Chapter 5 Gna

Chapter: 5 Pregnancy and pregnancy diagnosis
Gestation: Gestation is the intrauterine period of development of the

fertilized gamete from fertilization to parturition in mammals.
Pregnancy diagnosis : A tool to measure the success of a reproductive
management
•for early detection of problems
•for re-synchronization of non-pregnant cows
•Determining pregnancy in farm animals is not particularly difficult,
but it requires experience, practice, and a thorough knowledge of
the cow’s reproductive system.
6/13/2021 Galma Boneya (Vet. Obstetrics and gynaecology) 1

Methods of Pregnancy Diagnosis
6/13/2021 Galma Boneya (Vet. Obstetrics 2

1. Non-return to estrus, failure to return to estrus
Pregnant cow:
no regression of the CL
progesterone concentrations
…→no return to estrus
Non pregnant cow:
the corpus luteum regresses
↓plasma progesterone concentrations
cow will return to estrus 20-23 days after AI, if observed in estrus after AI,
non-pregnant
2. Indirect methods for PD in cattle
1. Milk or plasma progesterone (P4) concentration at about 21 days afterAI
2. Corpus luteum regression,
▪ ↓ milk or plasma progesterone concentrations
…→detection of non-pregnant cows as early as 21 days after AI
Pregnant cow:
▪ no regression of the CL
▪ plasma P4 concentrations , a possibility of pregnancy
…. → non- return to estrus
Pregnancy diagnosis…(cont’d)
Disadvantages/limitations:
•at least two times samples collection at 21 and 24 days of AI:
not pregnant, if one of the samples has low P4 concentrations
•even if both samples have P4 concentrations, P4 - tests
detects with ~ 80% reliability of pregnant cows
…→ 20% probability of not pregnant
…→ →a good diagnosis tool to detect non-pregnant cows!
Reasons:
a) Cows do not show estrus exactly every 21 day:
•a non-pregnant cow may show estrus, ovulate and form a
corpus luteum less than 21 days afterAI
•progesterone concentrations
→ → erroneously diagnosed as pregnant
b) Cows with reproductive problems:

•ovarian cysts or uterine infections - two consecutive high
progesterone concentrations
→ non-pregnant cow … → as pregnant
c) Pregnant cows at 21 days after AI may lose that pregnancy in

the next 30 to 40 days (up to 30% loses)
d) Cows inseminated when not really in estrus will often be in the

luteal phase at 21 days after AI:
•progesterone concentrations, even if not pregnant
→→ non-pregnant cows diagnosed as pregnant

2.2 Pregnancy Associated Glycoproteins (PAG) or
Protein B (bovine pregnancy-specific protein B)
(bPSB, bTP-1)
▪secreted by trophoblast cells (increase from 15 to

35 days of gestation)
▪time consuming and relatively expensive - a
radioimmunoassy procedure
▪false positives early in the pp - present in the post
partum period

3. Ultrsonography
➢ Doppler Effect (A-mode)
Ultrasonic fetal pulse detector based upon Doppler Effect:
• the fetal heart, from 6 – 7 weeks
• blood flowing in arteries
…→→audible sound produced
➢ B-or brightness mode (real time utrasonography)
•with 5MHz transducer as early as
12 to 14 days
•with 7.5 MHz transducer as early
as 9 days
→visualization of a fluid filled
cavity containing a viable fetus
within one of the uterine horns
Advantages:
▪ earlier detection, as early as day nine
▪ high reliability, increased accuracy of detecting
early pregnancies
Disadvantages:
▪ Cost - ultrasound machines are expensive
▪Time- more time to perform a PD with an US
machine than by rectal palpation

4. Rectal method of examination/ Rectal Palpation
▪Palpation of the uterine contents rectally (common !)
▪PD as early as 35 days after AI
▪The CL of pregnancy persists throughout the period of
gestation, though it is impossible to differentiate between CL
of pregnancy and that of dioestrus
… →Changes in the size of uterus and uterine horns offers
strong evidence of pregnancy!

Procedure of rectal Palpation:
• Use proper protective clothing including-rubber boot,
gloves and apron
• Lubrication: one can use ordinary soap
• Insert your hand very gentle manner use your left hand
(Preferable), remove the feces, hold the cervix on the floor
of the pelvis
• Pool the cervix as much as possible
• Then pass to the inter-cornual ligaments (pool from the
ventral) and compare the symmetry of the two horns
• Pass to the ovaries finally (don‟t palpate if you suspect
pregnancy because the corpus luteum may be crushed and
cause embryonic loss.
4.1 Asymmetry of the uterine horns
▪Difference in size of the pregnant uterine horn, conceptus &
accumulation of fetal fluids, particularly the allantoic fluid,
fluctuating feel with good tone …→a definite diagnosis based
on these signs alone
▪the presence of CL in the ovary
adjacent to the enlarged horn,
useful confirmatory sign
False pregnancy diagnosis:
•pyometera, mucometra Asymmetry of the horns. Note the CL on
ovary ipsilateral to the pregnancy
•incomplete uterine involution
4.2 Palpation of the allantochorion (membrane slip)
▪Feeling of the slipping of the allantochorion membrane along the
greater curvature within the uterus
(Cow: attachment of the allantochorion to the endometrium occurs only
between the cotyledons and the caruncles and that the inter-cotyledonary
part of the fetal membrane is free)
Steps:
▪identify the bifurcation of the u- horns
▪pick up the enlarged, gravid horn b/n thumb and finger just
cranial to the bifurcation
▪gently squeeze the whole thickness of the horn
(The allantochorion will be identified as a very fine structure as it slips

between the thumb and finger before the uterine and rectal walls are lost from
the grasp)

4.3 Palpation of placentomes

▪ at about 90-100 days, 8-10 cm in front of and over the pelvic brim
▪impossible to palpate b/n five and seven months, uterus has sunk into the
abdomen
4.4 Palpation of the fetus

▪in more than 50% of the cases b/n 120-160 days
▪the extremity will lie within reach in front of and below the pelvic brim
▪ less b/n 5½ and 7½ months
▪7½ months to the end of gestation (head and/or flexed limbs readily
palpated)

Fetus sizes
2 months mouse
3 months rat
4 months small cat
5 months large cat
6 months beagle dog

4.5 Hypertrophy and fremitus of the middle uterine artery
▪rectal palpation of the middle uterine artery (120-150 days)
•the artery runs in the broad ligament passing downwards and forwards over
the pelvic brim
▪…hypertrophy and fremitus of the artery also persists
✓ for a few days postpartum
✓in cases of pyometra.
Other methods
➢ Abdominal ballottement
•as early as seven months of gestation in some small breeds (Jersey)
•….fairly vigorous pummeling of the ventral abdomen and flank with
clenched fists
➢ Vaginal examination - manual or visual (using illuminated speculum)
•dryness and blanching of the mucus membrane as in case of dioestrus
•Plug sealing of the cervical canal (gelatinous and tough mucus)
•Adhesive tenacious secretion on gently pressing of the cervical os

➢ Mammary glands:
•best observed in primigravida
•the teats of the gravid heifer commence to enlarge about the fourth month
•enlarged and oedematous gland as parturition approaches
•umbilicus region become swollen by oedema
•a honey-like secretion in pregnant heifers after the fourth month
➢ Cervix:
▪Tension on the cervix, pulled forwards and downwards over the pelvic brim in
advanced pregnancy (non-pregnant or early pregnant cervix is freely moveable from
side to side)
•External indications:
•increasing size of the abdomen
•enlargement of the udder
•behavioral changes (sexual quiescent)

Uterine position and diameter, as well as structures felt at palpation
according to stage of pregnancy
Stage of Uterine Uterine Palpable Structures
pregnancy (days position diameter
of gestation)
35-40 Pelvic floor Slightly Uterine asymmetry

enlarged
45-50 Pelvic floor 5.0 - 6.5 cm Uterine asymmetry
60 Pelvis/Abdo 6.5 – 7.0 cm Membrane slip

men
90 Abdomen 8.0 - 10 cm Small placentomes/fetus (10-15 cm

long)
120 - 150 Abdomen 12 cm - 18 cm Placentomes/fetus (25-30 com

long)/fremitus
Placentomes/fetus (35-40 cm
6/13/2021 Galma Boneya (Vet. Obstetrics
long)/fremitus 17
Biological
✓ Aschein (A-Z) test
✓ Friedman or rabbit test
Chemical methods
➢ Cubonic test(urine)
➢ Barium chloride test(Urine)
➢ Sodium hydroxide test(Cervical mucus)
➢ Specific gravity (cu2so4) (Cervical mucus)

Chapter:6 Parturition
Parturition is the physiologic process by which the pregnant uterus delivers the foetus
and placenta from the maternal animal.
Eutocia: Safe physiological normal parturition or delivery
Parturition Names in Species
Species Acts Offspring
Cattle: Calving Calf
Sheep: Lambing Lamb
Swine: Farrowing Pig
Horse: Foaling Foal
Goat: kidding Kid
Poultry: Hatching Chick
Signs of Parturition
➢ Distended abdomen
➢ Mammary development & milk secretion
➢ Swollen vulva and relaxed pelvic ligaments
➢ Mucous discharge
➢ Relentlessness and separation from group
➢ Labor and Contractions
Stages of parturition
As parturition approaches:
•Colostrum secretion (white
to yellow, turbid or opaque)
•Pelvic ligaments relax –
(estrogens, relaxin)
•Gluteal muscles sink
•Tail-head becomes more
prominent
•Sacroisciatic ligament
becomes less tense
• Vulva becomes edematous

Theories of parturition initiation
Physical factors 1. Increase in fetal size: this increases uterine irritability
2. Uterine distension : reversal of progesterone block
3. Fatty degeneration of placenta and presence of infarcts:
leads to interference in fetal nutrition
Biochemical factors: 1. Increase in CO2 tension in maternal blood due to
increased fetal activity: this ↑uterine contractility
2. Release of fetal antigens:→serotonin →release of
collagenase and stoppage of blood supply to
cotyledons.
Neuroendocrine factors: FETAL factors
1. ↑ in cortisol in adrenals→convert P4 to
E2 & release of PG
2. ↑ in ACTH by pituitary →stimulate cortisol
release
3. ↑ in CRH in hypothalamus →stimulate ACTH
4. ↑ in endogenous opiods →stimulate ACTH

Parturition (cont’d)
❖ Initiation of parturition:
▪Maturation of the fetal Hypothalamic–Pituitary–
Adrenal axis (HPA) → CTH(F)→ACTH →Cortisol
•production and secretion of cortisol by the foetal
adrenal gland
•cortisol induces the placental 17α-hydroxylase to
catalyse the conversion of progesterone to estrogens
→fall in the maternal P4 concentration
→↓P4 is also due to the regression of the CL
triggered by prostaglandin F2α
MATERNAL
factors1. Reversal of P4 block → ↑ myometrial contactility
2. Release of relaxin → dilation of the birth canal
3. Placental estrogen rise →release of PG ↑ myometrial contactility
4. Pro-inflamatory cytokines → dilation of the birth canal
5. Release of PG → softening of cervix, contractions ↑
6. Release of Oxytocin → ↑ myometrial contactions
Stage 1 (Initiation of Parturition) Removal of Progesterone Block
Fetal Stress
Due increase in size and limited space
How does progesterone secretion is inhibited?
Release of pituitary ACT H

ACTH
Elevated cortisol promotes the synthesis of 3 enzymes
( adreno-corticotropic hormone) These 3 enzymes convert progesterone to estradiol
Fetal
Adrenal Gland
Corticoids (cortisol)
1) Removal of progesterone block
2) Elevation of repro. tract secretion

17 hydoxylase 17-20 lyase Aromatas
Aromatase
e

Duration of different stages of labor in domestic animals
Species First stage of labor Second stage Third stage
(Placental
expulsion)
Cow 4-24 h (Bluish 0.5 – 3 h (Amnion 12-16 h (Placenta is
vascular appears with the expelled)
semitransparent fetus. Fetus is
chorioallantois delivered)
appears & ruptures
Buffalo 1-12 h 45-90 min 7-12 h
Mare 1-12 h 30 min Within 3 h
Ewe/Doe 6-12 h 0.5-1 h Within 3-6 h
Sow 12-24 h 0.5-4 h After 2-3 piglets or 4
h post farrowing
Bitch 4-24 h 1st puppy within 2 h After each puppy or
of 2nd stage of labor. within 2 h of last
5-60 min between puppy
puppies. Total time
upto 24 h
Cat 2-12 h 1st kitten within 5-60 Within 2 h of last kitten
min of labor.
Subsequent kittens
every 5-60 min
Camel 3-48 h 5-80 min Within 4 h
I. Fetal changes
Space? PGF2
P4 E2
Nutrition?
placenta
Stress
Fetal cortex/hypothalamus ACTH
cortisol
adrenal

II. Uterine changes
P4
17-hydroxylase Oxytocin
-24 hrs
E2
Increased uterine
oxytocin-receptors
Destabilizes lysosomal membrane

+ active pospholipase A
1. production of actin and myosin filaments
2. Formation of gap-junction
phospholipids Arachidonic acid
Facilitate smooth muscle

PGs cells communication
PGF2
Myometrial release of intracellular ca++ UTERINE
Which binds to actin and myosin CO NTRACTILITY

Parturition (cont’d)
•Estrogen: progesterone ratios:
✓synthesis and release of prostaglandins,
activation of the myometrium and ripening of
the cervix
✓expression of oxytocin receptors in the
myometrium stimulated by estradiol
...activation of the myometrium →dilatation of the
cervix (Relaxin)
Presentation, position and posture
Presentation: Relationship of the long axis of the fetus in
relation to the birth canal
Longitudinal Transverse Horizontal
Anterior
Posterior
(Cranial)
(Caudal)
Position: Relationship of the dorsum of the fetus as applied

to the quadrants of the mother; sacrum, ileum, pubis
Dorso sacral Dorso-ilial

Dorso-pubic

Posture: Relationship of the head and extremities of the
fetus to its own body
EUTOCIA (Normal Birth Posture): Anterior longitudinal

presentation dorso-sacral position, both forelimbs extended
and the head extended resting on the knees.

Chapter 7: Diseases and Accidents of Gestation
Problems of pregnancy (complications of gestation)
Fetal side
Fetal Death: Before day 45 EED
Abortion
Mummification
Maceration
Fetal compromise: Monsters
Dropsical conditions
Ascites
Anasarca
Hydrocephalus
Maternal causes
✓Dropsy of the placental membranes: Hydroallantois,
Hydroamnion Abdominal, inguinal, umbilical hernias
✓Rupture of prepubic tendon
✓Ectopic pregnancy
✓Rupture of vagina
✓Cervico-vaginal prolapse
✓Uterine torsion
✓Metabolic disorders
✓Prolonged gestation
✓Hydrometra
✓Prolapse
❖ Embryonic mortality → one of major causes of
reproductive failure
Loss of the conceptus before the transition to the fetal stage (30%
- 40% loses), from conception to completion of differentiation (day
42 of pregnancy):
Causes (Bilodeau- Goeseels & Kastelic, 2003):
▪Chromosomal abnormalities
▪Inadequate CL function
▪Heat stress
▪Nutrition
▪Infectious agents …viruses, bacteria and fungeal (mycotoxins)

Embryonic … (cont’d)
Commonly during:
▪transition period from the morula to the blastocyt
(day 6/7 after conception)
▪phase of maternal recognition (12 to 16 day of
pregnancy)
▪beginning of implantation (from the third week of
pregnancy onwards)
…→Embryonic mortality occurs without recognizable
symptoms
Complications ... (cont’d)
❖ Abortion
Definition: Foetal death and expulsion between day 45 and day
265 of pregnancy or termination of pregnancy with expulsion of a
fetus of recognizable size before it is viable (immature, not viable
fetus)
Incidence
▪Most cattle herds suffer an abortion rate of 1-2%
▪An annual abortion rate up to 5% - normal
▪An abortion rate in excess of 10% - abortion storm
Complications of pregnancy... (cont’d)
▪Early abortion: abortion until the 19th week of gestation
▪Late abortion: abortion in second half of the pregnancy
•Abortus completes → fetus and fetal membrane
•Abortus incompletes→ retention of the fetal membrane
Causes of abortion
➢ Non-infectious causes
- genetic-developmental abnormalities/defects
- environmental: temperature
- nutritional: phytotoxins including mycotoxins
- iatrogenic: administration of abortifacient drugs

➢ Infectious causes (cattle)
▪Burcella abortus (at 6-9 months of gestation
▪Campylobacter fetus veneralis (at 5 to 7 months of gestation)
▪Trichomonas fetus (before 5 months of gestation)
▪BVD-MD virus (at any stage of pregnancy)
▪Infectious Bovine Rhinotracheitis (IBR)
▪Foot and Mouth Disease (FMD) (at any stage of gestation)
▪Toxoplasmosis (at any stage of gestation)
▪Listeria monocytogenes (at any stage of gestation, fever and
anorexia before the abortion; RFM is common)
Infectious causes (sheep) (in horses)
▪Rift valley fever - Equine viral arteritis
▪Nirobi sheep diseases - Equine infectious anemia
▪Foot and mouth disease - Dourine
Routes of infection
•Vaginal: during coitus along with the semen causing
endometritis, placentitis
•Oral, through wounds and lesions, mucous membranes and skin
•Lympho-haematogen to reach the capillary net of the
endometrium, → placenta fetalis, → fetal sacks, → fetal fluids
and → the fetus
Diagnosis
Examination of:
•the cow (gestation length at abortion, early or late pregnancy)
•the fetus (content of abomasums)
•the fetal membrane (necrotic changes)
•the vaginal and uterine discharges and or demonstration of
specific antibodies in body fluid
Prevention of abortions
▪Proper hygienic and biosecurity measures in the cow's
environment and feed storage
▪Isolation of aborting cows and immediate removal of aborted
materials
▪Systematic evaluation of the feed for mycotoxins and other
phytotoxins
▪Adequate immunization against infectious diseases causing
abortion
▪Maintenance of adequate breeding and treatment records
•to avoid insemination of pregnant cows
•to avoid administration of drugs causing abortion

36
• Fetal mummification: Death and hardening off the fetus in the
uterus due to resorption of placental and fetal fluids.
• Fetal death without CL Lysis during last third of gestation----
Haematic (cattle,buffalo) →blood because of cotyledon involution
• Papyraceous (dogs, cats, swine) paper like
• Etiology: Campylobacter, BVD, Leptospira, Hog cholera &
Aujeskeys disease in pigs
Fetal emphysema
The presence of crepitating fetus in the uterus due gasses of
microorganisms. Its result of dystocia

Fetal maceration It is a putrefaction of the fetus in the uterus
Similar symptoms to pyometra except its occurs after the formation
of fetal skeletos (4 months later)
Diagnosis: finding of a piece of bone lodged in cervix or vagina,
rectal finding of thick walled uterus with crepitating feel, discharge
of bones and pus.
Therapy: PG and manual removal of bone pieces
Surgical removal
Supportive therapy

Dropsical conditions
Dropsy means swelling of soft tissues due to
excessive accumulation of water
Fetal ascites, fetal anasarca, hydrocephalus,
hydrothorax
Fetal ascites Ascites: < Greek askos; "a bag of
wine"
Accumulation of excess fluid in the abdominal
cavity
Etiology: brucellosis, mesotheliomas of fetal
abdomen, Obstruction of lymphatics or
diminished urinary excretion
Results in difficult birth

Fetal anasarca:
• its accumulation of fluid in subcutaneous tissue
• Anasarca: < ana : "throughout" & sarca: "new flesh“
• Fetus with generalized edema all over the body
• Observed in cattle, sheep and goat
• In Ayrshire cattle this is common and caused by a autosomal
recessive gene.
• Delivered dead or may abort
• May result in dystocia
Galma Boneya (Vet. Obstetrics and

6/13/2021 49
gynaecology)
Hydrocephalus
• Accumulation of fluids in the third ventricle of the encephalon
• Bovine fetal infection with bovine virus diarrhea virus (BVDV),
Schmallenberg virus (SBV), blue tongue virus (BTV), Akabane
virus (AKAV), or Aino virus (AV), are associated with a range of
congenital malformations of which the most prominent develop
in the CNS.

MATERNAL COMPLICATIONS OF GESTATION
• Hernia is a bulge of skin that contain material of a body cavity

passing through a weak spot of the body wall.
Abdominal hernia
Ventral hernia
Umblical
Inguinal and perineal hernia

Drops in fetal membrane
Hydramnios is a dropsical condition of fetal sac in which there is
excessive accumulation of fluid in amniotic sac which is associated
with genetic (recessive autosomal genes) or congenitally defective
fetus.
Hydroallantois is one of the gestational disorder in which sudden
increase in allantoic fluid occurs in allantoic cavity due to foetal
membrane pathology leading to bilateral enlargement of abdomen

Amniotic Cavity
Chorion
Amnion
Allantois Cavity
Yolk
Sack
Allantochorion Cotyledon
(Chorioallantois)
Conjoined twins (somatodidymi, Siamese twins)
generally monozygotic with incomplete to complete
duplication
Thoracopagus Twins joined at sternum face to face
Pygopagus Twins joined at sacrum Back to back
Ischiopagus fetuses joined at pelvis heads in opposite
direction
Diprosopus double face →
Dicephalus two heads and neck
Dibrachius 2 pairs of fore limbs Tribrachius 3 pairs of fore
limbs
Dipus 2 pairs of hind limbs Tripus 3 pairs of hind limbs
Syncephalus 1 face, 4 ears and a single cerebrum
Janiceps 2 faces on opposite sides
6/13/2021 Galma Boneya (Vet. Obstetrics and 54

gynaecology)
❖ Torsion of the uterus

The rotation of the uterus on its
long axis with twisting of the
anterior vagina (common cause
of dystocia, Incidence: 5 – 7%)

Etiology: a complication of late first stage or early second stage

labour
Possible contributing factors:
▪Increased fetal movement during the first stage labor in
response to the contraction of the myometrium
▪Excessive fetal weight
▪Loosing of the reproductive organ at older age
Symptoms:
▪association with parturition (common)
▪protracted restlessness; sub acute abdominal pain (the labour
does not progress into second-stage labour)
▪….→separation of the placenta and death of the fetus

Diagnosis
a)by palpating the stenosed
anterior vagina , walls
disposed in oblique spirals
(indicate the direction of the
uterine torsion)
b) by palpating the uterus per rectum

Congested and fragile uterine wall Delivery of dead fetus

Treatment
▪torsion 450-900-1800 may
recover spontaneously,
unrelieved progress to fetal
death, putrefaction and fetal
maternal toxemia, fetal
maceration
▪prompt treatment: favorable
prognosis for mother and fetus –
high rate of maternal recovery
(4% maternal mortality)

1. Rotation of the fetus per vaginum

▪insertion of the hand through the constricted anterior vagina and
partially dilated cervix
▪apply a rotational force to the uterus through the medium of the
fetus
▪ torsion of the uterus anterior to the cervix and cases of twists
of 7200 or more cannot be treated by vaginal manipulation
Success depends on:
▪sufficiently dilated cervix to admit the hand
▪alive fetus, rupture of the fetal membrane reduces the fetal
viability!!)
2. Correction by “rolling”: rotation the cow’s body in
the direction of the torsion while the uterus remains
relatively steady
▪ casting by Reuff’s method on the side to which the
torsion is directed
▪rapidly turning over from one side to the other, while
operator’s hand retains in the vagina during the
maneuver
…→ vaginal examination to ascertain the correction

Schaffer’sMethod

3. Surgical correction (if the case can not be corrected
by either of the previous methods)
▪ Laparotomy on the standing cow

through the left or right sub lumbar fossa
▪… Rotation of the uterus by intra-
abdominal manipulation

❖ Cervico-vaginal prolapse
• Eversion of the vaginal wall either alone or
together with cervix.
• It occur in all species (NB: CTVT in dogs)
• Predisposing factors:
– Genetic
– High BCS
– Inadequate exercise
– High roughage diet
– Multiple fetuses
– urinary retention
– Exogenous hormones
Galma Boneya (Vet. Obstetrics and

6/13/2021 68
gynaecology)
❖ Prolapse of the vagina

A condition of ruminants in late gestation, occasionally
after parturition
Predisposing Factors:
▪Endocrine imbalance, in which oestrogenic hormones
predominate
▪excessive deposition of fat in the peri-vaginal
connective tissue
▪ ligamentous relaxation increase the mobility of
the vagina
▪ Mechanical factors, increasing intra-abdominal
pressure of late pregnancy and gravity, acting
through the medium of a sloppy floor

Symptoms:
▪Protrusion of the mucus membrane of the part of
the vagina, whole of anterior vagina and cervix
in severe cases
•In bovine: in the last two months of gestation;
•In sheep within a fortnight of lambing
▪Temporary or habitual prolapse - lesion
appears when the cow is recumbent,
when the animal rises the prolapse recedes
▪Permanent prolapse doesn’t disappear in
standing position
▪…the tissue is prone to injury and infection;

irritation causing expulsive straining efforts
- vicious circle! → the whole of the vagina,
cervix and even the rectum may become everted

➢Post parturient prolapse of the
vagina /uterus due to severe straining in
response to vaginal trauma
or infection following a serious dystocia
▪vaginal contusion at parturition, followed

by Fusiformis necrophorus
infection
▪…→exerts high degree of irritation
with frequent exhausting expulsive efforts Post -parturient uterine prolapse

Treatment: Early replacement and retention
of the proplased portion
Steps:
▪Epidural anaesthesia
▪Washing, cleaning & dressing with
antiseptic and lubricant
▪Replacement of the prolapsed
Vagina/uterus
▪Tape or stout nylon suture, cross
the vulva and inserted in the perineal skin
▪ Quill sutures tied over rubber tubing are best, Buhner’s method
▪In mild cases, in dairy cows, the patient can be stalled on a
forward slope
Chapter 8: Puerperal diseases
✓ Retention of after birth,
✓ Post partum bleeding,
✓ Post partum prolapse
✓ Paralysis
✓ Post partum metritis,
✓ Lacerations of the birth canal
✓ Sub-involution of placental sites
✓ Metabolic disorders: Milk fever,
hypoglacemia

Parturient prolapse of the uterus
▪ Common complication in the cow and ewe
▪ less frequent in the sow and is rare in the mare and bitch
• within a few hours after normal delivery
•if heavy traction, immediately after the calf is
withdrawn
Ruminant: complete inversion of the uterus
Sow, bitch: partial and comprises one horn only

Prolapse of the uterus (cont’d)
Etiology/Predisposing factors:
▪within a few hours of the expulsion

of the calf
▪abdominal straining, fetal
cotyledons separation from the
maternal caruncles
▪uterine inertia (e.g. milk fever)
▪dairy rather than beef cows
▪in confined and highly fed cows rather than at range

❖ Retention of the fetal membrane (RFM)
➢ lack of dehiscence and failure of expulsion of the afterbirth - third-stage labour
•Insufficiency of uterine contraction
•Placental lesion: affected physical union - fetal villi and maternal crypts
(proliferative placentitis – B. abortus)
•Birth of twins (slightly premature)
•Abortion (premature birth)
•Administration of dexamethasone or PGF2 in the last 40 days of gestation
(induced parturition)
•Uterine inertia (primary or secondary)
→→Retention of fetal membrane predisposes endometritis!!!

Incidence of RFM:
•Dairy cattle are most prone to RFM
•Sheep (occasionally); in the mare (uncommon occurrence)

The two main postpartum clinical conditions are metritis and
endometritis.
Metritis
It is characterized by an enlarged uterus containing a watery red-brown
fluid to viscous off-white purulent uterine discharge, which often has a
fetid odour.
It is most common within 10 days of parturition
Endometritis is defined as inflammation of mucus membrane of
uterus and the presence of a purulent discharge detectable in the vagina
three weeks of parturition, or muco-purulent discharge detectable in the
vagina after 26 days post-partum.
In post-partum cows, endometritis continues to be a major cause of
poor fertility and delayed conceptions
Pyometra is characterized by the accumulation of purulent or muco-
purulent material within the uterine lumen and distension of the uterus,
in the presence of a closed cervix and an active corpus luteum
❖ Metritis / endometritis, pyometra (cont’d)
•Metritis: endometrium and the muscular layers

•Endometritis: endometrium and the underlying glandular
tissues
Forms:
➢ Clinical metritis/endometritis – acute /chronic
Rectal palpation:
•in size of the uterus
• in thickness of the
uterine wall
•A purulent vaginal
discharge may or may
not be present

94
Metritis / endometritis, pyometra (cont’d)
➢ Subclinical metritis/endometritis
•not detectable by rectal palpation

•in chronic rather than the acute form
•no vaginal discharge is evident
…→positively diagnosed by microscopic

examination of a uterine biopsy

Causes Metritis and endometritis

▪Bacteria,
▪Viruses,
▪Fungi and Protozoa
▪Entrance routes:
➢ Calving or the early post calving period: susceptible reproductive
tract
•in case of trauma or lesions in the vagina or vulva
•lowered natural defenses of the animal
→→any assistance or manipulations at parturition - introduction
of microorganisms into the uterus

96
➢ Systemic infections: infection elsewhere in the body spreads to
the uterus
•infectious bovine rhinotracheitis (IBR),
•Bovine viral diarrhea (BVD) or
•Leptospirosis
➢ Infection during natural breeding with a bull (venereal
diseases)
•campylobacteriosis (vibriosis) and
•trichomoniasis

97
Predisposing factors:
•Severe dystocia- acute puerperal endometritis
•Retention of placenta
•Twins and induction of calving- due to retained
placenta
•Delay in return of cyclical ovarian activity (the
uterus is more resistant to infections at estrus than during the
luteal phase, cellular defense mechanisms are potentiated during
estrus)
•Bacterial loading- dirty, unhygienic calving
•Metabolic diseases- Ketosis, hypocalcaemia

Pyometra
•progressive accumulation of pus in the uterus
•persistence of functional CL in the ovary
Two ways:
A) As a sequel to chronic endometritis
•inflammation of the uterus
•no production or release the PGF2
•cervix tightly closed, purulent
exudates accumulates within the
uterine lumen
B) From embryonic or fetal death
•Persisted CL of pregnancy
•Fetal death
•subsequent invasion by Actinomyces (Corynebacterium)
pyogenes and the production of purulent exudates
Pyometra
Advanced VOG (MVSc), Instructor: Tefera

6/13/2021 Galma Boneya (Vet. Obstetrics
Yilma (PhD)
85
Results of risk factor analyses (odds ratios) for different postpartal diseases in high yielding dairy
cows and underlying interactions. RFM= retained fetal membranes. COD= cystic ovarian disease
(Vlaams Diergeneeskundig Tijdschrift, 2009)
Chapter 9: INFERTILITY:
Infertility: a delayed or irregular or reduced or functional loss of
production of the annual live calf.
Fertility is defined as the ability of a cyclic animal to establish
pregnancy and is an important economic trait that affects herd
productivity in dairy cattle.
Sterility: When the function of the reproductive system is completely
impaired, cows fail to produce a calf regularly.
Temporary Loss of fertility (Sub-fertility)
An infertile cow  reduced reproductive performance
Infertility
Congenital or Functional Management

Infectious causes
acquired causes causes causes

Congenital morphological causes
(Developmental abnormalities of genital organs)
Ovarian hypoplasia
Freemartinism
Hermaphrodites
White heifer disease
Double cervix
Uterus unicornis
Hymen defects
Others
Acquired Causes
Ovaro-bursal adhesions
Uterine adhesions
Cervical cirrhosis
Genital tumors
Parturient lacerations

1. Structural or Anatomical Abnormalities
Minimal importance- affect individual animal
Congenital abnormalities
• Ovarian agenesis →ovarian developmental problem
• Ovarian hypoplasia → incomplete growth, autosomal recessive gene
• uterine tube abnormalities →ex double cervical os

• Intersexuality → (Hermafrodism, affects genes)
•Segmental aplasia of the tubular genital tracts → recessive genes
linked to genes for white colour. Thus, it affects white heifers.
•Paraovarian cysts.
•Vulval hypoplasia →perhaps genetic
Freemartin (XO) (Turner syndrome)
• Freemartin is a female member of a mixed sex twin.
• It occurs due placental vascular anastomosis before gonadal
differentiation.
• Androgen from medulla of the male gonadal ridge (testis) arrest
development of female cortex gonadal ridge and
• Mullerian ducts→ small ovaries, absence of oviducts, uterine
structure and big clitoris.
• A fusion of sexual characters
Intersexuality/Hermaphrodism(Klinefelter syndrome)
Hemaphrodism can be separated based on
Genetic/nuclear sex→ xx/xy
Gonadal sex → ovary, testes, or both (ovo-testes)
Phenotypic sex → morphology of accessory sex organs
Hormonal/behavoral sex

True hermaphrodite
True hermaphrodite have both ovary and testes
Genetic sex is mostly female but on further study they are mosaic or
chimera
These are individuals with 2 cell population, i.e. xx and xy
Mosaic are due dispermic zygote (x and y sperms.
Chimeras are due to twins of different sex placental anastomosis
Female hermoparadism(XX INTRSEX)
Phenotypical male but have ovaries and intermediate external
genitalia
This due to exposure to androgens during embryonic life
Male hermopharadism (XY INTER SEX)
Testes in the abdomen or under inguinal skin
They have uterus like structure and intermediate external genitalia

Acquired lesions
• Uterine tubes adhesions & occlusions
→usually due to inflammation, some iatrogenic (surgery)
• Hydrosalpinx → cranial occlusion of the oviduct
• pyosalpinx → inflammation mostly due to infection
• Uterine adhesions → between uterus and oviduct and/or
ovariy
•Cervical fibrosis → ‘ring womb’ due to trauma from assisted
delivery
• Tumours → interfere with all stages of fertility ex.
fertilization, conception, pregnancy, birth etc

gynaecology)
2. FUNCTIONAL ABERATIONS
Can affect individual but may a herd problem
2.1 No observed oestrus due to:-
• True anoestrus or acyclicity →postpartum anoestrus interval
• Silent oestrus →ovulation without oestrus, E2 deficiency
• Non-detected oestrus → missed oestrus due to mgmt deficiency

• Persistent CL → chronic infections/pyometra because this
damages endometrial cells cells which produce PGF2alpha
• Ovarian cysts → see details below

gynaecology)
2.2 Ovulatory Defects:-
• Delayed ovulation Fert Failure due to aging of the sperm
cells
• Anovulation follicular cysts, luteinized cyst, luteinized follicle
2.3 Luteal Defeciency → short-lived CL with either normal or sub-optimal
P4level and CL of normal duration with sub-optimal P4level
2.4 Hormonal imbalance/asyncrony → ex, delayed LH surge →

delayed ovulation → fertilization failure
2.4 Faty Liver disease → affects hormone metabolism including

reproductive ones
2.4 Lameness –induce production of opiods → decrease LH pulses

gynaecology)
Fluid filled structures in bovine ovary
• Follicular cyst
– Follow anovulation of mature follicle
– Soft, thin-walled, fluid-filled structure  2.5 cm dm
which persists
– Frequently multiple in one or both ovaries
– Associated with low peripheral blood P4 level
– Affected cows → Anoestrus or Nympho
• Luteinised cysts
• Follow anovulation of mature follicle
• Thick walled, fluid-filled structure  2.5 cm dm which
persists
• Usually single
• Associated with high peripheral blood P4 level
• Affected cows → Anoestrus gynaecology)
3. Management Factors
More important- increasing herd size + reduced labour
Effects on physiological mechanism Functional aberations
involving the whole herd.
3.1 Poor detection of oestrus.
• Important for AI
• Animals have short duration of oestrus2-30 hrs1(2hrs)
• Knowledge of true signs of oestrus, Book and record keeping
3.2 Incorrect timing if AI
AI too early after calving before complete UI and too late in relation
to ovulation.
Results in Failure of fertilization, Early embryonic mortality
Animals return to oestrus at normal interval.
gynaecology)
3.3 Nutritional deficiencies and excesses
Difficult to assess the effect of nutrition on fertility
Time interval b/n dietary change and its effect.
complicated by the interaction of other factors
▪ Current and previous nutrition, Existing body condition
▪ Production status, Genetic potentials
Protein Deficiency
• Increased basal LH exaggerated response of PIT to GnRH
(endocrine imbalance), Influence basal progesterone by acting on the
CL Anoestrus. Protein Excess
Increased peripheral ammonia and urea, Toxic to spermatozoa, oocyte
and embryos, Can affect the H-P-O axis
gynaecology)
Little is known how nutritional def/exc cause infertility
They may act on:
H-P  modifying ovarian function (oogenesis, ovulation and/or
endocrine function).
 the environment of tubular genital tracts influencing sperm
transport, fertilization, cell division, placental function.
How does an energy deficit exert its effect?
• Reduced pulse frequency of LH –hypoglycaemia/hypoinsulinemia.
• Low insulin levels reduce ovarian response to LH -Fol/CL.
• Increased opiods release- reduce pulsatile GnRH LH.
• Abnormal uterine environment.
Excess energy  high BCS adverse effect on fertility.
gynaecology)
4. Non-Specific Uterine Infectious Agent
Opportunist pathogens gain entry at or after parturition.
If not eliminated during puerparium hostile uterine environment
leading to Endometritis (purulent or mucopurulent discharge from
vulva, 21 days or more PP).
Effect of Endometritis,
• Reduced milk yield
• Delayed return to oestrus
• Intentional delay of first service-discharge
• Reduced pregnancy rate
• Increased culling rate
gynaecology)
Predisposing Factors to Endometritis:-are somewhat equivocal
• Longer or shorter gestation length
• Retained foetal membranes-RFM
Role of G- anaerobes, A.pyogenes and E.coli → pathogenic synergy.
• Parity –E →as parity increase reduced uterine resistance to bacterial infection
• Milk yield –E → high yielders higher prevalence of endomeritis
• Dystocia and Trauma → lead to establishment of uterine infection
• Hygiene –E → good hygiene lower chance of endometritis
• Season → winter higher risk of endometritis → wet bedding, reduced resistance
• Intercurrent Diseases-hypocalcaemia → lead to establishment of uterine infection
• Nutrition -Fatty Liver Disease → reduced resisitnce or immunity
• Early return to oestrus-early luteal phase (UI) →reduced uterine immunity

gynaecology)
5. Specific Uterine Infectious Agents
→ Pathogen that specifically affect the reproductive sysytem
Some infectios agents are transmitted venereally,

( Camp fetus, Trich fetus,Leptospires, BVD?, Chlamydia?, etc.)
Some are not (Ex. Brucella, TB, Toxoplasmosis etc)

Effects of specific agents,
• Stop fertilization
• Early or late embryonic death
• Foetal death with abortion
• Stillborn or live weakly offspring

gynaecology)
• Repeated breeder
– A cow that has normal reproductive tract with normal oestrus
cycle but which does not hold to repeated services by fertile
bull or quality semen.
Therefore, a repeat breeder is a cow…
• That has had 3 or more unsuccessful services
• Has normal oestrus cycle with approx 21 days interval
between services
• Free from palpable abnormalities
• Has no abnormal vaginal discharge
• Has calved at least once before
• That is  10 years old

gynaecology)
• Causes:
• Fertilization failure
• Ovulation failure → ex, occlusion of oviduct
• Defective ova → ex, due to aging of sperm and/or egg
• Endocrine dysfunction → ex, failure of LH surge
• Management → nutritional deficiency, obesity, incorrect
timing of AI
• Nutritional deficiency → Energy, protein and micronutrient
Embryonic death
• Abnormal environment in the oviduct and the uterus →
infections → PGF2a →luteolysis and/or blastolysis →
embryonic mortality---incomplete involution
→ nutritional deficiency
• Endocrine dysfunction → ex, decline in progesterone,
deficiency of INF
• Nutritional deficiency
6/13/2021
→gynaecology)
Energy, protein and micronutrient
Galma Boneya (Vet. Obstetrics and 103
❑ Chapter 10: Dystocia
Dystocia is difficult birth
Either maternal or fetal in origin Defects of the three components of
the birth process:
▪the birth canal (constricted)
▪the expulsive force (insufficient)
▪the fetus (diameter, disposition of the fetus)
…→Consequences range from decreased production to the loss of
the cow and calf:
▪calf death
▪uterine infections
▪RFM
▪longer calving intervals

4
Dystocia …(cont;d)
General (common) causes

•Hereditary - predisposition to uterine inertia, fetal oversize
•Environmental (litter size in the polytocous species, increased
birth weight)
•Faulty disposition of the fetus- postural defects are common
•Twins and premature births leading to uterine inertia
•Hormone ratio (imbalance) P4: E2, delay in the development
of the hormone changes (decreased myometrial activity -
uterine inertia)
5
Dystocia…(cont’d)
Predisposing factors:
▪Commoner in primipara than in multipara
▪In cattle, male calves associated with difficult births
▪Multiple or twin births
▪Cows calving in winter (lack of exercise)
▪Low litter size in the multiparous species (predisposes the large
fetuses and difficult births)
▪Early parturition due to uterine inertia and fetal mal- posture
▪Prolonged gestation (due to fetal oversize)
▪Close confinement & overfeeding
▪Underfeeding or too early breeding of primpara - retarded
skeletal development in the dam
…→All forms of dystocia worsen with the passage of time!

6
Dystocia (cow)
Possible causes:
•Relative and absolute fetal oversize are common
•Faulty disposition, postural irregularities of the head and limbs
are common (carpal flexion, lateral deviation of the head
•Disproportion due to emphysema of a dead fetus (common)
•Local or general oedema of the fetus
•Breech presentation
•Simultaneous presentation of twins
•Uterine inertia associated with hypocalcemia (common)
•Uterine torsion (common)
•Incomplete dilatation of the cervix (occasional)
•Monsters (Schistosoma reflexus & perosomus elumbis are
commonest)
7
The approach to an obstetric case

History of the case:
▪Has full term arrived or is delivery premature?
▪Is the animal a primigravida or multigravida?
▪What is her previous breeding history?
▪What has been the general management during pregnancy?
▪When did straining begin, what was it’s nature slight and intermittent or
frequent and forceful?
▪Has straining ceased
▪Has a water bag appeared and if so; when was it first seen?
▪Has there been any escape of fluid?
▪Have any parts of the fetus appeared at the vulva
▪Has an examination been made and has assistance been attempted; if so,
what was its nature?
▪In the case of multiparous species have any young been born, naturally or
otherwise, and if so, when? Were they alive at birth?
▪Is the animal still taking food?
8
General examination of the animal
▪Physical and general condition, recumbent (resting or

exhausted)
▪Body temperature and pulse rate
▪Any abnormalities (attention to the vulva)
▪Protruding parts of the fetus (moist or dry), indicate duration
& effects needed to correct it
▪Protruding parts of the amnion (moist and glistening) - dark
and dry amnion membrane indicates that the case is protracted
▪Nature of the discharge: Blood (profuse) indicates recent
injury of the birth canal, blood (dark, brown) indicates delayed
case

9
Examination of the birth canal

▪Restraining of the animal
▪ Some clean buckets full of hot water with soap
▪Table bench or truss of straw (covered with a sterile cloth) on
which the instruments may be placed
▪Clean straw should be placed under & behind the animal
▪Hold the tail to one side (assistant)
▪Washing the external genitalia & the surrounding parts from one
bucket
▪Washing hands & arms of the operator from another bucket
0
▪Vaginal examination
•Searching for parts of the fetus and amnion (vagina, cervix)
•Fetal tail & anus be identified (“ breech presentation”)
•Flexed neck may be palpated
•The mane may be identified
•Ear & occiput (indicate one of lateral deviation of the head)
▪Forelimbs
•the joint immediately above the fetlock flexes in the same
direction (anterior presentation)
•flexed carpi or complete retention of the forelimbs may occur
in addition to the head abnormality
▪Hind limbs:
•the joint immediately above the fetlock flexes in the opposite
direction (posterior presentation)
1
2
A)Maternal causes of dystocia (14.5%)

▪Incomplete dilatation of the cervix -common cause of dystocia
in dairy cattle
•may occur in both heifer and the multiparous cow
•due to hormonial dysfunction
▪Immature pelvis with smallness of the vagina & vulva,
▪Uterine inertia
▪Torsion of the uterus
▪Fibrous hymen - connective tissue b/n vestibulaum and vagina

3
▪Neoplasms (in the vulva & vagina)
▪Vaginal cystocele (occasional in cow and mare): the urinary

bladder lies in the vagina or vulva (two types):
1. Eversion of the bladder through the urethra
2. The prolapse of the bladder through a ruptured of the
vaginal floor
Treatment:
• epidural anaesthesia - to overcome straining
• retropulsion of parts of the fetus occupying the vagina
- 1st case: invert the bladder
- 2nd case: replace it in the pelvic and close the
vaginal rupture by suture
4
B) Expulsive force deficiency

▪The expulsive force of labour - contractions of :
•the uterine muscles
•the abdominal muscles
▪Deficiencies of the myometrial contractions:

•primary uterine inertia
•secondary uterine inertia

5
1. Primary uterine inertia:
•original deficiency in the contractile potential of the myometrium.
•less common than secondary uterine, occasionally in the cow
Possible causes:
•Overstretching of the myometrium
✓ an excessive large fetus
✓hydrallantois
✓unusually large number of fetuses
•Toxic degeneration in bacterial infections
•Fatty infiltration of the myometrium
•Abnormal ratio b/n progesterone and estrogen, lack of oxytocin and/or calcium
•Premature birth:
✓in late abortion
✓twin parturition in cattle
2. Secondary inertia:
•inertia of exhaustion and is a result rather than a cause of dystocia
•followed by RFM and retarded involution of the uterus
•seen in all species and is a preventable condition
6
❖ Obstetrical terminologies
➢Presentation: the relation b/n
the long axis of the fetus and the
maternal birth canal:
▪Longitudinal presentation: anterior or
Posterior according to which extremity
of the fetus is adjacent to the maternal pelvis
▪Transverse P: ventral or dorsal

according to whether the ventral or
dorsal aspect of the trunk is presenting
▪Vertical P: ventral or dorsal
7
➢Position: indicates that surface of the maternal birth canal

to which the fetal vertebral column is applied:
▪ dorsal (normal)
▪ventral
▪right or left lateral position
➢Posture refers to the disposition of
the movable appendages of the fetus:
▪Extension (normal) or
▪Flexion (abnormal) of the cervical and limb joints; e.g.
•downward deviation of the head
•hock flexion posture
8
❖ Obstetric maneuvers
➢ Retropulsion: pushing the fetus forwards
From the birth canal towards the uterus
▪fundamental to all intrauterine rectification
of defects of presentation, position and posture
▪effected by pressure with the hand on the

presenting bulk of the fetus b/n bouts of straining
Traction: application of force to the

presenting parts of the fetus to supplement
or replace, the maternal forces: by hand
or through the medium of snares or hooks

9
➢ Rotation: alteration of the position of a fetus by moving it

around its longitudinal axis - from ventral to dorsal position
▪effected on the responsive live fetus by digital pressure on the
eyeballs, protected by the lids
•If dead fetuses:

✓ fetal fluid supplements
✓rotational force exerted on the crossed extended limbs by
hand or mechanically through the medium of a
Cammerer’s torsion fork or Kuhn’s crutch
➢Version: alteration of transverse or vertical to longitudinal
presentation
0
C) Fetal causes of dystocia (85.5%)

… (1) Fetal oversize and (2) faulty fetal disposition
▪Feto-maternal disproportion:
→much higher in heifers than cows due
to feto-plevic disproportion
•absolute fetal oversize (normal
developed cow with an excessively
large calf)
•relative fetal oversize (a mother
with an inordinately small Dystocia in a cow due to cow-calf
size mismatch
pelvis and a normally sized calf)
1
Factors affecting birth weight:
▪Heredity – crossbreeding of different breeds
▪Maternal influences on birth weight of progeny
•Parity: related to maternal age, effect on calf birth weight, 1
to 4 kg lighter in heifers
•Intrauterine environment: maternal influence can limit the
size of a genetically larger fetus as well as increase the size of
a genetically smaller fetus
•Maternal nutrition during pregnancy: fetal growth
during the final third of gestation accounts for two-third of
the birth weight …→ optimal nutrition of the dam will
have positive effect on delivery process

2
1) Dystocia due to fetal oversize

Treatment:
•External traction on the fetus to
supplement the normal expulsive
forces (artificial lubrication of
the vagina is helpful)
•Episiotomy to increase the
diameter of the vulva outlet
•Laparohysterotomy or caesarean section
•Reducing the volume of the fetus by fetotomy (when the fetus is
already dead)
3
2) Faulty Fetal Disposition
…→Any fetal disposition other than anterior presentation, dorsal

position, extended posture
6/13/2021 is likely
Galma to (Vet.
Boneya result in dystocia.
Obstetrics 12
4
2.1. Dystocia due to postural defects
1. Postural defects of anterior presentation (cattle)
Commonest postural defects are:
•carpal flexion
•lateral deviation of the head
Examples of postural defects:
➢Carpal flexion posture: Unilateral/
bilateral and the flexed carpus is engaged
at the pelvic inlet
Treatment: Retropulsion and rectification
(correction) - extending of the forelimb)
➢ Incomplete extension of the elbow(s):
The digits emerge at the same level as the
fetal muzzle instead of being well
advanced beyond it
Treatment: Repelling of the head pulling each of the limb and then traction on
the head and both forelimbs

5
➢ Shoulder flexion posture: Unilateral /bilateral

Treatment:
Retropulsion and rectification then traction of the head & both forelimbs
(if dead calf & head much swollen →amputation at occipitoatlantal joint
outside the vulva (Fetotomy in difficult cases)
➢Lateral deviation of the head: the head displaced to either side (one of
the commonest types of ruminant dystocia)
Treatment: Repelling and rectification (the muzzle of the calf is grasped
and brought round through an arc until the nose is in line with the birth
canal
➢ Downward displacement of the head (vertex posture): common
type of dystocia in cattle ( calf’s nose abuts on the pubic brim and the brow
directed into the pelvis)
Treatment: Retropulsion and rectification

6
2.1.2 Postural defects of posterior presentation (cattle)
Faulty posture of the posterior limbs is more difficult to correct than abnormalities
of the anterior limbs:
➢ Hock Flexion posture: usually bilateral.
The points of the hock may be :
•felt in front of the pelvic brim or
•firmly engaged in the maternal birth canal
and the calf’s tail is recognized
Treatment: Retropulsion and rectification.
➢ Hip flexion posture (bilateral): both hind legs are retained in the uterus
• described as “breech presentation”,
• one of the difficult type of dystocia
Treatment: Epidermal anaesthesia, fetal fluid

replacement
•repelling of the calf’s perineum forwards and
upwards
• traction on the limbs to convert into hock flexion
• Fetotomy in difficult cases
7
2.2 Dystocia due to defects of position
Frequently in horses than in cattle: due to physiological rotation of the fetus
from the ventral to the dorsal position in late gestation or first-stage labour in
horses and occasionally this mechanism breaks down.
▪Right or left lateral position or
▪Ventral position (usually anterior but some times posterior presentation).
➢ Anterior P, lateral position (cow or mare)

The vertebral column is applied to one side of the uterus (right or left lateral
position).
Treatment: (steps)
•press on the fetal eyeball (protected by the eyelids) to induce a convulsive
reflex response in the fetus,
•apply a rotational force in the appropriate direction to turn the fetus in to the
dorsal position
•.the fetal nose and forelimbs are then advanced in to the maternal pelvis
(Caemmerer’s torsion fork is used if the fetus is unresponsive)
8
➢ Anterior P, ventral position (mare or cow)

Treatment: Eye ball pressure with manual rotation or mechanical rotation by means
of a torsion fork
➢ Posterior P, lateral position (mare or cow)

Treatment (steps) –
•introduce the hand between the fetal hind limbs up to the inguinal region and grasp one of
the thighs
•push forward and rotate the fetus through half circle, a rotation fork can also be used
The hind feet of the foal in posterior presentation, ventral position may penetrate
the vagina and rectum. - → the caesarean operation, the rectovaginal fistula
repaired

9
2.3 Dystocia due to defects of presentation
Instead of the long axis of the fetus being in line with the birth canal it may be
disposed (1) vertically or (2) transversely to the pulvic inlet
•Dorsovertical P. : fetal vertebral column

is presented at the pelvic inlet
•Ventrovertical P. : abdomen is
presented at the pelvic inlet
•Transverse Ps. common, more likely
in the mare: ventrotransverse or
dorsotransverse and oblique variants are
more often seen

0
All dystocias that arise from defects of presentations are serious:
Treatment- version of the fetus so that a vertical or transverse
presentation is converted in to a longitudinal one
…→The nearer extremity should be moved towards the pelvic inlet, but
where both extremities are equally distant it is usually simpler to convert
to posterior presentation
➢Oblique dorsovertical presentation (mare or cow): According to whether

the head or breech is nearer the pelvic inlet the presentation is converted into
anterior or posterior longitudinal. First convert the defect into ventral
longitudinal presentation and then rotate to the dorsal position
Treatment: Retropulsion; a grip is taken on the fetus by means of Krey’s hook

(caesarean operation if version not be practicable)

1
➢Oblique ventrovertical presentation (Mare or cow) (“dog-sitting
position”):
•a rare case, more in the mare
•“Dog sitting position” describes the dystocia, the foal being
disposed with its fore end (forelimb and head) advanced to a
variable degree in the vagina
•hind parts remain in the uterus
•the more the fetus is pulled the greater is the impaction
Treatment: - Epidural anaesthesia, infusion of lubricant fluid
▪Retropulsion - convert in to simple anterior presentation, traction
▪Should this attempt fail version should be tried:
✓repel the front of the fetus and convert to posterior presentation,
ventral position
✓ the fetus is then rotated from ventral to dorsal position
2
➢ Dorsotransverse presentation (mare or cow): rare but oblique

variants of it may occur in both species
Treatment (steps):
▪determine the extremity, which is nearer to the pelvic inlet
▪retropulsion and advancing of the nearer extremity
▪rectification of the fetus in to ventral position, anterior or
posterior presentation
▪rotation of the fetus in to dorsal position

3
➢ Ventrotransverse presentation (mare or cow):

▪more likely to be seen in the mare than in the cow
▪oblique variants are more usual
▪the head and variable number of fetal appendages may enter
the maternal pelvis
▪must be distinguished from twins and double monsters and
from schistosoma reflexus
Treatment (steps):
•convert in to longitudinal – usually posterior presentation
ventral position
•rotate the fetus in to dorsal position
• caesarean operation or fetotomy, if this attempt fails

4
3. Dystocia due to twins

Twin gestation in cattle often culminates in dystocia but in mares
abortion is more likely the sequel
Twin dystocia is of three types:
a)both fetus present simultaneously and become impacted in the maternal
pelvis
b)one fetus only is presented but cannot be born because of defective
posture, position or presentation
c) uterine inertia; defective uterine contraction due to overstretching of the
uterus by the excessive fetal load or by premature birth
Treatment: correct diagnosis:
▪differentiate from double monster
▪a schistosomus or ventrotransverse presentation of a single fetus
…→→the more advanced fetus one should be delivered firstly and then the
other one
5
4. Dystocia due to Monstrosities

Monstrosities often cause dystocia in dairy cattle,
the commonest example being
Schisosoma reflexus followed by:
▪Ankylosed calves (perosomus elumbis)
▪Dropsical fetuses (anasarcous,
hydrophilic calves)
▪Achondroplastic monsters
▪Complex vertebral malformation
Treatment:
•Lubrication and protection of the birth canal from irregularly disposed
appendages
•Fetotomy for ankylosed fetuses (Perosomus elumbis), anterior duplication
and schistosomes
•The same is indicated for ascetic, anasarcous and hydrocephalic fetuses
6
OBSTETRICAL OPERATIONS
Procedures used for correction of dystocia and include mutation, forced
extraction, fetotomy and caesarean section.
A. Mutation: is defined as those operations by which a fetus is returned to its
normal presentation, position and posture by repulsion, rotation, version and
extension or adjustment of the extremities.
Repulsion (Retropulsion):In this the fetus is pushed back from the birth canal into the
abdominal cavity where space is available for its correction. Epidural anaesthesia
should be given and the operators hand or a crutch repeller can be used for repulsion
Rotation is the turning of fetus on its long axis to bring it into a dorso-sacral position from a
dorso-ilial position. Rotation should be done by applying cross traction when the
operators hand is used for correction. A detorsion rod or a cammerers torsion fork can
be used for this purpose.
Version :is the rotation of the fetus on its transverse axis into an anterior or posterior
longitudinal presentation. It should be limited to 90 degrees only and is frequently
indicated for transverse equine pregnancies.
Extension and adjustment of extremities: This is required in limb flexion or head deviation.
Often ropes or long obstetrical hooks are required during correction by the operators
hand. Some repulsion may be required in correction of breech presentations. The ropes
and hooks should be used with care in live fetuses to avoid injury. Long eye hooks
should be avoided in live fetuses.
7
B. Forced Extraction: is defined as the withdrawl of the fetus from the dam through the birth canal by
means of application of outside force. The indications for forced extraction include
1. Uterine inertia 2. Large fetuses 3. Small birth canal in primipara 4 Posterior
presentation.
C. Fetotomy: is defined as those operations performed on the fetus for the purpose of reducing
its size by either division or removal of certain of its parts for its vaginal delivery.
Fetotomy can be either partial (only some of the portions removed) or total (complete fetus
divided into many parts).
The essential requirement is the presence of a dead fetus and fetotomy shoul be avoided on a
live fetus. Total fetotomy is possible only in cattle in a relaxed birth canal.
In the small ruminants only partial fetotomy with removal of one of the limb or the head is
common. In fetal monsters and fetal emphysema fetotomy is indicated.
Advantages of fetotomy
1 It reduces the size of the fetus
2 It avoids traumatic surgical procedures
3 It requires less assistance
4) It creates space in the birth canal for correction of a fetal mal disposition and
5 It maintains future fertility of the animal when carefully perofrmed.

8
Techniques of fetotomy
Fetotomies are of two types Percutaneous and Subcutaneous
Percutaneous fetotomy:This is done using specialised instruments known as
fetatomes (Thygesons, Uterecht fetatome) which are double barrel instruments.
The birth canal should be well lubricated.
Limb removal, head removal (decapitation), head and neck removal
(cephalotomy), removal of the thorax (detruncation) and pelvic bisection can be
done with the careful use of fetatomes in cattle.
The maximum number of cuts suggested for fetotomy are six.
Subcutaneous fetotomy:This involves the cutting of certain fetal parts (usually the
limbs) without the removal of the skin.
It is usually used in emphysematous fetuses using different types of knives.
The pectoral muscles or the muscles around the scapula are broked and traction is
applied on the limb. The limb breaks off and is removed.
Care should be taken to avoid injury to the birth canal.
The advantage of subcutaneous fetotomy is that all operations are done under the
skin of the dead fetus thus avoidin injury to the birth canal and the skin left can
also serve as a point of traction.

9
Caesarean section
➢ Commonly termed as C-Section in which uterus is exteriorized to take out the young
one from the pregnant dam.
➢ CS is delivery of fetus , usually at parturation by laparohysterotomy.
➢ This operation is performed when mutation, forced extraction and fetotomy are
deemed inadequate or too difficult to be employed to relieve the impending or
present dystocia.

0
Indications

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Chapter 11
Estrus synchronization and Embryo transfer
Synchronization of estrus implies the manipulation of the estrous cycle or induction
of estrus to bring a large percentage of a group of females into estrus at a short,
predetermined time.
Advantages of synchronization
➢ Better control of calving interval (12-13th m)
➢ Reduction on dependence on heat detection.
➢ Reduction of errors in heat detection.
➢ Increased reproduction with the same number of cows.
➢ Maintain same production with fewer numbers of cows.
➢ Increased number of calves per cow.
➢ Increased economic use of AI.
➢ Reduce labor cost.
Methods: Hormonal and Non-hormonal (Light, nutrition, weaning, male
stimulation)
Improvement of estrus synchronization protocols in cycling animals has involved
the following approaches:
1) Obstruct ovulation following spontaneous CL regression (long term progestin
insertion), 1
2) Induction of corpus luteum regression (prostaglandin injection), and
8
Estrus synchronization
Manipulation of the estrous cycle to bring a large proportion of
females in estrus at a pre-determined time
Purpose: decrease cost of labor
shorten the breeding and calving season
Methods fixed time AI
A. Non-hormonal : Light, nutrition, weaning, male stimulation
B. Hormonal : 1. Termination of luteal phase
prostaglandins
estrogens
I/U irritants
physical enucleation

9
Synchronization methods
Method of inducing ovulation are needed for treatment of anoestrus and
synchronization of oestrus cycle for timed AI(TAI). AI(TAI).
Methods with heat detection
– Progestin application (MGA, PRID, CIDR)
– GnRH ba(GnRH agonist)
-- Prostaglandin (single or Double dosage PGf2α treatment)
1. Prostaglandins: Naturally occurring hormone that causes regression of the CL
(luteolysis) and decreases progesterone secretion which results in a return to
estrus
One shot method: inject PGF2α, heat detect and breed within 7 days
Two shot method
Option 1: inject PGF2α, heat detect and breed within 7 days, inject again on day
14, heat detect and breed within 7 days
Option 2: inject PGF2α, then again on day 14, heat detect and breed
GnRH Based
Naturally occurring hormone that stimulates the release of LH and FSH that
stimulates follicular development .
Protocol consists Select-synch
Ov-synch
6/13/2021 Con-synchGalma Boneya (Vet. Obstetrics
1
5
0
PROSTAGLANDIN

1
GnRH Based
1
2
Progestin methods
The principle of injecting P4 and its analogs is to extend the normal
estrus cycle by extending the period of diestrus. Exogenous
administration of P4 suppresses LH release, alters ovarian function,
suppresses estrus and prevents ovulation in cattle
The common progestin methods
1. MGA (Melengasterol acetate )

2. CIDR( controlled intra-vaginal Drug release)
1
3
MGA
1
4
CIDR methods
1
5
Embryo Transfer
• Embryo transfer is a bio-technique where embryos are collected
from the donor females and transferred in to the uterus of
recipients which serves as a foster mother for its development
throughout the remainder period of pregnancy”
• Through ETT, one high quality cow could be made to produce up
to 32 embryos per year compared to the conventional method of
breeding where the farmer has to wait for twelve months for a calf
that could be either male or female.
• The reproductive potential of a female new born calf is enormous
and is estimated at 150,000 ova per cow. This reproductive
potential has largely been underutilized.
• Naturally, a cow produces about 8 to 10 calves in her lifetime. But
with embryo transfer, it is possible to get 32 embryos per cow per
year.
6
Steps Involved In Embryo Transfer
1. Selection of donor
2. Selection of recipient
3. Estrus synchronization of donor and recipient
4. Superovulation of Donor with high quality semen.(release of
multiple eggs at a single estrus).
5. Artificial insemination of donor
6. Embryo collection
7. Evaluation of embryo
8. Transfer of embryo / cryopreservation of embryo /
Micromanipulation

7
8
9
1. Selection criteria of donor
• Superior individual performance
• Good productive performance of offspring
• Regular cyclicity
• Ovaries must be free (no adhesions)
• Intact tubular genitalia (free from any sort of abnormalities)
• Younger (4-8 yrs. of age)
• Healthy and have good body weight
• Must have calved at least 60 days back (best 90-100 days
postpartum)
• Normal postpartum history.
• A history of no more than two breeding per conception.
• Previous calves having been born at approximately 365-day
intervals.
• an appropriate body condition score at the time of embryo transfer

0
2. Selection Criteria Of Recipient
• Healthy, free from infection and have good body weight.
• Regular cyclicity.
• Intact genitalia (free from any sort of abnormalities)
• Must have good cyclic CL of desired stage at the time of embryo
transfer.
• Exhibit calving ease, and that have good milking and good
mothering ability.
3. Estrus Synchronization of Donor
• The donor cow should be synchronized to bring into estrus or
should have palpable corpus Luteum in the Ovary to start the Super
stimulation procedure.
• For this, any of the synchronization protocol can be used ( Lecture
on Estrus Synchronization)

1
4. Superovulation of Donor Cow
• Is the procedure for increased ovulatory response by administration
of hormones (gonadotropins) to produce several ova instead of one
which is normally produced at each estrus.
• This large number of ova is later on fertilized and embryo
produced can be transferred to the other females.
• In the ewe, doe and cow, an average of 12 ovulations can be
expected. In sows, the number of ovulation could be > 20.
• Superovulation has not yet achieved in Mares due to ovulation
occurring at one site of the Ovary (Ovarian Bursa).

2
3
1. Selection of donors and sires Two broad criteria: a) genetic superiority •milk
production, milk composition •growth rates, calving ease •disease resistance b)
Commercial - likelihood of producing large numbers of usable embryos
2. Selection and preparation of recipient animals
The condition and preparation of the recipients influence the pregnancy rate after
ET:
•good breeders
•sexually mature, cycling, three months post parturition
•good state of nutrition •healthy animals - free form brucellosis, trichomoniasis, and
other genital tract diseases
3. Synchronization of estrus between donor and recipients
Synchronization b/n the stage of ovum and the reproductive tract, (recipients in
estrus at the same time as the donor) •PGF2a or analogue (CL- phase)
•the progestin method
4. Estrus detection
5. Insemination (donor)
based on first observed estrus more often, with more sperm per insemination of
superovulated than other donors: •multiple follicles ovulate over a period of time
•altered transport of sperm and ova by superovulatory treatment

4
6. Collection of embryos
a) From the oviducts or uteri of slaughtered animals(per-

cervical)
b) Surgically or non-surgically (live animals)
•Recovery: 6 to 8 days after service (day 0) at late morula

or blastula stage of development. embryos enclosed with
zona pellucida,

5
6
7
8
7. Selection of embryo for transfer
•isolation and classification under a microscope
•morphologic examination
Embryos are classified as:
Excellent,
Good, fair or poor in quality

9
0
1
2
References
➢ Reproduction in farm animals (1993). 6th edition. E.S.E. Hafez. Lea &
Febiger, Philadelphia
➢Veterinary reproduction and obstetrics (1989). 6th edition. Geoffrey H.

Arthur; David
➢Veterinary reproduction and obstetrics (2001). 6th edition. Geoffrey H.

Arthur; David E. Noakes; Harold Pearson. Bailliere Tindall. London -
Philadelphia - Toronto – Sydney – Toky
➢animal reproduction (2000). 5th edition. H. Joe Bearden; John W. Fuquay.

Prentice-Hall, Inc. Upper Saddle River. USA.

4

Chapter 5 Gna

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Chapter 5 Gna

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Chapter: 5 Pregnancy and pregnancy diagnosis

Gestation: Gestation is the intrauterine period of development of the

6/13/2021 Galma Boneya (Vet. Obstetrics and gynaecology) 1

6/13/2021 Galma Boneya (Vet. Obstetrics 2

b) Cows with reproductive problems:

c) Pregnant cows at 21 days after AI may lose that pregnancy in

d) Cows inseminated when not really in estrus will often be in the

6/13/2021 Galma Boneya (Vet. Obstetrics 5

▪secreted by trophoblast cells (increase from 15 to

6/13/2021 Galma Boneya (Vet. Obstetrics 6

6/13/2021 Galma Boneya (Vet. Obstetrics 8

6/13/2021 Galma Boneya (Vet. Obstetrics 9

(The allantochorion will be identified as a very fine structure as it slips

6/13/2021 Galma Boneya (Vet. Obstetrics 12

4.3 Palpation of placentomes

4.4 Palpation of the fetus

6/13/2021 Galma Boneya (Vet. Obstetrics 13

6/13/2021 Galma Boneya (Vet. Obstetrics 14

6/13/2021 Galma Boneya (Vet. Obstetrics 15

6/13/2021 Galma Boneya (Vet. Obstetrics 16

35-40 Pelvic floor Slightly Uterine asymmetry

45-50 Pelvic floor 5.0 - 6.5 cm Uterine asymmetry

60 Pelvis/Abdo 6.5 – 7.0 cm Membrane slip

90 Abdomen 8.0 - 10 cm Small placentomes/fetus (10-15 cm

120 - 150 Abdomen 12 cm - 18 cm Placentomes/fetus (25-30 com

6/13/2021 Galma Boneya (Vet. Obstetrics 18

6/13/2021 Galma Boneya (Vet. Obstetrics 20

6/13/2021 Galma Boneya (Vet. Obstetrics 22

Release of pituitary ACT H

1) Removal of progesterone block

2) Elevation of repro. tract secretion

6/13/2021 Galma Boneya (Vet. Obstetrics 24

6/13/2021 Galma Boneya (Vet. Obstetrics 26

Destabilizes lysosomal membrane

Facilitate smooth muscle

6/13/2021 Galma Boneya (Vet. Obstetrics 27

Position: Relationship of the dorsum of the fetus as applied

Dorso sacral Dorso-ilial

6/13/2021 Galma Boneya (Vet. Obstetrics 31

EUTOCIA (Normal Birth Posture): Anterior longitudinal

6/13/2021 Galma Boneya (Vet. Obstetrics 32

6/13/2021 Galma Boneya (Vet. Obstetrics 39

6/13/2021 Galma Boneya (Vet. Obstetrics 42

6/13/2021 Galma Boneya (Vet. Obstetrics 45

6/13/2021 Galma Boneya (Vet. Obstetrics 46

6/13/2021 Galma Boneya (Vet. Obstetrics 47

6/13/2021 Galma Boneya (Vet. Obstetrics 48

Galma Boneya (Vet. Obstetrics and

6/13/2021 Galma Boneya (Vet. Obstetrics 50

• Hernia is a bulge of skin that contain material of a body cavity

6/13/2021 Galma Boneya (Vet. Obstetrics 51

6/13/2021 Galma Boneya (Vet. Obstetrics 52

6/13/2021 Galma Boneya (Vet. Obstetrics and 54

❖ Torsion of the uterus

6/13/2021 Galma Boneya (Vet. Obstetrics 55

Etiology: a complication of late first stage or early second stage

6/13/2021 Galma Boneya (Vet. Obstetrics 56

b) by palpating the uterus per rectum

6/13/2021 Galma Boneya (Vet. Obstetrics 57

6/13/2021 Galma Boneya (Vet. Obstetrics 59

6/13/2021 Galma Boneya (Vet. Obstetrics 60

1. Rotation of the fetus per vaginum

6/13/2021 Galma Boneya (Vet. Obstetrics 63