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Energy, thermodynamics, and work: Energy flows and its application in human
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 Energy, thermodynamics, and work: Energy
flows and its application in human movement
analysis

Andrew Post, MSc

University of Ottawa

Department of Human Kinetics

(2010)

NON-PEER REVIEWED

NOT PUBLISHED WORK

1
Energy is defined as a thermodynamic quantity, equivalent to the capacity of a physical

system to do work and is measured in joules (J) [22]. The study of energy and its

quantification, transmission and transduction from one form to another is called

thermodynamics. Energy takes many forms, including: mass, light, electrical, chemical,

thermal and mechanical. Of particular interest in the field of biomechanics is mechanical

energy, which is the measure of the state of a body at an instant in time with respect to its

ability to do work [30]. In order to validly measure human mechanical energy, one must

consider the first and second laws of thermodynamics.

The first law of thermodynamics, also known as the law of conservation of

energy, states that the quantity of energy in the universe is a constant. This means that the

total energy of a closed system is a fixed amount, and that energy cannot be created or

destroyed [22]. A closed system where no energy can enter or leave is often assumed

within the field of energetics [22]. For the calculation of human mechanical energy, this

would mean that if a body segment has a change in energy then that change is a result of

energy flow into or out of an adjacent structure [30]. Also, a within segment transfer of

energy can occur between kinetic and gravitational potential energy but the total energy

of the body is conserved [30]. If a researcher can quantify the energy sources and any

changes to those sources within a system, he could then calculate work done from those

transformations in energy [22]:

W = ∆E = E0 - EN

where E is the sum of potential and kinetic energies of a body. The second law of

thermodynamics, also referred to as entropy, states that when energy is transformed from

2
one form to another, some of that energy is lost and can no longer be used. This means

that when energy changes forms, there is always some form of energy produced that is

not part of the intended work (e.g. such as loss of energy through joint friction) [22].

Bearing these two laws in mind, one can begin to quantify human mechanical

energy for research purposes in biomechanics. Mechanical energy has four forms and

each can be calculated using a defined equation: i) gravitational potential; ii) translational

kinetic; iii) rotational kinetic and iv) elastic potential [22]. Gravitational potential energy

(PE) is the energy due to gravity and is influenced by increases of the height of the body

above ground or a designated reference point [22]:

PE = mgh

where m is the mass (kg), g is gravitational acceleration (9.81 m/s2) and h is the height

(m) of the centre of mass. Kinetic energy (KE) has two forms, one resulting from

translational velocity and the other resulting from rotational velocity [22]:

Translational KE = ½ mv2

Rotational KE = ½ I  2

where v is the velocity of the centre of mass (m/s), I is the rotational moment of inertia

(kg*m2) and  is the rotational velocity of the body segment (rad/s). The final form of

mechanical energy is elastic potential; the energy stored when a body is deformed. This

energy is quantified by the amount a segment deforms during a motion, but is rarely

calculated due to the difficulty of suitable equations representing the deformable nature

of any given segment [22; 30]. Also, the amount of energy represented by these

deformations is thought to be so small as to not warrant the extra effort of measuring it

[22].

3
 While these defined equations allow for the easy calculation of mechanical energy

of rigid bodies, the valid estimation of human mechanical energy for research purposes is

more complex. There are four methods to validly measure human mechanical energy;

however, for the advantages and limitations of these methods to be fully understood one

must discuss not only the mechanical energy of the body but also the changes of

mechanical energy (mechanical work). The methods of determining the human

mechanical energy or work of a body are: ergonometry, the point mass method, the

segmental method and the inverse dynamics method [22]. The following section reviews

each method and discusses their limitations.

Ergonometry

The measurement of change in mechanical energy is referred to as ergonometry

[22]. This is the only direct method of measuring mechanical work and will be discussed

first. Ergonometry uses a machine called an ergometer to measure the force and

displacement (or moment of force and angular displacement) of a participant for a given

motion and therefore give a value for work [22]:

W = F  s = Fxsx + Fysy = Fscos 

where W is work, F and (Fx, Fy) are the resultant forces, s and (sx, sy) are the

displacements and  is the angle between the force and displacement vectors. When a

moment of force is used the work done is [22]:

W = M

where M is the resultant moment of force and  is the angular displacement, typically

used for cycling ergometers. There are many different types of ergometers used in

research, such as bike, treadmill and rowing ergometers [18; 19]. The machine must be

4
calibrated for its output to have validity in the measurement of work. Typically,

ergometers are calibrated using kiloponds, which is equivalent to the weight of a mass of

1kg or 9.81 newtons/kilopond [22]. Since mechanical work is equivalent to the change in

mechanical energy, the ergometer can be used to estimate the change in mechanical

energy of a body [22]:

W = ∆E = E0 - EN

While ergonometry focuses on a body’s ability to perform work, the following

methods involve quantifying the motion of a body to attain its total mechanical energy.

To accomplish this, the sum of the body’s kinetic and potential energies must be known.

There are three methods to validly measure human mechanical energy and/or work, and

are presented below.

Point mass method

To calculate the mechanical energy of a body, the motion and position of the body

can be simplified by considering the body’s centre of gravity as a point mass [15]. This

method assumes that the energy calculated at the estimated anatomical centre of gravity

is equal to the total body energy [29]. If this assumption is made, then the energy of the

body can be calculated by obtaining the linear kinematics of its centre of gravity. For this

method, the total energy of a system is the sum of its gravitational potential energy and

its translational kinetic energy calculated from the assumed centre of mass, which is [22]:

Gravitational potential energy:

Egpe = mgy

Translational kinetic energy:

Etke = ½ mv2 = ½ m(vx2 + vy2)

5
 Total mechanical energy:

Etme = Egpe + Etke

where m is the mass of the body, g is 9.81 m/s2, y is the height of the body above the

reference axis, and vx, vy is the velocity of the point with respect to the reference axis.

While the point mass method has been used in the past [8; 10; 16], by calculating energy

based solely on the centre of mass, it ignores certain aspects of human movement such as

rotational kinetic energy and segmental motions [33]. As a result, the point mass method

tends to underestimate the mechanical energy of a system [26]. From these criticisms, the

segmental method was devised to more accurately calculate the total mechanical energy

of a system [22].

Segmental Method

To account for the limitations of the point mass method, the segmental method

divides the body into a series of segments and sums the energy of each segment to obtain

total body mechanical energy [22]. This segment model, along with the inverse dynamics

method, relies on certain assumptions for the calculation of the kinematics upon which

further energy analyses are based: i) each segment has a fixed mass located as a point

mass at its center of mass; ii) the location of each segment’s centre of mass remains fixed

during the movement; iii) the joints are considered to be hinge joints; iv) the mass

moment of inertia of each segment about its mass centre is constant during the

movement; and v) the length of each segment remains constant during the movement

[30]. To obtain the information required for an energy analysis, the kinematics and body

segment parameters of the participant in motion must be established [33]. The kinematic

data is acquired using similar methods to the point mass method, except markers are

6
placed on anatomical landmarks to delineate the geometry of a segment and its location

in a reference volume [22]. This allows for the velocities, rotations and joint angles of

individual segments to be calculated by filming the motion using special cameras

designed to detect the markers (e.g. VICON) [31; 32; 35]. The segment parameters, such

as mass, centre of mass and radius of gyration used are normally those defined by

Dempster, Dempster et al. or Contini from anatomical testing [9; 11; 12]. To determine

the mechanical energy of a segment the gravitational potential energy as well as the

translational and rotational kinetic energies are calculated [4]. This works well with the

rigid body assumption, but in fact an arm or a leg is not rigid, it is capable of deforming.

This ability to deform would be measured through elastic potential energy; however, the

elastic potential energy of a body segment is thought to be too small to be seriously

considered in the total mechanical energy equation [22]. Thus, the total mechanical

energy of a segment is calculated as follows [22]:

Gravitational potential energy:

Egpe = mgy

Translational kinetic energy:

Etke = ½ mv2 = ½ m(vx2 + vy2)

Rotational kinetic energy:

Erke = ½ I  2

Total mechanical energy:

Etme = Egpe + Etke + Erke

where m is the mass of the segment, g is 9.81 m/s 2, y is the height of the segment above

the reference axis, vx, vy is the velocity of the segment’s centre of gravity in two axes, I is

7
the segment’s mass moment of inertia about its centre of gravity, and  is the angular

velocity of the segment. To calculate the total body mechanical energy (E tb), the energies

of each individual segment are summed [22]:

S
Etb = 
s 1
Etme,s

where S is the number of segments in the human body model and E tme,s is the total

mechanical energy of the segments. The number of segments used in this calculation can

vary depending on the research being conducted [22]. Some forms of human movement

involve isolated limbs, such as the case is with walking, where most of the energy is

being created in the lower limbs and the contributions of the head, arms and trunk

(H.A.T.) are considered to be negligible [30; 33]. Also, in gait analysis many researchers

consider the symmetry between left and right leg motions to be identical and may only

conduct this analysis on one of the limbs, considering the results to be identical for the

other [30]. This of course would not be the case if the gait was pathological, where one

leg may be compensating for some form of injury [30]. More complex motions require a

more complete set of segments to have an accurate description of the mechanical energy

of a body. For example, Hubley and Wells used four segments (trunk, thigh, lower leg

and foot) to determine the contributions of individual joints to the energy of the system

during vertical jumping [17]. In a more complete body analysis of long distance runners,

Williams and Cavanagh used twelve segments to estimate mechanical power for long

distance runners: head, trunk, right upper arm, forearm, right thigh, shank and foot [26].

Aleshinsky and Zatsiorsky used a fifteen segment three dimensional model for walking

and running analyses [5]. However, for normal walking it is common to use only four

8
segments (foot, leg, thigh and trunk) to do segmental analyses as the H.A.T. does not add

significantly to the energy of the system [30].

While this method for calculating mechanical energy needs only segment

parameters and kinematic data about how those segments are moving through space, its

limitations when determining work must be discussed. When trying to calculate the work

done by a segment using this method the zero work paradox becomes apparent [1]. To

calculate external work, the following calculation is used [22]:

N
Wexternal = 
n 1
∆Etb,n = Etb,N - Etb

where N is the number of frames of the time-sampled motion, Etb,n is the total mechanical

energy of the body at time frame n. What is important to note is that only the energy at

the beginning and the end of the motion is necessary to calculate the total work done on

the body [22]. This calculation is useful for tracking energy as it increases in height

(potential energy) or velocity (kinetic energy), however in situations where the motion is

cyclical and the velocity remains constant or there is no change in height, the work done

is zero since the mechanical energy of the system has not changed [1; 22]. This is

Aleshinsky’s zero work paradox, where no external work is done, but internal work is

done by the muscles to move the segments through space [1].

In an attempt to improve the calculation of total body work, Norman et al. and

Winter suggested that if a change in mechanical energy of a body occurred, then work

was done and measuring these changes in energy would allow for the calculation of the

total mechanical work and internal work [19; 21; 27].

9
The calculation for total work done is equal to the sum of the absolute values of the

changes in mechanical energy [22]:

N
Wtotal = 
n 1
|∆Etb,n|

To calculate internal work, external work can then be subtracted from total work [22]:

Winternal = Wtotal – Wexternal

External work is the work expended in changing the motion of the general centre of mass

and internal work is defined as the work expended in changing the links motion relative

to the general centre of mass [27]. This definition of internal work accounts for: i) all

potential and kinetic energy components; ii) exchange of mechanical energy of a segment

[19; 24]; iii) exchange of mechanical energy between adjacent segments [26]; and iv)

both positive and negative work done by muscles. The total work is defined as the sum of

the absolute values of external and internal work and has been used to analyze subjects

doing treadmill walking [20; 36]. However, this approach has also been criticized due to

inaccuracies in the calculation of total mechanical work, which leads to errors in the

estimation of internal work [1; 29]. In his series of papers on this subject, Aleshinsky

describes three sources of error to this method: i) any movement where negative work is

done in one joint and an equal amount of positive work is done in another distant joint

would be free of energetical charge; ii) internal work to move the links is dependent on

the amount of external forces, which would make internal and external work dependent

on each other; and iii) if powers are fluctuating out of phase with each other, the division

of work in this manner (due to the summation of absolute values) would prevent the

cancelling out of these powers and result in including the cost of their activity twice [2].

10
 Despite these limitations, the segmental method allows for mechanical energy to

be calculated more accurately than the point mass method and has been used by

researchers to further investigate energy expenditure for gait, running and other motions

[25; 34]. However, there are flaws to the segmental method with respect to the

calculation of internal work. The solution to this flaw is to measure the moments of force

and powers at each joint during a motion, and thus track the generation, absorption and

transfers of energy [22]. This is known as inverse dynamics and through this method an

accurate estimation of internal work can be accomplished [3; 21; 23].

Inverse dynamics method

While the segmental method allows for the calculation of mechanical energy from

kinematic data, an inverse dynamics analysis provides information on the role of the

moments of force and the transfers of energy by the net forces at each joint [22; 29]. This

results in an accurate accounting of internal work for the calculation of total work done

by a body [29]. This method requires measurement of ground reaction force (in the case

of gait) from which the joint moments and powers can be calculated. To simplify this

method, the joints are considered to be frictionless, with energy being stored or released

through the elasticity of tissues [22]. The contribution of the elasticity of tissues is

considered in terms of sinks and sources where sinks are tissues which dissipate or store

energy and may not return that energy (ligaments, bone, bursae), and sources are

structures that supply or return energy (muscles) [22]. Elastic structures can be both sinks

and sources since they store energy during deformation and release energy when they

return to their original shape [22]. Through these assumptions, the only sources of work

at each joint become the net moments of force at the joint (muscles) and external forces

11
acting upon the body [22]. For a complete inverse dynamics approach to analyzing a

movement, both a segmental power analysis and a joint power analysis are conducted

[22]. A segmental power analysis is used to calculate the mechanical energy use and

transmission by the segments. A joint power analysis is a simplified version of the

segmental power analysis and examines the flow of power across a joint which results

from the net force and moment of force [22]. Using these methods, the moments of force

and power (rate of work done/rate of change in mechanical energy) can be calculated.

The moment of force allows for the identification of which muscle group is acting upon a

segment (flexor, extensor), and the power identifies the direction of energy flow into or

out of a segment [23]. The powers therefore identify the rate of the transfer of energy

between segments.

Segmental power analysis

The segmental kinematics and inertial properties are all that are needed for a

segmental energy analysis [22]. However, to use inverse dynamics to attain information

on work done at each joint requires the force history of the segment. This means a force

plate or other device must be used to determine the external force that is in contact with

the segment [22]. The force plate is common in research and is used extensively in gait

analyses and, in combination with the segmental methods to capture kinematic data

described earlier, allows for the analysis of complex movements [29]. This permits the

power delivered to the segment from the net forces and moments of force to be calculated

at each joint [22]:

Force power:

PF = F  v = Fxvx + Fyvy

12
 Moment power:

PM = Mj  j

Total power to the segment:

J
PS = j 1
(PFj + PMj)

where J is the number of joints attached to the segment. For example the leg has two

attached segments: the foot and the thigh. The inverse dynamics segmental power

analysis also allows for the powers delivered to each segment to be measured from each

segment’s change in mechanical energy. This relationship has often been referred to as

power balance or energy balance [22]:

Rate of change of mechanical energy:

PE = dEtme/dt  ∆Etme / ∆t

Instantaneous power delivered to a segment:

J
PS = j 1
(PFj + PMj)

and power balance is: PE = PS

where Etme is the total mechanical energy of a segment, P F and PM are the powers

delivered by the forces and moments of force, and J is the number of joints attached to

the segment.

Joint power analysis

Joint power analysis is a simpler version of the segmental power analysis and is

one of the most commonly used methods for tracking energy flows across joints [22]. It

uses the same methods as the segmental power analysis, but uses moment of force

powers calculated from the relative angular velocities of the joints instead of the segment

13
angular velocities. This means that the power provided by the net moment of force

(moment power) is the product of the net moment of force times the difference in the

angular velocities of the two segments that make up the joint. This is calculated as

follows [22]:

Force power:

PF = F  v = Fxvx + Fyvy

Moment power:

PM = Mj  j = Mj (  p -  d)

This type of analysis is normally conducted by examining power history and net moment

history with the joint angular velocities or displacements. Upon analysis of a motion, the

net moment curve would indicate the muscle group creating the moment of force (flexor

or extensor) [22; 30]. The power curve, which is calculated from the moment and angular

velocity/displacement curves, indicates when positive (concentric/mechanical energy

generation), negative (eccentric/mechanical energy absorption) or zero

(isometric/mechanical energy transfer) work is being done [13; 14; 22; 30]. Inverse

dynamics allows for a complex analysis of the sequence of events of a movement. As a

result of the relationship between power and mechanical energy, these methods can be

used to estimate the generation, absorption and flow of energy between segments [22; 23;

30]. While these methods are discussed in terms of single joint analyses, these methods

can also be used to calculate the total body work and power and is discussed below.

Total body work and power

Calculating the total body work was first attempted by Capozzo et al. [6; 7]. To

calculate the total body work, all the moments of force of a body must be summed.

14
Therefore, as the work done by a moment of force is the integral of moment of force

times angular velocity of the joint in question, the equation is [22]:

T J N J
Wtb =  
0 j 1
Pjdt  
n 1 j 1
Pn,j∆t

where J is the number of joints in the body, N is the number of time intervals, and Pn,j is

the moment power produced, the jth net moment of force at time n. For this calculation to

work, the following two assumptions are made: that no external force is contributing to or

reducing the mechanical energy of the system and that the body is composed of rigid

links with frictionless joints [22]. If these assumptions are true, then only the actions of

the muscles, shown through the moments of force, can cause increases or decreases in

mechanical energy [22].

The total body’s instantaneous power can be calculated by adding the moment

powers of all the joints involved at that instant in time [22]:

J T J N
Ptb =  
j 1
Mj  jdt  
j 1

n 1
Mj,n  j,n∆t
0

Using these calculations, the total body’s mechanical energy and power can be estimated

[6; 7]. This measure was then validated against changes in energy by segmental methods:

Wtb = ∆Etme

The work-energy relationship used in this equation demonstrates that the total change in

mechanical energy of a body is equal to the total work done on that body.

Summary

In summary, mechanical energy has four forms: gravitational potential,

translational kinetic, rotational kinetic and elastic potential. Only gravitational potential,

translational kinetic and rotational kinetic are measured for the calculation of human

15
mechanical energy as elastic potential is considered to be a small part of the total body

energy [22]. To calculate human mechanical energy the laws of thermodynamics

governing the conservation of energy and entropy must be considered. The law of

conservation allows for the measurement of the changes in energy sources and thus

determines work done within a closed system [30]. The second law of thermodynamics

allows the assumption that some energy will be lost when work is done [30]. Human

mechanical energy and work is measured using four different methods: ergonometry, the

point mass method, the segmental method and the inverse dynamics method [22]. The

point mass method assumes all the body’s energy to be represented by the body’s centre

of mass. This method is rarely used as a result of its deficiencies in calculating total

energy of a system; however, from this method the segmental method was derived. Using

segmental methods the mechanical energy of each part of the body for a motion is

summed, which gives a fairly accurate value for total mechanical energy of the body [22].

The limitations of this method lie in the derivation of work, which is where inverse

dynamics has its strengths. Using inverse dynamics and segmental methods together,

total body mechanical energy can be validly calculated as well as the sources, exchanges,

directions and amounts of energy transfers between segments from the joint moments and

moment powers [22].

16
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