Fundamentals of IT C.Md.

Jamsheed

Dr. Jyothirmayi Degree College, Adoni.

Bcom Second Year

Paper –II Fundamentals of Information Technology

Unit-1

Components of a computer :

Definition of a computer :- A computer is an electronic machine that takes input through the input
unit processes it according to a program stored in its memory and gives the resultant output through
the output unit.
Components of a Digital computer:
A digital computer can be broadly classified as a collection of four components. They are
1.Input unit
2.Output unit
3.Central processing unit
4.Memory (Auxiliary)

A block diagram representation of a digital computer

Central
Input Unit Processing Out put unit
Unit
(CPU)

Auxiliary
Memory
Input Unit: The input unit provides an interface between the users and the machine for inputting data
and instructions etc.After receiving the data it will read sends it to the cpu for processing. One of the
most common examples is the keyboard. Data can be inputted in many more forms-audio, video,
graphical etc. Some common input devices are
1.keyboard 2.mouse 3.voice data entry 4.joy stick 5.light pen 6.scanner 7.secondary
8.track ball etc

Output Unit: The output unit also provides an interface between the user and the machine. A
common example is the visual display unit (monitor) of a personal computer the output unit receives
data from the cpu in the form of binary bits. This is then converted into a desired form such as
graphical, audio, visual, etc understandable by the user. Some common output devices are
1.visual display unit(monitor)
2.printers
3.speakers
4.secondary storage devices

Central Processing Unit : The cpu is the brain of the computer system. The input and output devices
may vary for different applications but there is only one cpu for a particular computer. The cpu can
be further divided into
i.The arthimetic logic unit (ALU)
ii.The control unit (cu)
iii.Main memory
ALU

CU

Main
memory
-1-
Fundamentals of IT C.Md.Jamsheed

The arrows in the above figures may represent data as well as control information flow.
The CPU performs many tasks such as
1.The CPU can perform arithmetic calculations such as addition, subtraction etc.
2.The CPU can perform logical decisions
3.The CPU with the help of other devices can perform data transmission.
4.The CPU can perform manipulating tasks such as word processing.
5.After performing he required task the CPU may place results in memory on send results to the
output device according to the instruction given to it.

Arithmetic and Logic unit: This unit performs all arithmetic and logical calculations on the data it
receives. Arithmetic calculations: The arithmetic calculations may be addition, subtraction,
multiplication, division, exponentiation etc.
Logical calculations: Logical calculations are basically decision making statements for example, A>B
decides whether is A greater than B or not; If A is greater than B the statement true and logical ‘1’
would be generated, otherwise a logical ‘0’ would be generated.

Control unit: The control unit controls the entire operation of the computer and the CPU. It controls
all the other devices connected the CPU i.e., Input devices, output devices, Auxiliary memory etc.
Hence, the control unit acts as the nerve center of the computer.
iii)The main memory unit: The main memory also known as the primary memory is a part of central
processing unit and is a combination of both RAM (Random Access Memory) and ROM (Read only
Memory).

RAM:
1.The Random Access Memory is a read write memory i.e., information can be read as well as
written into this type of memory.
2.It is volatile in nature i.e., the information it contains is lost as soon as the system is shut down
unless saved.
3.It is basically used to store program and data during the computers operation temporarily.

ROM:
1.The Read only memory contains information that can only be read i.e., e cannot rite on this type of
memory.
2.It is non-volatile i.e., the information it contains is saved even the system is shut down.
3.It is basically used to store programs permanently for the functioning of monitor.

Cache Memory: Another important concept is that of the cache memory, which is also part of the
CPU.
The cache memory lies in the path between the processor and the main memory. The cache
memory therefore has lesser access time than the main memory and is faster than the main memory.
The cache memory is very expensive and hence is limited in capacity. The cache memory stores the
program currently being executed on which may be executed within a short period of time. The cache
memory also stores temporary data that the CPU may frequently require for manipulation.

TYPES OF COMPUTER OR CLASIFICATION OF COMPUTERS:

Each and every computer must fall in one of the four categories described below.
1.Super computers.
2.Mainframe computers.
3.Mini computers.
4.Workstaions.
5.Microcomputers.
6.Deskops.
7.Laptops.
8.Notebooks.

Super Computers : One main area where these super computers are used in nuclear fissionable
material approaches a critical mass. The main feature of super computers is multiprocessing that
enables the computer to perform a number of operations simultaneously. The first super computers
had 4CPU’S. Today’s super computers have hundreds of processors. The speed of the super
computer is measured in nanoseconds

-2-
Fundamentals of IT C.Md.Jamsheed

(10E-9 of a computer) and gigaflop (1billionth floating point). Super computers priced from
$2million to $20million.
2)Mainframes: The largest type of computer commonly used is mainframe computer. Mainframe
computers are used where many people in a large organization need frequent access to the same
information of one or more large database.
The mainframe computer has processor that handles input, controls the database and output
needs of the terminals attached to it. Each user has access to the contents of database. They are
slower than super computers and then speed is measured in megaflops and not in gigaflops.
Mainframes can cost anything above $35000. It is common for mainframe computers to occupy
the entire rooms or even the entire floor of a high-rise building. MFS have multiprocessing
capabilities; they are generally limited to 8 or less processors.
These computers can support up to several hundred users simultaneously. It supports all of them
by keeping number of programs in primary memory and rapidly switching backs and forth between
programs. The property of processing many tasks concurrently for multiple users called as
multiprocessing.
3)Minicomputers: The easiest way to explain minicomputers is that they lie somewhat in between
mainframes and microcomputers. They can handle a great amount of data like mainframe. It can also
support number of terminals. Although they are also designed for 100’s of terminals, but they differ
in speed i.e., minicomputers are slower than mainframes and they can support as many terminals as a
mainframe can. They have less storage capacity and their printers too are slow. They are meant for
smaller organizations, which can neither afford mainframes nor do they require such big computer.
They range from $18000 to $50000.

4)Workstations: A workstation is a powerful desktop computer designed to meet the computing needs
of engineers, architects and other professionals, who need graphic display. Workstations are generally
used for CAD (computer Aided Design) applications. For this type of complex programs the
computer needs great processing power and much storage. They are also used as services for LANS
(Local Area Networks). Workstations are sometimes called “super-micros”. Although they look like
desktops but the chip inside is different. Most workstation use RISC (Reduce Instruction set
computer) microprocessors, RISC processors are used in special purpose applications, where speed is
critical.
5)Microcomputers: We generally mean Pc as a microcomputer. Microcomputers had a great impact
on the computer industry. In 1995 the sale of PC was $16 billion. These are the fastest growing
segments. Today a typical PC has 8 times as much RAM, 150 times more capacity and a
microprocessor that is at least 100 times faster than a PC 10 years earlier.
In the year 1981, IBM called its first microcomputer the IBMPC. Within a few years there were
many more companies in race to IBMPC such as Apple computer. Macintosh is personal computer
but not PC. Presently IBM has 28% of he market where as Apple holds 8%.
Most microcomputers support multitasking. It saves a lot of time. The user can open another
activity when one activity task is being processed. This not only saves time but also rescues also.
6)Desktops: One style of PC is Desktop. These types of computers are small enough to fit on a desk
but are too big to carry around. There are number of models in desktops. The cabinets come in flat
(horizontal) and vertical (tower model) depending upon the space management of the user.
7)Laptops: They were the first portable computer and weighed about 28 pounds. In-fact they were
called “1uggables” initially. As the size reduced the term also changed to “laptop”. They weigh
about 10 to 12 pounds. The name was probably given because they are used by keeping it on the laps
while users move on in a car, aero plane on train.
8)Notebook computers: As the name suggests their size is about 8.5 by 11 inch and can easily fit
inside a briefcase. They were initially called laptops only but gradually as the size decreased smaller
ones were called notebooks. They can be operated on batteries also. They are fully functional
microcomputers. They can have input devices Hard Disk, Drives, Floppy Disk Drives, a CD-ROM, a
modem and an on built mouse.
Networks: A network is a way to connect computers together so that they can communicate,
exchange information and pool resources, Networking lets organizations maximize the value of
computers. The benefits of Networks are
1.Allowing simultaneous access to critical programs and data.
2.Allowing people to share peripheral devices such as printers and scanners.
3.Steamlining personal communication with e-mail.
4.Making the backup process easier.
3.STANDARD INPUT METHODS:
a) The keyboard: Most input data is entered into the computer by using a keyboard. This input
method is similar to typing on a typewriter.

-3-
Fundamentals of IT C.Md.Jamsheed

Most typewriters and computer keyboards are QWERTY keyboards. The coding used on the
QWERTY and Dvorak keyboards works with an 8-bit code, which accommodates 256 different
characters.
The keys on a keyboard include function keys, directional keys and special purpose keys such
as Alt, ctrl, Enter, Ins and Esc. These keys enable the user to perform complex tasks easily when
using the application. Many applications use a function key to access online help for the user. Some
new keyboards have even 110 keys.
One special type of keyboard construction is the Membrane-switch keyboard, in which a
protective film covers the keyboard. Membrane switch keyboards are ideal in situations that require
little actual keying. Many computer systems are designed for source-data automation.
A chip called keyboard controller notes that a key is pressed then the keyboard buffer indicates
which key is pressed. This code is called keys scan code. The signal that the keyboard sends to the
computer in a special kind of message is called interrupt request.
b)The Mouse: The mouse is a palm size device with a ball built into the bottom. The mouse is
usually connected to the computer by a cable, & may have from one to four bottoms. The mouse may
be mechanical or optical and comes in many shapes & sizes. When you move the mouse over a
smooth surface, the ball rolls and the pointer on the display screen moves in the same direction with
the mouse. We can draw, select options from a menu and modify or move text. We can issue
commands by pointing with the pointer and clicking a mouse button. In addition to minimizing
typing errors, a mouse makes operating a microprocessor easier for beginning users. The mouse does
not actually send a message directly to the program that the computer is running, it sends an interrupt
request to the CPU.
c)Devices for hand:
1.Touch pad: The touch pad is a stationary pointing device that many people find less timing to use
than a mouse or a track ball. The movement of a finger across a touch surface is translated into
cursor movement on the computer screen. The touch sensitivity surface may be just 1.5 to 2 inch
square so the finger does not have to move much. Its size makes most suitable for the notebooks or
laptops.
2.Joysticks: A joystick is a pointing device often used for playing games.
3.Touch sensitive screens: Perhaps the easiest way to enter data is with the touch of a finger. Touch
screens enable the user to select an option by pressing a specific part of the screen. Touch screens are
commonly used in grocery stores, fast food restaurants &information kiosks.

Optical input devices :

(a) optical recognition systems: Optical recognition systems provide another means of minimizing
keyed input by capturing data at the source. These systems enable the computer to read data by
scanning printed text for recognizable patterns.
The banking industry developed one of the earliest scanning systems in the 1950’s for
processing cheques. The (micr) magnetic ink character recognition system is still used through out
the banking industry

(b) optical scanners : Optical scanners can seen typed documents, pictures, graphics or even
handwriting into a microcomputer appear clearly on the screen and can be displayed whenever
desired. The copy that the computers stores never yellow with age. Early scanners could recognize
only (OCR) typeface. A scanner converts the image that it sees into numeric digits before storing it in
the computer. This conversion process is known as digitizing.

(c) Optical mark readers: By taking exams we are familiar with mark sense character recognition
systems. Everytime we take a text with “ fill in the bubble scanners form and use a lead pencil, we
are creating input suitable for an optical mark reader . the OMR senses the magnetized marks,
enabling the reader to determine which responses are marked. OMR is very helpful to researchers
who need to tabulate responses to large surveys.

Audio Visual Input Devices

I) Monitors: The display screen is also called monitor or VDT (visual display terminal). Two types of
display units are available monochrome and color monitor. Monochrome monitor displays text in
single color: blue, white, yellow, or amber.
To control video display the computer contains an electronic circuitry. Ps/2 systems have built in
electronic circuitry while pc, pc/xt & pc/at have the display electronic circuitry on a removable plug
in circuit called adapter IBM has introduced several video subsystems containing special electronic
circuitry to control monitors. The dots or picture elements combine to form the images we see, more
picture elements are known as pixels.

-4-
Fundamentals of IT C.Md.Jamsheed

II)Sound systems : Now computer systems have such good audio system that is possible to listen
music while we are in work, when the printer needs the paper,play games that include sound on
compose music on the computer. For this high quality audio sound card and speakers are needed .
New sound cards even include the capability to have the computer read a text file to you while
we continue working on different application. Voice input and output has proved helpful to
individuals with speech and vision impairments.

Output devices Types of printers : There are two types of printers. They are Impact and Non Impact
printers
1.Impact printers : Impact printers can produce a page, a line or a character at a time. Large
computers use line printers. The main drawback of line printers is that they can produce only text and
no graphics.
Many small computers use character printers. Although only one character can be produce at
a time, many types of character printers can produce graphics as well as text. the most common
character printers create images by using a dot pattern. These printers are known as dot matrix
printers. If you use a magnifying glass to look at a report created with a dot matrix printer we can see
the small dots forming each character.
2. Non impact printers: There are two types of Non impact printers they are laser printer and inkject
printers.
(a)Laser printers : Work in the same manner as copy machines; a laser beams creates electrical
charges that attract toner to form an image and transfer it to paper. Laser printers come in a variety of
sizes, generally the larger and faster the printer, more expensive it is. Large laser printers are used on
mainframe and mini computers where high quality graphics output is required. Small “personal” laser
printers are suitable for home use.
(b)Inkjet Printers : Inkjet printers are signifying less expensive than laser printers. Electronically
charged ink is sprayed through a jet nozzle and passed through an electrinic field, which deflects the
ink to form a dot matrix character. Color inkjet printers which use multiple nozzles, are available at
very reasonable prices. Canon recently released a color inkjet printer that weighs 3 pounds and stands
to inches high perfect for traveling. A well equipped office at home on at work place an inkjet
printers a fax machine, a copier and a full sheet scanner.
Other high quality printers include thermal-wax printers, Dye-sub printers, Fiery printers and Iris
printers.
Processing Data
Buses: The alu ,the control unit, and the storage unit must have a way to communicate
(a) Control Bus (b) Address Bus (c) Data Bus
These links among and with in the various units are called buses.
Communication pathways within a computer

CPU

ROM
Address
Bus RAM control bus.

. Input /Out put

( I/O )

A bus is no more than an electrical path for data to flow from point to point in a circuit. A bus
is classified by name according to its function. For example the control bus is a path way for all
things and controlling functions sent by the control unit to the other units of the system. The address
is the path way used to locate the storage position in memory where the next instruction to be
executed on the piece of data will be found. The data bus is the pathway where the actual data
transfer takes place.
Cache Memory:
Cache memory is similar to RAM, except that it is extremely fast when compare to normal
memory and it is used in a different way. It is also a part of CPU.

-5-
Fundamentals of IT C.Md.Jamsheed

Program instructions are a good example of the kind of data the cpu often in cache memory.
Cache memory clearly provides performance benefits, so we can expect to see new chips and
motherboards.
The cache memory lies in the path between the processor and the main memory. the cache
memory therefore has lesser access time than the main memory and is faster than the main memory.
The cache memory is very expensive and hence is limited in capacity. The cache memory stores the
programs currently being executed on which may be executed within a short period of time. The
cache memory also stores temporary data that the cpu may frequently require for manipulation.
Cache Memory: Processor

Cache memory

Main memory
Ports and slots :
When we need to add a new piece of hardware to our computer, we need to know how to
connect it to the bus. There are two ways, we can plug the device into an existing socket or port on
the back of the computer, most computers have several and parallel ports: with a serial interface data
bits are transmitted one at a time through a single wire. Inside a computer a chip called VART
converts parallel data into serial that flows through a serial cable.
Serial ports are most often used to connect a mouse or a modem. The current standard for
serial communications is called RS-232 but there are many variations. For ex a serial port can have
either 9 or 25 pins.
Parallel ports are most often used for printer interfaces, although some other products use as
well. Parallel ports have a 25-pin connecter at the computer end. The printer end of a parallel printer
cable has a 36-pin centronics interface developed by the first manufactures of dotmatrix printers.
Slots : Pc motherboards have two or more expansion slots, which are extension of the computers bus
that provide a way to add new components to the computer. The slots accept circuit boards also
called cards, adapters or sometimes just boards. The expansion slots on the motherboard are used for
three purposes.
To give built in devices such as hard disks and diskette drives access to the computers bus via
controller cards.
To provide I/o (input/output) ports on the back of the computer for external devices such as moniters,
external modems printers and mouse.
To give special purpose devices access to the computer. For ex, a computer can be enhanced with an
acceleration card.
PROCESSORS
INTEL: The intel corporation is the largest manufacturer of microchips in the world, in addition to
being the leading provider of chips for pcs. Infact, intel invented the microprocessor, the so- called “
computer on a chip” in 1971 with the 4004 model. It was this invention that lead to the first
microcomputers that began appearing in 1975. Although the 8088 was the first chip, the 8086, in a
subsequent model, called the IBMPC XT. The chips that came later – the 286,386,486 and even the
Pentium – correspond to certain design standards that were established by the 8086.
THE MOTOROLA PROCESSORS:
Motorola corporation is the other major manufacturer of microprocessors for small computers.
Apples, Macintosh computes are Motorola processsors. Other computer manufacturers including
workstations manufacturers such as Sun Microsystems, have also relied heavily on Motorola chips.
They were an early favourite among companies that built larger, unix –based computers, such as the
NCR tower series and the T&T3Bseries.
Motorola offers two families of processor chips. The first is known as the “680*0 family”,
similar to the way intels group of pc processors is known as the “80*86 family”. The second,
designated MPC, has a different architecture and is known as the power pc family.
Reduced instructions set computing(Risc) processors : A newer theory in microprocessor design
holds that if the instruction set for the cpu is kept small and simple, each instructions will execute
much faster, allowing the processor to complete more instructions during a given period. Cpu’s
designed according to this theory called reduced instructions set computing (risc) processors. The
Risc design, which is used in the power pc but was first implemented in the mid- 1980’s results in a
faster and less expensive processor.
Risc technology has been the engine of mid-size computers such as the IBM RS1600 and
highend unix workstations such as those built by sun Microsystems. The powerpc processor reflected

-6-
Fundamentals of IT C.Md.Jamsheed

a major move on the part of industry giants toward using Risc technology in desktop and notebook
computers.
Parallel processing: Another thought on producing faster computers is to build them with more than
one processor. This is not a new idea in the mainframe and supercomputers infact, the IBM 3090 has
4 processor &the cray xmp 4 has four processors. Some companies are developing computers with
256,512 &even thousands of microprocessor known as massively parallel processors. For ex,intel
now has a contract with the U.S. department of energy to built what is being touted as the worlds
fastest supercomputer. It will contain 9000 pentium pro chips. Some unix programs tasks the
advantage of an additional processor. Windows NT can also make use of parallel processor
computers.

UNIT –2

Storage devices :
Magnetic disks: Disk drives can store large amounts of data and have the capability to directly access
a file or records. A magnetic disk coupled with a disk drive that can store and retrive data on the disk
is a random access storage medium. The disk drives magnetic head is called a read write head. Before
a disk can be used for storage, it must be prepared by means of a process called ‘formating’ . In this
process the disk drives read/write head lays down a magnetic pattern on the disks surface. This
pattern enables the basic tasks handled by the computers operating system.
Data is recorded in disk in concentrate circular bands called tracks. The tracks on a disk are
similar to the grooves on a phonograph record. Each track is divided into pie shaped edges called
sectors. Two or more sectors combine to form a cluster.
There are two types of magnetic disks. They are floppy disk and hard disk.
Floppy: A Floppy is a flexible circle of mylar plastic. The 3.5 inch version is encased in a hard
plastic cover. The 5.25 inch version is encased in a square jacket that is harder than the disk itself but
is still flexible. The 3.5 inch disk is a newer design than 5.25 inch disk.
The density of the magnetic particulars on the disk’s surface determines the amount of
information that can be stored on floppy disk. Double –density disks store more than the single
density disks of a decade ago.
Disks are inexpensive usually costing less than a dollar each. The storage capacity of floppy
disks is relatively limited, because floppy disks spin only about 300 revolutions per minute, locating
data waiting for the disk to spin to the correct sector are
comparatively longer.
Hard Disk : A hard disk is similar to the floppy disk, but the hard disk is made of rigid metallic
platters, can hold much more data and operate much faster. More hard disks are permanently encased
in the disk drive, although some drives are removable catridges. Removable disks generally known
as Bernoulli disks, consists of a single platter encased in a plastic catridge.
Hard disk spin so rapidly that the read/write head does not touch the
Surface of the disk. Serious damage can be caused if the read/write head encounters an obstacles,
such as dust or a smoke particle, such as dust or a smoke particle, causing read/write head to bounce
on the disk surface.
Performance of hard disks is better than of floppy disks because,
A single hard drive may have several platters providing large data storage capacities.
Most hard disks are permanently encased within the disk drive in a sealed environment free from
dust &dirt.
Hard disk spin at an average of 33600 revolutions per minute making data retrival very fast.
Tape Drivers: Magnetic tape is one of the oldest forms of computer storage. First and second
generation computers used magnetic tape for most of their storage needs.
Magnetic tape storage devices work in much the same way that tape recorder works. Instead of
play and record, the terms read and write are used. Like the tape used in a tape recorder, computer
tape can access what is stored on it only in the order in which the data has been recorded sequentially
which slows down the process it is a major disadvantage.
Advantages of tapes are that tapes are that tapes can be recorded, erased and reused many times
and they are inexpensive. Tapes are easily transported from one location to another and tape drives
can store large amounts of data quickly. The speed, storage capability and cost of tape are reasons
why it is still frequently used as a backup medium.
CDROM: CDROM works much like he compact disks used in CD players. The most popular and
least expensive type of optical disk is compact disk Read-only Memory (CDROM). There disks come
prerecorded and cannot be altered. CDROM is a Read Only Storage medium. CDROM provides an
excellent way to distribute large amounts of data at low cost. CDs can store up to 650MB of data.
To use a CDROM you must have a computer equipped with a CDROM drive. CDROM has
been used primarily to market large applications. For example Infopedia is a single CD that holds a

-7-
Fundamentals of IT C.Md.Jamsheed

complete encyclopedia, dictionary, would atlas, dictionary of quotations, world almanac and
biographical dictionary. We can tour he National Art Galler on CDROM or play a variety of games.
DVDROM: CDs may soon a new direction with the advent of DVD, digital videodisk, and a high
density medium hat is capable of storing a full length movie on a single disk the size of a CD.
Actually it uses both sides of the disk. Infact DVDs look like CDs and DVDROM drive are able to
play current CD-ROMs. A slightly different player, the DVD movies player, connects to our TV and
plays movies like a VCR. The DVD movies player will also play audio CDs.

MEASURING DRIVE PERFORMANCE

Average Access Time: The Average access time of a device is the amount of time I take the device
to position its read or read/write heads over any spot on he medium. It is important that the
measurement be an average because access time can vary a great deal depending on he distance
between the heads original location and their destination.
Access time is the combination of two factors the speed at which a disk spins and the time it
takes to move the heads from one track to another. The average seek time is about one half of the
maximum or 100 milliseconds.
Average access times for hard drives can vary but most good ones generate rates of 8 to 12
milliseconds.
Average access times for CD Rom and Worm devices tend to be quite slow by hard disk drive
standards, ranging from 100 to 300 milliseconds.
Data Transfer Rate : The other important statistic for measuring drive performance is the speed at
which it can transfer data i.e., how long it takes to read or write data. Speeds are expressed as a rate,
or as some amount of data per unit of time. For data transfer rates, time is measured in seconds, but
units of data may be measured in KB, MB or GB.
Once again speeds can vary greatly. Speeds for hard disk are generally high from about 5 MB per
seconds upto 15 MBPs for high-end drives designed for networks. When buying a hard disk, the data
transfer rate is the least as important a factor as the access time.
CDROMS and diskettes are the slowest storage device. CDROMS range from 300 kbps for a
double speed player upto 900 kbps for a 6x drive. Diskette drives average about 45 kbps. Removable
hard disks and magnetic optical disks range from about 1.25 mbps upto into the hard disk range.
Drive Interface Standards : Another important factor in determining how quickly a drive can read and
write data is the type of controller that the drive uses. Just as a video monitor requires a controller to
act as an interface between the cpu and the display screen storage devices also need a controller to act
as an intermediary between the drive and the cpu. A disk controller is connected directly to the
computer bus. On most computers, part of the disk controller is an integral part of the computers
main motherboard and the rest is built into the drive itself.
(a)The st-506 standard: In 1979, Shugart technology, which would later become Seagate technology,
developed the first standard for interfacing hard disks with Pcs. That interface became known as ST-
506, after the original hard disk that used it.
(b)Integrated drive electronics; The IDE interface places most of the disk controllers circuitry on the
drive itself to provide a simpler interface with the computer and more reliable operation than was
possible with the older ST-506 drives.
(C)Enhanced small device interface: Like IDE, the ESDI incorporates much of the circuitry of the
controller directly into the drive.
(d)Small computer system interface (scsi); SCSI was originally developed as a way to connect third
party peripheral devices to mainframe computers. SCSI went through many transformations before
the American national standards institute (ANSI) established a definition for the interface in 1986
FILE COMPRESSION: Data compression is the ability to reduce the storage requirements of a file
using mathematical algorithms, has several applications, including data communications and
multimedia. Data compression techniques are built into modems so they can send files faster.
Another use for data compression is to fit more data on a disk. Doing so usually requires a data
compression utility, a program specifically designed to abbreviate sequences of bits in order to make
files as small as possible. Some utilities compress files on demand, usually to fit data into a small
disk such as diskette or to reduce the amount of hard disk space taken by files that are rarely
accessed.
Another type of utility compresses all data as it is stored on hard disk doubling the capacity of
the disk for ex Drive space in Windows 95.
OPERATING SYSTEM AND USER INTERFACE: An operating system is an interface between the
user and the computer. It is a software program, but it is different from word processing programs,
spreadsheets, and all the other software programs on our computer.
The operating system (os) provides the following functions.
Provides the instructions to display the on screen elements with which we can interact. Collectively
these elements are known as user interface.

-8-
Fundamentals of IT C.Md.Jamsheed

Loads programs such as word processing and spreadsheet programs into the computers memory so
we can use them.
Coordinates how programs work with the cpu , keyboard, mouse, printer and other hardware as well
as with other software.
Manager the way information is stored on and retrived from disks.
MANAGING FILES: The files that the operating system works with may be programs or data files.
Most programs come with numerous files some may include even hundreds. When we use the
programs we often create our own data files such as word processing documents and store them on a
disk under names that we assign to them. A large hard disk often holds thousands of program and
data files. It is the responsibility of the O.S. to keep track of all these into RAM at a moments notice.
To accomplish this feat, the O.S maintain a list of the contents of a disk on the disk itself. There
is an area called file allocation table(FAT) that the O.S creates when you format a disk The O.S up
date the information in the FAT any time a file is created, moved, renamed or deleted.

MANAGING HARDWARE: When programs run they need to use the computers memory, monitor,
disk drives and other devices, such as printer, a modem or a CDROM. There are three ways in which
the O.S server as the go between to keep hardware running smoothly. The operating system is the
intermediary between programs hardware.
Processing Interrupts: The OS responds to requests to use memory and other devices,
Keeps track of which program have access to which devices, and coordinates every thing the
hardware does so that various activities do not overlap and cause the computer o become confused
and stop working. The OS uses interrupt request to help the CPU coordinate processes. For ex: if we
tell to list the file in a folder, it sends an interrupt request to the computers CPU.
Providing Drivers: In addition to using interrupts the operating system often provides complete
programs for working with special devices such as printers. These programs are called drives because
they allow OS and other program to activate and use that is drive the hardware device.
Networking: Besides providing interrupt requests and drivers for working with individual devices, the
OS also allow us to work with multiple computers on a network .
Utility Software :Operating systems are designed to let you do most of the things we normally would
want to do with a computer managing files, load programs, print files, multitask and so on. These
programs are sold by behemoths of software industry: micro soft, apple, IBM, santacruz operation
(sco) and novel. The programs they create to improve OS are called utilities.
Because they aid he inner workings of the computer system, utilities are grouped with the O.S
under the category of system software.
Software makers began to provide utility programs to remedy perceived in O.S.
Popular utilities range from programs that can organize or compress the files on a disk to
program that help us remove program that no longer use from our hard disk. The categories of utility
software include file defragmentation, data compression, backup, data recovery, antivirus and screen
savers.
Pc operating systems
Ms-dos means (Microsoft – disk operating system): Ms-Dos means Microsoft disk operating system.
Ms Dos along with the similar pc dos from IBM was once the most common of all the pc operating
system. Dos was adequate for the IBM- compatible pcs of the early 1980s, but it has certain
limitations that become more noticeable as pcs become more powerful. For ex;
1.Under dos we can load only a single program at a time. To work with a second
program, we have to close the first one.
2. Dos was not designed to handle large amounts of RAM that todays pcs typically use.
3.Dos was designed for 16-bit cpu’s and cannot take advantage of 32-bit architecture of 486,
Pentium and later chips.
4.Dos command line interface is more difficult to learn than a well designed graphical user
interface (GUI).
5.Dos file names are limited to 8 characters.

WINDOWS
Microsoft Windows 95 (and upgrades): In 1995, Microsoft released windows 95, a complete
operating system and a successor to Dos for desktop computers. Windows 95 is a 32-bit, preemptive
multitasking operating system, with a revised graphical user interface (GUI). Windows 95 to contains
a good deal of 16-bit code needed to run older DOS and windows programs.
For users of windows 3.1, windows 95 has several attractions. It offers 32-bit processing. This
means that for programs designed with 32- bit processing in mind, the OS can exchange information
with printers, networks and files in 32-bit instead of 16-bit.
Windows 95 like windows NT, offers preemptive multitasking windows 95 has a graphical
interface that is a welcome improvement over windows 3.1. windows 95 also allows users to type file
names of upto 256 characters.

-9-
Fundamentals of IT C.Md.Jamsheed

Windows 95 offers a plug and play standard for connecting new hardware. With plug and play
the manufacturers do all the compliance work in advance. Windows 95 asset is compatibility with
networking software such as novell netware and Microsoft NT server.
MICROSOFT WINDOWS NT:Microsoft released windows NT, a 32 bit OS for PCS in 1993. It was
originally designed to be the successor to dos, it had become too large to run on most of the PCS in
use at the time. It was designed for most powerful workstations and network services, with windows
NT released, Microsoft went back to the drawing to create windows95.
UNIX: Unix is older than all the other PC operating systems and in many ways it served as a model
for them. Unix was sold to novell in the early 1990’s. the best known is Berkeley unix.
Unix was not just a multi talking system like be other operating system. It was also multi user
and multiprocessing operating system. That is it could allow multiple users to work from more than
one keyboard and monitor attached to a single CPU. Unix allows for a PC with more than one CPU
working at a time.
Unix runs on many different types of computers on cray super computers, PCS and everything in
between, including mainframes and minicomputers.
.NETWORKING AND DATA COMMUNICAIONS: Computers can communicate in two main
ways, through modems and through networks. Modems enable computers to use telephone lines,
cellular connections and even satellie links to exchange data. Networks connect computers directly, at
higher
speeds, either through special wiring or by some form of wireless transmission. The
process of connecting a computer to a network is known as”Going Online”.
A network is a way to connect computers together so that they can communicate,
Exchange information and pool resources.
Many business that used to rely on a centralized system with a main frame now
Use computer networks in which every employee who needs a computer has one.In
Education, schools have also shifted two strategies built around networks.
Some of the benefits of networks are:
Allowing simultaneous access to critical programs and data.
Allowing people to share pheripheral devices, such as printers and scanners.
Streamlining personal communication with e-mail.
Making the backup easier.

CATEGORIES OF NETWORKS : There are local area networks (LANS) and wide area networks
(WANS), and there are server based network, client/server networks and peer to peer networks.
LOCAL AREA NETWORK (LAN): A network of computers located relatively near each other and
connected by a able or a small radio transmitter is a local area network (LAN). A ‘LAN’ can consist
of just two or three pc’s connected together to share resources, or it can include several hundred
computers of different kinds. Any network that exits within a single building or even a group of
adjacent building, is consider a LAN.
A ‘LAN’ permits all the computers connected to it to share hardware, software and
Data. The most commonly shared resources are disk storage devices and printers. To
LAN users, the network is, or should be, completely transparent, which means that the
Shared devices on it seem to be directly connected to user’s computer as if they were
Merely pheripherals.
Wide Area Networks(WANS): A wide area networks (WANS)is two or more LANS ha are
connected together, generally across a wide geographical area. For example, accompany may have its
corporate headquaters and manufacturing facility in one city and is marketing office in another. Each
site needs resource, data and programs locally, but it also needs to share data with the other site. To
accomplish this feat of data communication the company could attach a router to each LAN to create
a WAN.
The internet is the ultimate WAN, since it connects many thousands of computers and LANs
around the world. Most of the commercial online services and large bulletin boards were not WANs
when he started out, because typically users dialed into a single computer or a group of computers
housed at a single site. However today mos of these systems provide connections o other specialized
services and to the internet, so they are now more like WANs.
Server Based Networks Or File Server Networks: LAN or WAN does not tell us anything about
individual computers on a network called nodes, interact with other computers on he network.
Many networks include not only nodes but also a central computer with a large hard disk that is used
for shared storage. This computer is known as the file server, network server or generally kept on the
server.
One relatively simple implementation of a network with nodes and a file server is a file server
Network. This is hierarchical arrangement in which each node can have access to the file on he server
but not necessarily files on other nodes . When a node needs information on the server, it requests the
entire file containing the information. The file is used simply to store and forward.

- 10 -
Fundamentals of IT C.Md.Jamsheed

Client/server networks: Another approach for organizing nodes on a network is called client/server
computing, a hierarchical strategy in which individual computers share the processing and storage
workload with a central server. This type of arrangement requires specialized software for both he
individual mode and the network server. I does not, require any specific type of network.
Client/server software can be used on LANS or WANS and a single client /server program can be
used on a LAN where all the other software is based on a simple file server relationship.
The most common example of client/server computing involves a database that can be accessed y
many different computers on the network .the database is stored on the network server. Also stored
on the server is the server portion of the database management system(DBMS),The program that
allows users to add information to or extract it from, he database.
Client/server software is valuable to large, modern organizations because it distributes,
processing and storage workloads among resources efficiently I,E fastly .
Client /server computing is also commonly used model on the internet for storing, receiving and
sending mail messages are carried out by remote computers running the server part of the relavent
software.
CLIENT SERVER MODEL:Client/server: (Hosts = end system )in computer networking the
computers that we often use on a daily basis are often called as host or end systems .
Hosts can be divided in to two categories clients and server clients can often be disk top per or
workstations where as server are more powerful machines. In the so called client / server model, a
client program running on one end system requests and receives information from a server running on
another end system. The web, e-mails, file transfer adopt client / server model. Since a client
typically ram on client one computer and the server runs on another computer client /server
applications are distributed application .The client and the server interact with each other b
communicating (ie sending each other manager) over the internet.
Nodes or routers (individual searching derives that are used for connecting the computer.)
Peer To Peer Computing :A third arrangement is a peer-to-peer network, in which all modes on the
network have equal relation ships to all others and all have similar types of software .Each node has
access to atleast on all other some of the resources on all other nodes , so that the relation ship is
non- hierarchical.
In addition, some very high –end peer-to-peer networks such as networks of UNIX computers
allow distributed computing, which enable users to draw on the processing power of other computers
in a network, that means people can transfer talks that take a lot of cpu power – such as creating
computer software – to available computers, leaving their own machines free for other work.
Peer-To-Peer LANS are commonly set up in small organization or in schools where the
primary benefit of a network is shared storage, printers and enchanced network server and is very
similar to a file server network.
NETWORK TOPOLOGY FOR LANS: Another distinguishing feature among LANS is the
topology –the physical layout of the cables that connect the nodes of the network. There are there
basic topologies bus, star and ring .
THE BUS TOPOLOGY: A “BUS” network, like the bus of a computer itself , is a single conduct to
which all the network nodes and peripheral devices are attached ,nodes on a bus network transmit.
Data at any time regardless of any data being sent by other nodes . If one set of data happens to
collide with another set of data transmitted by other nodes , that is if two nodes try to send data at the
same time ,each node waits a small ,random amount of time and then attempts to transmit the data.
Although the bus topology is one of the most common it has inherent disadvantages.
Keeping data transmissions from colliding requires extra circuitry and software, and a broken
connection can bring down for crash all or part of the network, rendering it inoperable so that user
cannot share data peripherals until the connection is repaired.
THE STAR TOPOLOGY:
Hub: It is a central device in star topology also called a concentration . It is a simple device that takes
an input and retransmits the on the hubs outgoing ports.
A star network places a hub in the center of the network nodes. Groups of data are routed through the
central hub to their destinations. This scheme has an advantage in that the hub monitors traffic and
prevents collisions, and a broken connection doesn’t effect the rest of the network. If we loose the
hub the entire network goes down.
THE RING TOPOLOGY: The ring topology connects the nodes of the network in a circular chain in
which each node is connected to the next. The final node in the chain connects to the first to
complete the ring. With this methodology, each node examines data that is sent through the ring. If
the data is not addressed to the node examining it, that node passes it along to the next node in the
ring.
The ring topology has a substantial advantage over the bust topology there is no danger of
collisions because data always flow in one direction. One draw back to the ring, however is that if a
connection is broken, the entire network goes down.

- 11 -