wa latlllt lo " Pipeq"
Ro*:arch PaPer RPrllQ l93ll'
"n&' Irwrc. A* S@, Civil Eigtt., 1936.

\
 t,l t
,t,; ()NNt,j0lINC Two r tFt,Irv()ttt$ 2lB
,t2 PrPI'g
II A;n"
V > , the flow of wator
will bo roetricted, even though
hydraulic gradient drops to a distanco V2/2g below tho 6ners/ all air is exhausted from the pipe, and the hydraulic gradient
gradient. From the 6gure, no loDger be & straight line. It rvilt be straight,
will
to a pott D, which
n =fi+n"+n, (43)
d=
p:--& y6on
is a distance trhe summit M. AtM (assuming
no air in the pipe) the absolute press\rre in the pipe
Thie equetion is in efiect e Btat€ment of the energr theorem con- is the vapor
pres€ure corresponding to the tempera,ture
sidering the hori?ontel cent€r line of the pipe as the detum' (Seo within the pipe, and
this pressure continues on down to ir', th" pip" flo;i;g';;;il,
Art.62.)
full between M and. N. \l'herever the pipe l.-no*i"e f-uli
113. Part of Ptpo above Eyilreulic Gradient, Figure 105 shows
locity_ must necessarily bo the same sin"e tire Aisct
tiul,l
o pipe of uniforrn diameter leading from a reservoir and discharging arg; ;;;;;,
a1f tlrer{ore,
urdsr the head Il. The summit, M, is a distance.y sbove the assuming a unifonn degreo of ilJ;
of hydraulic gradient in such portions must be"oushol;
u""ifo*' l;;ffi
woms, the slope of EC must be the same &s the
slope of BD.
Throughout the distance where the pipe is not fl";;j;U,lh"
hydraulic gmdient, represented by thu U* AA, t" th"
.;";;;i
distance, d, below the water sujace in the pipe. d;;;;;;
the int€rsectioa-of ttre Iine CE, parallel to fA, tf,.',i* EC
r-oe Becuon et,ry wtrere the pipe beginr to flow"ra
frrll is vertically
above .E
The conditions of flow, especially at low velocities, are not
Fro. 106, gumoit in pipo, usueltv
as favorable sa those described above, because .f ifr"
a"i**
streight line BsC but at a lower elevation than the water s'.tr:facs
air to collect &t e summit. Water flowing at low velocities "wii "i
no! air and may even liberate it, aud cause *i. t
in the reeervob. Tbo conditions will be coneide.€d: 6rst - whero -rgmove
at high places such as M. T.he condition will be worse af;;;; "oUeJ
o ao#, and second, whert y ) o#, ," being atmos- pbove the hydraulic gradient if the pipe leaks, since tt
e novemJ
of air will be inward. The occasionai op"oti* oi * ut"
pheric prcosurt ead p, being the vapor preesure conteponding to the summit will then be necessary to remove the sil. A; a,
;ul!;
tho ternpemture of the water in the pipe. mit below the hydraulic gradient, where the pressr-ue ;;hh;.
;;:
Assurno the pipe .{MSC to be empty when wst€r is tumed into pipe is greater than atrnospheric, the air which coUects
it ot .,{r Wet€r wiU first rise to the eummit Jl.t and begin to flow removed through a valve.
cant
towa,rd the depression 8, where it will collect and seal he pipo, . Air at a summit which is at a lower elevation than the *lator
entropping eir between
-Il
Mand 8. Eventually water will discharge sudace'will-not the flow of water entirely Uut wiU cause;
from the outlet d. the velocity is high enough the air entrapped -stop
portion of .the pip6 to flow partially full. Sumoit's in pip"
beiween itr and S will be removed by the fowing waterl otherwise are alw-ays-objectionable, and especially so when they
ii;;
it will remain there and obstruct the flow. Under such circum- ,U;""
"""
the hydraulic gradient. Where summits cannot be avoid"d,;;;i"i
stances the air.ci.n be removed by a zuction pump at the sirmnit. provision should be made for removigg the air which colects. ]
If there is uo air in the pipe and y ao#, assuming the lose of , 113. Pipe Connecting Two Reservohs. Figure 106 illustntes
flow conditions for a pipe of uniforrn air-ut"" *"""ying tiquia
head to be uniform, the hydraulic gradient will be the gtraight line from oue reseryoir to another reservoir at a lower eleva-ti;
Th;
&C and the flow will be the sa,me as thougb all the pipe were
below the hydraulic gradiont

T

liquid eurts with rero velooity in the upper reservoir, has a veloo-
ity 7 in the pipe, and comes to rest in tbe lorver reservoir. All the
enrrp' represented by the difrerence in elevation of liquid surfaces
is utiliz€d in overcoming resistance. The hydraulic gradient and
the onergr gradient are shown ia the figure:
A diritinguishing characteristic of the energy gradient a.s con-
tmsted with the hydraulic gradient is that, except where energr io
eupplied from an outside aouroe, as by a pump (Art. 118), the
energr gradient alwaye slopee downward in the direction of flow,
whereas the hydraulic gradient may alternately rise and fall to
11o. 100. Pip€ coDD€ciing two r€enoii6,
sccord with velocity and ptssure changes, The difrefence in
elevetion between the free eurface in the supply rceervoir and tho
energl gradient above any eectibn repreaents the totel of All lo6s6
in head thet have oocurred down to that section.
In changing from rcro velocity in the resewoir to velocity 7
st the pipo entrsnce, prelsure hiad is cbanged to velocity head,
qtsl ln lP/24, This loss in pressure is illustrod by the drop
from c1 to c2 ia the hydraulic gradient It ig assumed thst therc
ia no loss of head to point g and thereforc no drop in the enerry
gradient. The line alca mrut be consider€d as the hydraulic
gndient of eome particulor path line, such as rg, since points in the
other peth lines which arc the serne horizontal digtsnce from the
€ntra,Irce to the pipe may have different veloeitiea and therefore
difiercnt hydnulic grarJients
It moy appesr that the preasure st qny point g in the stDesm
ghould be thst csused by the weight of lhe liquid column ahove it,
li"big would be true if tho laws of hydmehtice applied. Tho lawo
PrPf CoNNECTINO TWO l{llllltrvolru 316
of hy&oetatice do uot, however, apply to liquid in motion, tho
pr€ssue being lees theu it would be at ths same depth for liquid
rt r"et. Th*t thiu is true bas beeu proved experimentally. It aleo
follows from writing the erergy equetion between s poilt , wh€rt
the velocity ir pr*ctically zero and a point y et the entltnc€ to tho
pipe whe.re the velocity is I/. Assuming the .points to be of the
sa,Eo olwation the equation becomee
-v,2-v2= h"i
^"* ,o h
ot siDce Ys i8 prscticslly ,ero'
V2
h,-E ({r)
The behrvior of energy and hydraulic gradienta innodistely
dowrshes.m from the pipe entrance is similsr to tbefu b€havior rt
a sudden contrsction, as described in Art. 107. The loss of h€ad
in the pipe is reprcsented by the drop lty itr tho €neryf gradieot
Conditiong at the outlet of a pipe with submerg€d disebtrgs a'!o
illustr&t€d to ihe right in Fig. 106. If tbero were no loes of hod
where the liquid enters the r€Beryoir the hydraulic gu'dient world
connect as to e1, the latter point beirlg, V2/2g below the water
su rcs. The distance e1e2 repi€c€Dts the portion of tho volooity
head lost tbrough ehock and turbulence. It ig irlso showl in tho
6gure as h., the drop it the enerry gndient.
-Conditione
in the reaervoir can be illustrat€d by writing t'he
enerry equation between a point s at thq outlet of tho pipowhers
Ue vioatv is % and a point z where th,e'velocity 7"'is pacticr'[y
relo. If the two poiats are at the sa,me elevrtion,
o*X-n"+V+n, (16)
or, 8i[c€ Yi = 0,
n,:n"-fi+n, ({6)
lr,, - i, reprcoentu the portion of the velocity heed whic'h is aot
lost but which is r€coouurt"d ioto ptnssut" heod, es r€pt$6rt€d in
the figure by the portion of the hydrsulic gradient, ezcg.
 PROBLDMS
(Ttre hydraulic and energy gradients ehould be drawn for each prob
lem.)
1. a uew casliron pipe 8 in. in diameter and 100 ft long having o
ghgrp,cornered entrance draws water from a reservoir and diochorgeo
into the air. What is the difrerence in elevation between the w't€r
surfsce in the rcservoir aud the dischorge end oI the pipe if the dischorgo
ie 5.0 cfs.
2. A new cast-iron pipe 12 in. in diameter and l rnile long cerries
water ftom a reservoir and discharges intc the air. If the entrenc€ to
the pipe ia l0 ft below tho water level in the reservoir 'and the pipe ie
lsid otr a doivngrade of 2 ft per 1000 ft, determine the diecharge.
l. A newroast-iron pipe i2 in. in diameter and 100 lt long connects
, tidtrreeervoirs, both ende being sharpcoruered and submerged. De.
termiae the difference in elevation between the water aurfaces in the two
resen'oin if the discharge is tr6.0 cfs.
r[. Wbst diomet€r of Bmooth concrete pipe 300 ft long till be required
to cerry 60 cls betweeu two reeervoirs under a head of 3 ft, botb eudr of
tho pipe being shoip.cornered &nd Eubmerged?
6. A wood-stavs pipe 5O0 ft long is to carry 1(X) cfs across a ravine.
Wet€r olt€rl one end of the pipo from an olen flume, ond diecharges at
the othef end iubo another flume. If the difrerence in elevation between
tbe water surlaces in the flumes is to be 3 ft, detdrmine the neceasary
dismeter ol pife, assurning well-designed tronsitions (K. = 0.1, X, -
0.2) aud neglecting the efrect of velocity in the 0[me*
6. A horizontal corrugated-iron culvert is built through o road em-
bonkmeut, both endr of the pipe being inward-projecting aod submerged,
What head will be required to produce a discharge of 60 cfs if the pipe is
80 ft long and 3.0 ft id diameter?
114. Ptpes of Dlfierent Dianeters Contrected itr Serie8, Figu€
107 ropreseirts s system of pip,es conveying liquid from one reser-
rroir to another. The diameter of pipe BC is less t}an eiiher.r{B
or CD. Assumilg the liquid iB a.t rest in both reservoirs, the
difierence Il in elevation of free surfaces is the total head producing
discharge.- lte lomee of head, as indicated by the dmps in the
ene.r$/ gradient, arc successively: 1",, due to contraction at entrance
at r{; hy, due to friction in pipe 11 i",, due to contractionio srnaller
pipe tt B; h1r, due to friction in pipe 2; 1."r, due to enlargement
to lrrger pipe aX Ci h6 due to frictioi in prpe 3; and io, due to
€nlargement st discharge at D. Therefore
II - h.,t h:"+ h,,+ h61h.,,* h6* hq (47)
PIPES OF DITFEN,&NT DIAMETENA A7
Ths Mraulic gradient is at alt points in the three pipee a dir
ta,\ce /2g below the energy gradient. Wot" tfrat,l"in'"e oinl-2
V2
is smallerlhan pipe t , the velocity head is greater and
the hyd;;uli;
gradient is farther below the energy gradient. With
tnu enf""gc
ment st C, however, the velocity head becomes less. resultinc;
a rise in the hydraulic gradient at that point.
In most hydraulic problems the major pipe friction tms€s ft,-_
h1, ar.d, h1.. in equstion 47) constitute moeCof the total heJ a.
and. the minor losses are frequently so small as to be negligibiel
If tlie pipe length in any problem is about 800 dismetew, d;;;;
rc.ulting from- neglecting minor lmses will ordinarily o"t *.u"A
5 per cett, and if the pipe length is 1000 diameters or more the
z,
!lo. 107. System of pipcs connectiog two reservoire.
effect of minoi losses can usually be considered neslisible.
ff.
however, it is dmired to includeihese l"*d;;rffi;il;" ;;
made first neglecting them and then correcting th" ,*"i;
iaclude them.
;
Figure 108 shows a sirirplified diagram of flow throush a ninc
line of differcnt diameters in series connectinS tu" ;;;t.
Minor losses are neglected and only the hydraulic gradiJii
shown. The flow is-assumed to be continuous a6
common problems of this type arise.
i*o
"t"iay.
l,- Si"€s and lengths of pipes, and e, given; to find total loss
.
head-
of
The loss of head, i7,, h1, and, h1, in each successive size of
nioe
can be determined by formula or diagram. The total f,oa
: ioli'i. -i*
then I{ h1, h6 /ry". The minor losses, ut
* t
largement, contraction, and discharge, can Le computed'and
"otr"n"u.
included if appreciable.
2. Allowable loss of head given, lengths end sizes of pipe given;
 2t8 PIPI)B PROBI.EMS 2IO

. Four different methode of

golutlon of this problom o're Ex.nvpr,s, Roduce 6fi) ft of &in, pipe to an oquivalent
to fi.nat Q. lenlth of
l2'br., rn-elniag tl..;reb1 tli" lrlgth ,l tLi". gii,* ;i;;;;il;;
--iiiioa
outlined. hs-l or 003 i! .f &ir- "fri"f,
Trial sohliatu' Afsumo a Q' Computelocs of head
t
of pip" tv fonnule or di4ram aud add the loes6'
,lltule al; reasouabttr e, euch as t cfe. Bv the Mantdnr
&:lurwn.
t"';-; -.
(" = 0.011) tho loss of heed in &in. pipe i" #fi *.-rOOO fi
ffi"*" *irl ,itil allowable losg and revise Q in proper diroction' $g*p
while.in t2-in. pipe tLe loa: ie 0.5b ft per rifOO
n pot u"tif satisfactory check is obtained' ft. ii"
l€Egth of 12.r. 4 therr,fors: "q"i-"rf*i
Merhail 2: Al4&teic Solu'ti'an' Wlite |f,fi^' o"O 11.6
:
and equating sun of the terms'to the elloweble
"*u' d.55
X 600 6020 ft
mminc '"E*;/
values of
tio.itv noa" in terms of velocitv head in
iffiil. "l ,
Mdhoil Equival.ent4iamcter goluJz'oz. Reduce the djfiennt
l:
aizes of pipe i1 qerim to an equivalent ,ti&meter of the ;;;;;:
all length. Wiih this diameter and length detemrine f.om the
allowable oyerall lcs of head. Usiag this g check .";rti"o
I
;i
loesea in the liae. An example will ehow tle method
.f ;; ;
pipe dirgram to detemine equivalent diarnetcr.
hr.mpr,r- A pi;n lino cousiets ol 10O0 ft of 6_in., b@ ft of ,Liu., erd
800 ft of &ilr. in aeries, Determinc thc equivaleoi diameter. mes,n;n
ther€by the diamctbr of pipe_which if 2800 ft loug would give the
ear:ri
rce8 Ol h€a.d &8 the Compotnd pip€.
SolzJron. Aesurue @ : 0.4 cfs. Then by the Mauing diagram (a r
Fro. l0& Plpe lioe of difieletrt diabet€rE itr aolie&
0.0r1) ' fu in t000 ft of in. : B.Z ft
1.7 in 500 It of 4-in, : 16.0It

oe of the givel sizes of pipe' Solve for that velocity head and i7 in 800 ft of &in. : 0.6 fr
iJ*ltl.'6"ip*" the veiocities in the'other pipes' Iook up Total iy in 2300 ft : N.3It
pilti'" *a "-u""t total lose of head' Reiise solution if noc6' Loas per 10@ ft : 8.8 ft
*-i\is
88ry. With Q - 0.4 cfs, equivaleut diameter by diagrem: 8.1 iu.
n*hod -they to the condition
is adepted in which ninor loesog
rra appreciable sin"" csn also be expressed T t"T* q"
il the equation' Theninor.loss "f
oosttr' PROBLEMS
vetociry treaa aud included
J*t" to" the fint solution may also need revision' l. Ttree new cast-iron pipea ere connected in series a€ shown in trlc-
Melhod 3: Eqr'ivalmt tntgth Solztioz' Reduce the over'all
""tu"t"a 108. The first bas s diameter of 12 iu. end a length of 1200 ft; th; ;;;
-h*;
k;;;i;;;d pipe to an equivalent length *+q'TJ{S has a diamet€r of 24 in. and a length of 2flD- ft; and ili;t.d
"1
rtio;pter as suggested in the followi g e)<a"Bpl€' wit'h tnu
diameter ol 18 in. and a length of lS0O ft, If the diecharce ig g.0
cfr.
dotormite the lost head, neglecting the minor loss€e-
ffiJ aiat"t"i and coroputed equivalent lensth determine Q
t
for the given loes of he&d'
Using this- clect
Q 1n1et'pn.31 - 2. Three new cast-iron pipes connectcd in eeriea have diameters of 12
in,, l0 ir., and 8 iD., each being lO0 ft loDg. ff," f"rc"rt D;iJi-;
lmae h1h6 tine. A pipo diagrem is of much assista'ncotn th'
s reservoir and the emalleei discharges iuto the air, all chrogee in
of this Att will illustrate the ure od r aection
"ooticetion
-utiod.
"*''rrtplo
length and silo of pipe to sr
beitrg sharp.coEerod. Determiae the tot&l loet head when the
dir
;;tt stt- in reducing a givm charge is 6.8 cfe: Wlrat must be the elevatioo of th" outteieoJ qf
;r
"qui"A*t
tuogtl of somo olhsr diamet€r' pipe with respect to the water+urface elevation in tho
rcsorv;i - -
 I'IPI.J EYIITI|M WITII EnANCHDI IN PAITAUJL lII
The solution of a problem involving a compound pipo in peratlol
3. Detcrmine tho discharge through threo new cast'iron pipc-e -con; requires a determinstion of the division of flow in the two or morc
nected in aeries, having diameters of 6 in , 8 in , and
l0 in-, end.lengthsof branihes. A quick approximation of tho division can be made by
ffi-ii izoo ft,'rna 2d00 It, rcepectivelv, when the total frictioual looa' assuming a loss of hesd from S to ? and computing the flow in
Dot iDcluding the minor losses is 15'5 ft'
--ll I each branch. Within the normal range of economicgl velocities
ptp.-ut" betweeu points -A and B consiete ol 1000 lt of l&lu'
tuUon'JUv soo ft of 12-iD., foltowed in tura bv 500 ft of &in
I! tt-1
b.oir I
t"t* loss of heqd from d to is 12 0 ft, det€rmine @; (c)
iv ""Jin" tlo equivalent length of 12-ir' pipe, ad (D) by computilg
equi""lent dit^"ter with a leugth of 23fi) ft'
tie",o^puU"g
'-i.
i.o oioea wit'h Cr = 120, counsct€d in aeries, diechergo 4'76 ofo
litl. tos"'oin€rd of 2?.0 ft.Eacb pipe baaa length of 1000 ft'
Ifons
plpe n"" e diemetot of 18 in., detnnoine tho dismshf of tbo otb€t,
ndecti!8
--f,-'wlit the minor loss€s. Fro. 109. Pipo line with brsoches iD porsllel.
riu uu tttu discherge through' three new caet-iron pipee mn'
uoiod in adriea, hsving diameton of 38 in., 24 in', and 8J in', rcepectlively, lhe percantage of the total flow passing through each bronch will
-"f"r* U"f.i sm ft-long? The 3&in. pipe loods from a rcaewoir ood be fairly constant even with considerable variation i! the amount
ifr iL. plp"1i""herge6-into the sir. The difrerence in elevotion be of head lost.
t o"i iUu-*"t"" .ott cu in the reeervoir snd the open €trd of discha,rgg A mathematical determination of the division of flow csn be
nios
- ig 9.0ft, All chsnge in sectiou are abrupt' made by use of the Darcy-Weisbach foruula. Subetituting
i r" rig. roz, tbat pipe lino 48CD is level, pipoCBie 12 iu' a
h iirm"to; snd 1@ ft"oume- long, pipe BC is 10 in' ln diameter and 150 ft to, 7 inequetion 7 and lettiag .lf aad JV reprcaeut
Log, co,l pip€ CD is 16 in. in diameter srd I25 ft lorg' All pipea are GfrOA
#O chgngee in crocs section are equarocornered' TVhoa numerical coefficients,
2, t.o n, wbat mist bo the value of Zr to produoe a discba'rge of
= "Ja'"U ht 4
= It'I 'ftDE
8.0 cfg? from which
116. Pipc Syst€E viih Branchee ln Parallel The lesowoirs
A: N.^/i;'-Y- (48)
.ll aud I gre connect€d by o system of pipee, as rhown in Fig' 100'
Ftpe I leading fiom reservoir / dividee et I into pipes 2 aad 3
[quation 48 shows that, for a given lq,
which join -Illt f. Pipe 4 leads from the junction P to e
,or*o:it l. "g"i" "t
Lt, Dt, ond 7r be respectively the length' diam- Q varies as the 5/2 power of D,
Jr, aad mean velocity for pipe 1, and let the same-slmbols wit'h . Q varies inversely as the squaro root of/.
3, and 4 be the corresponding
nrbecriptr 2,'Qz qua'ntities. for pip€s Q varies inversely as the squoro root of Z.
f, S, sni l. end Qg ore the respective disoharges forpipes 2 and With two pipe branches in parallel, as in Fig. 109, it followe that
e. fi" *- oi which discharges equals Q, the total dischargo
ti-,rgh pipo I rnd 4. Assuming piezometer -tubes I I T{ Qz
f lg 6e Lid head lost in tho system of pipes, try, is tho head lct"l Qa
(49)
ia pipe 1, h!,: hr,is the h€sd lost in pipe 2 or 3' and i7' is the
If the diameters and the lengths of the branches are known aad
head loet in pipe 4. values of / are known or assumed, equation 49 rcduc€s to
Ou.rdona, Is tbe loes of head fiom I to f equsl to t'he sum of tls Qz: F'Qs (60)
d in tle brancbee, or is it equEt to t'be loss in either one'of t'be
branchee? Why muat tbc loes of b€ad be t'h9 eame ia both braoches?
gE Ptff,8 PROELAMg

where F ig a numericel frctor' Morcovu, 3. Fe"iog gr.'"o the lengths and dismet€rs of ell pipos and the
(6r) totsl lo6t hedd; t'o deternine Q.
Qr*0e=Q This problern can best be solved by trial; but it will eave timo in
With Q known or assumed, solution of 50 eDd 51 sinultaueoudy triil solutions to drjtermine first the portion of tlrc total now that
givea Qr and Qa. Then, usiag theae diacbergea, the head lost in pasEes through one of the branching pipes. Then successivo
pipe Z a"a a can be computed. Thes€'Bhould be equal. If the voluee of 0 csn be asgumed snd the lost f,ead i" each pipe com-
computations do not show them equol, the diecbarges ehould bo puted until the sun of the losses in the thr€e pipes equsls the totsl
adiusted by triol until rtasonable *grtement is r€ached" lo6t head. A final check ehould be msde to 8ee.t'bat Q equala
this method cen bs extend€d to sny number of branche in approximatelY Qs * Qs.
parallel. For instance, with four branches in parellol, equation
PBOBLEUS
40 csn be ur€d to give tho rclatioDs
a total fiow of 14 cf8 iD Fig. A, determine the division of 0ow
Qo - F'Qt, Qa'* /'Qt, and Q. '. P"rP, 1. With
and the loes of head from .4 to 8.
lbeo equetions can then be combined with the equation If tho lose of head from .4 to B in Fig' A ie 12 ft, determiuo tho
L
total 0ow.
Q-0r*8r*Qg*Qr 8. Tho discharge of the pipe system shown in Fig B ig 10,000,000 gpd'
Dotermino the head loee from ,4 to D.
to give the 0ow in eash braoch'
lhre ty.pe of problema are explalned wii;h relerence to Fig. 100. 60m'ol 18' of t0'
of
1. Eevins gfiI€n the diecbarge, and the diameten and lengtbo of
atl pipes; to determine the total lost hesd. E0()'ol l5'
Dstermiae the division of flow in the branche ia parallel by
oao of the rnethodg outlined obove, a,nd ediust by trirl until the Fir. A Fig. B
lm of head in the two branches i8 the mme. This loss of head
plur the loes of heed in pipoe 1 and 4 givo II, the total loet head. L eome loss of head ae in problem 3, by whst p€rcenttg'
With the
2. I{aving given thir discharge, the total loet head, the lengths tU" .np""ity of the syEt€m Ehosn in Fig' B be incre&8ed by tho
"oold ol riothei lGiu. pipe 1500 It long between I and C?
addition
o[ oll pipee, r,nd the dlsmet€r8 of three pipes; to determine tbe -; Prd i, 3, and I in Fig. B are to b€ repleced witb r singlo pipo
other dismet€r.
1500 I
ft long frbm io C' . Whst
Assume that the dia,meter of pipe 2 is to be determined. Com- be installed if ihe logs
2m,orls.
silo shoirld
puts the head lost in pipet 1 and 4'Deduct from the total I6t of hord f|bm B to C is to b€ the . g0o0'0t36'-l.+?--.l-rs(,'oll:
hoad the srm of theee cmputed loes€e. With this difierurce, aame as in problem 3? / "L-
wbich ie the heod loet in eich of pipea 2 aad 3, determing Qp D +
0, Determine fu ltom A la ,' I

Ther, O - Q - Qa. W-ith Qr and the lost herd knosn, computo ia tbe eyrtem ehown in Fig. C Fig. C
tho diametor of pipe 2. if- tho dischrrgo ie 60 cfe.
il-O"t"i^i-t" tf," discharge of the systertr ehown in t.ig' C il the
If tho dianeter of one of the single pipe,a, as for oxample, pipe 'loee
.4, i6 to be determinod, compute the head loet in pipe l, and alao ol hea.d between 4 aud D is 18 ft'
-it-5i"*-1.
.te heed lost in the two brslohix'as rdeecribed above. The differ il' "nd 4 have lengths of 1000 ft' 800It' 700|t' ond.150o
porallel' both drow-
n, r liri'"l"ti iron. Pipes z and r are laid in
:enice between the totsl logt head and,the eun of the sbove logs€E "'*i
'ii
tle heaa t*t ia pipe 4, fmm wnis tbo diameter of thia pipe ceo ior f"o^ itnd discharging into 4' If l' 2' and 'l have dramete!8 oI 6
ol 3 when tho
bo oonputod. ff ;il illol;., reieitioerv, a"tet-inR thh; totd diamet€r
ot 27 tt'
il;'d;;;;;li'".v"t"' i" i'o cts u\&T tu
224 PIPDS ITIOW IN PIPE NETWONKS M6
116. Flow in PiPe Networko. City wator supply distributidn *l:T f i. a- proportionality factor and n haa a numerical velue
syst€ms &re constructed in the form of many loops
and branchoo' which depends on the formula used. Thus with the Da.cv_%ir_
-rio* Such a systep ts gatt{
o, to. in arrangement' bach formirls (eql'ation^ Z) and the Manning for.rfu
t"qu"tio'o
fz), {nc9 v = e/(tD2/q, n : 2. tvirh
"o-plicated
Computation of the probable flow in eech pipe of such irru su*o_w]iriar*
"a ""i*"tf..
m&Y be quite laborious' g- h1/L,n = l/O.i;':
formula (equation 33), transposed, since
- network
en i-pottunt ta"*nce in the solution of pipe network probloms 1.85.
*u" -ai" by Cro*s,l who developed a method of - successive . In the following discussibn, the symbols I, aid I.. are used to
aooroximations by which the distribut'ion of flow can be det€rmmed' denote the summa,tion of quantities in, respectively, the
clockwige
given here'
'- trief sum-ary of this method will be
A and counterclockwise directions.
C;;id"t an ilementary loop .A in a general network of pipe' *" elementary loop.,{, the loes of head in clockwise
indicate dircction ol .l flow
--'it" in Fig' 110'
as illustr&t€d The snowheads
in the pipes of this and
is the sum of the losses in all pipes in which flo, b ;il.k;;
ilr. contml
"*alti]ons
the ffow around the loop, and can be ocpressed as

D"b =Z"Ke"" (6g)

Likewise the loas of head ia counterclockwiso fow c€,a be elgressed
as
Z"oht = Z"oKQo." (64)

$ nointed out above,eqlality

the firet assuned division of flow will
g{ynl{:"t,*""tr.jn of 2"r1end >"t. G;;;
z,cw to be the tatger, the positive qu&ntity given by the orpression
tr:o. l1O. PiPe uetwo*.
>"K0"" z",KQ,."
-
is equal to
every other toop: (l)
'
At any iunction the total inflow .,
represents the error of closure ,' of the lost heod,
It is desired to
ii"itJi "rtn"i. (i) rne ioss ot treaa due to flow in
to
6 clockwiqe
loos of
determine the amount of the flow correction AA *ft'h;;;;;;
ii*.ittt trte loop in pipes cb and bc is equal the
tracted from Q" and added to e"", will equalize the
h"fu i*";-;
head """"ta
-A in counterclockwise flow in
pipes od, ile, and ec'
--- tne tl^'o drrections, and thus satisfy the equation
flow is assumed in each pipe of the loop wbich will meet-
co-a-
-St.n
a:tf* Oi flow would rreet condition (2) only by >"K(Q" - aQ)+ =2""619""a, aqir (65)
;Jil;. "*,t-"a
itte co-puted toes of hesd iu the assumed cbckwiso Expanding the quantities in parentheses by the
iil *ifi 0t* lJ*itlv not be equal to tho loss ot head- in _.
theorem and retaining only the first two t€nn:
binomial
Cross developed the following mathe'
flow' tn"1_p"#""i
countcrr'lockwise "1
oi computing a correction to t'he assum€d flow >"K(Q." nQ""-t^e) :2""K(9""" + ne"!-t/iq)
-
-*ti""i tn*hod (s6)
thut
-- .u" ,tA tend to equalize the lost heeds' Solving for AQ
tft" tt*,r.4 mrmulas for flow of water iu pipes showlhat.for e >"KQ"" -D""KQ"."
git* i.", f""gtft" ond ror.rghness of pipe the loss of heod variera ' np,IJq""-t +2,"KQ"i'=-f) (67)
eonre power of the diseharge, or

fu: Ke" (52') From equation 52, dividing by O,

h1
I tilnattttig ol lUi'r'it Ezpdnanl Stati.'l- fu/,zti-.ffi' lgi'e KQn-l (68)
a
 gN PIPES PROBI,EME E'
Subetituting terms from equatious 53, 54, and 58 in equation 67, A@ for each loop- A couvonient form for thsae oomputltiou ir rhown
in the table, in which the clockwise loss€6 arc ehown firtt for oach loop.

(5e) lbB! .4,PPBox.naAqoN

L@pA
Exrurr,o, Determine the flow in in the network ahowo in
. Loop A
Fig. 11In.
each pipe
Pipo llr fu ht/a Pipe hr ht b/A
SolutioT.. Ae a.ssumption ie made of the flow in all pipes as shown in ob 1l.o 8.6 0.003:i b 3.0 1,8 0.@r8
Fig. 111b. Care is tsker to not€ thst the total ir8ow equals tbe total b. 7.3 2.9 .0d9 d 12.8 [.] .0068
outflow at eoch junction. 9.6 h 2.O 1,2 .@4
d t2.o 8.8 .m88 8.1
gm 2.O L2
s t2' b tz- b.
r0o .1" .0d21 7.A 2.9 9020
{(x)' 100 B Itff l0.o 0.0174 0.0139
8" AM lo:2smD
y'cP ,,t
4 1000
tN 9.5
dm' d6m - r.85 X- 0.0174
a(,=-r lO.O
_15 Lo= :'- --
- 1.85 - +200
lu- lo" x 0.0139
6" c 1&' 10' D a00' 6m cm0 D2&
L@pC I'a,op D
t dJn' tdn'i afln troi
(d) 2fi (b) 28 d. 2.O 1., 0.0044 ti t.6 0.ot 0.(x'l6
dt 6.0 2.1
tu 2.O 0.8 .ol0
(o) Pipo notrork. (D) First a^esumption of 6ow iu .m4E
1.44
gauolr per mibuto, 0h 0.8 0.6 .mlo
lu 2,O 0.8 .(nl8 tc 2.O 1.2 .WA
lffi qtra ifi N
si o-iooi 6ffi
_ L2 -4.7 - l.a4 - l.t
s A
6
.B 560
A(r-IEt-6-lms- -1{, a(l-GtTm- +q)
ti216 2ffi
d@6
The corroctiom ar€ thsD applied to ths flowr of Fig, ff16. If il any
td, c 3l0 DN loop tbo clockwiee loes€€ erc€€d.the counterclockwis€ lossea, tLb dj>
r 8dt hmt braic eigu of their diference ia p6btive, and the eloctwise 0ow nrgt-bo
(c) M rcduced by an amount AQ and tbe countercloctwise dor inotrsed by
(o) Correc,ted 8ow after 6rst approximatioo" the same smount, Pipe,s b?, &, fe, znd, hz ore each conmon to twl
loops aud each, thereforo, requires I double correction. Ite rorul! b
Fto. l1l
ahown in Fig. lllc. A Becond computation using the corrected dowr L
'' Ugiq then made. Tho procers iE rdpest€d until the corrections b€cotla
thc llareu-Willidms diegrsn (Fig. 101), the loss ol heed ir negligible in abount.
sncceesive pipes ln-r
cloctwise directioa and in a counterclockwiso
direclion ia computed lor e&ch lbop, A, B, C, ard D, end the sum of the
locr€s iu eash djrection is determined. The quantity h1/Q is olao PROALEfS
ooEput d IoJ srqh- prpe. Egue.tior 59 ir then applied to determioe l. ?:
Uaing the Manning formula, sssumiry 0.011, oonputc lb
flow in eoch pipeol the network sho*n in F'tg. A,

I'
 ,2A PIP!;8
TIIft ', TIInEE--RESDnVOIrt
,' I'trottt,l,iM 22u

l. Usins the llazen-Williams formulo, ltlltlurrring Cr:-120' computo

ehowrl in l ig B If the prearure arc suggested by this figure, in rvhirh certain qrrantities are given
tft" So" i"- pipe of ihe netrvord
with others to be determined. Methods of solving three of these
;;;;;ht;[ "*t ioo ft, th"t i. ihe pressure heod at point e?
problems are given.
l Having given the lengths and diametcrs of all pipes, and
elevations of the three reservoirs; io determine 0r, 8:, and e:r.
1500'
This problem is most conveniently solved by trial. Assume an
elevation of the water surface in the piezometer tube at the junc-
t60' tion P. This assuned elevation gives at once thc losses of head

Fis. A Fig. B

t!@'
t2'
/N
15dl'
9'D
I'to. ll2. Brenchiug pipe coonectiog tlree reservoits,

h1,, h6, and i7, in pipes 1, 2, and 3,

From these losses and the
Fig. C diameters and lengths of the pipes the trial florvs Q1, Q2, and Q3 cen
be obtained by pipe diagram or formula.
!. IJarng the Eazen-Williams formule , assuming Cr - ,12!, coroputo
the fow ii eseh pipe of tbe netsolk thown in Fig' C' If
the presEut€ The summation of flows is then made to determine the accuracy
poi"t o it OO tU per sq in., what is tbe pressure at point/? of this first trial. If the assumed water surface in the piezometer
"t is higher than the middle reservoir B, Q1 should equal 0z plus 0s;
11?. Branching Ptpe Connectlng ReservoirE at DlfierentElev&
if it is lower, 0r plus Qz should equal Qg. The error in the trial
t'
Uoqs. me t' Ttrei-reservoir Problem. In Fig' 112 'r{,. 8, I's indicates the direction in rvhich the assumed piezometric
e three reservoirs connected by pipes l, 2, and 3' water surface should be moved for the second tri&I.
-a "*
A conditio" of steady flow with constant reservoir level is A quick indication can be obtained as to the direction of flow
in pipe 2 by fint assuming the rvater surface in the piezometer at
8S8Umd.
the level of the water surface in 8.
Lel t'r, Dr, Qr, and 7rrepresent, respectively, tlre- Iength,
ilianeterl'discLrge, and mean velocity for'pipe 1, and the same If then 0r is found to be greater
evmbols,'with subscripts 2 and 3, the corresponding tenns for
pipes thaa Q3, part of Qr mu*st flow into
2 and 3. If a piezometer is assumed l'o be at the iunction P, the B. If, horvever, Q1 is found to
water surface itr the tube will be a certain distance, i7,, belorv t'ho be less thsn 8a, there must be
I surface in reservoir A. The sur{ace of reservoir B is a distance flow out of B. Two or three zuc-
H u : ht, * [r, below that of reservoir ''{ , and the surface of reser' cessive trials should establish Q1, r3rror2tr5Jt89o.-
C ii fu"'- hr,{ [1. below the surface of reservoir,'4 ' If 82, and Qs with reasonable ac- ar-( a r +arJ
""lt
h.- < Ha. ro""toit ,{ will supply reseryoirs B and C' If l;, ) curacy.
Ftc. ll3
fil, *"toi* .4 and B will supply resewoir C' Many problemr' It may be found helpful in
making assurpptions to plot computed values of Q1, Fig. ll3,
 PROBLEMS ?8I

&gainst the error made in each assumption, that is, Bg&inst 0l - PROBLEMS
(Qz * Qs). The resuliing difrerence may be either plu,8 or minuo. 1. Determine the flow into or out of each reseruoir in thi pipo Bystem
If the assumed values of Qr are well selected they will define a ehown in Fig. A, using the .[Ianning dirgram with n: 0.Oil,
cqrve the inte$ection of which with the 0r axjs will give the dis- 2, Det€rmine the flow into or,rut ,,f esch reservoir ir tlie pjpg systen
ehown iu Fig. B, using the Hazen-Ifillianrs diagram with Ci
cha{ge a.s a.ccur&tely as is usually required. The points ehould be = ia.
3, If in Fig. B pipe 3 is closed ofi by a valve at X, deterrnine tho
on b\th sides of the 0r axis, and preferably one of the points
should'be quite close to it- Usually not more than three trial amouat end direction of flow in pipes l, 2, ud 4.
solutions rvill be necessary. EI. IM'
This problem can also be solved anall'tically. Assuming any
!%.
formula for pipe friction, as, for example, the Darcy-Weisbech
Er. 5f
formula, from Fig. I12,

,": (60) Fis. A

snd ^#H.r#H
H":r,#;#-rli$ (6r)

AIso, since Q1 : Qz * Qs,

D12v, : P"zY" * Dszvs
With IIs. Ilc', the lengths and diameters of all pipes known, and
with assumed vslues oft these equations can be solved simultane-
ously for Vy V2, and,7s. Values of/ can then be corrected end
a second solution made for the velocities.
2. Having given the lengths and diameters of all pipes, 0r, ald
the elevations of water surfaces in reservoir .4 and one of the other
reservoirs as B; to determine the elevation of water surface in
reservoir C.
Using Q1, deterrnine the lost head, tr1,, in pipo 1. Then.i1, =
Ha - hn is the lost head in pipe 2, using,which, Q2 can be com-
puted. 8, will be plus or minus depending upon whether the
direction of flori' in pipe 2 is towards B or P. Then 8a : Qr - Qz.
With Q3 determined, the head lost in pipe 3 can be computed, std
the elevation of wq,ter surface in reservoir C obtained.
3. Having given the lengths of all pipns, Che elevatione of nater
surfeces in all rese;voirs, 8r, aDrd the Jiameterc of tv;o pipet as D1
snd D2; to detdqrine Ds.
Determine hi, Q2, urld Q3 as for Case 2. Then with Q3
ht : Hc - /r1, known, compute D3.
(62)
Fis.B
L A B&in. coucreta pipn 5000 ft long drawa watcr from ruervoir il.
At it8 lower end it ie joined with a 30-in. coucrete pipo $00 ft toar
drawing water from reservoir B, both pipee dirchargilg into e 4&i!]
coqcrete pipe 8000 ft long. If the 48-in. pipe diacharger into a
reeervolr
with g,ster sudsce 15 ft lower than the water gu &; iu.,{ sld 20 ft
loner thal. the weter eurfoce in B, determino the diacha,rge.
6. A 4&in qoncr€te pipe 6000 lt long carries b0 cfo {ro reservoir,{,
..
dischargiug two conuet€ pipee eech 4b0O ft long ana aO in" in
dismeter. Oae-into
ol the BGiu. piper dirchargea into rererioir a, ia w*ch
the water gurfoce is 21 ft lower than that in.4. Determine th"
ot the'wst€r surfaca in rcrcrvoir C, into which tho other BOin, "t*"Uoi
pipe dir
chorde€.
3:- fipo l, 2, elaLd, 3, heving diameterr of 6 in., 8 h., aad l0 in., aud
-lerdiDs from reeervoirr 4, B, anLd C, reapectively, ;oin at a connou
point. All pipea art new csst iron aad esch is l0@ ft louc. If the
w8ter level in reservoir C is 6 ft higher thau thet ia r{ and ldft high€r
tbeD that iD B, determlne the discharge aud direction ot now in pi[i.
7. The water Eurfacc in reservoir ./. ia $ ft highor thsr thd h A.
o,nd A &ir. pipo 900 ft long leads from r{ to a point whero it couaecta with .
{.in. pipe 500 ft, long, leadiog from B, botb diraboryilg ilto ra &i!.

t
 PROBI.EME !&
2400 ft long. Ifthe 8-in. pipe dischorgcs 1.5 cfs, find the difterenco
to d at the base of the_nozzle repnecento tho friotion lm ln pipe
lipe 2.
is elevation between the end where it discharges into the air and tho I'he prcssure head at the base of the nozzle is repreeonted
by j6/ro.
water surface in reseivoir .4. (n : 0 011 for ali pipcs.) In flow through the nozzle tho energr graaient drops a distsn; f_
8. A new l8-in. cast-iron pipe 2000 ft long carries 9.2 cls from reser- squal to the nozrle looe, which brings ifto o di"t"o"" tr, ,A
;;;
voir .a,.discharging into two nct! cast-iron pipes each 1500 ft long. Ono
pipe is 12 in. in dilrneter and leads to reservoir B, in which the water
$9 no3le, The hydraulic gradient drops to tnu ae"itti J tUe
ot ,8 where
Iet prcssure
the hea.d is zero.
level is 15 ft lowe. than thai in .4. If thc rvater surface in reservoir C ig
fl) ft lorver ihan ihat in,4,determine the diameter of the pipeleadi g toC.
PROELEI[S
118. Pipe Line wiih Pump. The hydraulics of a pipe line . t.. Tbe p-ump in tlg. A draws water from a reseryoir. At point j
through whieh a liquid is being drarvn Jrom a reservoir by means ia tho guctio-n pipo an open menometer ghowg a vacuum G-i": ;i
m€rcury- while & pressure g&g€ on tb€ discharge.pipe g "i
,e"d8 00 lb
Der 6q ttr. A8sume thst tho pipo is new and "t
the elbowg aro smooth, with r: D, If the
pump e6ciency is 80 per cent, 6nd tho re
quired horse-prrwer iaput to the pump for a
discharge of 2.0 cfs.
V"2
t. Tho pump in Fig. A draws wst€r from
20 o reservqir into which the suction pipe pro-
iects. Aesumo thot the pipe is new and thg
I elbowg are smooth, with r = D. If the out-
I
put power of the pump ie lE.2 hp when tbe
Zt dircharge is 1.1 cfs, what pressure caa be ex-
pected in the diecharge pipre at, B?
8. The pump ia Fig. A drews wa,t€r from
nis. A
a rtservoir. At point.z{ in the suction pipo
an op€n m&nometer ghowe s vacuum of ll.E in.i of morcury, while
o
pr€s8ure ga,gs at 8 reads 68.8 ft of water.
Frc. 114. Pipc linc with PumP.
A$ume that tL; pipo is

of a pump and dischsrged through a nozzle is illrrstnited in Fig.

ll4. Selecting the datum s.t thc pump and writing the energy
iheorem for the entire systerh from ,4 to B (equation 16, page 97),
Vo2
z^+ha = zu+ (h"* hn+ hr,+h") (63)
tl
At the intake from the reservoir the energy gradient drops s
Ft8' B
distance equal to the contraction loss while the hydraulic gradient
drcps V t2 /2g Iarther. The drop in the gradienl"s frop o to b repre' aes andlhe-elbowe ore emool,tr, Cith r i D. Wheo the m€asur,ed
los
s€nts the friction&l loss in pipe 1. At, the pump theinergy gradient i8 l.6il cts,_th€ iDput power to th€ pump ia foud to be 4).6 hp.
Com_
pute the e6ciency of the pump.
rism a distance cqual to the pumping head, oI energy per pound of
liquid, put into the line by the punrp. The hydraulic gradient at _ G The dischargo througb tho &in. pipe ehown in Fig. B is throttled
to a vGlocity otE ft gr eec by ueanr otthe volve d f
c b V z2 /?,g belt ui lhe energy gradient, and tlie drop in the gradients ;;;
1b.o

\.
 CNNENAL PROIiI,I:Mfl N
& PIP[8
oomputc tho nooolssry preeeuro rt / ll thc pruuro at B i! to bo l(t lb
bead at the summit .A ie - l0 ft of wotor' All pipee oro now etool' and pc Bq ir.
cornputo the preeeuro hoadc
ilt"-"*iil" oio" rt";ects into tho reservoir'
rnd the horsepower output or
8. Computo the preeeuro drop in pouudr por rquele inch per mllo ol
;";;t";lT;";'' the pumping head; horirontal 24-in. steel pip€ c8.rytry 16 ofs of a hoavy fuol oil rt
^ grode lines showing thoir
il.fiil. ilt"" irt"ith*"ii" iud the energv strstesic points'
6(r r'.
;#lio; tt" irt" tenth of s foot) a't {. A 2{"in. new gteel pipo is dosigned to tranaport 300,000 barreb ot
" i. i-o"tip i" ai""harging
""""i"t 200 gpm of water through 4-in' smooth rtel oil per dsy (l bbt = Z Sd). Compute tho pumping horsepower per
side of the pump is 100 lb
-i* whcn the nressure on the discharge
e"""ae]r in the discborgo pipe at a
mile of ptpo roquirod to overcomo friction if the oil ia (a) a heavy crude
ilf; [::H;;;;;;;;"from *" ;"puti rind 150 ft higher in elovotion?
(sp er 0.924 p - 0.002 lb eeo per lt); (b) a Ught crudo (rp gr 0.866,
DoiDt I80O ft dlotant r - 0.0002 lb ssc p€r ff).
'no* ttt" n"a"noti" and the energy sradients' & A mw 1-b. pipo brings wator firn e tan& on s hill ti Bnoth€r tsdr
"'6. ri'i'"litq ;ume that tbe siction tine aD ie amooth pipe 8'h" qt r f&rmhousa i! the va.lloy. The pipo ir 600 ft long aud both endr arc
'eo ft long with a squere-cornered entrence ; the dir'
r" if"i#i'.ta lto.difrereni:e in lwel oJ the water surfacos in tbe trro
;il;;;;.;i;;oott' pif' o io' io ai&meter BDd 500 ft loug; and-t'ho tarks is 200 ft. The fow in the pipe ir contrplled by a gate valio ln
il"zr,';;'; i;. i.;iamete" at the base and 1l iB' at ihe tip' with'c - the pipo.iuet outside of thg lower ts*. With the valve wide .opon,
;:l-ilgs.' ii d- sft, zB= fr ft' Assuming a pump efficiencv rbrt flow h gdlona per miaute can be erpected?
of?5percent,whathorsepowerrnputt,othepumpisrequiredlordir'
(c) 1000 gpml
O Determine s lGfu. ooDcrEto pips, 260 ft long,
tbe diacha.rgo th$ugh
of: (o) ioo gpti (o)- soo gpm; and if ths difier€nce i!elevstion betwen the water su ac€ ir the auppS rre-
DraJ the hydra.rlic and the erergv gradilljl
"i.roJr-"i.t1"" evoir and tbe end of the pipe where it diechargee into tbe sh is'20 ft, thc
?. A pumP delivers weter thro
.r""",n pipe 6 in. in otranoo to tho pipo beiug sbErlcorl€r€d.
g0o ft long to e hydrint to
",
which ie connecl'ed e line of
air-"t"i is 300 ft
l. L z-in- pip€ 60 ft lolg €xtauds vertic8lly downwsrd from tbe bot'
""d
Hffi*"ui;;fitoeJ ni"io"" zi in' in diamet€r' Tb€
'ho.o ton of an elevatad tant and dirchargea iato irir. lbo oatrancs trpm
ffiil6 ffi il,'in i8*-r","i*,
u
",:l *t"ffi ;1 ii"'l f:i""-; tao& to pipe is aqu0r6-conercd. Whsn ths wst€r in tho tln! i! f0 ft
C. 0.97. The nozzle at en
= el dsp ov€r ths eDtrr[c€ to the pipe, what is the dischargs? Detornlno
;;;-;;;;;; in' when the 6ow
ioss in the hvdrant oI 2 lb per eq t&o preeaure head ia the pipe ot a point 6 ft below the taot sud rt thc
p"' square inch must,be t111t::f ves contracts, asruning e coefici€lt of cxintrrction of 0.65 aad aogF
is 250 gpm, what pr"""u'" 'o poono"
sroe
the Euctron
:rae of the pump? If the pressure on lsotinS ld6t hsad between tcnk rnd wm contnct&
ir-iiJ5"Jrti* pipe is 8 lb p€r sq itr'' wb&t ir t'ho
;i;il; il;;- in" ain' & A olerning solvent at a t€mpersturc of 00p F f,owr by.srsvtty
'o'tion hon 0!6 tork to snother through }in. wroughLimn pipe, both endr ol
hors€Dower output of the PumP?
"1:f fti.ji;;J*'t"i*'"oueh 50 ft of 12-in' cast-iron pipe from a the pipe being squr and submrrgod. The difter€Dco itr ob
vatioo of tho liquid auifscea itr the tsntE io 7.6 It, Tbe pipo lile ir 17 ft
long aud conteiDs tbma 90o standard elbow bends. lto radur of ths
cootar lias, of ths bond ig 2 h. tr'low ia controlled by r %in. gpta vdvr

u*q'*"lli**s+**:#:ri+"rffi
(r D) in the
= discharge hne'
;;C;tt"h"";-
i,he orecsure heads on the suctron
rt
sides-of the pump' aod
neai ths lowsr tadr. With. the vdvd one-fourth open, detetmino thc
dirohargs in gglkiri per minute, asruniag tbe ssm6 minor looa ooo&
oic s s! for wat6r.
ff ;fi;;"--heal and the boreepower output of t'he
pump' 9. A new &in. casLiroa pipe 1$ ft long ir connectad in rerie with r
rlin mw cast-iron pipe !0 ft loog. If tbe +jn pipo dischrrgg into tbc
GqNERAL PROBLEMS rir at a point l0 ft lower then the wEter levol in the rupply tenl, detar
p-ipo' ifns the rqlo-of diacharge, dl conaectiou being rhar
s D€w.2+in'
1. Points A end I are 15 miles spart elong -ote€l
ssme pleoeutro
10. A new rl'ia, casLiron pipe 10O ft long riphoar wator from a tsolt
,l L giiiltl*;t ,h.n r. wittt 'otteiaowing 8!d
with the
dfuoharging ilto the eir at a point 12 ft lower thsn the wat€r lovel in tbs
et.,{ aud B, determiue the discharge'
'"; ffi;'ild pipe', I tont. Determine tho gsg€ pr€ssu€ et tbe higheat poirt b the riphon,
B ere 3000 ft ap?rt along a new Fin' steel B' whiob ir 4 ft rbove snd 60 tt fmm ths dischsrg€ end oI tho pipc
A toward
t i6o ri'iun"' ti".a. witu t'z cis oi watJr flowing from
 I'I Pl,;lJ
1t. A pump draws wet€r from o river through a now l2-in' cast-ircn
oioe. thq eutrance being rounded so lhtrt K.:008' Determino tho
g"'ge p.e""ore ot a poiDt in the suction line 8 ft obove the woter lcvol in
ittJ r[""r- and g0 ft from the entrance to the pipe when Q 7'l cfs'
: surface in the r€servoir ie st elevation 480 ft.Tho pipe leaver the reaor
12. A pump drows water through a new &in' horizont&l caat'.u-ul
oioe t00 it lonc. To the end of this pipe is connected a standard
i&.ee n &io. vertical riser pipe l0 ft loirg, t'he lower end
"lbo*'*id
whlch projecLs 4 ft below the water surface in the supply reservoir' If
it is noi permissible for the absolut€ pressure et the pump to drop bolow
5 lb per iq in,, determine the msximum discharge'
19. A concrete pipe culvert 90 lt long
gnd 3 ft in diametor is-built
through a road em-bankment. The culvert is laid or a grade of 1 ft
end
100 ft: Ivater i8 5 ft deep above the top of the pipe &t the eDtrance,
st th€ outlet the top of the pipe is submerged to a dep-th of 2 ft' Assume
sherFcornered inlet and outlei. What ie the discharge?
li. A horizontal concrete pipe culvert 50 ft long is to be built tbrcugh
a road embankment, both ends of the pipe being sharp-cornered ond sutr'
merged. If the difrerence in elevation of w&ter surfecee at the ends of tho
plpe'can oot exceed 4.0 ft, wh&t diameter of pipe will be required- for a
discharge of 100 cfs? Compare with the answer obtained by cousidering
the culvert as a short tube and using the data on poge 148'
16. Three emooth rubber-lined 6re hose, eoch 200 ft long and 21 in' ia
diametcr and hoving f-in. nozzles, are conaected to s &iu' 6re hydrant'
'
If fior the lrozzles C, : 1 and C, : 0 97, deterurine the nece8g&ry pres-
Bure in the hydrant iu order to throw streams 100 ft bigh, t'he nozlles
being 10 ft above the hYdrant'
t?l Two smooth rubberlined frre hose, eech 30o ft long and 2l in' in
dismeter and having l-in, nozzles, are connected to & &in' fire hydrant'
C. : I end C, = 0.97. It is necess&ry to throw streems 80lt high, the
uoedee being 20 ft above the hydrant. Determiae tho horsepower 'tbst
must be supplied at ihe hYdrant.
l& Two smooth rubber-lined fire hose, each 300 lt long snd 2l iB' ir
diameter aod hoving l-in. nozzles, are connected to o &in' 6re hydrant'
If, for the nozzlea, C" = 1 end C' - 0'9?, what height of streom csn bo
tlrown when the pressure in the hydrant is 70 lb per sq in., the lozzlee
b€ing l0 ft above the hydrant?
$: It is desired to pump crude oil et 60' F through e long liao of
l&ia. welded steel pipe at a mean velocity of 2 ft per oec. The specifio
gnvity- of the oil is 0.925, and the obsolute vis'cosity is 0.0028 lb sec per
fo ft. Compute the pumping borsepower per mite of pipe required to
ov€rcome friction.
10. lf tho vetocity of the oil in problem l9 ie tripled to reduce the time
of ddtivery, how many times ss much pumping horsepower would bo
nquircd?
I
CENEnAL PNOBI,I'M[{
!1. A l2-in. welded steel pipe b200 ft long conducte watot from I
rcsrvoit to a aorzle, the jet from which drives o turbine. The wator
voir at elevation 430, nrnning thenco 1200 ft on level grsde, thenco gg(X!
0G ft oa etraight grade to elevatiou 0, theuce 600 ft on level grade to tbe
of norde. ?be aozrle has a tip diarneter oI I in., with C = C,: O.SO.
Determiae tho discharge aud the horsepower in tho jot, and draw the
hydraulic end the energy gradients.
2& A concrete mixer ueed in highway work is eupplied with wst6r st
tbe rete of l0 gpm through l-in. pipe (actual D = l.(X9 in.) l mile lono
p€r
the poad from which the water ie taken is B0 ft;ilffiil;;;
qqivor,y, Tho pipo discharg€s into a tsnk at atmospheric p'reaeure.
Whet horrepower must bs fumished to tho pump which force ths
v8tsr through the pipe if the pump efficiency ii 60 per cent?
18. A ceutrifugal pump draws wat€r through a l&in. pipo fmm
a reaervoir in which ths wgt€r eurf&co is l0 ft lower thss tio oumo
aod diodargeo through a l2-in, pipo, et poioi i" ilo ai".i;il;;
Sltabovo tho puup & pr€ssure gage reade"42 lb per aq in. Whea tlo
dircharge is 8.0 cfe, tho head ldst in the suction pipe is b.s ft, tne maa
lost lD tho dischsrae pipe between pump and iege is 8.5 fi, and tb.
power input to the pump is 124 hp, Deterrnine the efrciency of tbo
pump.
lA A BtrsighC 6.ia. now cast-iroa pipe 2000 ft long joine two rwr
volrs which have a difrer€trao of s'ster Burface elevaiion of lE ft.
Both
eads of- tho pipe,aro submorged l0 ft.
A pump ia to be ploced in thc
lile to iacreaae ths 6ow into the lower res€rvoir to threo times the 0ot
which would be produced by gravity clone. (c) Wher6 Eh;dd tb.
pump be placeC if.tbe prersure head in the pipe is not to be teo tban
- 16 ft of- wster? (D) Compute the pumping hesd and tie boirepornr
output of the pump. (c) Draw the hydraulic gradient, neglsotiDg
ninor losgee.
. 86.,4. 3$in. riveted+teel-pipe penstock (&: 0.008) 600 It lolg
$de fron a nssrvoir to a turbi!€ which, dischorges through e drad
iutre into s tail race. The difrerence in water eurfsqs levels in resorvoir
and teil raco is 100 ft, The turbine is 6 ft above the t&il race. Whor
tle diacharge ie 30 cls, compute : (o) the preeeure hJ h thep""rtiir
iust toforc it reaches the turbiae, and (D) the output horrepowlr of tho
tttrbine, assumi'g 80 per cent eficiency md Deglecting ththosd l6t h
- draft tubo.
tbe
88. A &in. pipo euppliea water to s turbiae, as ehown in Fig, A, at r
rst€ of 4-.45 cf& Tbe pr€sEuro glge 2 ft above point /io tho rupply
pipe roade 20-tb per aq in, At poirt C,4 ft lowei thon tho turbino, i,lio
dieohatgo pip€ iB f2 iD. i!dismotor snd the prelture ln rhown hy ra
open mercur5r ma,nometei. lts hotrd lost fmm B to C b I lL (-lrrD-
N .PIP 8 GENERAL PNOBI.EMS U
side bas a olope of I v8rticsl to 4 horircntsl. If tho wstor is
puta the drop iu hydraulio energy through tho turblDo (fron / to B) lO lt dmrr
at the begiDlirg aad the discharge eod of the pipo ia i ft Udo*ii
and tho borrepower being delivered to tho turbino.
bottom of the reoervoir, detormino the time requi'rA b " -*
37. A pump delivera wetor through
8n Water Sows frcm o to e tbrough the pipo rysCem"mpiv,---
C, It is koowtr tfist th€ fow h prpo 0/rc i6 6Od cp., ,"d ;h"t $!.
a line of smooth pipe 6 ia. in diauretor sbowu in
and 800 ft long fu a hydrant to which
pE8sur€ head Bt a is a)0 ft : d;
sre connected three lines of cotton Arauroiry tbat Cr 120, cnd that all the
rubberlined 6lo hose 2f b. i! dl- gpos or€ lgvsl, detcrmirie ths total 6or fiom o to . IrU tl"-pn*il
&meter. E&ch ho6€ is 3{D ft lorg and
hoads (to tho aeareet toot) Et 4 q dr e, r
t€reinates in a noszle with a tip di-
ameter of 1| ia. and C = C.: 0,W.
The nolllgs ar€ at sD €levatioD 25 ft
Fig A higher tbcn the pump. Assuuo r
preeure lors in the hydrrnt of 6 lb per
rq in Wheu theiowiu oEch boae ie that of a etsudard frortrtam for
busiless di8tricts (25O gpm), whgt prcesure mubt be maiutained oq thc
dbchargo side of the pump? Il the pr€s8uts otr tho euction side of ths
Ft& O _

pump in the &in, auction pipe ia 8 lb pe-' sq i!', wbat is the honspotor . ry. Itolor from a ta e through the pipe oyaten $ops itr $r.
output of the purop? is l0 cfa. If r= 0.011 for atl tbi pipo, d"t"r.i* tlu &; f; C
f8, A lGb. cast iron pipo li\e ABCD iD Fi8. B io supplied witl betsoen o ord o. E9w rouch woutd ibie t6* il be Ju"*-i"-iu"
f,rter trom a res€rvoir it d.
When tho fuw lrom 'l{ to D is 3.0 ott' tD8lauction ot 0,n "r
additional tire ooorietiry of l1l(n lt of flia. pipoirou
_rC vld I to d?

FiS. B

f,brt ir th€ pr€ssur€ in tbe pipe at 8? (Assume Cr - 1q).) In ordcr

to mriatain larger prersurcs in the pipe at B, s r€coDd r€servoir is to b€
conr{dctsd at E snd counect€d by lGiD' caELiron pipe to tho origi!8l
tiD6 rt C, Witb the s&me flow of 8'0 cl8 iD CD, but now drawing fium
both rtcervoin, what pretsurt oan be orpected ct 8?
. le. A cubical telk 10 tt on each edge, "filled with water; dirchargel
through a.uew 2-ir Gst-ircn pipe 200 ft long. Determine ths time rs'
quired tojnity the ta* if the dischaige oud of the pipo ir 10-ft lower
t8!&. Assur-ne/ to be conetort aud equal to 0.03.
tbq!, the bottom of tho
80. A resorvcir €0 lt by 100 ft contsins wat€r to a depth of l0 ft.
Determine ths diametcr of coucr€te pipe 3000 ft long that ldll bs F
quircd to empty the nservoir in I hr, the disch&rg€ end of the pipe be'
12 ft towor than the bottom of the.rcservoir. Ar8qme/
irg-81. -
0.02.
A o"r 12-io. cast-iron pipe 100 ft lorg, haviug o rharpcomorod
eltrancs, dmwc;,at€r from the botton of e reeervoir and discbsB€E into
tho air. The botton of thb rcaorvoir ir 60 lt square, and each of the four
 WSTTIID I',I]jITIMETER AND ITYDNAUT,IUITAI)IUS 241

5. Drainage: Iow-lying, swampy, or watorloggotl landc ars frc_

qlgntly made productive by draining them through open ditcheo
CtWtEt VIII dr by laying. arrd covering pipe which may o. *uy not flow frrll.
6, Flood control: Protection of cities or valuable lands from
OPDN CEANNELfI
floods ofteu requifo improving a naturat ct annet by straigh;;f
cfeamng, or paving to incre.ase its capacity, or Uy builaing aad;-
119. Descripfion. An orpen channel is a conduit in which a
.. tional flood cbannels on new locatioils.
llqurd flows with I frce surface. As contni,sted with liquid in a 1M. Disfibution of Vetocities. The flow of water in open chan_
pipe, in',which flow normally occurs under p"oruru,
conveyed by an open channel exerts iro pressure other
tt" iiooia nels is ordinarily turbulent. The exceptional case of lamindr flow
ihan tiat occurs so seldom that it will not be consiilered here.
caused by its orn weight and the pressure of
the utm;;;;;.:- As in pipes'(Art. 92), velocities in open channels are. retarded
The.general theory in thie chapter applies to Jirro'.iJ"l'm
. near the conduit surface, aad if there were no other influencee ths
$nce there are.few teet data aveilable on open-cbannel
flow of
liquids other than water at natunl t
-pe"uiur*, tt u;;;.;
coeficients cited apply only to wal,er.
1110._Uses ol Open Channels. qpen
channets may be eith€r
Daturel or artificial, Natural water channuf" uo"y
eide-hill rilrrlets through broolss,
in i-_-ili
.l*r,
".uU in caves
"iru ;;?
nia-furou
udal estuaries. Underground etr€ams
&ne opu"
as long es they have a free surface. Nstural "hu"lJ
cbanne[ are;;il
inegular in cross section and alignnent rn-"nr*.t]l i
toughness of stresm bed. Streams in "ra
erodible naterial ;v
Frq. U6. Velocities itr Sudbury coDduit'
frequently or continuously shift their l"*ii;;;;;"ffi
maximum velocity in a cross section of an open channel would. occur
Drrcn [regut&rities and changes in natun0l
streams introduce at the water surface. Surface tension, however, produces a resist_
engrneenng problems, for instance, in navigation
and flood contml- ance to flow and causes the maximun velocity to occur at Eome
g€yond. thc scope of this book, which tr€ats
only of flow in fixed distence below the surface. Under ideal where thers
cnanneE ol unilorrn roughness.
"orrdltio*,
are no disturbing influences of any kind, the distribution of veloc-
Art_ificial chaanels are built for various purpos€s:
ities in a regular channel will be uaiforrn and similar o"
Wate,r-pow-er dcvelopment; ['ater is
-1. lrough; from strcamr "itno
eide of the center, There arc, however, sufficient irreeularities in
oheeervoirs to headworks above power plants, every channel to prevent a uniform distribution of veloJities. The
_.
L lrngetion: Water is bmught from etreams or r€servoirr to Iines of equel velocity plotted from a large number of measo."-*ts
I
stooxog€.londs or t&nks or directly
I to land to be irrigat€d for the Sudbury conduit near Boston, Fig. tt5, show a no
o. urty water Eupply: Water is brought from stream8
rtgular distribution of velocities than will be iound in most
reljrv3rs to. ponds supplying city dietribution systems. or storaqe
channels.
S"*:.*g:: City although usually covered condujts or '
'122.
_.-*t
plp€s, ordln8rily are rywers, Wettett Perimeter anrl Eyrtraulic Ra<lius, The wett€d
designed as open channels because thev a* . perimeter P of eny conduit ie the line of intersection of its wetted
not supposed to flow full but to bave e Irce
pheric pressure,
*r.fd;A;;i"; gurface with a cross-sectional plane (Art.
100). In Fig. 116 the
wetted perimeter is the length'of the broken line o6cd. In a cir_
w cular conduit flowing partly full the wetted perimeter is the art of
a circle.
 OPTT{ OHANNSIA
Ibe hydrautic radius I ie the &res of oross soction of t'ho stro'm
diviled 6v tbe wettad perinetor. Ono<frnnol fgrnulaa expryg
the velocity as s funotion of tlo
bydroulic rodftr'
.!d C@
138. StcadY' Unfo,rn,
tbuonr Slow. Ths iMnit'ions itr
&o. fr0. Trrpoddd cbrotraL
th€so tb,r€e conditions of 0ow, ao
givo in Art6. 46 la E, apply in open+hronel ffow aod shdld bo
reoiowed" The equation of oontinuity
Q ' Al,Yt - AtVt -z1976 " ' GtG (l)
stso applies to any oPen str€an in which f,ow ir atady a,ad om'
tbuous past points 1,2,8, . . - ero.
tlt lincrgr u an OP€o Chltlcl" T'he piincipleo stated in t'bo
g@csl discussion in Art. t48 of the €nefEr conteiled ia s stsom o[
fnid a,re appllcoble to open<hannel flow'
Kit*io fuvrw. Ia open cha,nnels whsrc velocitie in difiout
palta of a crccs 6oatio! aso lot t'b€ eone, t,bs tinct'io oc1lr po
pould of liquid f,owing Post cDY
ora56 sction guc,h as .l{B fut Ets. 117 E*,r, rdhst !./fi
h alP/?o, whem 7 is the mean ve'
hdty iB tbo oro€s soction and a is o
oodqiot rtepoding for itr vslue
uDoa t.ho <listdbutioo of velooities
but alweys being g!@t€tr tbs uDitY.
lto rango of va,rlstlon of c lg aot .trlotr __l- -
wdl determtned but ordinarily liee 31u. 1t?, EEo,,y tD oE@
between 1,1 and 1.2, Eowever, ve' ohrDoil "o -
locity head ln open cha^pele is com-
mdy to,ken as the head due to the. mea,u velocity' t'hat is' c lo
to l *ity. Frcnisa elrpeiln€otal shrdiee nay rcquin
"r.o-"d "qn
a neagurement of the dietdbutioa of velocitiee in tho cro€s sect'i6
end e deteminatim of c'
F'ownc Enngy' Pressure energr iu open-cbannol flow is ordl'
nrrily computed with refertnce to the bed of the cbannetr If the
atrui" filaiteot" pos't section /B (fts. f f7) are apa-ruinatdf,
atnight, the preesure head et ,r{ equsls d, the deptl o! fow' QIr
b th; usugt conditiou in opeu-cbanuel problems. 4 howev€r, t$o
rtream fila,m€nts bave vertical curroture, as, for instance, in f,ow
trrc ar-" or weirs, centrilugal forca csu!6 t'he pretsure on t'he
PROBLEMS 21A
etrcam b€d to be appreciably different from thst corresponding to
the depth.
E|A)alion Energg. Eletrulion etrerry can be referred to any
point of the etream bed in any
select€d datnm, usually the low
particular pmblem. With the detum as shown in Fig. ll7, the
elevation head at point u{. is Z foot-pounds per pound of liquid
,48
passing section
TtuJ h@rg!. The total enerry at section :4.8 is their;fore
Vt
E--*d*2 (2)
2g
and is neasur€d a^s before in foot-pounds per pound of liquid pass-
ing the croes rection. The location of t};'e energy grdbnl, assumiag
straight Btr€s,m filaments eo that the. pressure heed equels tho
depth, ie Vz 1Zg afuve the surfaco of the strcan, whereas tho
hahaulh ndtienl coincides with the strcam eurface.
Pn'OBL.EUS
-
1. Conpute rl, P, and P for esch of th€ channel crogs s€ctiou sborn
ia Fig. A. Deptb d = 5 ft. Eottom width 8 iu (D) l0 ft; ir (c) 3lt
a If 0 = 200 cfg in prcblem l, comput€ IZ for osch crogg section,
(pffiD
(o)
- $rt
(0t
cc
Fig. A
& If c f,ow of 60 cfs is to bo ccrried in E fume et e velocity of 0 ft
p€r !sc, comput€ tho dimonsioDs of the cms6 section if it ir: (a) mni-
ciroular; (b) r€ctsngular with the width equal to twice the depth; (c)
tr&pomidsl with A = d aud side elope a = 3 horizontol to 4 verticcl.
tlu Compare the wetted perimetels ond hydraulic radii of the threo
difioretrt forms.of cross section of problem 3. \fhich of tho thns foroa
crrrieg the given flow with the least areo of chaunel liuiqi?
6. A oonduit is to have a croBs-sectionsl eres of l0 eq ft. Computr
tbe wstt€d p€dneter ond hydreutic radiua if the mctioa ia: (a) oircular
Soring firll (ppe); (D) micircula,r open er'm.el.
 2t4 OPEN OIIANNIIA
Tfitr oHEUY FOnMULA N
morn commonly ueod open-channel foroular ert glvon in thefolow_
Ilnllolm l[ow lng p8ges.
tiead. Figure tl8 represonts an open channel of oon' Ul8. The Chezy Formula. This fuadementsl
180. Lost - qpplies eirher ro open ch*unels
law of turbulent
stsnt width with str.ady, unifonn flow in the rtach of hoqirontol
Jencth tr from point I to point 2' By definition of uniform flow,
fowwas.originally
it
o" t" plp*leJ.
used for.open channels. ft ir aerivj,
,A;,ffiffi
nsthT
)nelepth d and the mean velocity y ere consta.nt throughout the _natically
by assumins: (I) thrt the prism UqrfJ
t'iii
ri:ch.' As a result, the bed of the channel, the wator surfaco, and ll8 moves downhill without cliange in shape, "f and (Z)"fr"*
unit of a,rca of the strerm bed ofreri resl"tan;;
thrt egci
the energr gradient are all parallel.
io the square of the velocity,
il;d;fi;i
t"
Since iitJene"gy gradient is a graphical representation of tolol -the
€nergy or total head, the drop in the gradient is a measur€ of lct
Assuming unifonn flow,
.heads, depths, areas, velocities, pressure
aad velocity heads are the seme at the
neea.- fn Fig' ff8 the loss of head due to friction in lengt'h Z le two ends oiili"'rd;:
The lost herd i/ is therefore
indicated by fu. Thentiohl/L, orthe loes of head in feet per fogt'
cbannel in the horizontal distance
t" tf," aropio;;"il;;i,ffi
"qu"ftr. Th" d";;;;;;;;H
are usually so small that it mev be assumed
ilt ;;;;;l;ff
equals the horizontal length and that
sla , : ta,n 6t _ h./t.
Since the velocity is constent, tt" -. a
gravity parallel te fts qhnnnel b"d "oiopooeof U d;i;; ;
resisting the fow. The gravity component -*fd;J;;;#';r;
is
UAL ain| = nALS (4)
.l being
.d ucurg ule
the area
arca ot
of cross section,
section- TlIe urdt rrsisting forcs
(tau) is assurned to v&rjr 8s some poryer r
Ftq. 11&
of the velocity
velocitv so
Th: t1t8l resisting force is therefore ("U;F;;;ffi't;^*;
. := trip.
ea r tatn
wettadperimeter. Thence
b the slope of the energl gradient, and is represented by the symbol
S.. Witir unilorm flow, the slope of the energy gradient 8, the UALS : (W,tpL /r\
(o,
elope of the stream sur:face 8r, ond the slope of the stream bed 86
ard,, efuoo A/P I n,
atr all equal. loRS =
gyx (6)
Since frictional losses in open channels and pipes ore of t'he same
early as \ZZS is reported to have
noture they are governed by the sarne laws. To nake the genenl
equation
t
"O:r" of this form with z 2. \/qK. recommended
: sr
liwr as etated for pipes (Art. 96) opply to ope4 channels it i8 nec€r' generel coefrcient
lf ir, *pf.J-iy=l
I
oary only to substitute, respectively, the woids c,lctlt,€l andhgdr.aw e equation 6 recucee to

!
lli'rcdrius for pipe and diameter The base fontulas for pipo
thereforc apply equally to opon channels, Equation 28, page 1971
v= c\/fr
which is ktrowl as the Chezy formula.
a)
,is in the form generally used for open channels. For conveaieooa '.. The value of the coeffcient C vsrie8 with the
of reference it, is rePeated here: characteristics of
the-cha"nel. The formula is not dimengioDall"
v - C"Rtf, (8) a given cbannel,. C and g baving ".;l;;;;;
".-*r.i.*l;lu;;;;:fu;
The further consideration of frictional losses in open chameb
fR, and the dimensional equation iB lt/e* : {fr,. fo .J
th-e equation dinensionally correct,
the*f"i", C _*iL
ie targely empirical, Nunerical values of coefficients and €8' of leugth and time as well as of tho
.f tl" "ji"ffi
Jar,fr-ff
po"enL must be derived from experimental dsts. A few of t'be -rgld

I
w oPDN (nl^NNl'lla n0uorrNBS{t @EmlorENT n;t
Many years of efrort havs boen dovotod to stt€mpts to obtaln wer,e, repeotlvely, I and |; and tbat tboro appcared to bo e 0160
o simpie, comprehensive expreasion for C in the Chezy forrnull' correspondonco botwedn C" and tho rociprocd of Kutter'a n.
Out of the variety of results only thiee oquations aro usod to any stot€d in metric
gr€et extent in modern hydraulics. Tlrese ttrte methods of
""its, trrir formula is

determining the Chezy C will now be discussed' V = : Ett9tt

1
(e)
12?. Formutas for Determining the Chezy C. Kutler Fomit' n
An elaborate investigation of all availtble r€cord8 of measurcmontg whioh, in foot pormd*econd units, ie
of flow in open channele including the Mississippi River was nedo
by Ganguiliet and Kutt€r,l Swiss engineen, in 1869' As a r€sult of __
v: '-'flg
1.48e
(to)
their study they deduced the following empirical formula, com' n
monly called the Kutter formule, for detormining the value of C il Thie ca! be cmsidor€d os the Chew formuls with
the Chery formule:
a1.65 * 0.m281 r.8ll
g- +;- c=
1.486
n
Rx (ll)
c= -+ft(^as.ry) (8)
The coeficient of mugbneos n is to be given the tame value as z
in the Kutter formuls.
Bazin Fqrarntln. This fornula, fint publiahedt in lg97, considers
In this formula, C is expressed as a function of the hydraulic C to be a function of fi but not of 8. E:rprcased in foot-pound-
radius .R, and the slope S, a^s well as the coefficient of roughnese escond units the fornuls is
l, the value of which increases with the degree of roughneas of tho 157.6
channel, Vrlues of z were published by the suthors of the fornule c:- (12)
but not all costruction
mental data hsvs shown
materials
the need
were
of
covered, and later experi'
revising and supplement-
,*G
ing them.
in wlich rn is a co€ffcient of mugbneos. Va.lue of nl pmposed by
The solution of the Kutter formula is given by tablee which
Bedn are given below.
usually acconpany tbe formula' The use of the Chery formub
with the Kutter coeftcient thus becomee much simplified. A short Drac$rtloN or Cgr,xnrr V.er,us or rt
tgble of values of C corresponding to difierent values of E' S, and Sroootb cebetrt or plsaed !tr_ood 0.100
z is given on page 250. Intelpolations may be uecessary in using PlaDLs, arhls! aud briok 0.200
this teble, although with the uncertainty which exists in any Rubble masobry 0.833
hydraulics problen as to the exsct v&lue of n, interpolrtion clcer Eerth chrnnele ol very regular ourfao
. frinary
1.5,1

than tho nerest whole number ie unwarrsnt€d.

egrth cbouuele 2.9
&oepiionally rough cL..."h 3-17
Manning FomwLa. In a trea,tise published in f890, M&nnhC
stst€d that a study of the experimental data then aveilable l€d 128. Determlnation of Roughaese Coefrclent. The roughnese
him to the mnclueion thet the values of the exponents g aud z in cqeffcients, z in the Kutter and Manning formulas, and zr in the
oquation 3 rvhich best r€pr€sent€d the law of 8ow in open cbannela Badn formula, are supposedly dependent only on the nature of
r E. Gaqpillet and W . R, IKullf', Floro ol Walat ia Bioan ard Otlv C}c> the str€s,m bed, For r given kind of channel linilg, for instonce,
rdr, tiuolatior by R. Ilering aad J C. Trtutwire' &i Joh! Stiley & 8or' concrete of uniform smoothtress, n and ,n sre assuned to bo con-
t Robert Mdraitrg, " Flow of Woter ia Open ChlDDola and Pipes"' l}otl'
I Atn4Lr det po ls d claut&t,l&7.
Irnr/'. Ci,il 8lntts. (Ir&ad)' vol. 2O' 1890.
 W OPEN OIIANNITIA COMI'AITIBONOFOPEN-CI{ANNICL},OITMUI.AA
AO
da,nt for all depths of flow and wldths of ohannol. Tho extsnt *fi
to whicb this aseumption is truo neods furthor resoarch, but pmb' n"?.*:'ilL??ffi ill,i"T,,,1"yil-
sbly the v&riation of the roughnese coefficients with form of orm AyrBAot
OpscBrpnoN or CgeNNEt
oection is relatively small. Vl.r ql or n
Values of n based on reconmend&tions by Smbey,l llorton,r lI:sht lS.{ g."t" iq earth, iD beEr conditioe
L:olaorv.tivo. desigu value for unlined .0m
snd Rr,msef are given in the table below, average valuea being ""..r.-f *65 _U
witb eo_mo cuwes, in gopd coaditioq
given lor the various descriptious of channel bed. Slight varll- rrolrugatcd
^gravel, loetal Rurnes snd culverts; u{ired .ozu
liningc mato. calels iD esrth
tiong in roethods of constmction of arti6"1"1 ead grav.el, winding, ia fail cooditios
riolly a,frect the values, Grorvth of vegetation"trgnngl
and {eposits of elgae ^
Urtldr with rough stony beds or wirh ,MN
j*a.J'a,"i'"",'
cguse values of rl to increase. A winding chennel has higher velueo
of r thqn a straight, chennel with the ssme lining, while a nhennel
d:y rubbr:i ;i#
!,r,rtabs wit[ clesrr, rtraight b;"L.,
ful stege ;
iffj'
trf,ffiffi-t *"*-
*cDaiUe6 ut cross section or alinment
coDtsining debris snd obstructiou has it's cepacity reduced not but with so.e pooto aa<l ehoale;
.0d)
only becsuse of incrrase in roughness coefrcient but eloo bossuso lillHtHfJ*tr'deen
RiverE,of jrregulrr cmes section .036
of decrease in croes{ectionel are8. at low glage6; stre3Es
a,Dd

Vgtra or RouoENEss CoEF?tcaEryT rl roB Ug! nc

*?rff Htfi f i"*'i'vegetatiou e''d deb;s .fiOto.l@
.l00 to .t?6
MaNntxo rxD KolTEa Foaust,la
AvEB^o!
129. Conpatison of Ooen-ghauet tronnulae,
Tho Kutter,
Man:ring, and Bazin fonnrilas 161
l)escarrrtor oF CEAlrNw Var,nE ot n C i" th;-C;;rr;";;";'#;"
best klown a,nd most widelv rrsed.
Sosll etraight flunes of bcst plucd timber, or loboratory A large nu-mber of other flow
brase fomulas_ have been published,
[umoe linerl with glaas or 0.000 many of rvhich doubtless possese
Iasest vslus to be ued for ttraight planed-tiober Bumeo nerit. It is not ordinarily advisable, h"r""r;;
ru&r ideal conditions ir 6eld seNic€ (for ,E up to 2 ft) .010 commonly accepted formula untess ;;;;;l;;"
New plaaed tiuber or eood-stave 0umes utrder excellent condi-
ther" i" gooi
Ttre suecessful use of eny open_ch"on.t
L,Ioi?ffi;";r.
tiooe; channels lioed with smoothly fniehed conc.etp; smooth ate howledge of conditions and judgment
io,iluU-frri*i';;#1.
rtraigbi rnetdl flumet without pmieciina bands or jointr (fot
coefficients. Even the most -l^"ffLt_-_q ,ir" . .ifilr.lif
n up io 6 ft) .oul r
engineers .6ny make
Vitrifed ewer pipo, ls.get drrs, well laid; gla,zed brickwork; considerabre error in **"*.o
serectinc coehcrent€, with
good conq€te pip€ .013 enor in their ui*. corresponding
For ooservative deign of ptliltod uetal, wood+tavo' or The Kutter formula has farr r
been the most widelv
oncreie flumes urdet nonnal corditiouo; plaak f,umee with us"a or urr opuo*iaiii;;i,f'"" vears
bofitudiisl bstteos; gunite lining trowelod wit,b ceuelrt The uy
9f lhe Manning foi-
#j,Hffiil fff fiff Lff .iffl
Drtar; conmoD clsy drain til6 .Ol4 mula, which vas first used on ir"l-1.,
Ool&rits U!.d with brick of avetage Eorkmtlrhip; vitriffod ,r*t*r", i*, .n*j fr
cser fips aDd conctete pipe il fair conditiotr, lqhlN eenerallf are recognizing "T
rra advant&ges over tho moru
Ersrotjt .016 1ee1
cunbersome Kutter formula.
Metal &ru with heavy compreesion bere; gmoral value lor
Xutter formula shows d to be a function
otlr fiurc iu poor condition ,017 .The
t\ Mauring formula does not. rf 8.28
of the elone S-
I
I Fted C. Scobe]',
'The ltow ol Wrt€r i[ Flunesr" V. B. Dalorlrrl(,nl d Ehile
fi,.equations 8 and both reduce to C _
i; il;ildif;;
not Bppear in this equation, it t.8lvn"l;ffi;X
I nobort E. Ilortoa, " Somo Bott€r Kuttet's Formula Coe6cteotr"' .8r9. follows tfrrt, ,iil'if," Ji""r,ifr
i of z, wien Eequals I meter, tho
f,croe, Feb. 2t, May 4, 1916' Kutt". *a in" ru"o""io?ri"_iill
tC. E ns,Ds, " trlos of wster iq Dtailsgs CbsDDelsr' U.8. Wrr6i give identical rcsults ondr. moreover,
tne Kutter-foilrita";";;il:
d fultwq t.d''',iql BdLtin l,p,lgn, scme vslue of C for alt dbpe!,
 *tt OPEN CTIANNf,I1I PROBLEMS ?tjt
Tte terms involving tS in the Kutter formulo woro intr6duced
il,rr,ors or C rnori flrl Kutrsn FoE du!'lr
m€ke the formul& agree with the measurements to
Mississippi Il.iver_ by Humphreys and Abbott.
;in;;;;"
flopo
Ityilrsutio R6dilt R iD I'4i
ments ha,ve since been shown to have a possible
These-;;**
3 o.2 0.3 0.1 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.5 2.O 3.0 4.0 6.0 a.o lo.( o
ss 10 or 15 p€r cent. Later experimenG a"
*1""h
".." "i tfr"'"lo-
txI 199 NI 213 2n
.0qn5 o.0lo
.ol2
at
G6
98 l09 \23 t33 tao 154 t6a
?8 8a 9a l(rl ll3 I t36 r42 l{8 t!7 l0a r76 182 lE0 clusions of Ganguillet and'Kutter regarding th" ""ti"n;";;u;;.;;
"""lfy
68 66 76 E3 80 99 r07 l13 t18 t26 136 ra6 lto 159 thg valug.gf rhe coefficient, ,"Jit
52
.016 tlt
.o\7
.t120
a3
35
!o
tl
67
16
65
63 69 64
86 93
EO
9E
u
r03
88
!t2
95 !06
\29 r3a
lll llo t26
3n
rormub "p-p**Thri;;ilil.
would be more Batisfactory with the S t€rms omitted.
{1 16 a9 E' n2 66 70 78 E5 s2 90 l0a Tbe }lanning formula is sirnpler to u." tlun tt
.o25
.030
2G 30
26
a5
2a 33 g7 10 17 61 68 6! T' 7a 8it co .Xutt", t?LoU
n6 217 ;1o* ytrl rhe saTe value of n, gives about the same results
except
loa ll8 lgl l!rc ta7 t5a tc7 173 r78 lE8 196 N2 ror nar.BlopeB.
.dxll 0.010 9E as noted above, the variation of z
.ol3 76 &t 95 !06 1r3 !19 t30 138 l{t t4E 155 165 t70 rla t&t +lth?ugl,
lorm of cross Bection
wiih
,0r6 II A 8t 88 s2 loit l09 tla lr8 125 l3{ I'lO l$ lAt is relatively small, it appears that for
a chan_
.ot? 4E 66 62 70 75 80 E1t s5 99 tol !t! tt8 t5 pa l3E nel ot a glven roughness and slope there is slightly
95 lq2 l07 tt1 llE less variatiou
.w 36 46 50 83 67 8l E5 88
of n with hydraulic radius in the Manning f""rrrlf, tfr*
.c2! za 3"1 38 17 49 6l 60
ta
6r 67
65
70
!0 u
8l 80
?5
93
g)
9a
86 Kutter formula. For the smoother _li"
.030 23 31) 35 39 a2
tfr" *fr" lf]l"n
t7t "t "."""f"
the.Bszin formula appears to vary consia"""lfy
.t&t 0.010 l06 1l! t25 187 ll5 150 t62 10e r78 lE6 193 t98 2U' 206
1{{ l{8 l5a ra2 t67 r70 176
*iin tfr"iva"*fi"
-ol2 &] 92 100 lt0 lr7 139 radiue,
.015 6l 09 76 &t 91 90 t05 llo lla l!8 t21 t{0 ra5
.ot7 50 36 1? 7E 83 90 07 lm l$ tl0 1t7 t26 t80
PROBLEUS
.020 t2 IE 5A 00 05 88 ?6 8:t E6 8a 9a 100 106 r0E ll8
a0 a5 to 11 60 05 6E ro f6 E3 86 90 OE

, 1. Determine tbe discharge of a new planed_timber dume of re._

30 35
-o26
.oito 26 2a ao a3 {9 63 !6 t9 63 69 71 n t8
tongu-lar crosa sectior 4 ft wide, dowiag Z it A""p,
l{o lla lt3 t6{ t7t t?1 tE4 192 19? l9E ,03 per 1000 ft.
ilii.i; il;
.(u)r 0.010 llo \21 128
ll3 t20 125 l3a l4l t16 la9
17E
163 l0t 165 108 r72 "itf, "
,oL2 87 96 t03 3. Determine tbo discharge of e concrete.lined conal
.olt 0{ 7A 67 93 98 106 ttz !r6 ll8 r30 l8{ 137 ra2
of a trapezoidel
.0u u G2 68 76 80 &{ w 98 lol t0{ ll0 tto 120 t23 va croos Eectiotr, bottom wjdth E f!, depth of flow
E Jt, ,id",l"p* il-;;;;:
ot 8a 9r 99 to{ r06 tl0
-o2o 43 60 66 87 70 E6
92
rontal to I verticol, elope 3 ft p€r mrle.
.gz5 32 z7 12 17 6l 65 60 66 08 70 82 86 88
38 {1 +l 60 6{ 6f 69 G} 08 7N 75 80 8. A circular coacrete s€wer 6 ft in di&meter and flowing
.030 2$ 30 half full has
a slole of 4 ft per mile. Determine the discharge.
o.ol0 lr3 l2t !32 143 lto 165 t72 t7a l&1 190 t9l 197 ,ol
.001
,ol2 88 tt 106 tl6 t2r
155
186 712 ta5 ra9 l5il 16n ta{ l6? lrl 4 A dredged river chanael with eandy bottorn*has a bottom widtb of
€lt 76 E8 9a 9E r07 ru116 ll9 t23 t3{) 133 136 UT 140 ft, depth of l0 tt, aod eide stop& of i h";^"t"f
t" r ,".li"lf."iiii"
.016
,ol7 55 0i]
EO
6a 76 8l 86 92 OE {n t05 lt0 lt9 t22 ll5 tn fall is 6 in. per mile, determine the discharge.
.020 a! tl 60 c2 6{t 7l 7E g a7 80 93 9E t03 l05 !00
ga aa 55 6l 65 68 ?0 EI 8a n 0l 6. An esrth canal canies a depth of waier of 6 ft. The
canAl
ft wide on th€ bottom and has side slopes of l.s horizontii ;""i;;i; is 20
.@5 33 a3
.()3{) 31) 3a a a6 ao u 67 69 6i, 6E ?t ll 78

te! ,q) 0,0002. Ueirg a value of n of O.OZS, compute ttre ;#;;;;;;t

.ot 0.olo tr4 t:25 l{l l5l l!6 t65 t72 176 178 lE4 t90 !94 1S_=
Manning formula, aud with this discharge deLrmine, ("t;;";;";;
,ol2 89 99 l(n tt6 t22 tza 136 !12 la5 l6!l 159 t0t 160 t?o
tl9
.ol6 CT 8r 96 09 lal t13 110 ll9 t23 t2s t33 r80 lal, n in the Kutter formula; (D) the value ot io tlu norln io" "'
.ot7 6
70
oa 09
EO
n a2 EO 93 99 toi| t06 lo0 l16 rl6 rrl t16 -
6. Whst should be the slope of e planed_timber nu.u,
rf..'--
.oro a6 52 a, 0i1 ca 72 &l a? 80 98 9E lg!, lo6 to8 i"
the "*l"o*tn.
g) 6it E' g) croes-section, to carry 120 cfs if the width is 6 ft and
.@6 3{ 39
n tlt
t4
35
a9
89
T2
3
66
15
63
6l
65 08 70
t6 68 !9 63 tt 7g n is to be 4 ft?
d;ihll;;;
,o80
7. What ehould be the slope ol a semicircular emooth steel flume with
rqooth joints to carry 100 cfe, the diameter of the
nor"e Ueins iiti-*
8. e&fh canst is to carry 400 cfs at a mesn u"fo.ttv oiZ.i ii
gec, {l
The eide Blopes a.re ro bo Z horieoatat to I vertical. " d;;;f-;;
o""

t
 2K' OPEN OTIANNT]IA
ALTIRNATE STAGES OT TLOW
w&to! i! to be one-fourtb of the bottom width. Asrumlng that tho
cu.nalir to be hept in good condition, find the n€coa8rry slopo. For a rectangular cross section, the dischargo per foot width of
L A V-sliaped channol, built of unplened lumbor, csrris 30 ofr st a channel is
mlocity of 8 ft psr Eoc. Esch oI the eidee na'keo an anglo of a6 d€gr€6 tt= d!2s\H - d) (10)
with the horizontal. Determine the alope.
10. A roctangular coi*ete.lined canat ir to corry 80.cfa, Tho bottom The variation of g with d, from equation 16, with If given a
widttr ia to be twice tho deptb. I9hat ehould be tbe dimengious of ths constant va,lue of 10it, and for values of d from zero to I/, is shown
strssm cro€s section if tho alope is to be 0.001? in Fig. 120. It appears from 10
11. Whgt would bo the probable depth of flow of a river si low stsg€ the curve that, within the limits
I
300 ft wide carrying 10,000 cfs with s fall of I lt por rnile. Aasume indicated, there are two. depths
8
R= il. (illustrated also by d and ds,
lt Detormine tho proper size of a semicirculsr wood-ctsvs ffum€ to Fig. 119) at n'hich any given
carry 600 cfs across a valley 3000 It wide with o drop of 2 ft. 56
discharge will flow rvith the A
19. An earth canrl in good condition, having a bottom width of 12 oo
ft and aide elopes of 2 horizontal to 1 vertical, is desigaed to carry 200
same energy content, that is,
with the same total head 11.
{r
cfa. If thi slope of the c&qal b 2.1 ft per mile, deiermiue tbe depth of
For example, rvith 11 = 10 ft,
water.
ll|.A rmooth-metel flume of ssmicirculgr cross section has & di&motor 50 cfs per foot width of channel
of 6 ft snd I
Blop€ of 0.005. Whai diameter of cotrugat€d met&l fluno will flow at depths of 2.2 and
9.6 fr. 10 20 30 .{0 60 60 ?0 80 90
will be rrquired to have the same capacity? g=Di.ch8lse per toot \Pidth
The two depths of flow are
130. Altemate Stagee of Flow,
The channel illustrated in Fig. called alternate stages, and are Fro. 120, Variatior of dischargo
with depth for coD.stsnt etrergy
119 carriee wat€r st s depth d and nean velocity 7. The total spoken of as the upper stage (Il - 10 ft.).
and the lower stage. Because
of th€ Bmaller cross sectional area, the velocity is greater a,t th€
lower stage than at the upper stage.
v, Also, Irom Fig. 120, for A : 10 ft, 9 reaehes a maximum at a
WS Ls,er sttfr value of d between 6 and 7 ft. The value of d for maximum q
--vt -"".'.'-.-- - is called critical depth and can be determined by difierentiatint
equa,tion 16. Thus
Frs. 119. Two stages of equal euergr.

aa: lH - a- 2 \/H - d :0
d,o
(17)
l,
head II, o: the enerry per pound of water, measurtd above tho
from which
bed of the chonnel is
\,2 H : &d, ot d":3H (18)
H:d+A (13)
where d. denotes crilical depth.
whence Critical depth is the depth at rvhich, for a given total head, the
v - ta@=@ (14) discharge is a maximum, or, conversely, the depth at which a
given ffow occurs with a minimum content of encrg-y.
If l{ is the area of cross section, the discharge of the channel is Substituting $d. lot H in equation 16, when d - d",

A: A./2s@=6 (15\
q : t/g- d"x or ,-"8
*"-\s (le)
 2At OPEN Clt^NNlit,ll
CROBB BECTION OF OREATI,;8T I.)I]TICIENCY zli!
yith Il = r0 ft, d" = 6.67 ft, and o -. {)?.0 cfs. Criricrl rlepth cause of the w4l'y stresm surface which ir chlracterietic of unifort
for any g in a rectangular channel can be computed from the second
flow st or near critical depth, the design of channels with elopea
50
lornr of equation lg. near the critical should be avoided as lar as possible.
45
Ii g in equation 16 is given
40 the value 97.6 and .fl is then
plotted against d, the curve of PROBLEMS
35
530 Fig. 121 is obtained. The 1. Computc criticel depih for a rectangular flume 10 ft wide carrying
A% upper leg of the curveis {00 cfs. Draw the depth-energy curve for valuqs of d from 2 to 8 ft.
{zo asymptotic to the line Il :d, 1 Critical depth in a rectangular flume 5 ft wide is 2.61 ft. Computo
since as the depth increases the discharge.
the velocity head approaches 3. Whet sbould be the alope of a planed-timber flume, rcctongulsr in
zero. The lorver leg is asymp- cro€s Eection, to carry 30 cfs if the width is 4 It &nd the deptlr of flow le
totic to the .11 axh, since as to b€ 1.5 ft? trs the fbw at upper or lower stage? Deiermine criticll
45 60 16" depth tlopth aad critical slope for ihe given discharge and width.
3,',0---T*03
I'=Total head decreases the ve-
(ene.8y)
ra}dy incr,eas.e,s, I Water ia flowing in a rectangular flurne with a velocity of 1Z.g ft
Fto. 121. Va arion of enersr lTiY_|",|- per gec and e depth of 3.20 fi. Is the fow at upper o1 lower stago?
depth for constant discha,rg€ "rrh reaching o at zero depth. 'Whct is the alt€rnate
depth of flow with equal energy?
(c - 97.6 cfs). The depth of minimum energy
6. Detormins the criticel slope of e rectongular smooth concreto
fumo 20 ft wide which ir to carry 50 cfs per foot of width,
and as shown inequation ,, n* *"tll,lf..?*t1['ill:liffi::
note that the velocity head then equals
{I/. Hence
1311, Crcee Section of Greatest Eficiency. The most efficient
l'"2 a- cross section of alr opetr channel, from a hydraulic standpoint, ir
ot vc-\/sdc (20)
i=; the one whic\ with a given slope, sr€s, and roughness factor, vill
Equation 20 provides a sirnple criterion for determining whether lave the na:rinun cspacity. This cross section is the one having
a given.stream is florving at upper or lower stage. If thl velocity the smsllest w8tt€d perim0l,,lr, cs ca,n be seen from an examination
head is less than half the depth, florv is at uppei stage, rvhile if of one of the open-channel formules. There are usually practicol
th'e
velocity head is greater than half the depth, florv is at lorver stage. objections to using cross sections of greatest hydraulic efficiency,
If ttre. velocity head equals half the depth, florv is occuning"at but the dimensions of such cross sections shquld be known and
.
critical depth. adhered to irs clixely as conditions appear to justify.
It will be observed from !.ig. 121 that, at or near critical depth, Of all open*lraunel crocs eections havi::g a given area, the eeml.
I a-relatively large change in depth corresponds to a relativeiy smali circle has the smallest wetted perimeter, and it is therefore thc
change in energy. Florv in this region is therefore quite unstable cross section of highest hydraulic efrciency. Only a few engineer-
I
and is us'rally indicatcd by excessive turbulence and charactqristic ing materials oJ constmction, however, are edapted to s eeml-
rvater-surf ace undrrlations. circul cross section, sheet metal or steel plates which take tensile
Critical Slope. For any given discharge and cross section Btress resdily and can be supported along the 6ides of the flume
-131,
of channel there is ahvays a slope just sufficieit to maintain flow being best adapted to it. Wood staves, supported by metal tie
at critical depth. This is termed the critical slope. The numerical rods, are adapted to the semicircular cross section. Semicirculsr
value.of this critical slope can be computej by the )lanning cansls have frequently been lined with brick or Btone masonry
frrmula, or other op'en-channel formula, after the critinal deptfr and hsve also been built using prccaat concrete sections.
corresponding to lhe given discharge has been determined. be_ The semicircular cross section is not well odapted to flumes built
of planks and structural timber or of concrete poured in place, nor
 OPEN CHANNDUI
CNOgg SI,CIION OF CREATEST
to unlined canals in earth or gravel bocquse these soils wilt not EFT.ICII,NCY 257
stand on a steep slope. For such construction materials, theref; from which the relation between , q'ater and bottom
a recbngular or tr&pezoida.l cros€ section is ordinarily used. of canal of the most efficient ,."$:ll:i width
tapezordal cross section can
Timber flumas are ordinarily built with vertical sides. tained for any t"l"; ;i'r:'*'' be ob-
..
Iining can be placed on any slope up to I to I without
Co".*t" From equatioos 2l and 28,
fo"rnu bui
for steeper slopes, forms u." Asphalt and il;;;
have also- been used in lining "uqui*d. *n"tr. UotioJ R,:A Bd + sdz
trapezoidal
earth banks will ordinarily not stand on slopes "t greater P =B+ u\/I +7 (n)
th;;
honzontal to I vertical, whereas canals in sendy met€rial
ani Substituting I from equation 26 and reducing,
tiver levees may require side elop€s as flat as B to i.
&; =,d (%)
or, the trapezoidal cross section-of greatest
tua#.l.ic efficiency has a hv-
equal to one.half the depth vr
of
iaqius
Expressiag d in ter"" water.
w&E€r'
,;;J;i"P!u
rom equations 22 and 26,
(0) "f
Frc.tn c,IA
: - /- (2s)
zrlr- +7 - s
Properties of trapezoidal eections and methods of determininr Substituting this value in equation
23
eec_tiors of greatest efficimcy are shown i" tlu
In Fig. 122, let the side*lope rztio e/d
toUo*ing ;G;: P=2,y'7.Y'_=-
- s. Tbelr I + s2 -
" {ao;
from whicb A:Bd+s& (21)
Equ&ting to zero tle n.st ae.iurt
to s and reducin;,
- =,r;:
B'4a- d (n) aad the section becomes a half
;:t#Pect
AlBo h (Fig Thus, of all
the trapezoidal sections (ia,.rudinlxagon
th,e-rectansle
.l22c)
the hatf hexagon h; for a
p = B+,2dJt+V =!- *+u{T} (23)
;:-";;iliq
oost efficientiross.""i.rn"r_--,..r
siven area,
)
penmeter and' is therefore
tbe

As.suming .,{ and o constant and equotiag to zero the first deriw- f r:::*: *:":fl lf :Tr. r,, the middre of rhe warer
withia ;;"."-:;;;;' ;'ffi;JH:
surface
tive of P vith respect to d, ff i]*"+'_,I"'T:ribed
ciency- "
This is illistratea tor a trrp_
'iZS.
dPA ezoidal_ cross seciion in
nrg.
i;=-;t-a{214:f}=s (a) OA, OB, ancl Ot'rru a.r*n ?"o_
polDt (, on the ceDtor line of
a
E

the water
Substituting for z{. from equatim 21, sudare perpendicular to the
sidps of
Bd+ se the chanrol EF, FG, and ClI,
respee_
---E--2!r*l-s (26)
lv,ely. ^Ia1
: GH = z; Fi-:
BP B; .Frs. 123

"1=:*!!,:::::1.?:
P
=^! 1" o"r"*, .4 = area of section and
8=u(\/IlF?-r) = wetted perimeter. Thuo i; the figure
(28)
A-n*|Bd and p:2t*B

*
\
 d

268 ol'llN (illAN N r,il-s U}gTRUqTIoNg AND BENDg 2Eg

Since i = *d, within di-fferent parts of the sa.a
n* lBd. it
R -4p- 2x+ B 2
from which
r=d ;;;plm+1pnn-**-*rm'ffi
left-hand bank lying above ordi
wirhtrees"",ri*i"g#tj"""';TT"t5lil:fl
Thst is, Od, OB, snd OC are all equal, and a semicircle with the lower portion. Rocks and other %p""#"ffi
cent€r et O ie tangent to the three sides. varying conditions of turbulence. "b"_"i i"""g";;;il";;
133. Circular Sections. The maximum discharge from achan- their efrect on tlre cocftcient
nel of circular cross section occurs &t a little less than full depth,
of roughness is diffcurt t
d"t"r-il"l
There are times when the enci
as con be seen from an ex&minetion of open-channel formulas. Iu
the investigation of a particular channel n and S are constsnt. """tn""""*t11";il,#;-Jffi r"ffii:t"f".-i1ff.f
cunstances it is usual to nake a
nel.to determiae a slope of water surface ."l;t"d ;l;;;: ""ffi
zurvey of ,
From Fig. 124, r being the radius of tbe circle,
,J;;;;;
r=ffxz- (32)
section to use with an open_
channel foraula. The de_
gree of accuracy to be se.
and
cured fron resultg obt&ined
, -tT;u xrP+\f sins (33) il this mgDner will denend
largely upon the abilitv of
With theee equations au expression for tho engineer to judge oi the tr\o. 125. Clamel rith irregular
c!o3s sectio4
AR)t cao. be written, difierentiating which efrect of tho various fectorg
and equating to zero, the value of 0 which upon the coefficient of rouchr
makes I a maximum is found to be 57o
"t".. ",.*.. r""i,;#Hlff; *TlTl"H":nffi"":*Tf
40'. The corresponding depth of water is frel l.r.om condirions causing
d - 0.938D. Other open-channel formulas *:1rr
lncreases, and the water eurtall
turbulencel;';h#"r"
give substantially the ssme result. This open-cbannel formulas apply more
assumee
I ;;;; --o-'*
accurately. ;#;;",".-rn
Fro, 124. Circulor menns that a pipe carrying water not under where an open-charuel forrouJa must
be aipplied to an irrecular
pressure, when free from obstructions and section such aa rh.ar indicared in
chauel.
laid on a true grade, l'ill not flow full.
Fig. 125, n,
into hlo portions by a oerticol line
i"rriati i'iiiia
mc, and th" di".b"rg* ;;.;;_
Since there is alwaye lilelihood of slight backwater, it is usual puted for each portion BeDsrately.
A" th" t;;;;;;;;;;
to assume that the maximum capacity occurs with tbe conduit - roughr:ess, different .o"m"i"ot ulJula- t-Li""t"a
f,owing full. ,Tiffj,.t"*
134. Irregular Channels. Open-channel formulas do not apply 136. Obstructions and Bendg.
The moet common types of
sccurately to natural streams since the chanael sections and slope obstructioos in open chennels
-r,o,i; weirs, and
of watcr surface vary and the flow is non-uniforn. At the lower l"iagu piu*. ffi#':"1.1,".,:'-0f""*"a
..sutrrng lrom weirs and.gates,
gatee arr
Et&ges, stre$ms usually contain alternating reaches of riffes and treaced ia *rli".
ebck wat€r. Duriag high stages this conditiou largely disappears,
"" "fr"r"ri-
piers, Fig. 126, corutrict a channel and obstruct
_Bridge
The loss of head, i,, or the amount the flow_
and the wst€r surf&ce becomes approximalely parallel to the aver- tb"t th";;;;iiiffiH;
sge slope of the bottom of the ch&nnel. The degree of roughness of
natural streame vari€s gr€stly within sbort reaches and eveu
ll ^g
ar€ comparBtively
be of aay imporc8nce except where
"d .y*llly.high. The met
velocities
i-p""t&"t;";;;; fiil.:
 VlulIXx'fY IN NATUITAL H.I,|U,;AMS mr
M OPEN CHANNI'Ls
wher6 mea,surcmantt wero mado, s,Dd tho irrcgulsr liqes are intar-
mining the backing-up efrect of bridge piers during flood stagea ol polated equal velocity lines.
streams. The total loss,of head is ma.de up of three parts: a loss of The curvee in the lower portion of Fig. 128 show the distribu-
hesd due to contractiou of the channel st the upstrreD end of ths tion of velocities in vertical lins. These curvea are called vertical
piers, a loss of heod due to velocity curyes, aad the velocities from which they are plotted rrre
enlsrgement of the chanael at
the downstres,m end, and an
increa.:e in loss of hesd due to
friction resulting from the ia-
T
crrase in velocity in the con-
tracted portion of the channel. !
On account of the higher ve- I
tr:o. 126. Bridge pier. I
locity, the surface of the water
between the piers is depressed, the vertical distance, h, measuriag I
the increa.se in velocity head plus the loss of head. The distancs T
h - hc iB & rue&sule of the velocity hesd reconverted iato static
,
head.
Piers should be so designed as to permit cha'trg€s in velocity to
I
occur with e minimum smount of turbulence. Figure 127 repre- YESTIOII IELOOI OURYEI
Not : llrlF .! lot ot olln bluorl. !r-.Et!f lxrlua.
aents two horizontel sections of piers. tlaur.. .l lotioo ot o!rr!. ls{torti &... r.lo.Irr r! .L. r.!tl6l
Section ,4 vill cause less turbulence qo $D O 9lO lto r,0 t!0lo !!0
and consequently less loss of head than
section 8. I!r
Cumes or bends in tie alignnent of a
cbannel cause a loss of head in additiou tII
to the loss that would occur if the chau-
nel \ ere str&ight but otherwise uu-
changed. This loss is small for low
I'I
velocities such as occur in earth canals, 7
and ordinarily no allowance is made for
it ualess the curv€s &re frequent and
sharp. Where velocities are relatively
high, a greater slope should be provided
for curved reaches than for tsngents.
Common practice is to allow for loss
ffiffi
!la. l?, Efect of ehape
piers on turbuleoco.
of
i' a
Eotlrolt l iUrlrlo!| nrt!t I toct D.! .6!d roloclt,
tr:o. 128. Velocities iu natural etream,

cslled velocities in the vertical. The following properties of ver-

of head at curves in selectitrg the coefficient oI roughaess for tho
open-channel formula.
136. Velocity Distributioa in Natural Streams. The distibu-
tion of velocities in a river of inegula,r cross Bection, as deteroiaed
from measurements with a curr€nt meter, is sho*a in the upper
portion of Fig. 128. The numerals sbow velocitiee at the pointa
ticol velocity curves bave been detennined from mea.surements of
velocities of a large mrmber of stres,ms and a study of curvee
plott€d ffom them.
1. In generel, the maximum velocity occurs somewhere between
the water surface and one-third of the depth, the distance from
 x2 0PIIN CIIANNt,lt,g
the surf&c€ to the point of meximum nrelocity being proportionally
gr"eater for gr€atar depths of water. For sb"allow sircams ro
maximum velocity is very nesr to the surface; tbr very deep
streama it may lie et &bout one.ihird of the depth. A strong wini
blowiag either upstre*m or down-stream will a"fiect the di$ri;ution
of velocitiee in the vertical
yll,l.lcAL vBLoctTy cuRvE
!rob: tl3!r!.! loD ot .!tr6. hdloda 4.ertDs Dotri.
.t b..t & ol olrir. tliltdt EN rdocltr r. th. tonlod
BotlbEirl dlrl.lot FDt6.!t I t@t !e .@nd r6to.ltt
Fro. ll9. Velocitiea in ice_covered stlesq.
- 2. The nean velocity in the vertical is ordinarily at 0.S5 to
0.65 of the depth. The velocity at 0.6 depth is uzually within b
per cetrt of the me&n velocity.
3. Tbe mean of velocities ot 0.2 depth and 0.8 depth rxually
gives the nean velocity in the vertical withia 2 per cent.
4. The mean velocity in the vertical is ordinarily 0.90 io 0.95
oJ the surfsce velocity, The smaller percentage applies to the
ab.sllower strea,ms"
These four propertiea of vertical velocity eurvee are nade uss of
PROBLEMS M
ia meaauring tho diocharge of streams. Mern volooitio in ruccs-
eivo verticals are 6rst obtained by meaeuring tho velocity at 0.0
of the depth in each vertical or, where greater accuracy io required,
by tnlring the meen of the velocities at 0.2 Bnd 0.8 of tho depth.
The mean of velocities ia any two adjaeent verticala ie considerod
to be tho neen velocity between the verticels. The area between
the verticels baviag been determined, the discharge through this
portion of the cro88 eection of the stresm is the product of r.hir
area and the mean velocity. The sum of all dischargee between
succes8ive verticels is the total discharge
The distribution of velocities in an ice.covered strea.m, I'ig. 129,
is xoodifed by tbe rrtarding influence of ths ice. The cmount of
thie rctsrdstion exceeds the skin friction of a freo water eur{ace,
and tbe maximuro velocity therefore occu:l ne&rer mid-deptb-
The medn velocity in the verticsl for an ice-coverrd stream is uot
et 0.6 depth, but the me.an of velocities st 0.2 8nd 0.8 depth
givea epproximately the mesn velocity the ea,me e,s for e etreatn
with a free gurfac€.
PROBLEUS
1. If the moet efficieat of oll crosa sectione ca,! b€ ueed, whot ahapo
and eir,e of opeu channel would you recommend to comr 300 cfg witb a
velocity of 7 ft per sec?
L An opeu eewer is to be of most eficient cros8 section end lilod with
brick, wel.l laid, on a grade of 3 ft per mile. The flow capecity ir to be
1000 cfa. Det€rmine the proper cross section,
3, If the moet eGcient of all trapezoidal cross s€ctions can bo ured,
what shape and eize of open channel would you recommeod to corry 300
cfs with a velocity of 7 ft per Bec.? Colapsre re8ultiDg wettrcd perimeter
with th8t of problem l.
{ WIat should be ihe width and the depih of flow of a rectangular
pbaed-timber 6ume of noet efEcient cross eection to carry gO cf8, witb
r velocity of 5 ft per *c? What grode should the flume have? What
perceatsge lees flow would thie flume carry if d : 2 ft lnd B : 0 ft?
6. Whet ghould be the bottom width and the depth of flow in c con-
crete.lined cgnal of most efficient trapezoidal croes sectioq witb 8ide
rlopes I horiaontal to I vedicsl to carry 40O cfe on a grade of 3 ft por
mile?
8. Fiad the most eftci€Dt crosa Bection and the required grado of a
trapezoidol conal iu cleso earth with good olignment, to cer{r 470 cfa at
e velociiy ol 3 lt per oec, amuming aido eiopes of 2 horizontol to I vorticel.
 2U OI'I)N CITANN Ut,8
ACCULEN-ATED AND NI,JTAITI)I.JI) I.'IOW T
?. Yy'lat should be the bottom width ond tho depth of flow for a oon- theorom in conjunction with a formula for open channel flow.
crete.lined caual of most efrcient crora aection with side olopeo I hori-
,ontol to I vedical to c&rry 1200 cfs oa a grade of 5 ft per mile? lfbrt Abrupt changes, with the accompanying secondary effccts of
is the velocity oI flow? vertical curvature of the otream liaes when t\e flow is accelerated.
8. Determine the slope in feet per milo that a circular concr€to sorv6r, and excessive turbulence, waves, and surface rollers i, hen tbe
floJ
6 ft in diameter, must have wheu flowing at ite maximum copacity ll la ret&rded are sometimes more difficult to analvze_
the mean velocity is 8 tt per Bec. The variety of conditioru encountered in open_channel flow
is
0. A trapezoidal concrete.lined canal is to have Bide rlopoa of I greater than in pipe flow both because of the existence
of the free
horizontal to 1 vertical ond a bottom width of 8 ft. Wbat will be the Burfece and also because of the two alternate stagas of
nov, wiii
depth of flow for beot hydraulic efficiency and what will be tho capacity eq,'al energy. Only a few of the most frequentl/occufring
casee
of the csnal if the grade is 2 ft per urile? can be considered here.
10. A planed-timber flume ie to h&ve I rectangul$ cross aection of
best e6ciency. The velocity is not to exceed 8 ft per sec on a grade of . Ir =SLr
6 ft per.mile. What should be the dimeneions of the croes 8€ction srd Smoent I //
the capacity of the canal? Ie 6ow it upper or lower stage? =_-2.
11. An earth caaa,l in good condition is 60lt wide on the bottom a,sd ur,
bas eide slopes of 2 borizontal io 1 vertical. One side slope extends to a,! ,s
elevation of 20 ft above the bottom of tho cauol. Tho other bo*, wbich
iri a practically level meadow at an elevetion of 6 ft above tbo bottom ol
the canal, extends back 500 ft from iho csnal aqd tbeu rises abruptly
The meadow is covered with short graas ald weede, If the slope ol trhe Ir$/er skge
canal ig 2.2 ft per mile, determiue the discharge when ths water ir 8 ft
deep in the caual,
12. The river at flood stage showu iu Fig. 125 hae an sverago slolr
of 0.001, For the main chaanel n: 0.030 and for tho flood plain I -
0.040. Area clcar = 3000 sq ft, area ncde: 9@ aq ft. Wettad Water suface
perimeier clc:200 ft ond cde ='30o ft. Computa the diacha,rgr
when the depth of flow on tho flood plain is 3 ft. Computo th€ fdlc &d-
diecharge obtaiaed by applying the same formula dilectly to tbe eutire
cross rectioD, assu.ming an average v&lue of ,r of 0.035.
ro1s"r
Flo, 130, Gradually accelerated and retgrded iow.
Non-uniform Flow
138. Gradually Accelerated al:d Retarded FIow. The mathe_
13?. General. Uniforrn flow is approached clomly in loiA matical_analysis-
flumes and conduits of uniform cross section and straight gnde but
of the problem of gradually u.."t.*t a L
tarded flcrw G given in this article; if," ."",ilti"*
is difrcult &nd sometimes impossible to secure in short flum€8. *fri.iprJo""
non-ur':' .rn flow of this tlpe are described in Art". 139
"ira
Moreover, non-uniJorm flow occurs where the sbr€3m ent€rg and uredu. I L cr, ler&tion and retardation of flow c&n
;J16.
leaves the shq.nnell a,{ obstructions Buch &9 dans, weirE, or bridge occur al, either
upper ti .r',rer sta,ge, but flow does not ordinarilv pase
piea; snd at changes in the forrn of crms section which may be froro on' :,*ge to the other. Such
cradus.llv
necessitated by natural conditions of soil and topogrephy.
Changes in cross section in open-channel flow may be either
senr r principles apply to both "accelerl,kd
"fruog";uiuJily
and *t .a.ino*. ";;;-
^.The can be best investigated
gradual or abrupt. Gradual changes in which the ffow is either Jhey by considering the cnrnnut aiviJea
In Fig..lB0, (o) shows ac*clerated flow at both uppei
accelerated or retarded mey be anslyced by means of the €ner6/ 11tf.rerches.
and lower stages end (b) shows retarded flow. The length
of resch

t
 206 oPEN CIIANNIII!
in esch case is L, and the slopo of the bottom of tho channel is
8,. The loss of head in the reach is ir'-Str, where S is tho slope
of the enerry gradient. Ir{ean velocitibs at sections and 2,I
respectively, the upstrea,m snd the downstresm ends of the reach,
sre Vr snd Iz2, and the corresponding depths are d1 aad d2.
The mean velocily, V^, area,, A^,.wetted perineter, P-, aod
hydraulic radius, 8-, in thb reach Lre consider€d to be the rneans
of the respeptive values at the two ends of the reach. Slightly
difrerent results are obtained if d,,' is assumed to be *(dt + d2) Bnd
the corresponding V^ and R^ are used. Both methods are ap.
proximations, but the error introduced by their use can be kept
rvithin any desired range by properly limiting the velocity change
in the reach.
Agsuming the datum to be the bed of the channel at the down-
stresm section for any of the four cases illustrated in Fig. 130, the
energr equation is
whencg
# * o,* s"L =H * o"* u" (34)
(H. *) -(#.
L=
&-s ^) (36)
But by the Manning formula
':(#_)" (36)
With & and z knorn and the velocity and cross section ot either
end of the reach given, the distance L to tha cross Bection corre.
sponding to any other depth can be computed directly, If the
length of reach and one cross section sre given, the depth at the
other end of the reach can be obtained by trial solutions of equa-
iions 34 and 36. The latter method is practically always used in
the solution of problems such as backwater in natural etreanN x'hich
are irregular in cross section, slope, and alignurent.
In measurements of the value of roughness factor in channels
rvherg, a^: frequently happerx, it is not possible to obtain uniform
flow, use must be ma.de of the foregoing non-unifgnn flow theory.
The discharge must be measurrd as well as the croes-sectional di-
mensions at each end of the tcst reach, the length of tho reach, and
I'
CONDITIONS PRODUCINO IIIOW 287
the slope of the stream bed. It, ie usually advisablo to determins
the cross-sectional dimensions at several intermediate points in
order to obtain more precise values of Y^ and R^. From these
data S can be computed from equation 86 and inserted along with
computed V^ and R^ in ihe Manaing or the Kutter-Chezy
fornula for computation of ?r.
139, Conditions Producing Accelerated antl Retarded Flow.
Vsrious conditions producing accelerated and retatded flow are
ehown in FigB. 131 to 136. Figure 131 shows a canal with a uni-
forb slope which is flatter thsn the critical slope for a given dis-
e'i d,i
tr\o. 131, Channel with acceleleted flow at upper stsge.
chorge (Art. 131). Water enters the canal from a reservoir and
dischorgea over a fall. Critical depth d" in this case occurs a short
distance upstream from the brink of the fall. O,Brien foundl
that, for a channel with level bed, the location of critical depth
w4s approximetely 12.d, upstream from the brink, the distance
increasing as the slope of the channel increased.
For rectangular channels the discharge g per foot width of stream
and the critical depth are related by the equation
,"=# (1e)
If q is known, the depth of fforv just above the fall can be computed.
f,,guse2 hr" s[s\ 1 that for slopes less than the critical the depth
! M. P. OBrien,
" Analyzing Hydraulio Models for Efiects of Djetortion,,'
Et4, Neus-Recod, Sept. 15, 1932.
tE.Roury, " Discharge Ch*sct€ristica of tbe Free Overfoll,,, Ctuil Enyi
twb t4, Aptn 1936, p. 357.
268 OPtl\ Cll^NNl,il,rl CONDITIONS PRODUCINO rI{)W 2OO

d6 at the brirk is 0.715d", or d" : 1.494r. If d6 can bo m€a€ured,
q can thetefore be computed from the relation
q:\GtE=e.4dt" (37)
Proceeding upstream from the fall the depth gradually increases
but at a decreasing r&te. If the flume is relatively long compared
to the depth of flow, the depth in the upper reach of the channel
may become practically consta,nt, that i^s, the flow may be uniform.
'fhe equations of uniform flow apply to such a reach while the prin-
ciples of Art. 138 apply to the gradually accelerated flow approach-
ing the fall.
The conditions at entrance to the channel can be analyzed by
writing the energy equation from the reservoir to point a. With
the charrnel bed at enirance as the datum, the energy equation is
. Tho determination ol the capacity of a given flume of thie typo
hvolves simultaneous agreement between: (1) entrance conditions,
(2) uniform flow in the flume, (3) gradually accelersted flow in tho
flume, and (4) critical depth relations at the fall. Such a problem
is usually best solved by trial, as showa in the following example.
Exlnrr,s, Determine the capacity of the wooden fume of rectangulrr
cross section l3l if the length ie: (a) b000 ft; (D) gO0 ft.
illustreted in Fig.
The entrance ie rounded with l(, : 0.1. The width offlume is ldftard
the slope of the bed ie 0.001. The flume takee w6t€r frcm a l&rgo
rcgervoir with the water eurfaie 8 lt above the flume bed at entrauco.
There is a frre fall at the diecharge end. Aeeume n
O,012.
Salution. (a) With eo loug a flume the fow for eome distalce b€low
-
the entrance ehould be approximately uniform. The problem cal bo
eolved by aseuming Q, determining by tria,l the depth of uniforur flow for

n*X:a"+$+n" (38)
that Q, then testing the solution by the energy equstiorl st eDtrs,nc6,
Deglectirg velocity besd irr the reeervoir,

uhere.i" is the loss of head due to contraction of the strearn. This

hss is similar in nature to that occurriag at a contraction in a pipe E: d" + r.r IC
24
and can be similarly expressed as The table form is couveuient for the eolution:

n": o.;v-2
(3e)
a do A P R Maodng a v" lu ta + r,7v62l2g

Valucs of K" for open-channel contractions have not been as well cfs ft 8q fi fi ft ft per !€c cfs fr ft
determined as for pipes, but it appears that they are quite similar. Try 5 Ily 6.0 60 2.73 7.U 4€0
'Ihe maximum velue of l(" for square-cornered contraction mav 6.5 65 2.82 7.83 510
thus be taken a^g 0.5 with smaller values for rounded or tapered 6.4 u 22.a 2 .81 7.80 500 0,.05 ?.44 Too low
contractions. With care in design the value of l(" may be reduced Try 6 Try 7.0 70 24 2.91 8.00 560
nearll to zcro. 6.9 69 23.8 2.go 7.98 550 0.9s 7.99 Ots
It, is important to note the drop l. in the water surface at the
entr&nce. This drop rvould occur even if there were no loss of
head since a poriion of the elcvation head in the reservoir is changed
With I : 550 cfs, q : 55 cfs, and by equatiou 19, d" = 4.54 11.
With as smsll a slope as 0.001 the locatiop oI oitical depth at l2do
tr, velocity head at o. 'l'he amount of this drop caD be determined (page 267) or about 54 ft upstream from the fall is sufficientiy accurate.
by uritilg i\e energ"y equation with the watcr rurface at c as Above thio point the flow is at upper stege and the surface curve cau b€
da,tum. Thus treced by successive eolutions of equation 35 for the distance Z lrom a
point of known depth to an upstrcam pointr of assurned depth.
u*U:Hno, (40) :
With d" 4.84 tr, V"r /U = ld. = 2.27 tt and H. d. V cz/zs : + :
6.81 ft.Fiod dietance tr to point at which depth is, s&y, b.00 Wih ft.
dr : 5.00 ft,-7r :
11.0 ft p€r sec, Vf /2s 7.SA ft, and :
= O.Ad it. lir
tu:X -E*u, (41) Mean valuee in the reach ar.e used to determine the elspe oi the euergy
gradient. Thue d^:
4.77 lt, A^=
47.7 sq ft, 11.53 ft per sec, ya:
NO OPEN CHANNELS
@NDITIONB PRODUOINO FLOW nl
P-: 19.64 ft, E^:2.44 ft, and by Manning's formula I = 0.m264.
By oqustioa 35, fton To L 2L
6.88 dopth of dopth of It ft
L: 0.001 - 0.00264
6.8r -0.07 - 43lt 4 4= 5-00 ft 60 0{,
- -0.00164 d. = 5.00 ft dr : 5.50 4ii 103
dr - 6.60 d:= 0.m ta 20
cnd 2Il from brint 43 : 97 ft.
: *
54 4 - 6.m dr: 6.10 OD w2
Eimilrr solutions for luccessiv€ resches gim thee€ lengths:
Stith d. 0.lO tt, Vo,/%: 1.69 ft and d"
- r.rV"r/2c *
6.t0* -
trlonr To L 2L 1.86 =7.06 ft, which is cloao enough agrcemelrt. The dircharge ir
ilept& of d€pth of ft fr thorefors about 640 cfe.
& 4= 4.64 ft 4 61
il,- 4.641t dr * 6.00 43 gf Figure 132 shows a canel with a slope which is steeper then the
dr * 6.00 tlz -.5.fi 166 262
criticsl. Cdtical depth occursclose to the end of the dropdown
th- 6ffi & * 0.00 p6 68{t
curve at the head of the flume. From that point, since tho slope
d! E 6.00 & * 6.60 1062 t7&
& - 0.60 dc : 6.70 1fio 9800
dr - 0.70 dc - 6.80 1170 s970
xa;.

As depth of udform fow, 6.9 ft, is approached tho difiorcncebetwsn

80 sDd S spproacber ,€ro 8[d length -L approachea o for even a small
change irl. depth. The wst€r surfaco cuw€ sctuelly iB raymptotic to tb6
line d : Se, but practically uuiforn 0ow exirts for rGveral hundred feet ilac.Lrst d flon
dowastros; from the eDtrance. tr*lds Poclibl!' unilorm
(6) With the short length of 300 ft it i8 doubtful thst utriform fow llo
exists in any reach oI appreciable length. One method of eolution is to
rssume e value of critic&l depth, trase ths wst€r rurfsce surve upltr€$E
Fra. 1&1, Cha,uel with accelerated for at lorer stsgo.
to th€ entnnce, sld check the eaergy equation at that point. Sinco b ataeper thon the critical, the flow accelerates graduelly but at a
tho cepacity of tho short flume should be grtatcr thau that of the tong decrcasing rote, If the flume is long a condition of practically
0ume i! (a) tho critical depth should be aomewhat larger.
uaifon flow may be established in the lower part.
Try d,: a.7OIt. Then/o: a7.0qft1V,'/2s - 2.36it,Y,: r2.E
Eutrance oonditions are again represented by writiag the energy
ft per Bec, &nd 0= 578 cfs. Traciag the water rurfaco upotream as in equatfrm with rcspect to the str€am bed at c as dstu.m. T'hus
(c) givea the following values

trtom To L 2L
. v2
o+A=d"+i+h"
v"2
(42)
depth of deprn of ft 1t
& tt.:4"7Ott 66 60
Since frlo the theory of critical depth d" - 2H, ,na
it * 4.70 ft th:6fr 43 g0 ence
dr = 6.20 ilz - 6.70 160 268 wt
h, - K, equation 42 can be written
l9ith only 32 ft ol length left, the dopth at entrance would evidently be t,
abou0 5.E ft, with I/":
9.97 It per V"/20 f,65 ft, andM, - 4* n*t* - (s+ $Yri (43)
l.lV /2c 5.8 :r .7 + :
7.5 ft, which is too low.
IYy4:
"t
5.00ft. Theu.do = 50.0qft,V.t/?4 = z.fi&,V.- lln Gredually retarded flow at lower stage is illustrated in Fig. t3il.
It psr soc, aud Q = 636 .1".
Water enters the caaol throirgh a sluice gate (see page'f36). The
 N2 OPEN CHANNDI,E
tritr Irtrqt oF HILII I'I'AOE DOwNsl,&EAM na
loss of head at the gate is shown by the drop [o in the energy Fig. 131 is raised above the brink b the fall lB submerged
gradient. For the conditions shown, flow from the gate is at lower of increased depth (Art. 144) moves upstream into tlie
and a wave
stage, that is, d" < 2V,2/2g. If the slope of the canal is less th&n flume. The
n€lght ot_ thle weve as it moves upstream gradually dirninishes.
the critical, the flow is gradually retarded downstream from point but
ure. clepth oI flow may be increased throughout
a. If the same slope is maintained for a sufficient distsnce,a hy-
the entire
'
and even in the approach channel or head-reservoir. t;J;
dume
draulic jump will occur. (See Art. 141.)

Wrter surface lower 3t!8P

b
Hydreulic
jump

Fro. 133. Channel wiih retelded flow at lowet st6ge. lilo, 136. Ch8aDel rith uall elope ofect of bigb ltoge dorDstrea&,
-
If the water surface downstream from the jump is raised sufr- cgndittgna orr et&bilizod the profile of flow will be similar to thst
ciently to move the jump upstream against the gst€, the flow shown in Fig. 136, with flow at upper stage at eU points,
through the gate becomes submeiged, as showl in Fig. 66b. Ihe onergy relations at entrance a.e
Gradually retarded ffow at upper stage, known as backwater, is "gaio
-__
illustrated in Fig. 134. I'he normal stage of flow, for the given n oE: a"+fi + n. (44)
discharge, slop€, and roughr:ess of channel, is indicated by the
Dowastrca,m from the dropdown curve, if the flume ie lonc. there
mrybe a reach of approximatcly uniform flow, tottowing wn]ch the
depth gredually increases and the flow is gradually retided.
At the discharge end of the flune an enlargement of cross-
sectionel srea occurs, with e loss of head due to enlargement which
cen be expressed as
\,2
Fro. 134, Chaanel with Etarded flo\v otr upper stage Oackwater). - "2s (45)
.{r,-r,uri line z. The overfloy
dam raises the water surfa,ce to an where
elevation depending on the height of the dam and the % is the meaD velocity in the smaller chnnnel. As with
head re" pipes the value of I(;
is larger for a sudden increase of cross_sectional
,rurrcrr pro.lu, e discharge, as determined by a suitable weir forJ
1,o
arpl, than the value of K" for a sudden contraction. Erperiments
'nula. With a knoq n elevation o[ the water surface just upstread
indicate that for c&refully designed transitions in which thu v"to"it
fiom the dam, the principles of Art. 1Bg can be appiied to succes-
change is made to teke place gradually end at an approximateii,
sr., e reaches to determine the rvater-surface
elevation at any desired coDststrt rate .K" roay be made as small as 0.2 or, under particularl|
distrani:e upstieam.
favorable conditions, even l0ss, but for abrupt chances pr&cticalti,
140. EIIect vf High Stage Downstrea-m. If the water_surface
all the velocity head in the smaller channei vrilt Ue t ,,t, tnr.t ii,
elc,'al,iou iLi the cl.annel or reservoir downstrearn from the fall in t'" is from 0.9 to 1.0.
 t
M OPDN CTIANN I)I]J PROBLEMS N8

fie flow at the enlargement can bc analyzed by writing the Iti8 propo€ed to cooetruct g weir in the flume which will rais€
the wet€r
eoergr tb€orem lrom one side of the transition to the other with
surfsce I ftrt
s section l00O ft upstresm. Aceumiag the wat";;;;
a ptaDe Burface, wbat inill be the depth of water 500 ft upstreaD from
rerpect to the stres.m bed at b 8s datum: tbe weir?
tt2 tt2
+'b : 6'
'tI -+t
!'J- +t'r t'' (40) , 4. A discharge.of 60 cfs per ft width of chauuel leavee the spillwEy ol a
daE.wlth a velocity of
"o'29
'f' 29 E0 ft per eec and passea over a corcriet" npaoo
toO
ft wide hoving a grade of 0.005. Dete;mine the depth if
dowDstre&m from the epillwey. "i ""i" tt
If ths water zurface downstream from a flume with eteeper than
6. A concrete-.tind cbeunel with-eide slopes of I to 1 ie 10 ft wido
critical slope (Fig. 132) is raised above tbe brink of the fall, a wave o4
the bottom and has a grade of 0.0025. The diachergs iE 2*;;;.-i;
again tends to move upstream' However, the velocity of flow in propos€d to construct s diveniou gete in the
the flume is greater than the velocity with which the wave tends csnal ifri.n *U U""f up
the water sufficieu y to make the depth I ft iort ,p"t""r- iJi-ti"
to advance (Art. 144). The result is a hydraulic juxop (Fig. 136) g8te. Wbst vill be the depth of water EOO ft upstreem?
which forms in the flume at a position (Ari. 142) depending on the _
6, A Emooth cotcreta-lined chut€ of rcctangular crose eection
6 ft wido
hsE s Elope of I in E0 and cr,rries 3@ cfg. 1t se"tion
xro-,n, e the Je;th-lf
wgter i8 3.8 ft. Whet will be the depth 40 ft dowDstns- t*ml?- -'
L vl
6 7. A smooth wooden flume with vertical eides is S it *iae sJ'has
grade of 2 ft per 1000 ft. There ir a sharIxqested
a
*"i" SJfi lrin;;r-
tending aoosr the dume. Wheu tbe head on the ,"i" ir,-g.i
Water surfacc
6tl e nuch deeper ir the water 200 ft upstree,m from the weir th*
ftl-l"i
upp€r db fi i,""li
Ac,celented llow De-wtth the Ealne quantifur of water flowitg but, with the
weir removed?
Hydraulic
lunp R€trrded . .8, The downetresm.face of a spillway has s Elopo.of 4E t;rJ;
llos JorDa a revel apro! at its lower end. The creet of the epiuw8 is
35 ft
higber. then.the apron. There ie a diecharge p", foot
efiect oI bigb stege dottstrean' l;;sil"of 56;
trlo, 138. Chauel with lalgo alope
- over ttre spillway, the hcad on the crest being 6.0 ft. D;ternino
th6
velocity of the wstq at the bott m oI th" rpiUiay wh""e ii;fu;;;
relstive velociti€e and deptbs sbove snd below the jump The the aprou.
efiect of the higher q}age dowDstres.m ie not trBnsmitt€d upstrea'm 0. A e€Dicbculsr couuete-lircd chgaael, dowing full and
haviry e
farther than the jump, and as long 8s the discharge remains ur- radius. of 3 ft aad.a grade of g ft per mite, cUa"ges
cbanged, there is no change itr the stsge of flow ulxtrea,m from ceool in good_condition hsvirg a botton width
iUruptly;;;.t;
{ual to iwi; tfi;il;
the jump. a-grade of 2.28 ft prer mile, aud side slop€s of 2 horizontal
; tiJiJ
PROBLEIIS
If the concrete-lined chsuuel is 2OO0 ft ioog tn" *"ft i",Jtffi
tt lo-D&-det€rroiro the drcp ia the water eurfece
"oa ir the t to[Dgib-;;
l. A smooth coucrete channel of rectengular cross e€ction 10 lt wide 10,0@ ft.
haviug a level grade terminates in a fall' The diechorge is 400 cfe' (o) 10, An-egrth cqDal in good condition carrying 800
. cfe and hayin{ rido
Whst is the depth of water 1000 ft upetresm lrom the fall? (6) Eow Blopes ot z honrontsl to I vertical hrs A bottom
width of 16 ft ind g
fat upstreem to o dePth of 5 ft? depth-of 5 ft. This section cootiauee from Ste. 0 ;;;;.
& A concrete spillway chonnel 1500 ft lotrg with rectengular crosa
;i-and;-"h
from Ste. 48 to Sts. 80. Froxo St8. 45 to Sts. 4g ," ,p".;;;;.H;
section 12 fi wide having a level grade receives water through a rounded wooden flume, g0O tt lolg sld havias a widrb
Sit j.pti;;
eutlance from a reservoir rnd terminates io g fsll. Wben the waior car.n€s tlT water across e rsvioo. Arauming"fabrupt";tl
surfsce iD the tesewoir is 6 it higher thoD tbe bottom of the chanael,
1!, ;
O to "h"";;
uoD, deterEitre the drop ia water eurface tron Sta.
Stg. m.
what is the diecharge? 11. An earth canal in good condition with side
8. A smooih wooden 6ume wiih verticel eider is 8 fi wide ond ha€ a to I vertical card€s 200 cfs at a velocity of 2 ft per
"f"p""
Jii,l,!.ir*t"t
grade of 0.002. The diacharge h 190 cfs, the deptb of wst€r bei4 3 ft. water i one-tbid of bottoe width of cr-t. tti"
;". Tfi;;;
**f abd*gE i;
N6 OPEN CIIANNIII,S I'()HI'I'ION OF IIYDITAUI,I(J JIIMI, 277

jump there ie a surface roller with charactoristic turbulence

a flums with a tapered entnnce, the conclitions l)eiEg 6ucL that the loss and
of head ai entrance is one-half of what it would be for an abrupt change boiling ol the water and &ccompenying loss of herd. This loss of
in eection, The flume is 7 ft wide and has vertical sides. The slope head is indicated by ft;, the drop in the energy gradient.
of the 0ume is such thai it carries 200 cfs et a uDiform depth of 3,5 ft, . Consider that in a short interval of time the mass ol waler abcd,,
Determine how much the bottom of the flume should be above or below Fig. 137, moves to e/gh. kt changing positiorx the water loses
the bottom of the canal. momentum. The unbalanced force acting to retard the mass must
12, A plened-timber flume of rectangular cross section 16 fi wide equal the rate of change of momentum. (See Chapter IX.) If
hanng square-cornered ends connects two reeervoirs 300 ft apart. The the unbslarced force F acts upon the mass M for the time l,
bottom of the flume is level and is 5 it below the wate! surface in ono
reservoir and 2 ft below the eurface itr t'he other reservoir' Determine -
Ii:
MV, - MV' (nD
-:t(I,r_Vr) (47\
Lbe discharge. t g ' \'r''
g being the discharge per unit width of channel and 1, the unit
141, Hydraulic tump. The hydraulic jump is an abrupt rise
weight of wat€r. The unbalanced force is assumed to be the dif-
in water surface which results from retarding water flowilg at the
ference between hydrostatic pressures corresponding to the depths
d,2 and d1, or

^ dr'u dr', (48)

22
-Q!Istd$!!__2-c___ Equating 47 and 48,

- dr' _
! rv, _ v.t =dr'--r-: (d2
- d)(dz + d)
g,', 'r'- , (49)

Substiiuting g/d1 ior V1utd. q/d2 for 22, and reducing

Irvr€r stagt Upper slaae
Fro. 137. Hydnulio julop.
lowerstage. The change in stage is from a depth less than critical
depth to one greater than critical depth, but because of the loss
of head in the jump, the depth aJter the jump is less than the
altemate stage of equal energy be{ore the jump.
The hydraulic jump could be considered along with the abrupt
translatory wave (Art. 144) since each is ir uanifestation of the
6&rlle phenomenon. It is convenient, however, iDasmuch as the
hydraulic jump has many useful applications requiring special con-
sideration, to investigate it independently. The pressure-momen-
tum theory of the hydraulic jump in channels ol rectangular cross
EectioD. is given in this article; the florv conditions producing the
juup and afiecting its location are described in Arts. 140 and 142.
The hydraulic jump is illustrated in Fig. 137. A channel width
of l ft b assumed. Mean velocities before and after the jump are
respectively Vt and, Vz. The depth, in changing from d'1 lo d2,
passes through the stage of critical depih. In the region of the
-
f := , . dr*dz
-0"2AlAr (50)
The usual form of solution is with q and one of the depths given to
-
solve the resulting quadratic for the other depth. The loss of head
in the jump is then the difrerence in tot&l he&ds before and after
the jump, neglecting the effects o{ loss of head due to friction or
those of channel slope, but in the short distance required for the
transition the in€uence of these factors is comparatively unimpor-
tant. Experiments from a number of sources indicate that equa-
tion 50 holds within the limits of error in making
-"*r."."ot".
. It ehould be noted that as d1 increases and d2 decrea.ses to reach
a common value d", equation 5tl becomes
q:4 d."eo (1e)
which is the equation for discharge at critical depth.
142. Positioa of Hydraulic Jump. Frequently in engineering
work it is important to know where a hydraulic jump will occur,

"
 NA OPEN CHANNELS PROBLEMS TN
in the design of a rplllway. Ag woter dlschargee
as, for instance, equetiors 35 and 36. If the velocitJr change ie coneidered great
over an overflow dam, most of its original potential energr is €nough to Jequire it, the distance csn
^, _^.-
be comDut€d in rwn
converted into kinetic energy. Unless me&ns are provided for reaches. In making these computations
;ffi"""ioi.;iffi#,H
the dissipation of part of this kinetic energy in frictional lose,
together with the reconversion of a certain amaunt into potential
for.the apron must be esiimat€;,
-d ui"""
erable uncertaiaty rcga.rding its pmper
tl;;;;;;;:."ilff
velue, the position where
enerry, these high velocities are likely to cause erosion at the the jump will occur c&nnot,L d.
toe of the dam and result in failure of the structure. One of tho
most efficient methods of converting kinetic energy into frictional
r"'"1"q""rJr,".""ffi ffi
d.- the jump will occur.
;*nrff ""fr ::,i,.:'lJ,:p,rT
loss is by means of the hydraulic jump. This convernion, how- g:leining the position
ever, must occur on the apron of the dam, snd therefore the *:39:t j"*.Tl'"'y_rromthe
of rhe jump where iepths
j'-p;;d;dbfi"T
determination of the location of the jump becomes & matt€r :if:.Y."ld
illustrated in Fig. lB9. IVater
of prime importance. is shown coming do*n a chaa_ - l--_
nel with slope steeper than the
critical, with accelerated flow.
At some point dowutream a
dam or other obstruction backs
up the water to a stage gr€s,ter
than critical depth. It is s.s_
srrmed that all. wateGurface Fro. I39
profiles both with and without backwater
have been determined.
At any selected sectidns such x a,b, c, th"
responding to d, at the section is computed ";ir;;;';"-;;_
"i".,irorn"O;;;;;1,
;;
Frc. 138. Hydraulic jump on apmn of drltr, the.points o', b', ct, etc., indicating ;h*";;G;;;';r#f;
positions .r.he placJ where th;
An overflow dam with a hydraulic jump oh the apron is il- 1l!]l ol"l*
pomts
il";J;;;"*
rntersects the backwater surface gives the position
lustrated in Fig. i38. It is assumed that the discharge q per foot jump. oi the
width is given and that the corresponding downstream depth
PROBLEI[S
d1 and velocity 71 are known. The energr gradient indicates
losrs of head at & gradually changing rate between the crest of Oi"O?rq"
the_ dam and the jump. At the jump there is a loss of head ft;,
..
rE l_Il-1
per :f t0 cfs
sec, to what depth
p€r fr width of channel haa a vetociry
can it jump?
of 12
indicated by an abrupt drop in the enerry grsdient. 2. A etreem having a discharge per foot width of channel
of 10 cfe hss
a depth efter jump of 9.0 ft. D;te;mine
The velocity at the toe of the dam and also the profile of water tf," lr"f""ltv J1f," *rt"""U"liil
tbo jump,
surface over the apron can be determined by applying the prin-
8.. In.e ume of rectangulnr cross section 5 ft wid€, wat€r
fl
ciples of accelerated aud retarded flow (Art. 138). As shown in . flowils a
d"*\:f ft jumps to o depth of 3 rt. Oete"-inelr,eliil;;.. at '" "
the figure the slope of the apron is insufficient to orzercome friction .t
rL water upon leaving the spillway of a dam passee over
at the existing velocity, and the flow is therefore retarded. Under e le;el coa-
crc.te- apron 200 ft wide. Conditions
are such ihat f,va.""ii.-lr-l
conditions that commonly exist, d2 is considered constant and the
so "
will form-on the apron. When the discharge is
_,riill
apron has a unilorm sfope. Computatiorx can then stert with a chennel tlre velociry where the l"ou"" ihu "i'J.l'ii
,irii'j*1
known velocity at the toe of the dam, a,nd the distance to the ald depth after the jump is""t",
the. ft. "pi[r"ri" tie'd;;; fi;:
depth dr as determined from equation 50 can be determined from
fO Determiire
stream from thc donr to the place where re *"*
irrnp
"""r*.-**"
 OPI]N CIIANNELS
THB ABEUPT WAVf, 28r

passos ovor s coqlrlote

Substituting Vdz s\d tsldl r€spoctivoly for 92 aad gr Bnd tronr-
6, lVater upon leaving lbe epillway of e dsm
ft wide having a slope of I iu 50 ConditionB are euch that a PcuBr
apron 200
oir.
hydraulic jurnp will form on the apron. When the discharge ie 50
- ,r,
cfe
per ft .vidth li channel the velocity where the wster le&ves the Bpillw&y
vz - uu - (62)
is'13 it per aer, and the water eurface afier the
jump is 10 ft higher th&q
the upstrear'r end of the apron. Determine the distance downstreem The mess of water dcig has had ils velocity increased fron I/1
_- to
from the dam to the place where the jump occura' 72, and ite momentum has thereby been increased. Cani"c'tl6

143. Translatory Waves. A sudden change in the quautity of

water entering or leaving & chennel causes the consequent read-
justmenis in velocity and depth to occur in a wave or seriee ol
q'aves. If discharge at the intake is. suddenly increased a suffi-
cieot amount a,n abrupt accelerating wave forms immediately and
travels downs+'ream; an abrupt deceler&ting wave travels upstream
when discharge from the outlet is suddenly reduced a sufrcient Ftq. 140. Abrupt wrvo tlavolitrg dowprtroa8.
amount. In each case there is an increase in depth, and each
rvave in appearance and in fact is a moving hydraulic jump. In
mass M, the unbalenced force required to change the raoeentum
in one eecond ig
order for an abrupt wave to form it is necessary that the depths
u\d relatiue velocities before and after the wave satisfy the condi- F = M(Vz
(u,-V)dzu(Vz-V,,\
tions of the hydraulic jump (equation 50). The corresponding
-'/i g
(68)
* aves which accomp&ny a reduction in depth produced either by
The unbalauced forco is equal to the difrerence in hydrostotio
decrea^sed di,scharge at the intake or increased discharge at the out-
pre€8ures corresponding to the depths d2 and d1,
or
let have sloping faces and are apparent only by a gradual lowering
of the water surface.
1t14. The Abrupt Wave. It is assumed that the wave illur F =Uy
22
_!!! (64)
trated in Fig. 140 has been produced by instantaneously increasing
the discharge through gate G from q1 per unit width of channel to Equating the values of tr' in 58 and b4 and reducirg,
gr. In a short reach, the modifying efrects o{ frictional loss and
channel slope are comparatively
wave and the gate,
small,
each
and they will be neglected'
section has the same depth
*,ror -'J], - (v2 - v)(u- - vz) (66)
Betrveen the
d2 and the salne velocity 72. Downstream from the wave, the Substituting 72 from equation 52 and melring algebraic troJts-
formations,
depth d1 and the velocity I/r remein the same as before the ad-
ditional waier was admitted. The figure illustrates conditioas (,.-v,)2:#ro"*o|, (68)
after one secoud of increased flow.
and
The wave which travels with a velocity u. is, at the end of I
sec, a distance o. below the gate. The volume of water per foot (u--7r)=+ (57)
of width entering the channel in I sec is 9z: dzVz, showa in the
6gure by the area o6cd. The increase in volume or q2 - gl is repre- Equation 57,-is gengrel and applies to all cases of the abrupt
sented by the area, celg, or, expressed algebraically, wave. (u- - 71) is the velocity of the wsve with respect to tie
woter in the shallower portion of the Btresm.
q2-qr:v.(dz-d) (51)
N OPIIN CIIANNI'L8 lfllD 8L0l,lN0 W^vt,j
TLe soiution of equation 57 for u, givoe As a boro moves upstream, r. is ncgativo, nnd tho direct.ur of the
new velocity (Fig. ial) as given by equution 52 rnay b.; cither up_

#ro,* dr) *rr (68) stream or downstream, depending upon the discharge of the stream
and the amount that ihe depth is increased. Iz2 will equal zero
Tho plus sign applies to waves traveling downstream (Fig. la0) when
and the minus eign to waves traveling upstre€,m (Fig. 141), such
vt = (d, - d,) (60)
as would be produced by instantaneously reducing the opening of
f,sL!!"
This equation is obtained by placing /z : 0 in equation 62 and
eliminating u- between equations 52 and 88.
146. The Sloping Wave. It has been shown in the preceding
article that a sudden change in discharge acting to increase thi
depth may cause the formation of an ub"upt *ave. An example
oi
the sloping wave which occurs whenever there is a sudden reduc-
lla. 141. Abrupt eave traveliog upetreao.

gate G. Considerirg motion to the right positive and to the left

negative, equation 58 follows directly from Fig. 141 as rea{ily as ztn I o' --'in
fron Fig. 140. ttlf'
tdzvz
When the wave has zero velocity it becomes a hydraulic jump. 7)uJa \ ," I
This is seen by placing u, : 0 and V1 = q/it: in equation 68.
The equation then reduces to equation 50. Frc. 142. Sloping weve.
As d1 increases and d2 decreases to reach a common value d,
equation 58 becomes tion in depth is illustrated in Fig. 142.' ff"
op"oiog of gate 6 ie
assumed to be inst&ntaneously decreased, the depth of water being.
a-= +\Gd-"+vt (5e)
reduced thereby from d2 to d1. For all cases of sloping wave tlie
The term V77" rrpresents criticat velocity (equation 20). esme aa for the abrupt wave, d2 is the gres,ter depth, q2 and Z2
'When being respectively discharge per unit width of channel and velocity
the flow of e channel is suddenly increased or decreased
by a given amount, neither the new depth d2 which the wat€r at this depth. q1 and, Vl are the corresponding discharge and
will assume nor the velocity a, of the wave is kaown. Neglecting velocity at the lesser depth d1. The figure indicates conditions at
the efrects oJ frictional losses and channel slope, these are given by the end o{ 1 eec.
the sinultaneous solution of equations 51 and b8. If the depth The face of the wave is shown by the sloping line ab. The llne
of watar d1 is suddenly j"seeased to a new depth dr, the velocity ,fg, rcpr€Benting the mean position of the rveve, is so drann that
of the wave is given by equation 58, and this value can be zubsti- utu, aml : bnA, The mean velocity of the wave is u,o. During
tuted ir 51 for determining the new discharge 92. the fi;rt eecond of reduced discharge the volume of water which
A good example of the efiects of sudden increase in depth ig entered the.channel was qr : 71d1. lhe decreaae iu vollme was
a.frorded by the bore. This lype of abrupt wave may occur in a
tidal stream when a rapidly rising tide ent€rs its mouth. borea
q2-qt:v-(d2-il) (61)
severel feet in height h-sve been observed many miles ebove tho If itis a€sumed that the mass of water repreaentod in the ffgure by
mouth of some of the larger tidal streans. the rectanglq cdr/ has had ita velocity reduced from Tt fn Vt, fol-
 OPIIN CHANNIJI,I]
lowing the procedure given in tho procoding eection for abmpt
w8,ve€,
(d2+d)+v2 (62)
Contrasted with the aasumptions juat mentioned, the actual condi-
tions are as follows: upstream from a the water b.as been decelerat€d
from V2 to I/1, dowastream from 6 no cha,ngo in velocity has
occurr€d, while between o and b deceloration is still in progrw,
Because of this difrerence betweon actual and sssum€d coaditions,
equation 62 is not generally applicable. For wave of very enrll
height, however, diacrepancies introduced by ononeous assu.mpr
tions disappear, and the velocity of the wave bocome
r.- +liE+v (03
d and 7 being respectively depth end velocity of woter at the wsve,
The sloping wave shown in Fig. 142 can be assunod to be nrde
up of a large number of very small wavee. The bottom wove will
then have a velocity v, = + JFt * 7r, and the top wove will
have a velocity ub = + JFo * %. Assumhs a etreight-liae
varlrtion between ao gnd u6, the mean velocity of the wave is
o--te.+ur) = +(+ {iIr+vr+{-sdr+vil (u)
Since dz is great€r th&n d1, u6 is greater than u", and the alope of
the face of the w&ve becomes progressively fl8t+"er. At the end
of 2 sec the wave has the position c'bl, and after e short time it
becomes discernible only by a gradual lowering of the water surface.
This discussion assumeg instantaneous change of stage, which will
noi actually occup. The time consumed in reducing the depth
decreases still more the slope of the wave.
If, in Fig. 142, motion to the right is considered pcsitive end in
the opposite direction negative, the signs before the rsdiceh in
equation 64 are poaitive. For a sloping wave traveling upstream,
such as would be produced by suddenly increasing inat€rd of de.
creasing tbe gate openiag in Fig. 141, the signs before the radics,ls
are.negative.
.In deriving equation 64 a straight-line veriltion between un
and was a.ssumed. In reality the wave has a curved face, and
u6
the formula is therefore not exact. It is easy to apply, however,
EFFIiCT OF FRICTIONAI, IO88 ON WAVES
and will give results cloee enough in ordinary problema. Tto
simultan€ou8 solution of equatione 6l and 04 wili give u_ and d1
when q2, d,2, and 91 aro given. The velocity of the top wave ir
given directly fron equation 68. If the wat€r is lowerd a klown
a,mourt, that ir, il q2, d2, and d1 are givea, ihe velociiies of the top
end the bottom of the wave can be obtained from equation 6il, tho
meao of these velocities bei.ng uo,. A direct solution of (6lj for
gr csn now bo made.
1{8, Efiect of Fricdonal Loge on Wavcs, The theory'of the
two preceding articles does not take into consiaeration id oile.aa
due to friction or channel slopo. In a short and fairly deep re.ech
of channel the modifying efiect of these factors may'be compara-
tively slight, but as the channel extende in length or aa the depth
)
of water decreases they become increasingly important. Back
of a ws,ve the flow mey be non-uniform and unstcady. A com_
plet€ investigotion of tho water.surtace profi.le therefore require
tbat computations be made in rcachd et the end of *."*rri""
time intorvols.
A starting point in calculs,tioDs can bo obtained by determiniar
conditions st tho end of I eec with frictionat loseee neglect€di
Reulis thug obtained con be modified to include frictio; if this
ir thought advisable, Whgrever frictional loes€s aro to be con-
sidered, it is necessary to satisfy the requirernonts of the Mrnniag
formula (or some other open-channel formula) in addition to tbi
formulas applying specifically to the wave, The principlee in-
volved in computing the wster-surface profile back of a wive arc
comparatively sinple, but the calculations nay become extremely
long and tedious.
The efiect of frictional loss on the height and velocity of tho
wawe iacreasea greatly ts d1 decreases. Equation 5g ehows u.
to increase as d1 decreases &nd to become infnite for d1 0. Equa_
-
tion 54 shows th&t, as d1 decreases, I/2 approaches u. and becomee
equal to it under limiting conditions. For very emall values of
d1, the frictional loos due to tbe large value of I/2 given by equation
54 completely transforms the actual conditions of flow. to take
an extreme example, assume that d2:10 and d1 =0.1, with
7r : 0. Substituting these values in equation 58, u,o - 127.4, jg1d,
then from equation 52, V" = 126.1. Since frictionsl loes€ at such
high velocities are enormous, it will be impossible to maintain morc
thrn a small fraction of the V2 given by equation 62.
2SO OPEN CAANNELS
Aa abrupt wavo may form in a river chennel after a heavy
rainfa! or il a dan failg and euddenly releases a lerge volume of
imoouaded wcter. Euch waves moving down channela which con-
t io tittt" or no wator aro retarded by friction to velocitiee whioh
brve ieen found to be no grc&ter tha! ebout l$ rnil66 ps1 [6ur
(Dl lt per soc),
PROBI,EMS
1. A cbannel of rectsngular ooes aection 16 ft wide ia oarrying 200 cfr
ol wrter et a vetocity oI 3 ft per sec. If tbe diechargo ir ruddenly ir
cmaged by the cddition of 100 ofs, what new depth wiU tbe water in the
chsDDel 8ssume?
A channel of rectangular orosg aection 16 ft wid€, carryiug 200 cfi
!.
of wgler ot a velocity of 3 ft p€r s€c, has ite diecharge suddonly inortared
ft.
aufrciently to rsis€ the wst€r surlace I D€ternile the D€w tst€ of
diachrrge.
8. A-tidrt ltr€an hsving an avorrge depth of 10 ft is discherging iato
tibc ocern with i volocity bf 2 ft per'eec. Aaluming su itrstentsn€ou!
rige in ticto of 3 ft, determiue apprcximately the velocity of tbe wavo aad
tle new volocity (upstr€an or downstr€am) ol wetcr'
IWater ia f,owing in a chanuel of roctengular ooss 8€ction 20 ft widc
with a velocity of 2 ft per rec and d€pth of 4 ft.
Wlst iDstau-taDoour
lncrcalo in fow will be requirod to produco a wave of acoeleratirjl thrt
will travel dom ths ohannet rqith a volocity of 16 ft por sec?
OEIBNAL PROB&BX8
1. lto rivst cbounol crose aection shown iu Fig' A ia rymrnetrioal
rbout tbe contor li.ao. Ttrc bod and banls ere of firm gravel and well-
roada etrtl, roapectiveln with fairly str&ight slignm€Dt' Tho slop'
r,is. A
i.2.6 ft D€r mile. Aleuming n - 0.G3 foqthe entirt crosa aection,
oomoute ihe crpocitv of the cbaDDel fcr dglt'h-a of 16, m, 24, aAd ft'
i. O"t"".io" the diecbargo of a aelitiiqular ploned
fume 8 ft in diameter lrid otr a grado of'b lt per mil
E. Determiac tbo probable fow of d iiver at fuU ataso !00t) {t
everace deDth 30 ft, rith s fslt of 0.? ft per'mile' Aarume
river 6ed ir of udlorn cross s€ction with good.
'lig'mont'
OENERAL PROBLDMS W
tL Aa earth canal, ilr good condition, has a bottom width of 12 ft snd
sido slop€€ of 2 horilont8l to 1 verticel. If tho grade of the cand ir 1.6
ft por milo, dot€uiue its cspacity for deptho of 4, 6, and g ft.
6, Whst iB the c&pecity of a 3&in. vitrified aewer pipe, woll lcid, on a
itra,ight grsde of I ft por mite, wher it ie llowing 2 ft deep?
8. What elope in feet per mile phould a rmoothly finiehed coiicroto
lined canel have to carry 1300 cfe, if the bottom width ia l0 ft, tho depth
8 ft, atrd th€ sido-olope ratio I horizootal to 1 vortical?
7. Wlet fdl per mile should a river have to discharge 600,d00 cfr
srith a width of 2400 ft aud an average dopth ol 40 ft? Aesume & : d.
Tbe river ia ct betrI-full stage with fairty atablo bed,
8. A aemicircular concrete channel having e &,ft ra.dius carries 110 ofe
wheu fowing full. D€tormiDs the gra.do in leet per mile.
0. Detcrmino the critical alope lor a smooth woode!. fluns of roo-
taugular c.oos section, 12 ft wide, carrying 100 cfs.
10. A! esrth canal in good conditiou having a botton width of 12 ft
and side slop€B of 2 horizontal io I vertical is deeigned to carry 1g0 cfc
at a mean rolocity of.2.26 fl per Bes, What is tho DeceaBsry grade of tho
caDal?
11. An eerth censl in good couditioo witf, €:iile slop€s of
U horirontsl
to 1 vertical carries 6O0 cfs &i a velocity of 2.6 ft per 8ec. Ii the bottom
width is tu'ice the depth, detarruiue tho grodo of the canol,
11. An sarth cenal in good coudition with somo curvoa ie to cony 200
cfs with L trapezoidal croes aectiou, eido slopee 2 to 1, aud the bolbm
width half the depth of flow. Compute tho diuenaioue of the c{iust it
tbe grade ie 3 fi per mile.
13, A canat ie to be cotrBtructed itr elrth aud maintaioed in good con-
dition. If it ie giveu a grade of 1.8 ft per mile, eide slopee of 2 horizoatal
to 1 vortical, and a bottom width tbat ie ten times the depth wheo tho
diochargo is 2000 cfs, determine the bottom width.
11. A dredged ditch with Bide Blopes of 2 borizontat to 1 vedicel is
deeigned to s bottom width equal to the depth. Il it, is to carry
-have
600 cfr and havo a grude of 2 ft per mile, <ictermine the bottom
width.
16. An eerth canal in good conditiou is to be coustructed with side
slopee of 1l horizontal to I vertical and a fell of 2 ft per mile. Detcr_
mioe the depth aad the bottom width of the moet eficieut section il the
discharge ia 600 cfs.
wood+tove 18. What ehould be the bottom width aud the depth of flow for a
canal-of most.efficient tr&pezoid&l crosa section, side stopeo 2 horizoutal
to I vertical, to carry 200 cfs with o velocity of 2,b lt per sec? What
I - d' 1!e
Ths ahould bo the alope of the canat if it ie to be io eorth and kept in good
corditiol?
 H
288 OPtrN CHANNEIA
1?. Determine the bottom width of &n earth canal, in good condition,
hevinc side slopes of 2 horizontal to I verticul, if it i8 to heve the roost
efrcient section and carry 200 cfe with a grade of 2 ft por mile'
18. An earth ditch having side slopes of 2 horizontal to 1 veriical ir
to have a grade of 1.8 {i per mile and carry 80 cls when maiateined in
cood cooditiou. What per cent greater will be the cross-sectiooal areo
ind wettcd perimeter if the bottom width ie mado twico the depth tban
i! the most emciellt sectiou ie used?
19. A eherpcresteC weir, hrving a crest 20 ft long eod 3'5 ft abovs t'he
bottom of ihe canel, is installed in the middle of an eadh canel, i!
good
condition, having -e botton widih of 12 ft and side elopes of 2 horizootal
to l vertical. Iiihe meaeured head over the weir ie 1'5 ft' and the deptb
of water downstream from the weir ie 3 0 ft, determine the grade of tho
canal in feei per rnile.
20. A V-eh&ped flume of planed lumber carriee 50 cfs frorn a rcservoir
with unilorm iow at a velocity of 8 per sec' Esch side of the flume
rna.kes an angle of 45 degrees with the horizontal' The frictionel loss at
entrance is 0.3 of iho velocity he&d Determine the difrerence
in eleva-
tion betrveen the water surface in the reBervoir and that in the 6ume at a
ooini 1000 ft from the entrsnce.
' qtr. An earth cenal in good condition, 30 ft wide on the bottom, h&vitrg
eide elopes of 2 horizontal to 1 vertical, and carrying water 4 ft dep,
has a grade of 2 ft per mile. At Sta. 0 ihe bottom of the c&nsl i8 st
blevation 592.5. At Sta.80 it changes abruptly to s cotrcrete-lined s€c-
tion having o bottom widih equai to the depth of wat'er, side slopes of
1 borizontJ to 2 vettical, and a grade of I ft in 100O ft DetermiDe
tho
elevation of the bottom of the canal at Sta' 150, the stationr being at
100-ft intervals
22. An earth cenal containing weeds and grass has a bottom widt'h of
15It end side stopes of 2 horizontat to 1 vertical' The depth of wet€! i6
4lt and ihe slope is 2.?5 ft per mile. It is desired to change the sectiou
to a semicircular concrete'lined channel having a elope of 15 ft iu l00O
ii. Determine the rsdius of the semicircular channel if it flows full' ' If
the change iu section is abrupt ond sharp-cornered, what will be
the drop
in water eurface wbere the change in section occurs?
23. A V-shaped channel, buitt oI unplaned lumber and having a elope
of 2 ft per 10th ft, carries water from & reservoir' Each side of tho
the loweet
channel'makes an angle of 45 degrees with ihe horizontal' ood
notch is ft below the water surface in the reservoir' If tho
foint in the 5
irictional loss ai ontrance is equal to hslf the velocity head, det€rmiDe
the discharge.
!4. A loig rectengular concrete-lined chanoel 20 ft wide has a alope
ol 2 ft per td00 ft' It tUe bottom of the choqnel et the entrluce i8 4 ft
(lllNERAL I'IlOIlLl,iMlt 2ll0
belorc the woter surface in the reeervoir orrd tho frictionrl logg ot entra,nco
is equol to on+half the velocity head, deterrnino tho discharge.
26. An earth canal in good condition, having a, bottom width of 30
ft and eide sldpes of 2 horizootai to 1 veriical, cerriee water at a depth
of 6 ft with a velocity of 2.5 ft per sec. This canal changes abruptly to a
rectangular concrete-lined eection hayitg e width of l0 ft and e grade of
1 ft per 1000 ft. Determine the difrercnce itr elevatiou betwe€n the
bottom of the eerth cansl 1000 ft upetream from the change in s€ction
and the bottom of the concrete.lined ,ranal 1000 ft, dowrutrram from
the change, amuming uniform flow in each section.
?6. A trapezoidsl earih canal in good conditio! has & bottom sridth of
100 fi, side slopes of 2 horizontal to 1 vedicel, a slope of 0.00025, and
flowe vrith a depih of 5 ft, .Thie canal discharges into two rectangul,Br
concrete.lined channels, .4 and B, having widths of 20 ft and 40 ft,
reapeciively, and each having a slope of 0.001. If the bottom of chaunel
r{. is flueh with the bottom of the earth canal st the junction, det4rmino
the relatiye elevstion of channel B so a8 to rnaintain uniform flow in each
of the three canale. Assurqe that the frictionsl los8 at the entraDce to
6sch of the concrcte chan-uels is 0^2 times the respeclive velocity heade in
tb.ose channels.
2?. A canal, 58,000 ft long (580 stetione), ir to be corutructed with a
c$pecity of 300 cfs. The cenal diverts from e river and t€rminetad st a
reseryoir into which it discharges. The water Burface in the river at tbo
point of diversioo is to be maintained at an elevation of 770 ft.
(c) Water is to be diverted through six head gates, having rectangu.lar
openiuge each 2 ft by 5 ft- Determine the head required to force tho
woter through these openingo, aaeuming a coefficieut of discharge of 0,80.
(b) From Ste. 0 to Sta. 425 the canel is in er,rth s€ction, baving eide
slopee of 2 horizontal to 1 vertical, and e depth of '{&t ! of 0.3 of tho
bottom width of the canal, Velocity of water is io be 2.1 ft per soc.
Assuming a : 0.0225, determine the slope of the caual,
(c) Between Sts. 425 ind Sta. 500 the canel is in rock and ig to have a
s€micircular Bection liied with concrete. The gnde of the caD8l id to bo
2 ft per 1000 fi with a : 0.014. Determine the head lost et entranc€,
aseuming I(": 0.18. Also determine diameter of cansl section.
(d) From Ste. lO0 to Ste. 580 the section of canal is the ssme !s flom
gt8,. 0 to Ste. 425. At the reservoir end of the csnal (Sta.. 580) a broad-
crested weir ie to be constructed in order that a uniform depth of woter
may be maintained throughout the entire length of earth aection.
Leogth of this weir is to be equal to the bottam width oJ the earth censl.
'Ihe weir has a rectengulor sectiou, with horirontrl crest 10 ft bmsd
and rounded entrance. Det€rrnine height of crest above bottom of the
osDel. Ar8ume K.: 1.00 et Sts. 500.
zffi OPEN CIIANNTIN
(e) Tabulate the elevations of the water rurface, to neorcat 0.1 ft, at
the following statiols: gt&. 0 * 10, sta. 424 + 00, sta. 425 f 10, stc,
50O, &nd St8. 579 + 90.
28. Water diechargee from e lerge reservoir througb & rouDded
entrance into a smooih timbd 0ume l0 ft wide, laving o rectengular
crosa sectioo &nd s grsde of 2 in 100. If the bottom oI tho flume at
the iql"s,l:e is 4 ft below the water surface io the reaewoir, determine the
di.etaoce downetream from ihe intake to the eection et which the depth
of wster will be 2.3 ft.
29, A concretelined conal of trapezoidel croes Eection 10 ft wide has
8id€ Elop€s ol 1.5 horizontel to I Vertical and a grade of 0.002. Tbe
ca[sl csrries 400 cfo of water at e depih of 3 tt. A dsm i8 to be built in
the crDat thsi will increa.ee the depth to I ft. If the elevatioa of wator
aurfsce at the ds,n b 100, what will be the eleveiion oI water surtaco
3@0 {t up€treoor from the dom?
30. A canal cerries 300 cfs of wat€r at a depth of 6.5 ft and velocity
of 2 fi per sec. ThiB wst€. i8 to be couveyed to a lower elevation through
a amooih concret€ chonnel with rounded eotrance having e rectangula,r
croee eectioo and grade of 1 in 10. lhe depth of water ir to be kept at
3 ft throughout, the width to vary s^s requir.ed to maintsilr thic depth.
Determine the widih of channel at eutrauce, aleo the distance from the
eDtmoce to widtbs of 8 fl, 6 ft, and 4 ft, re*pectively. Wlat ig the
rninimum width poasible for this depth ol water?
31. A planed timb€r flume of rectangular crosa section 16 ft wid€
having equare.cornered eqd8 connecia two reservoiro 1000 ft apart.
The bottom of ihe flume ie level a.nd is 5 ft below the watrr eurface of ono
r€s€rvoir snd 4 ft below the surfoce of the other. Determine the dis,
chrrge.
3X. A smooth wooden flume of recta,ngular cross section 8 ft wide
hrviog a grade of 0.02 carries 240 cfs of water under conditions of uni-
form 0ow. A weir ig to be constructed which will back up the w&ter in
th€ ffume to s depth of 6.5 ft. How far upstream from the weir will a
jump oocur?
tli!. A channel of rectongul&r cross section has its outlet controlled by
a gate which diseherges f;eeiy into the air. The gate has the same width
ae the channel, and ttre eill of ihe gate is flush with the bottom of the
chanoel. The dcpth of water in the channel is 8 ft, and the velocity is
4 ft per oec. Aesuming the height of g&te opening to be instautone-
ously reduced from 2 lt to J. ft, the coe6cient of discharge of the gote
remaiuing cotrBtani, det€rmine: (o) the nerv rate of dischorge iu the
canel, (6) the lew depth of wat,er, ard (c) the velocity of the deceler-
rtiD6 wsve.
Clnptcr IX
ETDRODYNAMICS
Lt. Futtdaneatal Principles. Newton's laws of motion form
the basic principlee of the subject of hydrodynamics. Theie taws
m8y be briefly stst€d as follows:
L Any body Bt r€st or in motion with a uaiform velocity
olong a etraight line will continue in that 8a,me condition of rret
or motion utrtil acted upon by some ext€rn&l force.
II. The rate qf shonge ia the momentum ol a noving body ia
pmportioorl to the force producing that change, which occus slong
the aa.ne straight line in which the force acts.
III. To every action there is always an equal snd opposite reBo-
tbn.
lbeee thrce laws of Newton's are frequently referred to as the
lsws of hertia, force, and stress, resp€ctively. On account of the
fundaorental importaace of these laws it is easential that a clesr
conception be bsd of their full Bignifcance. As sn aid in acquir-
ing rhin solcetlim the following discussion iq i,tsented.
L3. Irterpretatiou of Newtoa's La-r" Newton's first law of
motiotr iB mer€ly a Btat€ment uott m&tter poes€sses no ability,
prr se, to cbange its condition of rrst, or motion, and that any such
changp must be b$ught &bout thmugtr the action of some externsl
force.
Newton's s€cond lBre stat€s the fundsmental principle of mecban-
ics that wh€r an unbalanced force is applied to a body, the result-
ing acceleration is proportional to the force. With proper consid-
orstion for units as indicsted in Art. 3, this principle is st&t€d as
F:Mo (1)
: (,2 - r)ft,
Einco the avaregp ratc of acceleration a
P-Y("-o')'lll .:1@z-o) (2)
,
If a continuoug gtrea,mof fluid is having its velociiy chaogod
fr,m gr to 92 by e llane or other object, by lotting I : l, the
291
w2 IIYI)Ii()I)YN MT( H lt.t:l,A Vr; ANt) AIrsot,lII t, \,1,t,('|t'l'tr.ti-i t.,.,

quantity M/l becomes the ma^ss per '.rnit, of Nir,l'e, My The con- Iu this eqiur,i,iorr I is lhc disl.ancc i,[r'orrglr rrlriclr ir l,lslMrt l('!,
(

tinuous force €.xeft€d by t*n vane on thc fluid. 'rs

Nher. F is exerted by a rnass ,41 r'trilc its velor:ity is lrcirrg clurngcrl trorr
or to u2. 7t the acceleration is conslarrt,
F: M1Q2 - a1) (A)
t- or * r'r
From Newton's third law, the force exerted bu lhe fluid aaqinst 2'
*te tane is equal but opposite in direction, and can therefore be and equation 8 becornes
written
F : Mr(tt - t) (4) Ft: LI (\ * .l2) (9)

which states another law of mechanics that impulse equ"h Jhrogu

The same equa$ion can be obtained by starting from the Ber-
in momentum. Letting I = 1 sec, ,
noulli energy theorem. Equation 14, page 96, is the mathe-
matical statement of the prirciple that, neglecting friction, the F : tr[tit:t - t) (4)
total head, or the totel s,mount of energy per unit, of weight, is the
sasre Bi every point in the path of flow.
rvhere.\fl represcnts the ma,ss per second having its velociiy
If, however, some of the eneigy is extracted from the fluid, or, changed from r1 to o2.
in other words, if the fluid is made to do work upon some nachine, 1+9. Vectors. A vector is a quantiiy that, may be considered as
possessiag direction as well as magnitude, rvhercas a scalar po-\ses.ses
e,s i a turbine, & term [r must be added to the energy equation,
whicir then becomes magnitude but uo..lirection. Examples oi scela,rs are mass, time,
voiume, and energy. Scalar quaniities nay be added algebraic-
ur2 pr uz2 p,,
(5)
ally.
2s+;+z': %+';*a+tu Examples of vector quantities are velocity, acceleration, and
force. Such quantities cannot be added algebraically except when
In considering the dynamic action of jets that are free and their d,irection is ihe same. For instance, a m:uss iravilg a velocity
unconfined, throughaut which the pressure is atmospheric and the of 10 ft per sec in a certain direction, if given an additions,l velocity
elevation is practically unchanged, this equation becomes of 10 ft per sec at right angles to. r,he original directiou, *'i11 have a
resultant velocity of 14.14 ft per sec irstead of 20 ft per sec.
,r"
:oJ" , ,
29 zg + nt (o, Although force is given as an example of a rector quantity, in
reaiity it belongs to a special gronp of ','.ciol quantities vhich
Each term in equations 5 and 6 represents either enerry or possess an additional attribute other tlian magniiude and dfuec-
work expressed in foot-pounds per pound of fluid. Multiplying tion. In order to determine fully the effect i'hat' a given force cill
by the total weight of fluid 7, substituting M for I /9, aud trans- have upon an object, the location of the line of aciion must aiso
posiog, the total work is be knorn. Vectors representing such quantiiies are knorm as
limited or constrained vectors to distinguish them from frea vectors.
g : $Mur2 - lMu"z (Z) The sum or difference of two vectors malr be found by drawing
Tbjs equation states the law of mecharrics that the change in both irom a corrrmon origin and then complcting tire palallelo
kinetic energy is equal to the work done. Substituting a, for
gram. That diagonal which pa-sses through tlte comrnon origh is
the sum of ihe two vectors; the other diagonal is l,hcir dilTcrcnce
G, siace work equals force times distance,
160. Relative and Absolute Velocities. Strictly spcrr.king, tll
p = {,,' -''"21 : motion is relative, No obiect in the univenc is kttrtwn kr lto lixcd
{ { {,, -,,)(,, + r") (8)
ir space. An airplane is said tq be flying 3fi)rnihs grt h,rrrr' but
2gI TN'DRODYNAMICS
this is its velocif only with respect to the eurfaco of tho oarth
beneeth it. The e.e,rth's surface itself is moving at a tremendous
speed both with respect to its axis ard l.b the sun, each of which is
whirling through space at a, still.greater rate.
It is nevertheless convenient in connection with this subject
to consider all motion with respect to the earth's surface a^s obso-
lutc motion. The airplane above refened to, which vrill be called
24., has therefore an absolute velocity of 300 miles per hour. An-
other plane in pursuit, which wili. be referred to as Ii, may have an
absolute velocity of 350 miles per hourt but iis relative velocity
with rcspecl, to.,{ is only 50 miles per hcur. If the two planes
were to fly in opposite directions, cr:l-- retainirg its same absolute
F++ ++-#
N
Fro. 143.
velocity, the relative velocity between them would be 650 milee
per hour. If they were to fly at right angles ki each other their
relative veloiities would be V300-tT 350' : 461 miles per hour.
Siace velocities are vector quantitfbs, these results m&y be ob'
tained graphically as in Fig. 143 in which
ur : the absolute velocity of /.
,a : the absolute velocity of B.
r, : the relative velocity of B with respect to.A,
Expressed as a vector sum
0alu:aB (10)
or as a vector difference
vB-t)A:U (11)
A verbal statement of equation 10 is frequently of assistance in
solving problenx of absolute and relative velocities:
Thc &solule oelocity o! A plus thc vel,oc y of B relatitn tn A e4mls
lAn dsolute wlocity of B.
From this explanation it is apparcnt that the relative velocity
of e moviag object B with respect to enother moving obiect / may
be found by drawing from a common origin two vectors rcpre-
l,{)lt(:lt ItXtrRTED ny A . i:'t. z.ut
Benting the Lbsolute velocities of d and .IJ und t,hcn tiniwing a third
vector from the terminus of ,4 to the [errninus of ./J.
Furtherrnorc, if one object impiages upon another the resulting.
force of impact depends upon the relative velocities of the two
objects rether than upon their absolute velocities. In other words,
the force exerted is the same as it would be if the absolute veloci-
ties of both were changed by the same amolmt, so long as tbeir
relative velocities remain unchanged.
161. Force Exerted by a Jet. Since force and velocity are vector
quirntities, it follows from equation 4 that, if a jet of fluid imfinges
against e vane which is either moving or at rest and thereby has
its velocity in any direction ehanged, a fgree F is exert€d upon
the vane the magnitude o{ which in a4y direction is equal to the
change in momentum per second that the jet undergoes in the same
direction. In other words, the force tr' is equal to the mass imping-
ing per second tines the change irr velocity in the direction of the
force. X and I/ componenLs of the force exert€d by a iet the
path of which lies in the XY plane will therefore be
Fr - Mssg idpirgilB per secotd X Chalge itr velocity Eloag tho .f arb.
ly - Mass iopilging pe. secoad X Cha.oge ld velocity aloag tho f rri5,
The tangent of the angle a which the resultant force makes with
the X axis 'rs Fr/F", and the rcsultant force F : Fu/sin a.
The change in velocity may be either positive or negative. Ia
the case of a decrease in velocity the dy'namic force exerted by the
fluid on the vane iB in the same direction as flow, wher€ss in the
case of an increase in the velocity the dyrramic force exerted on
the vane is opposed to the direction of flow. Jo gened, the d.irec-
tiun o! the lorce exertzd, by the jet on w uana is cp?oxitz ti the direc-
ticn o! accel.eration of the jet.
Consider the vane shom in Fig. 144 to be uroviag with a uni-
form velocity r'l in the original direction of thE jet. The absolute
tgelocity of the jet as ii impiages at .4 is I/, and its relative velocity
with respect to the vane is V - u' : ;. As the vane moves
through the successive positions l, 2, 3, aad 4, a particle entering at
..{ moves across the vane and leaves it at B. Neglectiag friction,
the relative velocity of the jet with respect to the vane remains
unchanged while the jet flows from A to B rc that the jet leaves
the vane at B with a relative velocity z in a tangential directio!.
The actual path of the let as it moves across the veno is showt
296 llYl)ll(llr\ NAI\ll( li

by the,Jottetl line, The vcctor tlirglrr'rnrr rr't thc Ioul'positiorls of t,.onc!l ItxEnTItD lty A. ,;'1, 257
tho vane shoru the relation betrveen tllc coitstlt'rrt o'bsolLtte velocily
the coruts,lrt relative velocliy u o[ fhriil to vLrnc, the force, Fo, is directed downward since lhc y acccleration
u' of the vane, is up
ilnd the absolute velocity I", I'-1, l'3, I''6 of bhe flLli'l' At' 1, lvith vard,.the change in velocity in the y direction t t.o- O ,ii
the jet stril,:ilg the I'ane tang,cnti,lly, tbe tltree velocily vector'r toasindat8. "i"g
parallel" At ottrer points t'!re vtctor diagram is a paralielogrlrn If a jet is directed againsi a plate as shown in Fig.
are ,
double-cruped vane
l45o or a
in rvhich as shown in Fig. 1456 so
that r he jei is dr,fleeteJ
Ver;ior V : \,ector,/ + vecior U Blmmetdcally with respect to the X axis, F, rvill be zero
since the
---"
I/ components balance, being equal and opp'osite i" ai.*ti"".
If the vane is moving rvit'h a veloc,ir"y comp.tncni parallcl t'o ihe
jet, the volulrre (J/ st'rikirrg t'hc varre ei:"ch secori'l i: different |'our

"^l{-
v

I1c. 144

Q, the discharge of the jet, and depends on i'he cross-sectir'rnal

&l€a,4 of the iet and the relative velocity of jel to vane Thus (a) (b)
Q' - .4u and the mass impinging per second is Fro. 14S

i,t A'u
*1_-- Auw (12) If a series of vanes are so arranged on the periphery of a wheel
gs {rrt.the entire jet, directed tangqntially t, ifr"
"f."-f"""olu,-i"
elriking either one vane or another successively, the
The change il velocity of the jet is best Cetermined by graphical. nass imiiig_
ing per second becomes
analysis of eacir problem. For example, in Fig. 144 the initial
velocity of t he jet along ihe X axis is Y while the final velocity is Aw AVU
M1
the.X component of ys. By the geomeiry of thc vector diagram
(14)
c
at, B, this componend is r/ + z cos d, where d is the deflection augle It should be noted that, when F, is radial, f'" is the only component,
of tire vane. The change in X component of velocity is thus ot tne torce tending to produce rotation.
LV- : V- (u/ * acosd) : u(1 - cosd) (13)
Exe.rapr,e. A jet of water 2 in. in diameter (Fig. la6) moving
with a
Since in this case the X component of t'he velocity decreases vdociiy of 100 ft per sec strikes a vane which is rnoi,ing in th" ."ri"
ai"".
tion es the jet with a velocity of 60 ft per sec. ff,"i"n*ti""
as the jet passes across the vane, or in other rvords, the X com- i
the vane is l3S'. Find: (o) the X and I/ eomponents ""gi"
ifr"-i*"i
ponent of &ccelera,tion is to the left, thd force F" exerted by the iet
bI the jet otr the vane; and (b) the a;.""tion u"a "i uU"oiut"
against the vgne is to tlre right. I{oreover, the Y component ol "ryr$
vdoclty ot the wat€r leaving th€ vanp.
$olvfin. (a) The vector diagram at 14 obows that u = 40 ft pe! 6ec.
zCB IIYDRODYNAMICA woRK DONE ON UOVTNo VANES zes
The mass impinging per oecond is thue upward 90 degrees, making an angle of 60 dogroes with the
horizontal
as it leaves the vane. Determine X and y -cornponeuts
Mr:
0.0218X40X62.4
= 1.69 sluc8 oxerted.
,atil;;*
g
d" .A"jethaving a diameter of 2 in. ard e vetocity of b0 ft per
_ eec is
The vec,tor diagram at I i, a8 followE:
rhows conpolents oI deflected by a vane which is curved through an angle
of OO J"iL"
ylig! is lovias ylt! a velocity of 20 fr pe. ,"" irrit e o-" ;;;;"ti";".a
X component = 60 - u coe 45o : 60 - 28.3 : 31'7 ft per 8€c the jet, Determine X and y components of tlre force exerted
*
- ,"Ja-i.*
-,- *"
I cooponent :- u sin 45" = .3 ft Per s€o tion aad velociiy of the water leaving the vane,
6. A horizontal nozzle discharges 4.0 cfs with a velocity of g0 ft per
f";, fr" t"t,*"tf au uucymxoetrical two.cusped
p tle. Tm9 -dileclion as the jet with a velocity of 20".o"
tiJ,, *o-utg
f per eec. Ilalf of
me let lE deflected by e cusp that has a defection angle of g0
-upward
d€$eeE, &nd the other half. is deflected downward by a cusp
wilth a de,
flection argle ol 45 degrees. Determine tn" mri"*"i
i"J- *ft"l.f
compouents of the lorce exerted oq the vane.
2-in. nozzle having a coefficient of coutractiou of 0.92 discharces
_ ^6. ^A
1.0 cfs. Determine the force required to move a single
. fat pl"i" t""irO
loe rozzle wlih a yelocity of 20 ft per sec, the jet impinging
normally oU
thq3latc.
?i A horizontal jet of 2.0 cfs strikes tangentially on one or anot.ier
of a
soriee of moving curved vanes, each haidng
a"Aa"ti*
cegre€s. Ihe water as it leaves the vsne has an " absolut€ velocity
"rgfu- "f-in
--il;;
of 40
ft.per sec and makes an angle of 30 degrees with the horizo";;.
mim: (a) the horizonta.l force exerted on the vales, ,"J
Frs. 146 prower developed.
6J th";;;
: ltf 8. A nozzle discharges 2.0 cfshorizontally, the jet striking tangentially
Therefore F,: 1.69 (100 - bt.z) tu to thu tiebt
on one or auother of qi series of curved vanes eo"tr luvioi
auglo of 150 degrees. I The velocity ol the jei is 60
;&;it;;
Fr,:1.69X28'3 = 48 lb downward il ;;;;;;;
(b) tan a : 28.3/31.7 :0.892, a=41.8', eud Va:28,3/rin e'
vones have
I :elocitl of 30 ft per sec in the ,r-" aire"tio" * it e ie-i.
ltet€rmrne; (c) the absolute velonity of the water as it le3v$B
tho v8!eE,
42.! ft per sec. and (6) the horsepower developed,
PROBLEUS
Wor{. Moving Vanes. Sinc€ work is equsl to
1. A jet of water 1 in. in diameter and having a velocity of 25 ft per ,--l6f;. fone on.
rorce tlE€Et disfsnce it is e,pparent that, for a jet to dq any work
sec etdkes against a plate as i!
Fig' 1450. D'etermiue the foroe on tlie
plate: (o) if the plaie ie fixed; (b) if the plote is moviog iu the some direo' upon a v&ne, the vane must be noving with a velocity
b-utween
tion es the iet with a uniforib velocity of 10 ft per eec. T.T T9 th: velocity of the jet, since at tnese fimitini vetociG
8..A jet having a diemet€r of 2 in' a.nd s volocity of 40 ft p€r s€c i! eturer the dratance or the force is equal to zero. The question
de6ecfed through en angle of 60 degreea by a fixed, curved wno' De' *hatletocity rhe vane shoutd have, f",
termiae X &nd y componente of the force exerted'
thf itr:of T.*
velocity jet, to perform tbe maximurn amount ol work. ";;;;;
8. A nozzle diccherges 2 cfs with I Yelocity of 50 lt por 8€o' Thc The amount of w-ork done per second is the product
nozrle ir i[clined downwsld !o thet os tho jet rtriter o firod curv€d'va.Bo
,
rorce actlng in i,he dircction of motion and the distance
of the
throuch
it is diEcted 30 degrcea dom fron tbc horfuontal' Tho jet ir dedrctad ryhich it acts. Assuming that the directiou of motion
Jtb, ;,;il
 I,'OIICIjII DXERTED UPON CLOOED CIIANNEIA
3OO HYDNODYNAMICS 1

Substituting this value of rr, in lg, and noting that wAV/g M1,
is parallel with the direction of the jet, tho lorce acting is (Art. 161) 1
uA(V - tt\2 t .:eo
F, : :::::-------:--L (1 - cos d) (r5) G = $14ryz (2r)
0

and the distance through which itacts per second is equal to the :bi:h is q - ce e)/2 times the total kinetic energr available
velocity of the vane, u'. Tho work done ia foot-pounds per the jet. For 0 - f80o this expression sq,,nlF uni1y1a6
in
second is therefore
wA(V - o')2 c
,Mtltz: @)
n_ (l _ cos d)a, (16)
g kinetic e-nergr of the jet being converted into
R".
-rnn"l"l
&$o appears from considering thrt the reletive
work.
Co4sidering uf as the variable in this expression and equat- the jet asit teaves the vane is yZZ, *ni"f, f
velocity of
ing the first derivative to zero, the relation between 7 and u' may vane. These two velocities being equal ,na"L"
t[";#;;Lh"
be determined for which G is a maximum. oppo.it" io a,i"ultioo
bave a resuttant of zero. The hoia trr* l"J.i*-iir"lJi"""#rt
ilQ _uA(r : cx 0) _ 4V1r, * 3a,21 : g zero abs.olute velocity, signifying that all ii"
V, been utilized in performing wort. ".i;;;;;'h^
These principles are utilized i" t.he dfrg
from which of impulse turbines,
which consist of a series of vanes attachJ to
t' - V elrd ,'
th" ;;il;; .
-! 3 (1?) yheel, Jhe sngle, must be somewha,t less than lg0 degreee
that the jet in leaving a vane will not i.t"rf"." eo
JtU ti" .-r"""'ffine
vane. Making the angle d equal to t70 degrees
TVhen u' :
7, no work is done since the force exerted is then _
pf""" ij f'm
zero and this value represente a condition of minimum power.
degree8 reduces the force applied to the
cent,
wh;] by;J;;"'i ;
For maximum power with a single vane, therefore, v' = V/3'
fn a series of vanes so arranged that the entire jet strikee either 1T. F:t:"." Ererted upon Closert Channels, In the precediag
articles of this chapter the discussion hr" b*o
one vane or another successively, the force exerted in the direc- exerted by jets rmpingrns agairut flat
,,".tri";J;;;;
tion of motion, which is assumed parallel with the direction of the wT qways considered that the flow lr,""
*d;;Jil;;;'A""1
jer, is (A*. 15r) i*" *a-**r]_jllu
only forces acting were dyna,rric. C"*id";;;iii;;;';;#,
to the longitudinal thrust exert€d upon a closed
Fn =tar
g
(y - r')(l - cos d) (18)
flowjng through it under pressure.
.n*""i UiiJa
and Under conditions of steady flow throggh
. a curved channel of
either constsnt or varying dialrrekr, tfru."
c -uAv V-/ ,e-coso)u' {le) the channel that is the resultsnt of a
il u tt *"t-J**"dl;;
c av"_f. r"*",rjif" liilr
Difrerentiating, end equating to zero' ryessyes exerted upon the end sections ot tne nUJ
the channel. ""rd-i"JT"
dG : crx o) :
-wAV(l (V _ zu'y g . In Fig. 147 is shown a curyed channel having
a diameter decres€-
hg from,{B to CD and a deflecrion d.'i;;;, ;;,ffi",
r€plesent respectively the pressure, ""g1"
and for na"rimum power with a series of vanes areu, urra ,o"ro lr.i.r,l;;;"l ;
,,v
lad _A",pz, and Z2 rhe
=r, (20) fron AB to CD tho fluid"or..rponainf 'ai;;ft;:"H#ff1
b acceleraled f"o- 7r-t"'lrr,**i"rij
 .3O9 UYDIIODYNAMTC.S PROIILI,JMS $3
force .B producing this acceleration ia the resultent of all
tho com_ If the channel is one of const&nt dbrmrl,ol Llrroughoqt, Ar - Az,
ponent forces acting on the msss.4BCD. These forces
consist of Vr = Vz, and pt = p3 (approximately), and the equntions reduce
the pressures on the sections ,4 B and CD, the O."a"u."
ta
the chanuel walls ACBD, and rhe force of gravity. nV"*"rt"d'b-r,
u..".iol p.
- = (,to+ 4I?\ o - cos d) (zt)
\ s/
',= (no*4!3\"ue
(28)

If the angle 0 equals 90' ihese equations become

P': Pr- &+t' (2e)

At If the angle d equals zem, or, in other wordq, if the chrnnel is

v, strqight but of varying diameter, equation 25 rsluces to

Pn: Aer - Az't)z -@g (, - vr) (30)

Frc. l4Z
Considering a straight channel of const&nt diameter throughout,
that the center line cf the channel lies in a horizontal plane so thst equrtion 30 reduces to
the actiol of gravity is normal to tbe direction of no*, tUi" i"tt", P":A(pr-pz\ (31)
force may be ignored.

- I€tting P" and Pu represent the X and I eomponents of the

forces exerted by the channel upon the fluid, the
PROBLEMS

and I components of the forqe producing acceleration"u.l,ttooi?

- -- 1. A iet 1 in. in diameter &nd haviog s velocity of 40 ft per cec strikes
u" lormslly a,gairst a flet plate movirg in the saure dir€ction as the jet.
Determine: (a) the velocity oI the plate if the jet is to perform the msxi-
R" : Apr - A2p2cos0 - r" :Y(I/2cosd - Vr) et) mum emouDt of work; (b) the corrraponding amount of work in foot-
pouadr Ser recond.
8. A uozzle discharges 2 cfs vith e velocity of 40 ft per eec. The
Ru: -A2p2 sin o + Pu:9u v2s' o (A) eutire jet atrikeo a eeries of v&nes that are moving in the same directiol
g
as tho jot with a velocity\of 10 ft per 8ec. Each vsne bas a deflectioq
the right-hand members in these equations representing the in- angle of 160 degreea. Determine: (c) the work done per second; (6)
crease in momentum along the X and y axes resulting tho tinetic energr per secotrd in the water leeving the vanes; and (c)
}rom the th€ kinetic energy per second in the jet tefore it strik€s the vane8,
accelerating forces.
From equations 23 atd 24, 8. A l|-in. nozzle has s coefficient of velocity of 0.97 end a coeficient
of contraction of unity. The bsse of the nozzle has e diemeter of 4 in,,
Pn: Art at which poiut the gsg€ pressure is 80 lb per sq in. The jet, strikes a
- A2p2cxo *Y ,r, - v2cc"o) (2tt) double.cusped veno which heg a deflectiou angle of 150 degrees and a
velocity in the direition of the jet of 30 ft per sec, Determine: (a) tho
pt: Azpzsu o *Tnr*t (%')
prtosuro exerted on the vone, and (b) the gmount of work done, er-
pro*ed in foot-pounde.
 St ITYDSODYNATdIOS
oBJ (r MOVTNC l.ltrou0tl |LU[p $06
L A iet heving a, disnet€r 9f ll iu. and a velooity of 00 ft Dor. r€o
aleo considorod that the velocity imprlrtr:d hr l,lrir mass of lluid is
strikee & series of v&nee so airanged on the perlphery of a wheel tirat
thc proportional to the velocity of the body, or
eotire jet strikes the v8ir€s. The dedection angle of the voner is IZO
degrees. Determioe thd maximum gmouut of iork thai ."" L-a*" u:ksV
and the direction and absolute velocity of water.leaving the vaner.
6. A horizonf,4! strld'ght pipe greduslty reduces in dianeter ton ta &u being a proprortionality factor.
ii.b9h.: It at tho larger end, the gage preesurc ie 40 lb per rq ia. rod The resistance is then the product of mass affected per second
the velocity iB l0ft per rec, what is the total longitudin tirust ex$t rl and change in velocity, or
on the pipe? Neglect friction-
D1 : k'P,! trYz
6; Wster flowg from a B&in. pipe through a reducer into a 2t.ia,
pipe. If the g&ge preseure st the etrtrstrce to the reducer is 60 Ib lar
s' G2)
eq in. and the velocity is 7 ft per sec, determirc the resultstt thrud;; Thig resistance is commonly catled the drag force, or drag.
the reducer. Assume the frictioral loss in the r€ducer to be 5 ft.
Dividing and rieultiplying by 2, and substituting a coefficient of
?. A beod in e rpipn lire graduatly reduces ffom 24 iD. to 12 iu. The
dtzg Ce lor 2k1k2, the general equation for drag becomes
dedectiou angle ia 60 degrees. If at tho.tr,rger ond the gage preesurt ir
25 lb per Bq in, and the velocity ia 8 ft per r€o, derermine X and y
@mponeDta of the dyndmic thrust exert€d on the bond. Also- detsr-
nin3 X and I comporcnts. of tho totsl thmst o[ertod on the b€nd,
4: co.fi.+ (33)

neglecting friction.
181. Resistance to Object Moving thrcugh Ftuid. Tte pmvi-
ous srticles hgve dealt with forces exer-td. o! vanes, plst€s, or
closed channels by streams of fluid of finite croes-so€iionsl Brss.
.{ brief discussion will now be given of the r€sistsnc€ force which
ie encountered when an object movee through a fluid, tho bound-
aries of which are eo far removed that tho hroes section can be con
sidered of infinite extent. A similar r€sistence force is ret up whon
r fluid of r€letively large cmsA+ectional ereo mof€s pest s strp
tionary object.
The principle that force is equat to tho rate of chaage of
rhonentum is used to derive the basic equstion for th€ reaietince.
It is eonsidered tbat, as a body moves thmugh a fluid, tt imparte
toa certain mass of the fluid each semnd a certain velocliy,
The mass of fluid afrected per second by the motioa of tho body
is considered to be
Mr = hrY!!
c well as with the forrn of the body. Values for a few of the ilore
r:r'here &1 is s proportionslity factor, to is the unit weight of the
fluid, d is the aea of the bo{y projected onto a plaae noroal to
the direction of motion, and Iz is the velocity of the My. It iE
The similarity should be noted betu'een ihis equation and the
equation for hydrostatic pres$rre on a plane area (Ari. 28),
' :P=whA
The latter equ&tion rlefrnes Lotal preesune as equal to the intensity
.By
of prcssure at ths center d g$avity times thq arca. equation
33, the resistanee to a body moving through a fluid, or the force
exerted on a body held ststionary in a moving stream of fluid, is
equsl to the etagnation point pressure (Art. 55) corresponding to
the velocity of the fluid, mult$lied by the pr'ojected areg of the
body, and modified by a coefficient.
Sineu/g: p, the mass densitS equation 33 is often written
n, = creS e (34)
I/lere pVz /2 represents the stagnation point pressure.
Ihe application of equation 33 or 34 requires a kaowledge of the
velue of the drag coefficient Ca. Theoretical and experimeirtal
studies hsve showr that Cp variex, with the Reynolds mrmber as
cmmon geonetricol forms sre shown in Fig. L18 and aro dis-
cussed herg.
Sphare. The Reynolds number is Nn - DV/v, where D is the
7 is its vclocity relativo to the fluid, and r
dia,meter of the sphere,
 Ill I )ll0l'\' N A N'l l( lil 'I'I.]IIMINAL VELOCITY
is the kinemath viscosity of I'lr,' llrrirl At srn&ll vgluc$ of tho The disk followsr Stokcs, Ia
value oI Revnords' number
Refnolds number, as tvith flttrv in pill:s, viscous forces predominatc ;;;;' *;'ii";'r'iT^x? i::
'r ub""ta;';;;r;;#:ioenrcrent tess rapidty and
and the drag coefficient is defined by the equation ieaches -decreases
ou-uuo tu.g"" trr""
11 for vllues of Re1'nolds'
a,. : 24
,VB
(36) "i*r lo,ino""tit
Circuktr CALinder. \-lte cvl
to
tive to the fluid wir,h ,n" ur,',"inl-"l "olidered be moving rela-
ol tlte cvJinder
Since -ly'n = DV p/ p, lrom equation 34, tioo ot *oiion.* ;il;;ffJ normat ro the"direc-
rhe. i"- I j t
D,:;?;x+ xTan
d
";"; "," ri "iilrfi
The cylinder does nrt follow
l?","i1.ij":,",X,.';
, "io
Ia\\'asrlo..'lv"T"A,f
,

or t}," n"y,'"ia'. at lorv values

whence,
Dt :3"DVP (36) coeffcieni "u^b"";il""]:^t:l:t.
;;;-t"dfi ;ff";:'*: :i:]jl:
disk aJthough rhe

which is the usual form of what is known as Stokes'lsw for resist'

coemcien r f or t he cyl in tJ"r
d]*k, until a value of _ly'n of'a
ae;;* ;i;"; i,l:'f
;;"",";:fi ;j,X.:"ll:
ance of objects in " creepirrg motic-rn." change ia [he boundary is rcached Hpre the
1*9oo
tj;1il:pr;n;""u..
coefficienr ,r,","" , a.iJ"m,iil.T'lr:,
'"u""n11.1
und rh"
cD= r.r,vr <o.r
\ ft FIat Rectangular pl;k- ,lh,
l0
\ \J""*
\\:
j
rela,tive 10 the fluid rvirh,n.tjit]'is
considered to be moving
pranP or the plate noryn.;
direct'ion ;f m;t;o;. il: jii', 1o 11t"
slightly with the ratio of ,"nnj "3"T''"nt
las Lpcn found to varv
\ breadr h For a sq'r re prate,
I fi*J,";
"value ih;;;;;;", ;:;;;-:l,l'ruc ot ( of abour
' havingl al0'ratio
.
05 7 and shorv
L': this i;;;";".i;'tr'r.;;ria
to r, and r";;;;i#";;;.i1 " '"nlu1sln or l0
0.1
6.'--:e g € g c E" q
vd u; ;; e;",; ;;;
PgEg __
pressures
;i,,,:."#J J:ji"
on buildings with flai
;lf
T'l'"i *,n" *ro
rhe uind" moves past
only the sides and top of,o" rui'llt' ,Si'ce
Flo. 148. Varietioo of drog coemcie#with Reynolds' numtrer for sphere,
disk, sud ciylndbr. Source: F. Eisner, "Das Widerstandsproblem," Proc' 9d
Inkrn. Congr. Apptizd Mech , Stockholm, 1930, Vol I, pp 23-42'
s::"+*il::{:::::::ls ,i ;5:Jl: il:,f i: ?il hll'j:}
;n1 o"i,ii"- i#,li',l"ffi';:1":i,1T
As the Reyrolds number for the sphere incrcr^ses beyond about cient somewhat, but results are
il::Tr'il[",j;i:T:;j
on the side of safety iI this reduc_
0.4, the drag coefficipnt decreases less rapidly and is approximately l,ionis neelected.
cons[ant at a value of aboui 0.5 for Reynolds' numben between Vetocity. A lrody.faliing frcety throueh
1000 and 300,000. The sudden drop in value of the coemcient at rs bemg_t"t-lt
,^ ll5: acted upon by ihree ver a fluid
]VE equal to about 300,000 is thought to result from a change from .downward ; 2) ;. ;;;s';;;.;';:iill, l;ll:;,,ll
;' l) ;,;liJ*i
(

laminar to turbulent flow in the boundary layer on the surfaoe of lorce of the fluid acting un\\erd
the sphere, causing a n&rrower wake behind ihe sphere and thus suthclent length of ime. he
lf the ho,lo r.,,,. i.^^1.]?1,,.
reducing the drag.
r
"urn ,,1 ,t " "." ,;n,*, rA i,;ir';";
t
become equal to fhe \\r,ight of the
,

Circular Dish. The disk is considered to be very thin end to be
moving relative to the fluid with the plane of the disk normal to
the direction of motion. The diameter of the disk is rued in com-
putiag the Reynolds number.
b,,tly. l" ;;,:;;.;;;_#
mation of the vertical forces has t
qurred a constant";;;;;;;' ;;'i;,;"::iil";::,il1,i',|l::1;n". *-
*lT. *flou" ""u M. J Thompson, Fruid itrcchaitcs, tr{c(irl}w-ltilr &)ok
 308 HYDR0DYN^N|CS
wA'fl,ilt tIAMMI')L lN l',ll'l'l l.lNIli; 3(J0

tror e solid body fallirtg Lttrortglt It gtr'.r, sutfi as air, the buoyant
into pressure energy. Sinoc forcl: llrlttlrls l'ittltls sccelarbt'i()
force is usually negligible. 'Ibe tct'rrrinal velocity is re&ohsd iu tttrt'rr:r ,

that case when the drag force equals t'he weight. or

t,: udi jr;l
-dt
PROBLEMS

1. The projected areo oI an automobile is 30 sq ft and jta drag coeffi- it follows that, if the velocity of the mass M could bc reduced f:""i '
cient is 0.45. If the automobile is moving ttrrough stiu air at 60" I and , to zero inetanteneously, this equation would become
Btsudard brrometric pressure, compute the resistance force aod tho
horsepower required to overcome ihis force at speeds of 20, 40, and 80
miles per hour?
,: rt (3$)

2. A smooth steel ball 2 in. in diamgter is moving horizontally through or, in other words, the pressure resulting from the change would be
air at 30'F and 14.4 lb per sq in. barometric pressure with a velceity of iiriinite. Such an iristantaneous ch&Dge is impossible, however'
600 It per sec. The specific gravity ol the ball is 7.85. The absqlutc
viecosity of the air is 0.00000036 lb-sec per sq ft. Compute tbe drag
force and the horizontal deceleraiion of the ball.
3. A man is descending in a parachute at an altitude of 5000 ft
where the air temperature is 40' F' The man and his equipment weigh
250 lb. The pa.iachuie is 18 it in diameter. Assumiug that the dreg
ce€ftehrt for the parachute is the same as for a circular dsk, cmpute
the man's terminal velocitY.
4. Determine the average pressure in pounds per square foot on the
face of a building 200 ft wide and 400 ft high when the' wind vdosity
Dornal to ihe iace of the building is 60 mies per hou , Assuse et&nd-
&rd barornetric pressure and an air 'ternpieraturc qf 60' l"'
l

l\G. 149
6. A submarine when running submerged in sea water has a drag
coefficient of 0.15 and a projected orea of 65 sq fi. Det'ermiue the dpag The following nomenclature will be used, all unihs being ex-
lorce for a velocity of 15 miles per hout ind tlte horsopower required to pressed in feet and seconds except as noted:
overcome this force.
b : thichess of PiPe walls.
168. Water Hammer itr Pipe Lines. In Fil. 149 is shown a D = inside diameter'of PiPe.
pipe line leading from a reservoir, ,4, and discharging into the air et .r{ = cross-sectional area ofpipe in square feet'
b near which is ldcated a gate valve. If the valve is suddenly € - modulus of elasticity of pipe walls in pounds per square foot'
closed, e dyramic pressure called watei' hammer is exerted in the a' - modulus of elasticity of water in poulds per square foot'
pipe in excess of the normal static pressure. The magnitude of this E: *odd* of ulasticity of pipe walls in pouirds per squarb inch'
pressure is frequently mrich greater than that of any static pressure .E' - modulus of elasticity of water ia pourds per squa"re inch
to which the pipe may ev€r be subjected, and the possibility of the d : &cceleration of gravitY.
occurrence of such pressure must therefore be investigated in con- [ = n*a due to water hammer (in excess of static head)'
[ection with the design of pipe lines. Il = total head producing discharge through valve'
This dynamic pressure is the result of a sudden transformation L - lengttr of PiPe line.
of the kiaetic energr of the moving mass of water within the pipe f - time of closing valve.
7; = velvo.
mean velocity of water throug!

I'
 310 HYDRODYNAMTSI
I/ : dreon velocity of water in pipe before cloeur€ of vslve.
a, : velocity of preasure w&ve along pipe,
Consider the conditions within the pipe immediately following
the closure of the valve. Let 11, 12,13, . . . 2,, represent infinitesi-
mally short sections of pipe, as shown in Fig. 149. The instant
the valve is closed, the water in section 11 is brought to rest, its
kinetic e4ergy is trausformed into pressure energy, the. water is
somervhat compressed, and the pipe expands slightly as a result
of the increas€d stress to rvhich it is subjected. Because of the
enlarged cross-sectional area of 11 and the compressed condition of
the li?ter within it, a greater mass of rvater is nory contained
within this section than before the closure. ft is evident then that
a small volume of water flos-ed into section lr after the valve ryas
closed. Arl instant later a similar procedure takes place in 12 and
then in 23, so that evidently a .rr ave of increased pressure travels
up the pipe to the reservoir. When this wave reaches the rcser-
voir the entte pipe is expanded and the water rvithin it is com-
pressed by & pressure greater than that due to the normal static
head.
There is now no longer any moving mass of water vithin the
pipe, the converbion of whose kinetic energy into pressure energy
serves to maintain this high pressure, and thercfore the pipe bcgins
to contract and the water to expand rvith a consequent return to
normal static pressure, This process stads at the reservoir and
travels as & uave to the lorver end. During this second perlrd
some of the water stored within rhe pipe florvs back inio the
reservot, but on accouat of the inertia of this moving mass an
amount florvs back greater than the exccss amount sl,ored at lhe
end of the first period so that the irutant this second rvave reaches
the vplve the pr€ssure at that point tlrops dot only to the normal
static preisure but belorv it.
A third period now follows during rvhich a rvave of pressure lcss
than static sweeps up the pipe to the reservoir. \llhen it rcachci
the reservoir the entire pipe is under prc,ssure less than static, but
since all the water is again at rest the pressure in l" immediatcly
returns to the normal static pre*sure due to the head rrf rr.ater in
the reservoir. This starts a fourth period marked by a rvave of
normal static pressure moving down the pipe. When the valve
is reached, the pressurg there is normal and for an instant thc con-
.
IUgtij tN pttrt)s8uRD WIntN ,l' I zrl,r. Bll
ditions throughout the pipe aro eirnilar to what thoy wor€ when
the valve was first closed. The velocity of tho wator (and the
resultant water hammer) is now, however, somewhat less thsn it
was at the time of closure because of friction and the imperfect
elasticity of the pipe and the water.
Imtantly another cycle begins simiiar to the one just described,
and then another, and so on, each set of waves successively dimin-
ishi:ng, util finally the waves die out from the influencps men-
tioned.
pquation 38 shows that for instantaneous cloaurc of valve the
piessure created v/ould be infinite if the water were incompressible
and the pipe inelastic. Since it is inpixsible to clo& a velve
instantaneously, it is apparent that a series of prrssure waves is
created, similar to the one jrxt described, **ing oo increasing
presstrle at the vblve. If the vAlve is completely closed before
the'first pre*sure wave has time to retum. to the valve as a wav€
of low pressure, or, in other words, if I is less lblla 2L/ov, it is
evident that. the pressure has been continually. increasing up to
the time of compleie clmure and that the resulting pressuro is the
Bame &s if the valve had been irxtantaneously closed. But if f
is greater lbzn ZL/o., then before the valve is completely closed
the earlier pressure waves have rrturned os wav€s of low pDessurc
and tend t<i reduce the rise of pressure resulting from the final
Bt&ges of va,lve clo6ure.
Hence if ? is equal to or Iess tban zL/o., h will bo the sa,me a8
for instantaneous closure, but if.? is greater than 2-L/u., then i will
be diminished as ? bcreases.
167. Rise in Pressure when f ? LL/u.. The theory of water
hrrnmer is based upon the law of conservation ol euers/. Tho
amount bf kinetic enerry contained in the moving column of water
within the p\W ts MV2/2 : vALV2 /2C. This enerry is used up
in doing work in compressing the v/a.t€r and in etretcbing the pipe
Iralls.
If the resulting pressure head is I feet above nomsl th6 com-
(wh\z AL
pression of the water column absorbs -:f foot-pounds of en-
!a
e1gr, since ttte finsl int€nsity of pressure is rai, the overage tot*l
prcB$rre is uhA/Z, lbe unit compression rs wh/e', alrd, tho totd
conp:ession or distancc through which the sverago tottl prwul€
gctl ts uhL/et,
 t
tttlJt,j tN I't ,tsstJllj \vIt:N ,r, .,;t,/tj,,,
312 EYDRODYNAMICB Comptring rrrlrrr,lions 4l elr(l 42, ii, i:r rrl4rrr,r.rrrl l,lurt
.1(iri0
fn a similrr manner the total work done in stretching the pipe (43)
l+_It't)
(?/.h\2LAn
walls is --j;- foot-pounds, since the unit, stress in the pipe ' lib
walls ts whD/2b, the average total stress in the pipe walls is Since sound is transmitted by means of pressure waves, u. is the
whDL/4, the unit elongation is whD /2be, and the total elongation velocity of sound through water in that particular pipe.
or distance through which the force acts is uhTDz /zbe. The foregoiag theory rvas first derived and experimentally ven-
The energy equation therefore becomes fied by Professor N. Joukovsky,l of Xloscorv, Ru-s!ia, in lgC-g.
uAL.Vz (uh)zAL 168. Rise in Pressure when I ) 2Z/u.. Numerous' formulas
r, -- %b
(wh)zLAD
2g - --d- (3e) have been derived for the determiaation of the rise in p.u."u-in ,
pipe line resulting from the slotv closure of a valve or of turbine
from which
gates, bui most of them are unreliable, or else are tme only undcr
(40) special conditions. The method that rvill be folloled here is that
of arithmetic integration, as proposed by Norman R. Gibson and
published in vol. 83 ol t\e Transqction s oJ the American Society ol
Ciuil E:tgineerc for 1g19. It is based on the foregoing theor| of
Reducing, so thaL the moduli are expressed in pounds per squsrle pressure rvaves and consists of a method of tracing ihe action
inch, by dividing each by 144, this equation becomes of
these waves instant by instant. It is ctaimed thai the accuracy
of this method ha.s been verified
tzv 4660I/ ,by many careful experiments.
(41) Assume that the valve, insteld of beiag closed in u .onlirruou"
I E'D motion, is closed by a serids of small ilstantaneous movements,
n{t + aa
'.EFIJ Each small movement of the valve will desiroy a small portion,
{I/, of the velocity /; and since this destruction is instantaneous
It \r'ill now be shown tnut -=1660 the resulting ircrease in pressure head will be, from equation 42,
represents the velocity s,t
I ffi
+ . a,,,AV
t/t ru
I
(44)
which thc pr.ssrlre wavr. travr rrp the pipe linc. In the
time !. There will thus be transmitted up the pipe line a series of small
a column of watcr of lcrrglh ;,, / is Lrrought to rest. ffr" *t"
pressure w&ves which, when added together, will give the
change of momcntum i.s iherefore "i excess pressure produced.
total

MV uAt6,tV wAu-V If it is assumed, as usual, that each small movement of yalve

produces the same reduction in area of valve opening, it
tgtg will be
necessary to determine the resulting reduciion in velocity in the
and this must cqual the forcc exertcd by the inueased preesure pipe, for, obviously, the instant the valve starts closing, th" p."._
which is rai.4. Therefore, sure behind it starts rising, and this rise in pressure iocr""ses the
velocity through the opening and diminishes the rate of retardation
,hA ='A"v
g 1 Miss O. Simin,
from which " Water llammer, with special refcrenco to the reseaiches
of Professor N. Joukovsky,,, Proc., Am. Wakt Works.{ssoc., 1904.
, a-v
({2)
c
 3r4 IIYI)I|OI)I NAN'tI(:tl
ktijl,j lN t>ttUSSUt ,j W t,jN ,t, > zt,/r.
of the velocity in re ;ripr:. 1'his rrrhrr:erl r{)l,lrd&tion has an irn- Jt3
porta.nt beadng on the problcnt anrl mrrst be t&ken inio &ccoult 2t.820/4880:0.35 scc. To simplify tLe computations as much
nn
in detcrmioing the resulting rise il pre$mr.c. possible, friction will be neglected Also, for convenien"",
ii*ifi im
The vclocity through the valve opcning may be expressed by assumed ihat the gates are closed in 2.lil0.35 : O.u"""."iue ln"trnturr",-
the iorrnula for discharge through orifices ous nrovements. Each iotervening interval will thereiore
be iust lon;1'
enough to allow the pressure wave resulting t.o* on"
rnuu"rn"ot'ti
v,: c,l-2sII (45) bavel up the penstock and return as a low_pressu.e *uu" ut the iostuni
that the aext movemeot takes place.
T.his forqula mny be wrilten in tbe fono From equstion 49,
I/,: K ,{E (46)
_- v .75
K:____:__:0.915
\,/ H Vl65
in which K/ may be detemrined it any given problem in which
the felocity in the pipc I/, the total head 11. and the ratio 6 of For each succeesive movemeni K will be reduced by one_eixth of ite
ori.ginal value, or by 0.1525, since the movements u.u"u..u^;J';; ;
the area of the valve opefling to the area of the pipe are s,ll know[,
urilorm magnitude.
sinc$
The fiIgt three columns of the table following may now be 6lled
iD.
v.:[: x' 'rE (u)
and also the initial values of columne 4 and 5.
The remaidng values are obte,iqed il the follorving manner.
Equation 47 me,y be written Assume a value for AI/ coused by the 6rst movJment of
the ga.te.
tr'rom equation 44,
v: trI( \G (48) 4680 ,
or Ah: _ AV : l4SAt (52)
V: I{ \/E (4e)
Sgbetituting the a.6sumed value for AIl io this equation, a trial valuo
in which
forAi is found. It is Dow oecessa,ry to determiae wh"th"" o, oni
K = gC,\/il (50)
Ae the valve is closed the vaiue of B, or of
K, will become emalier 1 2 3 4 5 6 8
anr{. smaller,with conesponding iacrements, Al, in the head pro- Velocity
ducilg discharge through the valve, and with simultaneous decre- Ilterval Tlme K Head Lv Lh :(at)
v
m€nts, AI/, in the velocil,y in the pipe, so th&t equ&tion 49 may be
written
0 0.00 0.915 165 lt .75
0.39
1 0.35 0.762 1l .36
1.18
V AV = K"/E+
- (51) 2 0.70 0.610 275 10.l8
1.91
171
277
114
^h I .05 0.457 328 8.27 163
4 1.40 0.305 2.48 360
5.79
,Thc solution of the problem consists ia finding those values
362 197
5 1.75 0.152 378 2.97 410
of AI/ &nd Ah that will satisly equations 44 aDd El for the difierent 6 2. r0 2.97 430
213
0.000 382 0.00 2t7
values of K.
The nethod may best be explained by the solution of a problem.
thee trial valuee satisfy equation il. Tbis rrray best be done by substi_
tuting thie trial value for Ai ard solving for AIz. If this value for alr
Dx,utrr,u. Determine the rise in pressure that will occur in a pemtoct
.leoding to s power pia.nt if the turbine gates are closed ia 2.1 *i. U-
does not check the assumed value, a new value for AI/ must b" u".ur*d
and the computations repeated until the two u.e.uti"6"d,
185 ft, .L - 820 ft, Y = 1l-75 fi per sec, and a,
= 4669 ft per 'eec. "quution.
The correct value for AY will always be found to lie between the ussu.J
For convenience, f hes been taken aa &n even multiple -of 2L/v.: vsluo aLd the computed value and will usually be found to be much
ncrer the former than tbe latt€r.

3t0 llYl)lt( )1, Y llr\ i\l I l. !J
For the initial gate movement, AI/ is founrl to bc 0:ll) it per Beo &od
A,a - 57 lt. llcnce, during the 6.rst intcrvol of 0.35 sec the total hend
uc,tiug is 222 ft, and the velocity in the peostoclc is 1l.36 fl cl sec.
The computatioa will uow be carried through for lit ;ec.rrr{l innerval.
AIl: Ah: I45X
First assume that 1.00. Then
stituting in equation 51,
11.36 - A/ : 0.610!'165 + 145
from which AI/: 1.65.
In substituting for (l/ * AD) in equation 51, it must be remembered
that this quantity represents the total efrective head producing discharge
through the gates during that interval. The effect of the preceding pres-
Eure wave6 must therefore be taken iuto a,ccount. At the beginning of
the second interval the first pressure wave will hav-e returned to the gales
&s & vav.i of low pressure and will reduce the efiective head during the
second interval by the sarne amount that it increased it during the first
interval.
The correct value of AIl is now kuown to lie between 1.00 and 1,65.
Next assume AV : 1.20. Then Ai.: 145 X 1.20: 174, arld, Eubsti-
tuting in equation 51 and solving, AV = 1.12. Finally, assuming
AI/ : 1.18, Lh: I7f. These values are found to s&tisfy equation 51.
During the third interval the first pressure wave will jrave rciuraed a.s
a wlve of high pressure, while the second wave will be one ol low pressure.
Therefore
E*Ah:165+57-L7t+Lh
and, during the fourth interval,
H*Ah:165- 57+171 - 2?7+ Ah
snd so on.
Graphical representation of the behavior of each tndividual pressure
wave throughout ihe period of closure, &8 well as a curve showing the
algebraic sum of ihe eff€cts ol these waves, may aid in visualizing the
solution of this problem,
It is possible to derive a series of algebraic equations, one for each time
interval, that would constitute a direct solution of the problem of water
hommer and would lead to practiially the same rcsults as are obtained
by the preceding trial-and-error mc:thod of a.ithmetic integration.
The equations are lon[ and cumbe"some, however, and nust be solved
by means oi logarithms, rvhereas all computations in the solution out-
lined here may easily be made by slide rule.
For tlc lnall ticnl method, as rvell as for a rnore complete discussion
bf the method given here, the original paper should be consulted,
x
(il'lNl'ill^l, l'll()lil,l':1\ll1 317
GDNERAL PIIOIJLI'MS
1, A 1-in. nozzle hos & coellicient ol vd(xrity of 0.97 and a cocfficient of
csnliircticln of 1.00. The base of thc nozzlc htts a diameter of 3 in., ot
1.00 - 145. Sub- rvh c!, poirt thc qage pressure is 80 lb pcr sq in. The jet stikcs & v&ne
ryhirtr has a deflection 8,ngle of 150" and & velocity in the direction of thc
- 57 iei. r.rf 30 fi per sec. Determine: (o) the pressurc exerted on the vane;
iir') ttre anrount ol rvcrk doue per second; and (c) the velocity of the
*:,ter ileaving the vanc.
'?. ,\ tank 4 ft wide and 6 ft long, supported on frictioriless roltere,
contains qater having a depth oi 6 ft ln one end of ihis tank is an
orifice having an arca of 24 sq in. and a coelicient of discharge of 0.60,
If the center of the orifice is 4.0 ft below the w&ter sudace, what forco
will be required to hoid ihis tank stationtry?
3, A large iank contains water having a depth of 'l ft. In the bottom
of the tank is a 6-in.-diameter orifice having a coeficient of dischaige of
0.60 and a coefiicient of contraction of 0.62. A Vanc is placed 5 ft
bekrrv the planeof tbc orifice in such monner that the.jot frorn ihe orifico
srlikes rhe vane t:rrii i$ deSected through an angle of 150". What forco
is reqrured te l,l,iid {n'rl vr'ne statiolary?
t, A Lin, 6re ]rose discharges through a f-iu. nozzle which has o coeffi-
cient of contraction of 1.0 and & coemcient of velocity of 0.95. If the
gage pressure at the Lrase of the nozzle is 40lb per sq in', determine the
longitudinal thrust on thqnozzle. If ihe axis of the nozzle coincides with
that of the hose will the connectiou beiwe€n ihe hose and nozzle be in
tenBion or compressioD?
6. A man weighing 200 lb is descending in a parachute through *ir
al, 80" F and normsl ses-level pressure. Determine the proper di-
ameier of parachute in order that the man's terurinal velocity shall be
no greaier than the velocity he erould acquire in jumping freely through
a height of 10 ft. Assume that the drag coefficient of the p&r&chule is
the same as that of a ciroulat disk.
6. Compute the t€rminal settling velocity of s sphelicdl psrticle of
sand 1 millimeter in diameter aud having a specific gravity of 2.7 when
it is dropping through (o) wat€r at 600 I'; (b) a heaW fuel oil at 60' F
7. A 24.in. cast-iron pipe I in. thick and 6000 ft long discharges wst€r
lrom a reservoir under a head of 80 ft, What is the pressure duo to
w&ter hammer lesulting from the instantaneous closure of a valve &i tho
discharge end?
8. A 2,!in. cast-iron pipe, I in. thick &nd 2000 ft long, dischargeo
v,ater from a reservoir under a head ol 80 ft, If a valve et the discharge
end ir closed in 6 sec determine the megnitude of the resulting water
hammer.
 s
Chapter X that arise in cngilccring work bul,;xrlhr4rs occur with lcss fnr
TYDR.AI]LIC SIMILITI]DE AND DIMENSIONAI ANAIYSIIfI
169. Introduction. The principles of hydrokinetics developed
in the previous chapters are based ou roathematical theory, but
the accuracy of the results ol laing4 6t t6.i. rpplication to practi-
cal engineering problems frequently depends on experimental
data obtained irr field and laboratory. There is evidence that
Leonardo da Vinci studied pri:rciples of hydraulic design by
means of small models of structures and machines, but until
r8ther recently hydraulic experimentation was usually carried
on to a full scale that is, on weirs, channels, pipe lines, aad
-
dams, as constructed in the field.
Within the last half centur5r, however, methods have been
developed whereby, &s a result of experiments conducted on
a scale model, it is possible to predict the bebavior of a full-
scole structure, or prototype. The principles on which tb.is
procedure is based comprise the theory of. hgitrautb timilittdn.
The analysis of the basic relatiomhips of the various physical
guantities involved in the motion and in the dynamic action of
the fluid is called, dimensional arnlgsis. It is the purposa of
this chapter to give briefly them basic principles snd methodo
of analysis as they relate particulorly to hydraulic model testing.
Few if any important hydraulic structures are now designed
and built without more or less extensive prelininary model studies.
Such studies may have for their purpose: (1) ihe reduction of head
losses in ,nal or pipe ir\.tq[es or at transition sections; (2) the
development of effective methods of dissipating the enerry in the
Btream at the foot of overflow dams or at the outlet end of culverte,
thus reducirg stream bed erosion; (3) the determination of dis-
charge coefficients for overflow dams and weirs; (4) the development
of tho best design of ahaft and siphon 6pillways and of other outlet
structures at resewoirs; (5) harbor design, involving a determina-
tion of the best cross section, height, and location of breakwatar,
as well as the size and location of opening; (6) the design of locks,
including the effect, upon ships, of the currents 6et up in the
318
IttI N( ) t)l,t,ill ()lr I
.
I r 1\4 l| . I
'
| | ||)t '
j 3l1t
operation of l,lrrrsc lutks; trul (7) irrrrrrrrrlrrr.lrkt oiber problcrns
quency than those mcntioned abovc.
River model studies may have for. lhcir purpose the determirra-
tion of: (1) the time of travel of flood ws,yes ttrrough river channcls;
(2) methods of improving channels for transmission of floods rvith
less danger of overflow of banks; (3) the efiect of river bend cut-offs
oD the regimen of the stre&m both above and beloiv the poiat of
cut-ofl; (4) the efiect of bends, levees, spur dikes, and trainiag walls
on the formation o{ bars or on ihe erosion of the bed; (5) the
height of backwater caused by permaneot or temporary s+,mctures
built ia a stream; 6nd (6) the di;ection and force of cunents itr
rivers and harbors and their cllect on navigation.
Hydraulic rnodel studies may also be classified rvith respect
to the character of equipmeni or 1,he type of laboratory that is
needed. For instance, in the river hydraulics iaboratory, dc-
signed to study river problems, one of the principal features is
a-circulating system capable of ploviding & consta,rt rate ol dis-
charge that may be s,ccurately measured and controlled between
the desii"ed limits. On the other hand, in a lake hydraulics labor-
etory the outstanding characteristics are equipment capable of
creeting end measurilg waves of any desired height and frequency.
An important phase of meny model studies is the deterrnination
of the resjstance ofrered to motion of objects through fluids. In
hydraulic models this study usually takes the form of determining
the force required to move a ship or submarine model through
still water at various speeds. Practically all moderl airplane
design is based on wind tunnel experiments, in which models of
plercs or parts of planes are fixed in a corduit through which
air iB propelled at high velocities. A recent developuent in
hydraulic research is the water tunnel, in which water or other
liquid is moved past a fixed model.
160. Pri.nciples of Similitude. Similarity between model end
prototype may take three different forms: geometric, kineroatic,
dlnamic.
l. Geometric similariiy implies similnrity of form. A model is
geometrically simila,r to the prototJrpe if the ratios of all homologous
lengths in model and prototJpe are equal.
2. Kinematic similarity implies similarity of motion. Kinc-
batic similarity of model to prototJrye is attaiaed if the patbs of
 x

32O SI Il I I,I'I'T] ]IN ND DIMLNSIoNAI, A}{ALYSIS I)YN M I(] StMlL ifl r'Y 321

homologous moving particles are geometrically similar and if the rtquired for hornologouo purticlas to l,rrr.vrrl lrornologous distancqt

ratios of velocities of the various homologous particles are equal. in model and prototype is
3. Dyramic similarity implies similarity of forces. A model is *: ,, (4)
rlynamically similar to the prototype if it, is kinematically similar,
and if the ratios of homologous moving masses and of the forces
producing motion are respectively equal. Kinematic qusntities usually involved in model studies are
In some model studies, particularly of open channel flow, strict linear velocity and acceleration, discharge, and angular velocity
geometric similariiy rvould result in too small a depth of flow in and acceleretion. Linear velocity I/ is expressed in terms of
thc motlol. Jt then bccomes necessary to makc the vertical sealc length per uDit of time; thus
of the model larger than the horizontal scale. The model is v- _L^/T^ _L^/Le _L, (b)
then said to be distorted. ve Lo/ To T^/To T,
The interrelationship of the various quantities involved in the
three forms of similarity can be derived from a consideration of the Linear acceleration a is expressed a.s a length per unit of time
units in which the quantities are expressed. Let the subscripts rr squared. Thus
and p indicate respeciively model and protot)?e, and let the sub- ar L^/T^": L^/Le L,
(6)
script r indicate, for each quantity, the ratio between model and
prototypo. This ratio is ordinarily expressed as a fraciion. For
A: r,Ji? r-lu-': Tj
inrtrrni!,, a mo.lol in rrhich all ljnear dimensions are one.ihir[ieth The units of discharge 0 are volume per unit of time; thus
of the homologous dimensions of the prototype is said to be built r 3/ri'r 3 13
on a scale of 1 : 30, or the scale ratio is 1/30. It is usually desirable %= \oh/T- t'm /

in hydraulic model studies to express the ratio of all quantities Qo Yolo/To T^/To T,
rnvolved in terms of the geometric scale ratio. Angular velocity <.: is expressed in radians per unit of time and
161, Geornetric Simitarity. The quantities involved in geo- is equ&l to the tangential linear velocity divided by the length
metric similarity are lengih, area, and volume. The ratio of of radius I of the curve et the point of tangency. The units of
homologous lengths in model and prototype is expressed as o ara thus
a^ _V^/R^ _ V^/Vo : L,/ r, 1
Lt :Lt (1)
.op Vo/Ro R^/Eo L,
(8)
Le
,\n area,4 is equal to the square of a characteristic length; hence, Since revolutions per minute, .Iy', is a measure of angulaf velocity,
thc ratio of homologous &reas can be expressed as .lr- I (e)
(2)
Nt: r,
Aagular acceleration c is expressed in radians of angle per unit of
,\ volume is equal to the cube of a characteristic lengthl hence, time squared; hence, from equation 8
the iatio of homologous volumes can be expressed as
<xd 1
Vol- L t (3)
(10)
io,r: Tj =
": 1611.Dynamic Sirnilarity. For dynamic similarity it is neces-
162. Kinematic Si'nilality. Kinematic similarity introduces
ssry tbst the ratios of homologous forces in model and prototype
the coucept of time as rvell as of length. The ratio of the tines
3T2 SIMILITUDI' ANI) DIMENBIONAJ, ANALYSIS r.rrotjDu,8 r,Aw il2t

be equal, or Maes density p in thc mass per unit volrrruo; honco

F^ Q'^T^2 / L^) -+ v ny^ t",T,,

E-F. (r1)
a- lrrr;-n,1 - yr4:-,,,r (17 )

Since force equals mass, M, times acceleration, o,

10d Gravltational Forces Predominant * Froude,s Iaw. W}ren
tbe force of inertia and the force of gravity can be considered to
p M^a^
M rao
:M,+ (r2)
be the only forces which control the motion, the ratio of forces
acling on homologoue perticles in uodel and prototype is defined
not only by equation 12,
Ttre force defined by the equation F = Mahasbeen called inerLia
force, and equation 12 therefore defines the ratio of homologous ,,= *,+ (12)
inertia forces in model and prototype. Since mass : p X Vol,
equation 12 ce,n be written but also by the fact that the force of gravity acting on a particle
is €qual to the weight I7 of the particle. Hence, for homologous
: ,;r: *,
Fr (prL:) (?)' : p.A.v.2 g2a) psrticl€s,

This equation, which should be conpared with equation 34 (page

,.:w:ffi:-,,,." (18)

305), has been called the Newtonian law of similitude oince it is : (./o)
based on the relation, F : Ma, and expresses the general law
Since mass times volume, ,lf" in equation 12 can be
writtcn
of dynamic similarity between model and protqtype.
From equation 12 the mtio of homologous masses in model and M, :!:7,s (1e)
prototlpe becomes c,
F,7.2 erd thence
(r3) D, L,1
-
lr=-'=- (20)
Ct 1t
Work being equal to force times distance, the mtio of the wprk done Equating values of F, from equations 18 and 20,
by homologous forces is
Work. F^L^ .,1::T.Ltj (2r)
rrDr (14)
wo*r: FpLe: from which

Power is the rst€ of doing workl hence ,, = rF, (22)

Power- f^L^/T^ F,L,
(16) This equation, derived for the condition under which it can be
P"**r: hLr/rr: r, assurnedthat the forces of inertia and gravity control the flow, is
Unit weight u is the force of attraction of the earth on each unit llrrovn aa the Froude model law.
volume of the subetance; hence Ordinarily the value of g in equation 22 canbe considered to be
the same in model and protot]?e. Then g" : I and equation 22
um F^/Voh F^/Fe F, becomes
w, - Fof \olo - Yol./Vol, L,a
06)
f, : "/L, (23)
 il
l'ltolll,l'lMll 32[
3ilt SlMl!,1'lll),,1 ANI) l)lllll\ril()N.\1, AN.\1,\Sls
The Froudo mqlcl lnw lpplios rrrirl.l l'r'sls <tf hy<lrtulir:
l,(, rnortt
If f 1,, i- suLstil.Lrtcd loI T',., t),.r rlrlro. o[ tht clrr. titics gi\,i'n o; structures, pnrticultrly those in which l,lrr:rrr is t rclativclylargc
equei.iols I io
17 can l)e expfossc(l irr tct:!,. r of thc lenglh ratio 1,,. lms of energy, such &s occurs et damo, w1!ir'8, $l)illwoys, and other
and the unii, \reiglrt rrrtio ?r',, as sho\\'n in the accompanf ing ttble. outlet Btruciures, or in which relativcly ltrrgc sttrflce \''r'&ves p;ty
lf aiso iu. : 1, as. for exarnple, il rtater is used in ltolh morlti .rrrd an important p8rt, as with surf&ce ships,ond beach and harbr'r
protolype, the |atirrs of the qudnlitics involved in t1]''r,rtttt. ttto- structures.
Iarity can also i.,c cxptessecl in tcrms of -L". PROBLEMS

Scrr-n R,lrros FoR TnE ITRoDDE NIoDIL LA$', \Yxotl 4t,: I 1. A caisson, rccta,ngul&r in plan, 32 ft wide, 80 ft long, and 30 lt
high, ia to be eunl to ihe bed of a river at & point where the debth is 24
Geometric SimihriLy Kinenrr tii" SirLLil L ilr* Dr'nemic Siuilarl.":,
ft sDd the velociiy of flow is 6.5 ft per sec. It is desired to determine
LeDgth L, Tirne .l
',tt L:[it wciglit rrr the probable force of the current against the upstreem end oI the
L,, Vclocity L,rt N{rss den"ity r,, caieson by me&n8 of e test on o 1:12 scsle model in a etream of wst€r.
Volume L," AcceleratioD 1 lorce u,L,s Assume that the Froude law &ppliee. Det€rmine the proper width and
Discharge L.tt Mass w,L,8 length of the model caisson &nd the depth and velocity of flow ir the
Angular v{locity L--!i Wo.k w,L,n Dodel. Under t€st, the force agoinst the end of the model c&isson waa
.4.ngul.rr acccleration l,'-1 I'ower u,L,h lourd to be 21.5 lb. Determine the corresponding force io be expected
on the prototype. Deterrnine the coe6cient of drag resistance.
166.. Froude's Number. Ii the vlltie i:i 7', from eqridtjor 22 is 3. The epillway eection of a dam is to have piers and gaies by means of
substituted il
equatign 5, the lollorvilrg crpressiorl for the velocity which the upstream pond level can be controlled A 1:40 ecale model i8
to be built and teet€d to detcrmine ihe approximate discharge coeficients
ratio in model and prototype is obtained:
to b€ expect€d under various conditions oI head and gate openings ond to
V* L, /- ^a^
.1
(%)
assiat in the design of downstream apron end baffies to dissipate energy
T, -\LrQr:--;-::: { Lrgo and proteci the Btresm bed, The length of eoch prototype crest Sato
vp between piert is to b€ 60 ft &nd the erpected discharge through each
TtLis equation cs,n be written gaie will be ?500 cfs. Compute the correeponding quantities in tho
model. Ths weir bead on the creet of the dsm in the model ie found to be
v- vr (25) 0.256 fi, Compute the weir coefrcient, neglecting velocity of approach'
! L^q^ I L,s" ?he velocity at o given point on the eproq in the model is 8.50 ft per sec
and the time required for a particle to trovel from the crest of the dam.to
The general expression V/lto ts a dimensionless ratio called r poiot on the apron iE 1.08 sec. Compute the correepouding quantitiee
tp be expected iu the prototype.
Froude's number. The dimensionless nature of the ratio can be
3. A ehip hoving a hull length of 450 ft ir to be propelled at a speed of
shown by substituting proper units for V, Z, and g, as follows:
l0 Lnots. (1 knol: 1 ngutic&t mile per hourl I nautical milo = 6087
ft/sec + lfr x ftF"? : ft/sec + ftlsec : I ft.) C,ompute the Froude number. At what velocity rhould a 1:30
acale model bo towed through water, if ihe Froude number is to be tho
Alternate forrns in which the Froude number has been expressed ssme for model ss lor protoiype?
ere V2 /Ls, Jzi/v, and Lg/v2. I' Aa object ig to be towed eubmerged through aea water' Studies
Froudds number, denoted by l{p, is a significant ratio in model of tle flow conditione iD the prototype ere to be made by towing a 1:9
rcale mgdel through fre8h w&ter. The condiiione are euch that the
etudies in which gravitational forces, together with inertia forces,
Froucle modet lew applies. If the velocity of the protoiypo i8 to b€ 16,
coDtrol the motion. When this condition exists, complet€ siDi-
tt per *c, what ebould b€ the velocit'y of the model? II tho towi:g
L,,rlly between model and protot]?e is attained ii the Froude forco on tbe nodel ig 25 Ib, wbat would bs the correepouding force on the
number is the same for both.
 ;
326 SIMII,ITUDE AND DIMENBIONAL ANALYSIS lv l,;Il l,ji'ri t,Aw an
prototype? The measured pressure difierence betweeu two points on This equotion, tlrlivcrl for l,lrc rrorrrIii,iolr rrrr|rrr rvhich it can bo
the surfs.ce of tbe model is found to be 10.6 lb per sq tt. What wilt te assumed thal, tlrc [or'<rrs of irrellirr lrrrl virrrrosily control thc {low,
the pressure difierence betweeu corresponding is known as thc llcynolds modcl ltw.
iointe on the prototyp€?
M,2/y, is substituted for ?, in eqrur.tirur.s I to 17, the ratios of
166. f iscous Forces Predonrinont Reynolds' Law. If vis- the various quaniities involved have the values shown iD the
-
cous forces influence the motion or action of a fluid to eo
marked a table on page 326. If also the sa.me fluid is used irr model and
degree that they can be considered predominant io the ex;lu;i;; protot]?e so th&t t{)r : p, : I and v, : !, all the ratios can be
of gravitetional forces, the force of viscosity as well as the force of expressed in terms of the lengih r:atio.
inerti.a si'nultaneously govem the motidn of any particle. 16?. Reynolds' Number. Il the value of 7, from equation 30 is
The unit shearing stress resulting from the viscous resistance substituted in equaiion 5, the {ol}owing expression for velocity
of
a fluid h motion is expressed as (equation 2, page 5) ratio iD model and prototype is obtained:
V-
f_trTdv (26)
_L, _ L,l), _ v, _ y-/vo
Vr- T,- L"'- L,- L^/Lp (31)

If this unit force b applied over area.4, the total force TbIs equetion can be written

o: u{*t v^L-
@) =y2t2 (32)

The ratio of-homologous viscous forces in model and pmtotype Tte general expression YL/v is a dimensionless ratio and is the
csn
be expressed as Reynolds number,,l{a, which has been referred to in previous
u(dV-/dt^)A^ p^(L^/T^L^)L^z
, _-;fdvJEiq:;i chapters. In pipe flow the characteristic length used is the diam-
" : L.z
t"T (28) eter. The equation of units showiag that the Relrrolds mrmber is
dimensionless is
Scer,e Ralros ron rsp Rpyxor,os MoDEr, LAw, Wuu,r 9, =I (ftlsec) (ft): (ft2lsec) : 1

Geometlic Simil&rity Dyaamio Simila,rity Repolds' Dumber is a significant ratio in model studies in
Lryth L, fimo L,2 /", Unit, weiSht prtr,r which viscous forces, together with inertia forces, contrgl the
Area L,2 Velociiy ,,/L, Mass den- motioD. When this conditiod exists, complete similarity between
Volu.Ee sity p. model and prototype is attained iJ the Re]'nolds number is tho
L,8 Acceleratioo ,r2/Lt, Forco pttcl same for both.
Discharge L,o, Mass pr-.t1
Angular velocity ,JL,z The Reynolds model law is usually followed in model studies of
Work o*,rl,
Angular accelero- Power pprr/I* the flow of fluids in pipes and ir river channels, of the motion of
tion ,,,2 / L,t zubmerged objects through liquids, and of the relative motion of
rir p8,st s,irplanes, automobiles, and trains at velocities which are
Equating 12 and 28, and substituting p
,L,s for Mn not excessive,
, 168. Surface Tension
tr'orces Predomiaant-Weber's !aw. I'he
*'t' : ,'"," fi (2e) surface t€nsion o{ liquids may affect the florv over weirs under
Solving for ?r, low head,s and the propagation of small ripples on the surface of a
12 t2 liquid. Surface tension, deuoted by o, is measured in terms of
I, = = G0) Iorce per unit of length (Art, 4). Ileoce, the force of surface
ttrl P" - ,r
-
 T
328 bIMILITUDD AND DTMIJNBIONAL ANAI,YIIIH

tension is F : iL. "the ratio of homologous surfsce tension SUMMANY

forces in model and prototype is thus Iftho occurrence bo such thet sovoml oilutlly irngrrtant forceo producc
the motion, tho problem of ettoining similitudo bccomes more involvurl.
(33) Sinilitude can bo gecured, when two forces oxiot, by the use of difrcrent
fluids in model and prototJpe. Once tho two fluide.are chosen. the scale
Equating this surface tension force ratio to tho inertis forc€ rttio rstio immedist€ly becomee fixed by tho properties of the choe€n fluids.
In general pr&ctice, however, the concerl of the inveetigator ie with
,
ort+
L,4
: *7? (34) the effect df only one force, which is coneidered dominaut. The ueglect
of the other iorces is reeponsible for inaccurscies in only tbe final result.
from which The endeavor, therefore, should be to chooe€ lcales and to build and
opemte modele in euch a rnonner th&t the efrect of the nondominant
(35) forces is iompeneating or negligible. If this is done, euch model etudies
will produce su6cieutly &ccurete iuformstion to predict maior occur_
reDces ilr the- prototype. Thus, rn the case of tb€ flov past, a hridge
Iftho same tiquid is used in model and prctotype, pt - \ at - lt pier, gmvitation ordinarily wilt b3'found to be the predominating force
and in the motion occurrence, both ii the prototype and in the model, pro-
T, : L,Y (36) vided the latter is not too Bmall. t'luid frictiou and surfsce tension lrill
also influence the occurlencq &nd in a case where the model is made too
Substituting the value of ?" from equation 35 in equation 5 emall, the iufluence of the lsttor forces upo! the flow p&ttern msy resutt
v^ L, l; : ./ tJ L^* ir iirportaut dissimilarity of the two occurrences between mjet and
4: '/Er,/": {z* ./;lI,p, (37) prototype.

This equation can be written
vo'Lopo
om qp
The expression V2Lg/c is a dimensionlacs ratio known aa
Weber's mrmber, .l{y, and is a significant ratio in model studiee
in whicb surface tension and inertia forins control the motion.
l$$. $nrnrnryy. The relationship of the various physical
quantitias involved in most t€sts with scale models ha.s been
developed for the conditions rnder which the fundanental equa-
tion, force = mass X acceleration, is combiled with (1) gravita-
tional forces, (2) viscous forces, or (3) surface tension forces, to
control the motion. l'requently, however, more than one of these
latter thrce forces has an important effect on the motion. A brief
surnmsry of the problems involved ia model te,sts in this event iB
given in tho following quotation from Manual 2b of the American
Society of Civil Engineersr:
L Egdrauli. ModeJs, preparcd by the ConEitt€€.otr Eydraulic
19dr.
It has been stated that the best results which have been ob.
tained from model tests are qualitative rather than qusntitative.
(38) That means, for instance, in a study of the discharge characteristics
of a spillway, that properly conducted modet t€sts of difrerent
spillway desigus should indicste quite reliably which design would
proyide the most favors.ble flow charecteristics in the protot'?e,
but that scale efrects resulting from the impossibility of obtaining
complete similarity of model to protot',pe msy caure numerical
vslues of coe$cients of discharge cr velocity in the prototype to be
. somewhat difrerent from those obtaiaed with the model. Consider-
able success has, however, been achieved with quantitative testa of
scale models, and valuss of coeffcients obtained in such tests hr,vo
been closely substentiated by measurements made on the prototype.
Exeupr,s. It ir deaired io determine by model tests how fer the ouflet
pipe in the side of a large oil tank shoutd be below tho oil gurface il
order thot air r.vill irot be drawn into the pipe when oil is diachrrged from
tbe tao}. The oil has a kinemotic vircosity of 0.000g0 eq ff per sec.
gea,rc\ (o) Determire the proper kiuem.stic viscoaitf of th€ nodet fuid if
the rcale of the model is 1:4-
(D) Il a glycerol eolution siih a kinematic viscooity of 0-000096 8q ft
 #
330 SIMILITUDE AND DTMTNSIOI\AL ANAI,YSIS I)IMIJNIIIONA|, ANAt,l'lJItr &3r

per eec is used ag the model fluid, determine ihe proper ecale ratios of
length, velocity, and discharge.
the unit equations by Vftlrq/ t"nrl t/L/;i . This is not truo of
Sotutirtn. IJoti gravitational and viscous forces are important in thit the Manning formula, which lJurr.cforrt rcm&ins dimensionally
problem. Therefcre both the Froude ond the Reynolds numbere must incorrect, though ii is applied with much succ€ss in hydraulic
be the esrle for model and prototype. Surface teosioD effects will be engineering because of the rather complete inforr.pation avoilable
minimizcd by using a fairly large-scale model. \ concerning the proper values of roughness coeScient ?? over a
Equating the veloeity scale ratios for the Froude law (page 824)and wide range of flow conditions
the Reynoide law (page 326), assuming 4, = 1, In order for the equations of units in the right-hand column of
J4: v,/L, the table to reduce to the identity 1 : 1, it is evidently necessr5r
that the algebraic sum of the exponents of each of the independent
vt: L,k quantities F, L, and ?, respectively, be the same on each side of
the equation. For example, the equation of units for power -
ll I', : t, r,n = {, and the kinematic viecosity of the model fluid should
QuH, cat be written
be 0.00010.
For v- = 6.qgggg6, v, : 0.12, aod LFT*\:LsT*rXFL_sXL
r -.% _..243
-,_,,
- The equations of the exponents cr l,Ljnd T are
Tbo velocity and discharge ratios can be deiermiued by either tire
Froude or the Reynolds model law.
Eor-Fi I: I
By Froude: v, : li: o.asl ForZ: 1=3-A+t
Q,: L,et : o-a291 For ?: -1 = -l
By Reyuolda: V,: v,/L,: 0.498 Each of these equations being an identity, the original equation for
Q,:
L,v, = 0'029L power is dimensionally correct.

L70. Simensional Analysis. The attention of the student has

been repeatedly called to the units in which the various physical
quantities used in this book are expressed, and equations of units
are given for the more important formulas. A number of these
formulas with their unit equations in the foot-pound-second sys-
tem are repeated in the table on page 332. l'he column at the
right gives the algebraic equations of units with F (force) substi-
tutecl for pounds, L (lenqth) for feet, and ? (time) for seconds.
It, should be noted that, with three exceptions, the equations of
uuirs in the table reduce algebraically to the identity 1 - l,
indicating that the equations ale dimensionally correct. The
exceptioru are the rectangular weir discharge formula and the
Chezy and the Mannilg formulas for flow il pipes and open
channels. If, however, C io the weir formula and C in the Chezy
formula are considered to include V-g, these two equatiors becomo
dimensionally conect, as is shown by multiplying the right sides of
Dimensional analysis provides a method of developing the
general form of an equ&tion to express the relationship of the vsd-
ous physical quantities involved in force or motion. It is assumed
that if any such rclationship is completely d.:fined by a mathe-
matical equation, that equation must be dimensionally corect.
Each physical quantity involved in force or motion can bo
expressed in units of force, length, and time (or mass, length, and
time, as some prefer). A number of these quantities and {heir
correspondiug 1-,L-? unils are shown in the table. Other quanii-
ties commonly occurring in hydraulics (Art. 4) are p, dl,namic
viscosity (F ?/.L2); p, mass density (FT2/L4) and o, surfa,ce t€n-
stou (F / L).
The urethod of dimensional analysis will be illustrated by its
application to a few important problems of hydraulics.
l. Let it be assumed that the discharge Q over a rectangular
weir varies directly with the length t of the weir and is also a func-
tion of the head .I{ on the weir,.and g, the acceleration due to
 *

SIMILITUDE AND DIMI;NSIONAI, AN,TI,\'SIS DIMEN0IONTTL ANAI,YHIB il33

Fr A
gravity. It ls furthor assum€d thot Q cln be eorpreeod by sn
equation of tho fom
El { lhi
*1 ,1
X X Ita
X
v-W"f (3e)
X
*tu elir
X Fi Ix slb F-
ls !l\
I 'r gla
{.1
XX XX
X l*lt t :ils rl F'3 lx ; lxl x
whers c and b ars unknown erponents and t ig a noudime[sional
Rlt El;r -l ^lIti 'i lF. -Zxx
Ft t-l Fl t{
X L{ i'.r
-7*l:,. fectnr of proportionolity. Subetitub:ng for each variabls its cor-
,.1 resi.onding units of force, length, rad time, the following equt'ion
I it I l([ ll t{
'.1:l \
lt ll ie obtaired:
3ls, \lr tsi lE
{lH ri lFr i 'l iF* 't rF. { ll* E
LaT-t - LL"(Lf\b ' (40)

H For equation 39 to bo dimenaionally correct the equation of expo-

sl nents of each indepeudent quantity in equrtion l1() nust be an
p \1.-.,
- l{- x identity, Theee equations are
* wlX ,^
.rln::l^ :c
lc
o
€lg €lt
X Ht; gtl
jl=r-lS t> :3 sl9 ForL: 3-l*o*b
D XX XX *tt
X

x!l'-[eli i':tx=l*
x
For ?: -L: -2b.
d ;13 Solving for c and b, b - l/2; a = 3/2. Substitutins thee valu6
lt fl X. [.l(L I
k
z
.o11. 4 *tf;fl$ €l$ etE tlg c d cl.9cl$ *13
u II
-
ia equation 39,
a * kLIIhs* (41)
E
I a It kli iB denotad by a general coefrcient C, the equation of rec-
I
. lts t$ IE
il.t
lS + its+r- l3 tsngular weir discharge without cortection for velocity of approach
co

2
*I X
5 h
\ IO 7 iU S:;;*lt;
O \ 6,it o "13 I ig obtai!€d:
Q=CLfl (42)
o lll
ear0r5!oo-i.,i,s
ll [ [[ lt
E t^\
If
the only quontiti€s afiecting weir diachrrge werc thoso as'
EI nrned above, C would be cnonstant for aI hesds and lengt'ba of
lr
z weir. Thrt this is not tme woe brcught out in Chapter YI; ther+
l) fort, other phyaical quantitiee must be involved in the Lswg
governing weir flow. The application of dinenrional analysie to
the proble.rn of determining the relationohip of other physicsl
r3:$ quentities to flow through a V-notch weir fu ehown in the followilg

A
a E E B EgE
problem.
2. Aesume that the velocity bf flow I tbrougb a V-noteh weir is

i€E €$E?€:Cf;
gg3r$83if;$gE3
o function of II, the hegd, of p, rr, end 4 respectively the lnass
density, dynamic viscosity, and surface teusion of the liquid, and
of g, the acceleration due to gravity; and that the relationship of
these quantities moy be expreseed in the following forn:

v -l"/lnbr"ff (43)
 ?

II34 SIMILITUDE AND DIMIJNSIONAL ANALYSIS I)lMllNgloNAl, A N A |,YHIJ a3[

Expressing each quantity in its reepective I'-LZ units, Thia equation ir in a form compalrblo willr rrr lrrution 48 on pra,go l0I.
Values of k', c, uroliJ d muet be detcnnirtcd by dxperiment.r
#=,(Y)'(fl(il"GJ (M) If any threo exponentB, other than c, 0, and e, had been ax-
pressed in terms of ths other two in tho lbregoiug developmoot,
'tVriting tho equations of exponents, equation 46 would barre contained a difierent function oJ tho
For tr': 0-b*c*d Reynolde and Weber numbers.
3. It is ehowir in Chaptcr VI tbat in equation Q = CA \/zffi'
For.L; !-a-4b-2c_it*e C is not constant but vsries with the head and with tbe qize of
For ?: -l:2bIc-2e orifce. It will now be sliown by dimensional anslysie thst d i5
a function of lroude's and Reynolds' numbers.
Since there arc five unknown exponents and only three equations.
I,€t it be assumed thet the discharge Q through an orifce vo.rieo
thee of the exponents must be expressed in terms of th" oft"r t*ol with the d1'namic viscosity p and the mass density p of the liquid
Solving for o, D, and in terms of c and d,
a
with the aree ,{ of the orifice, with the head ff on the orifice, end
b--c-il with g, the acceleration due to gre,vity; &nd that th€ di8chBrgs s&D
be expreosed as
ca
lc Q: kp"pbA"Hdsu (48)
d
r- 2-
Introducing the tr'-L? units ior each quantity
a:*_*"_u
Subotituting these vslues irr equation 4{l and reducing,
V* kvrt-$o/2-zd p-c- r pc odgrh-ct2.-d
+-(ffi(#)'1"1"(#) (4e)

Writing tho equations of exponents

: r
ffifi*: *0"n"(fi6*)'
&)' <oui ForF: 0-a*b
ForZ: 3= -2a-4b*2e*d*e
Since 7 ie proportional t" 6F, it can be substituted thercfor
in the ratios in parentheees by rnalring a conesponding chango For ?: -l:a*2b-2e
in the proportionelity factor /c. The equation o" tl"oior" il Solving for b, c, and e, in terms of o and d:
wdtten
b : -a
v -k'G?)',(;a)" riE (48) D.JA
c----G--
&42
fr-u. pfi-
in parenlheses sr€ idetrtified as the"recipmcal of Rey-
1c
nolds' number (fut. f6Z) and Webor,e number (irt. 16g), the
c,htrsct€ristic length being II, the head on the weir. "=r-t
Multiplying the velocity by the area of the weir, H2 tN O/2, tbe Substituting these values in the original equation and reduciqg,
equation for discharge through a V-uotch weir beeomes
e * b,,ao-rAer--*/t-dt2rds'a-at2 - -G+-,J (#)d anou (fi)
t = t(#,X#)" n," |u, (47)
I 8€o lootroi€ 3 on pag€ 162.
 T'
t

336 SIMII,ITUDE AND DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS DIMENSIONAL ANAI,YHIfI EA7

The quantity ,4.'4, being the square root of an area, can be replaced Substituting f-l-? units
by a characteristic length Lof the orifice provided the coefficient
/c is changed accordilgly. Making this substitution snd multi- , =(#) (#)' (s)
plying numerator and denominator by r-2I1, equation b0 becomes
"\'(!;)
Writing the equations of exponents
o:#(#,)"(i)"-" (51) of 1: l:a*d
^unu Of, L: 0: - 4a*2b*c-Zl
The first quaatity i:r parentheses ca,n be writteD
of I: O=2a-c*il
| .p
Solving for c, b, and c in terms of d,
{ts pL
'. a-l-d
Multiplyin! numer&tor and denomiaator by some charactcristic
velocity I/, the expression becomes b-r-! 2
Vy c:2-d
{fi cLV Substituting il equation 53 and reducing,
which is seen to be tbe ratio of Froude's number to Reynoldal
number. The discharge coefficient C ia equation l0 (page f?2) D : kpt-4At-dt2vr-ouo : 1"(-3-)n oav, (55)
therefore has the value
Replacing /1/2 by some characteristic length , of the object, s'ith
r"(H)(1)*"
':
provided the discharge is governed by the quantities included in
(52) corresponding changb in the proportionality lectrt k, I'nd multi-
plying aud dividing by 2, equation 55 becomes
/ L \d ovz
equation 48. D:{( - t' r /<A\
\w'l
"-"\PLv)
4. The drag'force of resistance acting on an object moving
through a fluid was shown in Art. li4 to be given by the equation lte drag coefrcient Cp in equation 56 therefore has the velue

o,: coe{ e, c, = !-
tfR
(57)

It will now be.shown

by dimensional analysis that Co is a function
of Reynolds' number as indicated by the experimental dsts.illue
trated in Fie. 148 (page 306).
Let it be assumed that the drag force D vsries with the mass .
density p arrd dynamic viscosity uk tnu fl,ria, *itn tfr" p*iu.t a
area .4 of the object, and with the vetrocity Iz of the obju.i ,"lutiu"
io the fluid; aDd that the drag force can be exprcssed-ia the foro
D= PpdAbvattd (63)
6, Another pmblem, the eolution of which has been provided by
dinensionsl analysis, is that of the resistance to motion of g, ship
through water. This resistance is considered to be composed of
two p&rts: (l)
a force which sets up surface waves of more or less
complicatedpott€ms, called the wave-making resistance; (2) a force
produced by so-called " skin friction " on the zubmerged part of
the hull.
Lst it be assumed thst the wave'making resist6lce D,o variec
with the dengity p e,Eg[q{va,t€r, wit!-the voluee of displac€Dont A
 338 SIMILI?UDE AND DIMI.)NSION{I, ANALYSIS -, DIMI,]NSIONAI, ANAI,YNIH 33'
l
&nd the velocity Iz of the ship, and with g, the acceleration due to which is moving through a tluid in a direction parnllcl to the surface
gravityj and that it can be expressed by an equation of the form oi the pl&t€. The skiu lriction drag is givcn by the equation
D- : p" Lbv" gd (58)
P,'2: g,'J:4
k
(s)
Iniroducing the units of the various quantities,

,: (#) (h)' (5e)

wbere .4 is the area of the plate and Cy is a coefficient which has
been shom to be a function of Rel'nolds' number, [.L/r, .L being

Writing the equ&tion of exponents,

"r'(+) usually the length of the plate (or ship). Schlichting gives lhe
followi-ng value for Cy in terms of Reynolds' number:
OfI: I:a
OI L: 0:-4a*3b*c*d Ct: (e)
Of ?: O:2a-c-2d
Solving for o, b, and c in terrns of d
a-l
' a:i+i
c-2-2d
Substituting in equation 58 and reducing,

D-: kp|"+dtzv2-""f : r(p)' oo"r, (60)

The quantity Ah can be replaced by some characteristic dimen-

sion .L, usually the ship's length. Substituting this value u,ud
multiplyiag numerator and denomiaator by 2,

,-: o (7)' + o" :7L*s"# o" (61)

This equation can be written

o_: g-t:6* (62)

where C, is a function of Froude's number.

The skin friction dragr on a ship's hull is assumed to be equal to
the skin friction drag on one side of a thin flat plate of equal area
r For a more ext€nded dircuesion of skin friction lesist&oce Eee Karl E.
Echoenherr, " RcsietcDce of !'lat Surfaqes MoviDg ihrough a Flui4" fraru,
Eof;. Nd4td Archikch and Mqiu Engt., Iol" 40, 1932, pp, 279-313,
s

Ansuers
Ct4tcr I
^ !.g:
8.
1!. 1, 0.0000200 lb+eo per eq ft, 0.00OOrAl sq ft per 6ec. ,. gzs-
1.6? sluirc per ou ft. t, 74.0. 6. r.Oa, 45A. e. eZe.' Z.'O.OZoi Ul""
Itr 0,000168 qq ft p6r r€o. ""
Ctrptar tr
__1q:10. L 2500, 1?.3,4610,32.0. t.66s, a.93,2680, 18.6. s.
s38. {.
r7.q $1 ft. 6. 0.4&t. 3. 2.4t. Z. 6s.s ft. g. 4.27 ft. e. o.$r, 14.?: 10.
l7_3,13gt
|n. 11. -0.2. 11. 25.7, 6S.4. 18. _11.3, _4.91, S.3. 1{- l2i.
lt. -1376. t8. 2,ztb. 1?. 25.0. 1r. 0.48 ft.
_-lfq" s: t. 27.Aft,21AiD" i. rs0olr. s. 30.0 ft, 13.0, $mft. {. 11.8,
5m0 fr. 6. 27,700 ft.
l^"9" 1_... r.95, 1.75, 26.5, 2.s2,4.fi. 2, .r,27.2, t.70,20.r ft. g.
-10.2,4.6Ib '.pct sq i!. {. (d) 14.8 ft water,6.28 lb per so io.j tAl _t.ar ii
oil, -2.23 lb per sq in.; (c) 649 ft gr.s, 0.18 tbper eq i!. O.'ll.i i". e-'id-i-
?.0t1,,-I.08 lb pereq in. O. S.S, ra.OZ lb per eq i!. 9. Z*
lo. (d) -3.33 ft oil, -1.30 lbperaqin.; (b) -14.7 ft wer€r,- _6.4 lb plr itli
.9.8._
go
rtr. u.--0.51, 14.19 lb per aq lI.. 12, -2.45,12.28 lb per sq in.
Pago t9. 1. 0.520 lb p€r sq iD. 9,. Z2.O in. g. _1.54. {. 8.7.
Prge 31. ft wat€r. g. 6.74. L 0.101 lb per 8q ir. . 5. 0.231
,1. 56.7 Ib
p€r Bq in._ 6._ 21.9.,
-7.
l.gl lb per sq h. 8. 10.85 lb per oq in.
Psge 34. 1. l.12in. 2.0.292. S. 1.63.

Chapter E
. 35j.f. lj
(c)
10,100 lb, 6 ft below w.s.; (b, BBT1 tb,4, rt below w.s.;
.{") -{ry P,.a+rt
U"t w w.e. !L (a) 32,600 lb,0.465 ft belowi.g.; (6) t+,eod
'Si.'2a9d
tll_0:31.6
I, below c.g,; (c) 23,1oo lb, 6.t? ft bolow iop.t g"t".
0.O76 ft, from c.g. 4. 6280 lb, 0.059
rl,
fi
botow c.g. 6. AZ,?00 lb, O.03Z f;
f.r-og c.S. 8. 6 ft.
?. 91m Ib,5.13 ft from w.a., Z.tZ ft Lm
long side. 9.
42n,740o, 1320lb. 10. 1310 lb. 11. (a) t3,8z0, 99s0, 6g7}tb; ( 24,220,
j!,eJ9,-9rs0l!; (c) 38,400, 34,e50, s400 lb; (d) 68,bm, o+,s06, rg,sr6 lb.
rr. l8.8ft 13,5001b. 14. to,2m, 169,0001b. 16.2A,r00tb. ie. izoou.
(a) 3.1,m0, 4e,o0o lb; (b) 44,e00, Ed,3oo lb; G)164,000,
. -lg: -4. .1.
:Tjry.lb.. 2. (d) 3l fr above B, 4.2b to rishr of a; 1A1 a.lr'rt a,
3.67 ft t,o right oI B; (c) 2.46 fr ebove .8, g.4t fr ta nsh; of .8. g. "roue
86S0 lb-
2,32-It, sl)ove A;4t4O lb,2.39ft to right of .4. 4. t5,600 lb,2.36 ftabove,ai
4000 lb, 0.80 fi to isht of ,4. 6. 1O.OOO lb. 6. 4qb00 lb. ?. Ig
= 35,66{
lb,.r{7 - 99,90016, 3r. - 98,000 lb, By : cr.
341
 r

342 ANSWERS ANAWnrut 343

P.gc 66. 1, 196{0 lb per oq in 2. 0.16 iD- g. SA i!" !L 0.71, lSiI i!" 0.417,4.88,4.70 efn. 6. tlahbook, -0.:l por rclt; ll^rris, -0.4 ter ceD!.
6. Top, 3120 lb; bottob, 0240 lb. 0. Top, 2370 lb; bottom, ?110 tb. 6, 45.5 cfB. 7- 70.0, 8O.7 cfs- 8. 6.7 cfs. 0. 3l ft. 10. 4.3 ft.
Page 01. 1. (o) 4.78 ft froro toe; 1720, n4O lb pet Bq it; (b) 4.m ft &o@ Page lM. 1. 36.6 cfs- t. 22.2, 21.7 cis. 8. r.78 ft. 4. 2.37 ft, 6.
tcF';78o, 2Z4O lb pet aq ft, 3. f.4l ft froro toe. 0.444, 2.035 cfs. s. 0.868 ft. 7. 0.558 cfe. 8. 0.393 ft. g. 1.12, l.rl7,
P.so 88. 1. 2.99, 2.52 fh. ,. 10o. 8. 353, 630 lb. !. 1790, 4210 lb. 1.112 cfs. 10. 13.2 cfs. U. 1.37 ft. 11. 19.4 ft.
0.6550cuyd. ?.8801b. 8. 13,2601b. 9. l74lb. 10.25€01b. lt. r4{,
lb. 13: 3.56 ft. Chspter VU
Paso 68. 1. 1.98 ft. g. 4.38 ft, 932,000 ft-lb. 8. 3.28 ft, D1,000 fttb Page ft. !. 1.05 ft. 3. 11.4 ft. 1. 4.3 cf1. 6. 42 e[a. 8.
186. 1. 50
(spproxirnstely), {. 16.8 fL 6. 1,880,0m ftlb. 0,0,064fL 109. 7. 12 in.
8, 3.13 cfs. 0, 43 ia. 10. 64 in. 11. 5.2 lb per sq iu.
13. 164 lb per sq in. 13. 37lb per Bq in. 14- 8.3 cfs.
Chrptd fV Pege 194. tr. 134. 2. 1350. t. 6.?. d 650,000. 5. 4650, 3100. 8.
8L 8. (o) tt. 11.5, 11.1, 10.7. 7. 0.036, 3650. 8. 1.86 in. 9. 8 in., 20.3. 10. 1510.
Pagc 108; O) 13i|. 5.6.75 6. 108.5. & r.@ft. tO. (a)
l.2l ft 1L 62.6 rpn" 18.2.16cuft ll 1.41. 15.342. 11. 123. 11. 2. 19. 0.023, 3.57, 0.342. ItL 1.75 iD. 15. 0.70. 18. 24.
17- 610 cfs. 18. 25.
Chrptq V Page 206. (a) 0.23 ft,0.58lb per sq iD.
Page 208, (c) 0.31 ft,0.34lb per sq in,
Ptgs t
8?. L 0.417 cfs. ,15.7. 8. At 3 ft, 6.97 ft p€r s€c L 7,U,lt,4 Pag6 ,18. 1. 14.8 ft. :L 2.6 cfs. S. 21.2 fl. L 94 in. t. 45 iD. 0.
16.6 ft
per seo. 6. At 3 ft,8.23 i!.
8. 60l in., 34t ?. 0.?04 in. i!" & li 3.7 ff.
top, 11.16 fi per s€c. Page 210. 1. With n : 0.011, m fL 2, 27.3 ft, 33.2 ft lower. 3. With
Prgs 83. 1. 28.1, 31.O, 24-2, 18,01?. l.
15.1 ft p€r 8€o., lA& E 221tr.- = 0,011,0.74 cfs. 4. 2.1 cts. 6. 10.3 ia. 6. cis, 7.27.2ft.
000. L 73lb pereqiq. 6. -10.9 8. 1.0{5. ft. '1 P.age ,r:t. 1. 6 to 3, lfiih n 0.011, 30 ft. ,L 8.C cfs. 9. With n
= -
Plgc 0e. ,. 8 ft, I ft ,. 26.1, 28.3, 26.71b per sq i!. 8, 11.0 tL {. r0.9 0.011, rt0 ft. 4. 11. 5. 18 ia. O With n :0.011, .93 IL. 7. 27 cfs- 8.
lb pe. aq ir 6. % lb per 5q in. 0. 90.3 ft. 7, 6.8. 8. 0.f6. 0. fg lL With Cr -
120, 6 in.
10. 2.1 ft. 11. 0.39 cfs. 1'. 1.33 cfs; .t 3, p/o - 17-311. lt. 0.e, 0.t0, PsSe 227. 1. ad,2.3 cfs; cd., O.6 cfs:, fd, l.l
cfa. ," de, l07O gpm; le, 55O
d8. lL .7. 10. 23.3 ft. * 2,9/v -
18. 8.2, 3.16, 1410. 17. 1.07 da; stlm; rz, 380 gpq 76 tt.
8. ct 1180 gpxo; 4, 630 gpm; nt 1290 spmt 52.1 lb
- .1 tt, fL 10. 654
L6. (a) 12.6, Ls.I lr,WI.I ft; (q {r.7, t7.t tt,329.0 Ircr 8q iD.
!tl. L1.6, 1.0,0.6 cfe. /1. 11.0,1.6,2.6,6.8cfs. 3. 9.7, 2.3, 7.4 cfs.
179.1 lr, -15.8 tt. Pagc
Pagc 1$. 1. 6.30, 6.08, 0.967. g 9,0 i.D. E, 7 pm. t 0.92, & d :
With z 0.011, 65 cfs. 6. ICith a 0.011, 13.5 ft below
- -{. 0. With C,
t6,€00. 8. r.82 d8. - 12O 0.26 cfe. ?.56ft.
& Withz 0.011, 16 in"
'
Ago 108. t. W, nO tu & 43.2 Ib per q ir 8. 17 ft Page lB3. 1. 48.2. 2.45.2 lb per oq in. 9. 72 per cent, d, -10.8,
06.5 ft;.i08.1 It;34.2. 6. 12 lb peraq io. A. L73, A33,22t, ?. rO8, 14.0.
Cbaltc Vl 8.8.7,23aft;227 It, 257 .

Prgc tC!.
1. S2.1, 31.1. ft per s€c; 0.8?8 da. L 1.675 iE., 31.,11t pcr !oo, Chspter VItr
0.46 dr. t 1.33 da, 1.24 ft. {" 69.6Ib pd Bq in. 6. 3.28 fL A 29.8 ft Page ru, 1. (a) 39.3oqft, \5.7 ft,2.fifb. ,. (o) 6.00 ft p€! s€c. g. (b)
p€r 8ec, 2.55 cfB. 7. 8. A. 7.m ft,2.73 i!. 0. .03:n cfii, 1.587 ia., 24.0 ft 8: 4.081t, d - 2.04 ft. 6. (b) 7.s3, 1.26 ft.
porec,0.66 ft. 10. L-77 ctd. 11,36.8, 13.0.716 1.82, 2.6,3.A1, d* Pego 361.. 1. 50 d6. ,1. 330 cfs. 3. 36 cfs. {. 3380 cfs. 6. 379 cfe,
Prgc 1311. 1. O.t21l, 0.U179, O.r%il cf& L 0.0949 0.r$0, O.!8&l ofr. o.a25a, 0. 0.00080. 7. 0.0c041. 8. 0.00018. 9. 0.0095. 10. a :
2.u.
8. 0.330, 0.02{ c{B. L 3.77 i!. 6. l.ta 28.6, r15 ft. c 0486 d!, 0.986. 4.92 tt, d = 2.461t. 11. r2.3 ft. 13. D : r4.r ft. 13, 4.0 ft. 14. 7.S ft.
,. n.6 IL 8. 0.619, 0.979, 0.606. 0. 0.696, 0.9€0, 2.0 fL 10. 4ItJ o&. Pagc 266.' 1. 3.68 ft- t. 120 cfs. 3. 0.m20, 1.20 ft,0.m37. A- 4.251L.
1'. 6.68 ft, 0.06s2 cfs. lt 0.278, 0.$1,0.874 cf!. l!. 8.e4 cf& ta. 10.0 6. O.W245.
8tE. 16. 3.96 BpD. 18. 1560 cfD. Pqsa 268.' 1. D=10.45 tt. 2. D- 19.4 ft. 9. B = 5.73 It,d-4.98
Prg! lto. 8. 167 soc. C 6l tni!. [, f4l niD. C f br. ?. S nb 23 ft. 4. 6 ft, 3 ft, 5. 6. 7.76, 6.24 ft. 6, B : 3.77 ft, d - 7.96 fi, 0.00020.
F. A 2l sec. l. B - d = 8.58, 9.3 ft per sec. 8. 0.00299. 9. 6.47 ft, 350 cfa. 10. I -
P{c 1.o. 1. 2,67, 1,660,m0: 9. 15.7 tt" & 2,6, Lg i\. a 0.9? ft, 0.O n.fA ft,, d, = 6.09 ft, 6m cfs. U. 3900 cf8. u.
30,500, 20,600 c{6.
L dr.
0.3:13 0. 107 ds. 7.68iD. P.gs t .' 1. 5.9, 3$ ft. 2. 360 cf6. t.
4.81 fh I
r.26 ft.
6. 2.80 ft.
P{. tt!, Cobiartioo LLp<o, o-!p{, 18.94 alBt a.i..rt, l0.l2
98.7 ofs; .By Manaing formula.
a6!. L Witb '.
U - l.O t\ 3.31!5, 3.{e, 3.&O. L 3.t7, 25.2 cf!. a. Oili}a
 I
34 ANSWTRA Indcx
6, 3.21t, 7. 3.4' ft. & 48 ft per seo. 0, 6.2 ft.ft, 11. 0.20 ft
t0. 3.76
b6low. 11. i1{0 cfs. Numb€rf, refer to pagoa.
Pqo 1?9. 1.2.3511, 2. 17.6 ft p€r s€o. 8.60.6cfa. {.96ft. t,77lt
P.tc 280, l. ,1.86 ft. !. {50 of8. 8. 19.9, 3.00 fi per .co. A 236 o&. Abeolute preoeure, l7 Buoyancy, center of, 63, 65
Aoc6lerat6d florv itr opeu cha.nnels, 26.5 tsuoyent lorce, 62
ChDtcr IX Accursay of computatioE, 11
P.t. 188. 1. 9.6,2.4lb. !. 34, 69
71, 266lb. t. 19, 3:i lb. r lb, t Air, ontrsined iu pipo &ow, ,212 Capillary action, 6, 25
226, 521b. A, l9O lb. ?. 45 lb, 1.9. E, 16.5 ft per s€0, 11.8. flors through orifrc€s, 123, 132 Cen'uer of buoyancy, 63, 65
Prgc 903. 1. l3t ft per sec, 10O. l. 217q 930, 3rm ft-lb. !, 202 lb, Pitot tube ir\ 113 C€nier of pressurc, 42-52
780() ft-lb per sec. a, 2650 ft-lb per aec, 6.23 tt por reo. 6. 3220 a lb, . pressure vsria,tion \i'ith altitude, 16, Chs,nnel entlarlce, 268, 27\ ng
34,700lb. ?. 390, r35O lb; 9870, 3u0lb. 34 Chezy formuia, opetr chs.uels, 24i,
Plg. 3Ot. 1. At 40 ail€. por h!, 66.f lb, 6.0. !" 1.9{ lb, 62.5 ft po !8r. uait weight, 11 330
L 29.4 ft per sec. l. S.7. 5. lf68o lb, 18?. viscosiiy, 11 pipes, 197,330
A.ltdmate stsges of flow, 252-254 Cipolletti Feir, 163
Cbptc( X Approrch, velocity of, 12a 130, 151, Coeflacient of coDtractiob, gstos, 136
P|ac 816. !. Fc - aI,N lb, CD - l.U. 2. C - 3.a2, ?e - 0.&l ra. IttS orifices, l2O-129
l. t'- - 4.96 ft p€r.eo. L Ft - 18,700 lb, ap, - 98 lb psr rq ft. Archbr, erperiments, 207 tubes. 141-146
Archimedes, principle of, 62 Coeficient of discharge, culverts, 148
Atloospherc, st&nd&rd, 18 gates, 137
Atmospheric pressurc, 16, 23 aozzies, 143
orifices, l2l, f26-135, 335
Ba"ck,ggte\ 266, 272 diphon spillwsys, 148
Bsme5, weir formula, 162 eubmerged ori6ce, 134
Berometer, 22 tubes, 141-148
Ba.tr, weir experiments, 162 VeDturi met€r, 104
DIMENSIONAT ANAI,Y$A 88O Bozin, open-cbonnel formula, 247 wei8, 152, 16l-170, :J:13
wei. formula,, 154 Coefficieot of rouglrness, hose, l&t
dinction parellel to the aurface Be6q Buckiagbam, and Murphy, or! open chsnnels, 248-250, 260, 279
whic,h is moving thrcugh a duid in a
fic:e co€lncients for sir, l3l c,246-25i)
of the pl&to. The skin friction dng ie given by the equrtion Beerden, vitcosity of air, 11 n,247
Beij, loeoes in pipe bel&, 210 n,246-2n,26
nr: c1e{l (63) Boade, in open channels, 259
in pipes, 210, 310
pipes, r82-m0
cr, 199
Bernoulli, energr theor€m derived, 94 !, 182-193
where .u{ is the ar€a of the plate and Cy is e coeficient which has Blackburn, orifce coeffi cierits, 130 n, 198-200
been ehovn to be a function of Reynolds' mrmber, Ytr/r, I being Borda'a mouthpieco, 145 C;oefrcient of velocity, oozzles, 143
usudly the length of the plate (or ehip). Schlichting gives the Borc, 2 orifioeo, l2O, lu,l -[m
following value for Cr in teirms of Relnolds' number: Broaching pirEs, 2€O, 328 tubes, 14l-146
Bridge piet!, 259 Colebrook-Whito, t6DditioD eque-
0.455 Br€sd-crst€d Feiiq 165 tiotr, 191
(04)
"t - oot "* 3.{5
'Y*;0
 346
Committee oa Hydraulic Ra€€arch,
model tests, 328
Compodents of total pr€ssurg, 61
Comprc&sibiliiy of wot€r, 9
Ccne, weir formula, 160
Continuity, of flow, defrned, 87
equotion of, 87, 179, 242
Contraatiou, coeffi cient
136, 141-146"
' gateg 136
open channels. 268
orifices, lX), 129
pir'€, 203-206, 211, 214
tubes, 141 140
wcirs, 150, 160
Convcrging tubes, 142
Coordiqate method of
velocity, 126
Corp and Ruble, experiments, 209
Cox, submerged weir formuls, 170
Criticsl depth, 253,267,27\
Critical slopg 254
Cross, flow in pipe netwo.ks, 224
Culvedq 147-148
Curved surfac'es, pressuro oD, 61-55
Curveq in open chantrels, 259
ir pipes, 2r0, 310
Cylinder, drag coeficiento, 3d/
Dams, analysis of forces or! 57-61
cousing beckwater, ?72
distharge cocffi cients, 167-169
hydraulic jump on apmn of, 278
D&rcy, Pitot-tubc experimeDtg, ll0
Darcy-\Yeisbach pip€ formula, 182,
188, 197, 221, m,
d'Aubuisscn 4nd Castcl, converging
tubes, 143
Daugherty, rnodulus of elasticity of
watcr, I Enlargement of 6ection, opel ch.oa-
Dcnsity, ma,ss, deined, 4
of various liquids, l0
of watsr, 8
Diffcrenticl msnometer, m
Dimcnsionol anolysis, 330-llll9
Discharge, contingity of, a7, 179, 2
defned, 86
hesd lost at, m8, 273
INDEX
Di8charge, maximum, 3, 6, ,,8
under fslling hesd, 138
Disch.s,rge coemcietrt, r., Coeficiedt
of discharye
Disk, drag coefrcielte, &)O
Distributioo ol velocitie!, 85, 92,
151, 17O-L79, r88,
of 12O-129, 261-263
Diluging tube, 1,14
Divided flow in pip, Xfu-IB
Drag force of resistance, flX-808,
338
Dro;rdowa curve, 150, 160, ZB t?a
DFtamic forces, 291-317
Dynamic similarity, 32(F323
Dynamic viscosity, de6!€4 6
meaauring of various liqui&, l0
of water, 8
Eisner, drag coefrcieDts, 3Oo
ng 'Elevation energr, defined, 69
End contractione, weirr, 160, 100
Eaergy, see oJso Head
elternate staAes of equal, 252
Bemoulli th-€orem, dedved, 94-07
equatioq dcrived, 9F97
elevotion, defined, 80
givcn up to turbine, 97, 292
gradient, defined, 195, 243
in opcn channel flow, 2, z%ng
in pipe flow, m4-m, 211, 232
kinetic, denned, 88, 242
of duid in pipe, 91
of liquid in open chauel ?,{2
potcnti&I, 88, 104
3,32 pr€ssure, defined, 90, 24?
pumping, 97, 232
with non-uniform distribuiion ot
vclocity, 35
ncls, 273
pipes, 206 209
Entrance losses, open channeh,
pipes, ?)G
Fall, 267
Falling head, dischatge under, 138
Fa.DDing, valuer oft l8{
hc,
Filo valuor of | 18,1
nsLctstod woir, 106-f 07
Flortiq Mio6, 62-{8
netoceotric hei8ht, dofirc4 06
overturdDg roorbedi, 67
lf0, dghring momenb 6ffi
2, stsbiliq of, 64=68
Flood plria 250, 259
trloq contiauoua, defned,
fuDdenedtals of flui4 8+-117
in open chsnnels, 2.4S-290
iL pip€8, U5-239
hinA,, 85, 175_178, 187
bo!-unifortn, denDed, 87
il olien chanaels, 26*-288
i! pipes, m3-220
oY€r weirs, 149-170
rteadg defned, 86
through lDzrles, 107, 14il
tlrcush ori6ces, 1l&-11()
th$ush tubes, l4(F149
turbuleui, deflned, 85
udform, defined, 87
Flow nozzle, 114
Fluid, defined" I at enlargementg
tr'luidr, properties of, l-13
Foot-pound-secoad qrstem, 2
Forces, drag, 3o4-3o8, 338
on elosed chsnnelE, 3O2
otr dorns, 57-61
on eurfaces, 41-78
oD vanes, 201-301
Francis, weir formulae, 15{ 160
tr\€o surface oI liquid, 15
Frceman, nozzle tests, 1.1:l
Frictiott faltor t 18s-193
Frictioasl loss, s€? orro Head
de6ned, 94
efiect or waves, 285
eDer$r equatian with, 9?
Itoude'g Isw Frld nuxrber, 423-325
Gsge plessure, defned, 17
Gages, difierential 30
hook, 157
open mgnoneter, 26
poi,tt, l5'7
pmearro, r7
INDBX
O.ngrrlllol^Kuttai fonnul4 2{0, tlO ,
Oort, cnnl,inrril,y of dow ia, 87
do6nod, I
flow thmugh orificeq 123, l3l
viscoeity of 4, ll
Gato valves, lo6s of hesd ot, ,xro
Gotot, coefrcients for, 137
pr€6$ro oD, 44-64
8/ C€oDeiric sieilsrity, 31W)
Gibaon mstbod of computilg Brtd
hrtDser, 3f&r318
Cravitstional forreo prodooiaro\
Iloutlo'o law, 323
Itsgen-P;ie@uilo la*, 188
Elrds, weir fortruls, 155
Hesen-WilliAns forbula, 19$ 2@
Head, elevation, defrno4 80
etrer6r, snd, 88-92
lost, dennedi 94
ir Dozles, 108, 1.,13
ir opon cbsDDcls,
6t beDds or cuv€q 269
at contrcctioDr, 288
at ob8tructions, 269
in hydraulic jump, fi
in uniform flow, 24+-261
in wave travel, 285
in orifceq 123
ii pipes,
at bcDd8, 210
at coqhaciioDs, 203-n0, tft'
2t4
at dischsrge, 208
at enlargsmentB, 200-Do
lo.i at enfirnce, 206
at Ssto valv$, mg
io unifotm llow, l8O-208
minor loses, 180, 2@-2U
iD tuber, 141-I48
in V€nturi metcr, 104
on weir, l5l
Eeasur€ment of, 15?
pr€rsur€, defurcd, 19, 90, 241
verocity, defi&4 8tl, il
Eoad BEt6, 137
Eerschel, Ve[tud Det€r, 103

Hook gage, 167
Hoop tsDsioD iD pip€s ald
&-sa
Hortod, values of a, 2,48
weir coefficietts, 169
Ilose, friction fsctors, 184
Hnmphreya aod Abbott, Miesireippi
River rnessuremeot€, 2S7
Hyd$ulic gradient, ciefioed. tgs. 24A
i! pipe flow, m+-m7,2tt-2ii
Hydraulic jack, 21
Hydraulic jump, nZ, 279-279
IlydraLrlJc radius, defined, lg5, 242
Hydraulic similirude, 3iA-3A0
Hydruulic uoits, 2
Hydrau)ice, scietrce of, defilitiou. I
Hydrodlromics, mi-Blz
Ilydmslatic pressurc, 14-?6
Hydrostotic uplift oo dams, SZ-dl
Ice-covered strearns, 262
Immersed and flostiog bodies. 62_68
IDten-sity of pressule, l4.$
Idversion of jet, 124
Inwsrd-pr0iecting tube, 145
Irregula! ch&Dels, 2S8-26i1
Jet, chamct€ristics of, 121, 129
contr&ctioD of, lZO, 129
force of, on vaqes, 291-301
iaversion of, 124
psth 01, 126
pressure in, 107
work done by, 299
Joukovsky, wateFhsm&er the!ry,
310-313
Jump, hydraulic, 222, nO-ng
Kinematic simitarity Blg-821
Kir:ematic viscosity, defined, 5
of various Iiquids, l0
ol water, 8
Itinetic cnerry, defined, 8g, 242
itr iei, 29?
ia open chanael, 2+2
in pipe, 179
i! streaE s.ith u-oequal velocities,
92, 151" t79, 242
INDEX
King, subnrerged-weir formula, lZr)
talks. weir formuls, l Sb
Kowalke, Bain, and Moss, orifice
coemcieDls, l3l
Kutler forhula, 246.251
table for oolving, 2b0
Larurnar florv, E5, lZS,lZ8, fg7. f90
Lenz, triangular weir forrnuls. 162
L;quid, de6ned, I
Liquidr, fundemeqtal propertiee od
1*13
Loss ol l,r.ad, spe
llprrt, losb
Inwer staro of 6ow. 252-254
Manaing formula, lge, 24&-2Sl
'dicgram for solving, 201
ManometeN, !+33
Mass densi[y, defiaed, 4
Medaugh and Jo,rnson, oriEco co€f_
ficients, 128
Mercury barometer, 22
IUetacenter,6S
Met&centdc height, 65-69
Metdc system ol irnits, g
Micrcm&Dometers, B2
Minor losses in pipes, 203-2ll
Modulus of elasticity of watar, 9
Nagleriweir tests, 1j6
Nappe, 150, 165, 168
New Eogland Water Works Associa-
tioo fornrula lor
pipe, E6
Neeton's Isws of motion, 291
Non-uniform flow, defioed, 87
in open channels, 264-286
in pipes, 2Oa-220
Nozzlc, 107, 143
O'Brien, expe menls, 267
Obstructions, in open cbannels, 259
in pipes, 209
Open cha,nnel,s, 240-2gO
alt€rns,te gtages of flow, 252-2#
bdckF&ter, 266, 2Zz
bends or curves, 259
co'trtrsctiotr in, 268
I
Opel ehanneloi dororlptlol and dofini-
tion, 240
eDergy gredietrt, 252, 284-ng
energi in, 242
eolargeitlelrt i!, U73
foEoulss, BariD" 947
Chert 245, 330
Klrttcr, 24&-251
Manaing, 216-261, 3iX)
hesd lost iD, + 1, 259,
fi!, rn, a5
hydraulic gadieot, 262, 2A+-Xn
hydraulic rsdiu!, 2{2
iee-cirvered etream, 262
. iFegulsr cross seciiotr, 268
most efficient eectioo, 255-258
trsl,ura! $treads, 260-26i1
non-unif orm fl ow, 264-286
obsl,ructiolrs, 259
rotrghness coeficients, C, 24A-2&
n, 247
q 246-250, 260
unifcrm flow, 244-251
wett€d perimeta!, 241
Open msEomet€r, 2t-3O
Orifices, 118-140
coefncients, 1m-122, 12A-132,
deocription, 118
dirchargo under falling head, 138
dol' of gsaes through, 123
head lost in, 123
in cnd of pipe 122, 130
cast^iron
in pipe, 1?2, 1.31
rcctaogulor, under low hesd, 135
eharp-edged, 128
aubmerged, 134
under low heads, 121, 135
. velocity of dischergo, ll8, 126
Paeca-l's laws, 14 21
Path lines, defined, 84
Poth of jet, 126
Piezometer tubes, ?, 24, 98
Pip diagarus, 201, An2
Pipe friction fotmulas, 181-203
Chery, 197, 33O
Darcy-Woiabach, 182, 188, 197, 221
INDICX
Irlpr'lrtotlon formulu, Ilugon-Poi.
mrrillo, 188
lftDon-Willitm-, 198, m2
Msnnin8, 198,201,330
Pipo notworko, flaw in, 224-tB
Piper, bondo, o! cu.ves, 210
brouching, 220, 228
conti[uity of Aow, l?g
coltnctioDs, m}-,,Jd, 211, 214
M, d.rcriptio4 tr75
distributiod of velociti€s, 1t6-U0
divided flow, 220-223
eDerry of 0uid, 9l
onlarEellelta, m6-200
eatronce, 206
Bow in, 175-239
hoop teneioo, 6,!58
hydraulic gradienl, m4-n7, zlL-
hydraulic radius, 196
hydraulically emooth, 190
in parailel, 220-228
io series, 216-22O
los.r of head, 94, 179-233
obstrruetions, 209
El&tive roughoss, 183, 190
i37, Reynoldo' critical velocities, 178
Reyaolds' expe ments, &1, 176
Re3rnold'e law aad aubber, 320
ruShness co€frcientB, Cr, 199
f, t82-193
r! 199
81€tenu ol, 216-133
tensilo sir€ss in wallB, *50
"three-reservoi." problem, 22&-230
thrust at bends, 301-303
velocity hesd, defined, 179
wat€r hsmmer, 55, 308-316
wetied perimeter, defined, 195
Pitot tub€, 108-113
Poiteuille.Ilagen law ond theory, 188
Potential enerry, 88, 104
Poreer, de6ned, 92, 331
Prandtl, forrnula for | 190
hossure, absolute and gage, 17
aimosphedc, 16, 23
ceDtar of, on 6ur'faces, 49-52
eompodeD',s of tots,l, 5I
860
Pr€ssue, ener6r, 90, 242
head, defircd, 15, fi,llAtt
in jet, 1O7
inieneity, 14-40
od cuwod surfa.or, 61-66
oD plaDo surfara8, 4l-51
troDsmissioD, 21
lspt,21,212
veriatiou with altitude in
preseible fluidr, 34
variation with deptlr, 18
$oter hartreer, 55, &8-310
Principle of Archimede4 62
hrEpiag ener$r, or h€sd, 97, 232
Ramset, vduee of n, 2'48
Ra-€nt ant tub€, 146
Rehbock weir foimula, 155-150
Relotive snd absolute volocities, 29i3
Rllotive equilibdum of liquids,
82
RBlative roughneq of pipet, 1$, fgo
Relative rouading of oriffced, 129
Raisiatrce to motiod tbrcugh flui4
:)04-308
Retaded flow iu open chauneLs, 265,
272-273, n8
Royrclds, cliticsl velocitie4 176
experimeDts, 83, t76
model law, 320
DurDber, 13{ 176, 327
Ri8hting moment, 6€-6ll
Rotating ve.seel, 79
Roure, depth at britrk of fa[, 267
velocity distributiou in pipg, 178
Soph and Echoder, yelocities in pipo
b€Dds, t79
Fchlichting, drog coefficient, :li}0
Schoder and Dawson, munded orfrcs,
tzs
gcob€t values of 248
Sheering eirets in 'r,
0uid, 4, 187, 326
Ship, resistence to Eotion, iJ:17-3:19
Similitude, hydroulic, 3l$-ili|O
8iphotr, 98
BpillrFay, 148
Skia friction dreg, 33tl
INDtr
glope, oue46r gndient, 107, !41
olotr chaDnel, 2,14
Sluico 88t€, 136, 271
Epecific gravity, dofaed,
4 Underwriters' Leboratoriee, Inc.,
deterhhatiorr by U-tubg
of certain liquid4 10
of 9ater, 8
sphel€, drag coeficiotrq 800
com- Etabil.ity of flostiDS Hi€!, 61.{8
8taDd8!d 6hort tubo, ll$-l4il
Stand6d wei!, 154
gtondiog w4ve, 169
Sta,LtoD and Paue\ wlociticr in
. pip, 178
Steady flow, definod, 80
Stilliag well, 158
StIearD tub€, deffde4 86
Submerged orfic€, 134
Subnerged tubo, 144-140
7- Submerged weir, l0O
Sudbuiy conduit, 241
Summit, of pipe, 212-218
Suppr€€sed weir, 150
Surface teodou, de6ned, 6
of certs.in liqui&, l0
of Fet€r 8
forceo prcdominaut, Wobey'r
327
gurfecea, pr€ssuro oD, 41-78
Bwire Egcicty ofEogineerr aod
ArcbitoctE, n'eir fonoulr, 165
Systerbr of pip€s, 216-23i1
Tenrild Bilt€s it piFr€ welle, 6{=56
TermiDal velocity, 3O7
"Thr€e-rcs€rvoirJ' problerl, t2&-N
Torri6lli'8 theorem, lm
Tranelatory wavec, 28(F28{l
Trensmiosiou of prcoruro, 2l
Treperoidsl weir, 163
Triangular weir, 161
T\rbea, capillary action \ 7, 26
coEvergii& 142
diverginS, 144
piezometcr, T, 214 I Vi6cosity, dynamic and kineoacic,
Pitoq 108-113
r€-€ntraDt, 1{5
ota.xlard abo( rtl{Fl4l
INDI')X
Turbulenco, fully der€lop€4 100 Vircrxity of dr, ll
TtIrbulont flow, de6aed, 85, 170 of lx:rllnr liquids, lO
of wotar, 8
Vies)ut forces prcdomineat, Ray-
t8 values ofJ for fro hoo, 184 nol&' law, 3
UtriforD 0ow, de6ned, 87 Von Karmau, formula lor /, 190
ULit pre€ture, defined, 14
Uoit weight, defned, 3 Watcr, phyeical prope*ier of, 7-10
of air, 11 Water baromet€r, 23
of certain liquidr, l0 Water hammer, 55, 308-3fo
of water, 7-8 Wave, standing, l8g
Udts uled in hy&sulics, 2 l&aves, translatory, 28O-286
Ultrt€ody flow, 86 sbrupt, 28O 283
Uplift on dads, 57-€1 efiect of frictional loat oa, 286
Upper 8tsgq Aow, 252-264 eloping, 283-284
Weber'a law and number, 3rl
V6cuum, 17 Wein, 149-17Q 331-335
Valves, 8at€, lots of head, 209 sccuracy of Deasuremeats, 1ll3
Vtne, force of iet on, 291-301 broad-cresled, 165-167
work done on, 299-301 Cipolletti, 163
Vspor pressur€, 21, 212 description and definitioos, 149-l5l
Vect rs, 293 dbcharge equations by dimeosiooal
Velocitie6, diatribution of, 85, 92, 119, anitysm, $t-&to
151, 176-179, 18€., 242, 26t - experiments, 153-157, 160-170
263 flat-cr€stad, 165-167
itr verticel, 261-263 tull-width, staDdad, 1t4, 331
lar, RryDold!' criticsl, 176 fundamenial theory, 151-153
Velocity, coordhste method of mees- head meB.3uremenq 157
uring, 126 not 6harp-cr€t€d, 165-160
of discharge, 118 standord, rectangulo^r, l5t1-167
of apprcach, 12, 130, 151-153, 165 aubmerged, 169
relative and ebeoluie, 293 trapezoidal, 163
term;nrl, 307 triangubr, 16r, $il
Velocity coefficiert, rep Coef&cient of vclocity of approoch, 151-153, 105
velocitY {ith end conirsctione, 160
Vetocity head, defined, 88, 2,'12 Wett€d pcrimeter, open channel, ??.l
Veno cgtrira.cts, 120 pipe, 195
Veqtitri met€r, 103-100 Woodbum-Webb, coemcients for flst-
VeDtuli tube, 144 cr€sted weils, 167
Verticrl jets, 121 Work, and energy, m2
Verticsl velocity curves, 261 don€ otr movilg vrne, 299-301
Vessel, rctating, 79
time of emptlng, 138 Yamell, Nagler, and Woodwai4 cul-
vith consta.nt aac€leratior\ 77 vert tasts, 147-148
Ysmell ond Nagler, flow ia plpo
defined, ,l-5 bends,211