5.

Water Resources

Water is a vital resource, necessary for all aspects of human and ecosystem survival and health. The
Earth has an abundance of water on its surface, and has been rightly termed as "water planet. Water

resources are. however. unenenly distributed in space time, and type. Ninety-seven poercent of all water
is saline, unfit to drink or grow crops. The vast amount of the remaining three perecent is locked up out
of practical human reach in the vast ice caps of Greenland and Antaretica. and in deep groundwater
aquifers. The small fraction of fresh water that is accessible to us is extremely unvevenly distributed in
space and time.
According to its distribution and availability, water resources may be broadly classified as (1)
underground water, and (2) surface water.

1. Underground Water Resources

Some of the rain that falls on the land evaporates, but much of it soaks into the ground. It has been
estimated that nearly one-third of the rainfall becomes run off water in brooks, streams and rivers. Part
of the water that soaks into the ground becomes available to the root plants, but most of it goes deeper
and joins the underground water, a potential source ofdrinking and industrial water and even for irrigation
purposes. Water accumulates below the surface in aquifers. When a hole, or well, is dug into the aquiter,
it yields water pure enough for drinking and other purposes. Regions of permeable rocks such as sandstone.
shale, gravel and even clay have great potential for accumulation of under ground water.

Intake Area

Artesian
Well
Well
Spring

H
mpermeable-

Impermeable:
ABCD Top of Water Table in Aquifer
GHKL Ground Water Table

Fig. 5.1: Diagram illustrating the ocurrence ofunderground wuter, wells, springs and artesian wells
Strata from which it is easy to obtain under ground water lie at different depths. Sometimes it lies at
Shallow depth, and at times, at such depth in bed rock that a deep drilling is required to reach the water.
Sometimes water reached by deep drilling may come to the surface under pressure. These are called
 icogruphy of Resonees 11
Water Resurces
be pumped ¥ Lsit
and water muUst on the Volga.
Rhine. Stalingrad
Bromen on the Weiser, Cologne on the
artesian,
wells are not truly industriat
however, deep irrigation and ial London on the T hames, pollutiuon of
water.
CaUE
the Michigan have to face the problem of
In most cases,
for domestic,
artesian wcils. water supplies
be drilled for the MisSISSippi, and Chicago on
Wells of these ty pes may on
and made potable
the of sewage into the rivers. Such water is purified
surface
by the disposal it is drstuiled
purposts Resources In Baku and Aden. sea water is used for drinking purposes after
2. Surface Water water resources plas water in more quantities than
for dornesti
o c e a n s . These Industrial plants require
streams, lakes,
seas and 2. Industrial water supply : for condensing stearm.
for olutaon
water o c c u r s as these resources largel industries for producing steam,
On the earth's surface, soils. In lact,
and in formation of purposes. Water is needed in for washing coke, for
the
in shaping landscapes, slopes, for cooling hot metals.
a major role of chemicals, for humidifiers and refrigerators. of hudes
and for washing and dying
influence human habitations
water resources,
and (i) oceanic water resources of acids and alkalies in chemical industries,
manulacture
classed as (i) inland
Surface water may be
resources
elc. 1s made after
lakes. canals etc
The supplies for industries to
cities located on the banks of rivers,
Inland Water Resources wet lands. These Manchester in Englarid.
resources some places. such
and as in
(rivers). canals, lakes. ponds sources in huge plants. At
Inland water resources
include streams
water supply. (ii) irrigation
for crops, (ii) water purifying the water of these and dying of clothes.
in such cases
which include : () domestic for the specific purpose of washing
offer several services to man the ground water is not fit done elsewhere. Lime
and magnesium
(vi) generation ofsteam power manufactured at Manchester has to be
(V) generation ofhydro-electricity, washing and dying of clothes chemicals
for industrial purposes. (iv) navigation. as salts and others, (viii) fish as food It must be purified by mixing
chlorine and other
(vii) supply of minerals such is harmful for industrial purposes.
for domestic and industrial purposes. in water
culture elc. industries.
resources. (ir) tourism. (r) impact
on
for using in water cannot be used in the
have direct bearing on distribution of population, as these affect when it comes from mining areas. Such
In fact, inland water
resources a
countries.
Water often gets contaminated when heated. create obstruction
and holes
natural boundaries between states and with oxygen and carbon dioxide.
climate and settlements. They also
serve as
boilers of steel. Water mixed
in pipes. industries, especially
Utilization of Inland Water Resources water affects the localizaton of
manufacturing
is concentrated in river valleys and deltas, Thus, availability of pure and pulp, leather, alcohol,
chemicai.
The fact that nearly 70% of the world's population silk and cotton textiles. paper
around lakes. and in coastal areas, speaks
volumes of the utility of inland water resources for man. spinning and weaving plants of woollen,
industries require soft water.
pharmaceuticals etc. Such Dneiper, Ob,
The first human civilizations arose in the river valleys in Egypt, Mesopotamia (present Iraq), India, and ponds are sources
ofinland fishery.inThe volga. Don.
inland water bodies. For utilizing these 3. Fishing: Rivers, lakes the USA. the Ganga. Sutlej
and China. Most of the large cities in the world are located near Russia, the Columbia, Mississippi etc.
resources. the following adjustments are required Yeneisey, Amur etc. in etc. in China and many other
elsewhere
rivers
Mahanadi etc. in India, the Hwang
Ho, Yangtze
. The construction of some buildings, wharps, bridges, dams, embankments, tunnels, reservoirs,
provide fish for local consumption. of the world. These
power houses, etc. Asia are densely populated regions
2. A perfect knowledge and skill in hydrology and engineering for the development of hydro-
4. Irrigation Crops:(i) East and south have to depend to irrigation. Rice, sugarcane, cotton.
of
countries raise two crops a year so, they and Pakistan
summer. In China, India
need to be irrigated during
electricity. maize, pulses, soya bean etc. of irrigation.
oil seeds, etc. need heavy dozes
3. A thorough knowledge of the attributes of water for different uses. winter crops such as wheat, barley. gram,
South Africa, Nigeria,
West Asia, Nile valley, Western USA,
4. An understanding of the velocity of streams to run the water mills, and of river regimes for (i) In the drier regions Turkestan,
of is largely practised.
water transport (navigation). South America, Australia, etc. irrigated farming
means of irrigation-canals,
wells and tube wells, tanks, are extensively
5. Purification of water for drinking and other purposes. (i) In India, various
6. Desalination of salt water for drinking purposes. used.
determined by the availability of water for irrigation.
Since long, man has utilized the inland (iv) Selection of crops is largely
water resources in the following ways:
: Navigation in rivers, canals
and lakes is determined by a number
of factors
1. 5. Navigation
Domestic water supply : Inland water resources cater to the domestic needs (for drinking, ofman including :(i) the direction of river flow, (ii) geographical
location of water bodies, (ii)
extent
cooking, bathing. cleaning, watering plants, and crops). The water should be pure, free from nd width of water, (vi) meandering
of the water body. (iv) amount of water in rivers or lakes, (v) depth
bacteriaand other contaminants (salts, sediments, ete.), taste, smell, and colour. Big cities often
face difriculty in procuring water for domestic of rivers, (vii) swift flow of the stream, (vii) rocks,
sand bars etc. in the river channels, (ix) rapids
purposes. Cities located on th river banks, use conditions and floods, (xi) shifting of iver channels,
water from rivers. But in others water has to be and waterfalls on the rivers, (x) weather
brought from distant places.
For example, in Los Angeles, (USA), water has to be xii) landing places. either.
brought from the slopes of Sierra Nevada It does not require any maintenance cost
transport is cheaper than any other
means.
from a distance of 420 Km. In Calgoorlie in Australia, water is Water
brought through 560 Km. long pipe Britain, USA, and Brazil water transport is more
lines. In former USSR, China, Germany, France, continent.
means of transport in the
Rhine in Europe is the largest
Cities located by river side, such as Kanpur, Varanasi, Kolkata, Delhi, Agra, elc. in India, developed than the rail transport. The
 ocogrupy of Resou
urces
IWater Resources
righly
rcgion
of Europe.
t IS

transn
called bodies have a great bearing on human civilization and culture Mont of the cities in the word
i n d u s t n a l 1 z e d

means
ol inland
highly n
lgypl and tosome
and important
less located inland water-bodies.
nyulated
hand. is Nile in are ncar
the densely the
os thrgh Danuhe. on the other Volga in
Lurope,
ol transpor1
t
ot
The
Furope in
China the
importiant
mcans
The Occanic Water Resources
The Yangtze India, a r e frozen
TAeline

tm of
solume
ot
material

the (anga
and the
Godavari
in

St.
Lawrence
in
anada
remain

during The extent ofwater on the carth is much morethan that ofthe land. Oceans comprise neary 71 0
Brahrmasutra, and
the Msckenzie
*nt the
and Lcna
in
Rusia,
constructed to
onnec
con
the total arca of the
carth. A peculiarity of the distribution of oceans is that they are interconnectes,
h v . oescy stmmei only O1len they are
whereas the continents are separated from each other. Oceans differ from continents not only in their
h e r unctul dunng and
Iransportation.

wamdcr.
ol imigation areal extent but also in depth. If the entire oceanic waters were spread on the even surtace of he earth,
major Wat
purposes
the It Is a
anas
serne

some 1500 Jcars ago. the land would submerge under 3.2 Km deep water.
ers and lakes was
constructed
used as
mcans
of transpo
sport, All the oceans represent a huge waterbody, however. continents divide them into four principal
long Grand
canal of China and Egypt.
canals were
The 1900 km China. In
Babylonia units the Pacific. the Atlantic. the lndian ocean and the Arctic ocean. The Pacific. the largest ocean.
bethween north
and south
mear The Indan
hughway
veral thousands years ago canals along
the
Coromandel
coast are important cans occupying two fifth of the total area of the hydrosphere, is called the water hemisphere
Kommamur and Buckingham ocean, the only ocean named after a country is bounded in the north by South Asia. The Arctic
ocean
In India. the
1or carrying heavy
goods such surrounds the North Pole. The Atlantic ocean is S-shaped and opens into the Arctic ocean i7 the non
ot conmercral transport. o1 iransport
canal serves as an important
means
connected with the lakes of Michisan and into the Antarctic ocean in the south. The Antarctic ocean. according to some geoyraphers. 15 the
In USA. the Erie rivers are
c e m e n t etc
The Mississippi
and the Ohio the USA is perhaps
the important most extension of the Indian. the Pacific and the Atlantic oceans.
a
s t e e .
grains,
Marie canal or
the Soo-canal in remains frozen durinu
canals. The Sault lake. Though it Main Features of Oceans
and Enie througii and the Huron
connecting the Superior lake
canal in the country. than the Suez The oceans have some and chemical properties, mentioned as under
peculiar physical
yet it caries a larger volume of goods Dneiper, Don and
Dvina rivers ofthe These salts
witer.
rivers in Europe. The Volga. also connected by
() Oceanic water is saline. The average salinity of oceans is about 3.5% (or 35%).
Many Canas connect navigable The Rhine. Elbe and Danube in Germany are are deposited in oceans by rivers. The oceanic water evaporates and salts remain deposited
canals.
Soviet Union are connected by Manchester Ship Canal
in England are navigable
in oceans. It has been estimated that nearly 300 crore tonnes of soluble salts reach
the
Jutland Peninsula and the
canals. The Kiel canal in the chloride)
oceans every year. Of these salts, nearly three fourths is ordinary salt (sodium
shups transport water than the rivers, because Magnesium, calcium sulphates and chlorides comprise the remainder.
means of inland
seas are a better
lakes and inland
Large
rivers do. The Great Lakes of the
USA lacilitate transport iron of (ii) The average temperature of the oceanic suri isabout 26.5°C in the tropical regions.
from obstacles as the
they do not suffer The Caspian Sea and Lake Baikal
ore and coal and thus help in the industrial development region. of the Victoria and
15.5°C in the temperate regions and 1.11C in sub-polar regions.The temperature
water falls rapidly with the depth. It remains at 4.3°C below 700 fathom.
ofoceanic
in the (former) Soviet Union
also serve as a major means transport. The Tanganyika, of
similar function. (iin) The density of oceanic water is slightly morethan that of pure water.
Nyasa lakes in Africa a perform
power generated Steam is form waterto iv) Two types of deposits are found in ocean bottom: (a) terrigenous deposits, and (b) pelagic
6. Generation of Steam Power and Hydro-electricity:
steam power is used to generate thermal electricity deposits. The former includes those brought by rivers and waves, eg, sand, gravel, mud,
drive machines of plants and locomotives. This
for plants. coral elc. The latter are found far away from the coast and include clays volcanic dusts and
Sowaday s. hy dro-electricity is being largely used as an industrial power, in blast furnaces, in railways 00zes.

and in transport rope ways. Hydro-electricity is generated at suitable sites on the fast flowing rivers. )The sun light penetrates the ocean water upto a depth ofa few hundred metres only. Below
Hydro-electricity is the cheapst and the cleanest ofall the sourcesofpower. Besides, it is a renewable 600 metres, it becomes quite dark and farther below 1000 metres it is pitch dark. the only
and inexhaustible resource. A major advantage of hydro-clectricity is its utility in decentralization of source of light being that produced by phosphorescent animals
industries. while the use of coal favours the centralization of industries which creates many adverse (vi) The oceanic water is always on the move. The three type of movement include-sea waves,
environmertal effects. currents and tides.
7. Availability of minerals: Some lakes provide minerals, such as salts, potassium etc. The Sambhar (vii) The ocean contains a vivid marine life-ranging from the least developed protozoa to huge
Lake. the Pachpadra Lake and the Lunkaransar in mammals.
Rajasthan are sources of salt production in
India. (vi) The coastal zone has four zones-(a) on shore zone, (b) shore zone, (c) shore face zone, and
8. Inland water resources and man : The fact that
nearly 70% of the world's population is (d) off shore zone, all of these extend from the coast to the continental shelf. The coast zone
concentrated in the river valleys and deltas. around lakes. and in the is characterized by several physical features e.g. bays, estuaries, sounds, capes, coves,
coastal areas, speaks volumes
of the utility of inland water resources for
man. The first human promontories, etc.
river valleys in civilizations developed in the
Egypt, Mesopotamia (present Iraq). India and China. In fact, inland
water-
 Taph of Resources
plane Eicvations s and depthsare Hater Reswrce
datum
the
sun
a percoiaten sned yas
ureeryord
of the rain water flows into riivers 4nc.
d me
h datem r a n e rain Some
yle
and natural harbore rainfall Fhus, the hycdralengcal
eenant
continental shelt
oursare some of it evaporates to form cleeuds anct fhen sem-a
hu dry r
n

do not experience oxeanuc winds, remarn

aom activities The interior areas which
aaa
temperatures. if s a well-knoywn lact ttat ngltr
Ocean also play a major role in moderating he
frum o c e a r s snt
cool down than the land takes Winds comng
Man threc fourths of sh
of the world's more time to heat up and
an epuabie climgte.
wth

of Oceans by for
man Ncarly coastal Therefore, coastal areas experence
temperatures in the areas.
STITCance
l a t
at
t t pra em coastal areas cooler sumr
m

a Sea breezes keep the

diurnal and annual ranges of temperatures.
warmer in winter.
the Cralf Seream off
bg y ,
for the are the source
of rainfall and they control and Occanic also control the temperatures of coastal areas. For example.
currents
t i a t e na
Drift off the coast of north western Europe. kerg the
the eastern coast in the USA and the North Atlantic the
remasn open far trae
winter. As a result ports located in these areas
s
favourable
for human
health coastal areas wamer during
s e z

and chemical products whole year.

mineral the coæstal
also havea moderating effect
rovde may on
(kre
materal
Seasonal winds, such as monsoon and diurnal winds
prades food
sr areas.
international trade and commercial transport. wth atie
Aam pronde nearis 98.
of the 2. Health and recreational values of s e a :
The equable climate of the coastal areas.
a mcans of entertaiiment, sight seeing. swimming. boating etc human health. It affects the human heaith directly
There
extremes of temperature, is ideal for
c ar also
Industrial energy can be produced from in the atmosphere
store house of potential enerED. Some amount of humidity is always present
Occa ac a great are no extremes of temperature.
three inaor
to human body The
awz and tides daily variations in temperature provide energy
Slight prove favourable
and variabiliry
H cilzation is greatly affected by oceans. characteristics of coastal climate cquability, some humidity.
a c n deveiops in coastal areas and such countries become a great naval power. for human body.
recrestional
to visit sea coast, where they enjoy many
ccanic sw zters keep the coastal areas clean. In tropical and subtropical areas, people like of Afrrca and
areas of tropical and sub-tropical regons
Marme nfluence on cdimate: Plarnts are the main source of food for all animals and human facilities. The European settlers in the coastal
benp atural vegetation is largely determined by the amount of rainfall occuring in a region. South America called the sea breeze as "Doctor".
the food of
store house of "plankton", which
3. Food supply from Oceans: Oceans are huge
a
the regios low
of crops need to be irrigated from various sources-ground
rainfall waterand animals. The organisms of the litoral o n e
millions of species of organisms, eaten up by larger
sartae water.
Rrvers. lakes, welis,
tarks ete receive water from rainfall only. Oceans are the
ma source of rainfal. The oceanic water evaporates, condenses and then falls on the earth as of oceans provide food for man. Fish is a major source
of food. provided by seas arnd oceans
Fish,
Fishery is well in favourable areas, particularty in the Northern Hemisphere.
developed
MOVEMENT OF AR mammals etc are caught
small and big, lobster, shell fish, crustacia, sponge. crabs, oyster,
sea
FRO SEK
aoo CLOUD daily in large numbers. In many countries, such as, Japan
fish is a major food people Fishery of

EVAPORATIO
WHILE FALLUG
O

sYTRANSAONAOMVEGETATION
LANO
SERVOJRs
oSAESER,
is most developed in countries such as Japan, USA, UK, lceland, Norway.
five major areas of commercial fishery in the world
USSR, There are ele.

of eastern USA.
nCEs S ( Grand Banks off the Atantic coast

GROUNOATER/ in Dogger Banks off the coast of north western Europe

(iin The Pacific coast of North America from California to the Berring
SURFACE sea
vEDETATIO FUNOFF
(iv) The coastal areas of north eastern Asia, including Japan, Sakhalin,
castern Siberia and northern

AND IO OCEA China.

(v) The Peruv coast in South America.
IA TERTABLE coast.. Cold
LTEBA Fishing is largely influenced by two factors (i) high latitudes, and (i) submerged
latitudes
climate in high latitudes helps in the preservation of fish. Moreover, cultivation of crops in high
is hamperedby severe cold. The invigorating climate of the middle and high latitudes keep the people
energetic and active. The submerged coasts are ideal fishing grounds in the world.
Fig 52:The ihy drological cycle (units: stores 10"g Minerals from oceans: Practically all minerals of the earth's surface occur in oceans too,
Jlures, 10"g )
though in very small quantities. Marine water contains 3.5% salinity which is due largely
to
 77
Geography of Kesources Water Resources
they lack. For
minerals which
from sea water by the Droa 3. Industrial countries such as Britain, Germany, USA, etc. import
France and Japan
Salt is
manutactured
Of and England, Germany.
chloride and
magnesium. and phosphates are prodto example, Europe and USA import tin from Malaysia
sodium iodine, agar, elc. Limestone
weeds provide potash, extracted from
oceans.
import oil from west Asia and Indonesia.
evaporation. Sea and
marine organisms.
Bromine is also
in transno. 4. Mineral producing countries, such as India exports iron ore
to Japan and manganese mica
the dead c o n s i d e r e d as obstruction
by o c e a n s were port. In middle east countries and
Russia.
: In ancient times,
trade and transno to USA, Germany etc., while it imports petroleum from the
5. Ocean navigation have become highways.
Inter continental
the existence of population groups o
e In modern times, oceans are, in as much essential to maintain
however, oceans
modern times, is the cheapest means of transport
Coastal shipping tof world is self-sufficient in
now carried out by oceaning
routes only.
the world as the blood circulation system
of the human body. No country ofthe
circulation of produCis
Ocean routes play a major role in the
all items it needs to sustain its population.
bulky materials.
of ancient Egypt, China, Mesopotamia and
has evolved gradually. People among various countries.
The art of navigation about 5000 years ago. The
invention magnetic comna of be used to
India were acquainted
with the art of navigation
seas much easier. The Portuguese
contributed much t 6. Oceans as source of potential energy The energy sea waves and tides can
of started production
made navigation in open Some countries have already
in the thirteenth century
fifteenth century. Soon, other European countries, such as Britain produce industrial energy on a commercial basis.
the development ofnavigation in the
the race. Columbus, Vasco-de-Gama, Magellan and Cook discovere red
of commercial electricity. It has great potential for future.
France, Italy. Germany also joined Water Related Problems
and new lands.
new routes Institute for Studies
being used for navigation Peter H. Gleick, President, Pacific
mechanised steamers, ships and liners are In a document created in September 1995,
Nowadays, modern and highly reviewed the critical
for Columbus to cross complete barely
the Atlantic ocean, now it is in Environment and Security, Oakland, California (USA) briefly
purposes. It took seventy days in Development, the connections between
worsen in the future, explored
are equipped with all the residential, recreational and other facilities water issues, described how these problems may
four days. Modern steamers and ships those connections.
It is, in fact. a 'floating city". Countries like USA, USSR, Britain, Germany etc. have developed marine and proposed a new way of addressing
human population and fresh water problems;
in the following sections.
characteristics of ocean transport may be noticed information given in this document is being given
transport into a science. The following A brief account of the and health. "in
of human and ecosystem survival
() Oceans are free highways, they do not entail laying of roads or railways and setting up Water is a vital resource, necessary for all aspects contamination and the
water scarcity and
stations. recent years, new alarms have been sounded about growing fraction of
populations. The small
(i) Heavy and bulky goods are easily transported. inability to meet the water requirements of rapidly growing
ikely in and time. The society has
(in) Steamers use less fuel than locomotives. fresh water that is accessible to us is extremely unevenly distributed space store it in wet
areas to dry areas, to
to move water from wet
(iv) Accidents, such as head on collision, derailment, breaking of bridges, and others, which are to spend huge amounts of money every year These characteristics of
otherwise undrinkable sources.
associated with land few in case of marine seasons coming dry periods, or to clean
for
related problems including
inter-state
transport, are
transport fresh water use and distribution lead to a wide range of water
environmental users, severe human
health
() The cost of maintenance of ocean highways is practically nil. and
conflicts over access,; competition between urban, rural,
Marine transport is developed among highly developed countries only.
Fonnege-wise, the north problems; and constraints on economic development" (Sharma P.D., 2011).
Atlantic and north Pacific routes are the busiest, the former
contributing one fourth of the world's total Availability of Water
trade and transport. The north western
European countries together contribute the maximum amount of the water 76,000
oceanic trade and transport. Traditionally, hydrologists
measure
or use. Assuming
Thefactors determine the trade routes (i) location scarcity by per-capita availability
of
are
: of surplus producing areas, (ii) configuration that the world's renewable fresh water supply is &
continents and access of major areas, (ii) the need for routes passing over
of routes touching islands and great circles, (iv) deviation relatively constant, the average
amount of water
35,000
peninsulas, (v) safety in navigation. about 43,000 cubic
available per person in 1850 was
Although oceanic navigation is exposed to less risks than land transport, it is beset with had dropped to 16,000
as storms,
fog, icebergs and submerged rocks. The bureau of Meteorology perils such maters per year. By 1990, this figure
provides relevant information year, simply because
cubic meters per
of the 6,500 4,700 3,400
to
safeguard ships against such risks, as location and number of 9,000
Maps and light houses provide the knowledge icebergs etc. with the help of radars. increase in global population.
of location of marine rocks.
At
There are great variations in current per capita
present, four major types of
1. Countries of different
regions are served by oceanic trade routes: water availability for each continent. (Fig. 5.3)
Oceania
economic levels, for example Britain cubic meters
imports wheat, exports manufactured goods and has the maximum availability (70,000
meat, cheese and foodstuff. Similar exchange of the average of Africa is under
manufactured goods is made between other
countries also.
agricultural products and per capita per year),
Asia is only 3400
2. Countries of 7000 m'/person/year, while that of
areas
different climate, which produce different types of items. For example, m/person/year. Even greater disparities
are noticed at Fig. 5.3: Per capita water availability by
export sugar, rubber, spices, palm oil, elc. to Europe and the tropical continent
lceland,
textiles, food grains etc. USA, and import the national or regional level. For example,
machinery.
 e
Water Resources 19
1,692
Zealand all getaa 1,330

Nonway. Canada,
and New
90 Water Scenario in India
year. Wniie 726
than 100,000 m'person
more
and the
Middie 526 Water Demand and Availability
in North Africa 476
Some countries year 244 More than 80%% of the available water in India is used for irrigation purpose5, while the
remaining
East have less than 100 m' person
in the per o is used in domestic, industry, energy, and other sectors. India, being a monsoon country. receives most of
also noticed
Disparities are its rainfall during a brief period (betwcen July and October). As such. large parts of the country lack
world. Nortn
use around the
Capita water surface water supply for a greater part of the year. Water demand increases drarmatically during summer
AImericans use nearly 1700 m'/person year.
while the average in Europe is
726 m'/person' period, particularly in the northern part of the country, where desert coolers consume much water 10r
cooling. Water requirements in urban areas are increasing at alarming rates. Excessive drawing of water
244 m person year
year, and in frica barely
A from underground sources has resulted in a fall of water table by over 10 meters in someareasin Delhi
limited phySical by continons
(Fig. 5.4). This reflects the waler use
and Fig 5.4: Percapila region, while it has gone down to 20 meters in Chennai and Chandigarh. In Haryana. Rajasthan, and
esources available, the large popula-tuon
poorly developed water supply systems. Gujarat also there is acute water shortage, where water table has been reported to be over 100 meters
of water the total per oapita water availaB deep. The ground water resources in diferent parts of India are depleting at alarningrate
Since the total amount ofavailability will reduce
is relatively fixed. the increasi
numbers ofpopulation Conversion of agricultural land to residential or commercial purposes reduces the open area available
of land,
Over time. are worth nothino for natural recharging of ground water during the rainy season. With the increasing urbanization
water "scarcity and water stress
(Table the availability of ground water is bound to reach at critical levels in near future.
he projections of United Nations on
5.1): Because of the increasing demand for water, water-related problems between states (Kaveri dispute
Pradesh. Krishna
water stresses, and water abunda
nt between Karnataka and Tamilnadu, Narmada dispute between Gujarat and Madhya
in water scarce,
1able 5.1: UN Projections of populations River dispute, etc.) and beteen countries (Ganga water dispute between India and Bangladesh.
and
than 80% of our water
regions (in millions) Indus water dispute between India and Pakistan) have emerged. Currently. more
for fresh water in the next 40 years are show
2000 2025 demand is for agriculture. Projected trends in the demand
1990 however, decrease to about 75% by the year 2050.
in Table 5.2. The demand for agriculture may.
Low UN Projections

Scarcity 132.4 276.5 652.7 Table 5.2:Water demand in India (km)

Stress 205.6 269.5 2007.8 Sector 2000 2025 2050

Abundance 4935.2 5520.6 4922.1 42 73 102

Domestic
Medium UN Projections 541 910 1072
Irrigation
63
Scarcity 132.4 281.1 945.1 Industry 22
Stress 273.2 2 15 130
205.6 2378.6 Energy
72 80
Abundance 4935.2 5588.8 5057.2 Other 41
Hign UN Projections 2000 2025 2050
Total
Scarcity 132.4 285.2 903..6
Stress to the increasing pressure on water the availability
205.6 277.1 Water is essential to any development process. Due
2590.8 all over the world. According to a UN study,
the availability of
Abundance and quality of water has caused concern
4935.2 5657.3 in India it is put at 2500
5459.7 the lowest for any continent;
fresh water in Asia is only 3400 m/person/year, annual per
Source: Population ActionInternational, Washington D.C. reach a state of water stress (with average
m/person/year. It is anticipitated that India may with poormanagement
Scarcity: Less than 1000 m/person/year availability. to 1000 m' or less) before 2010. Rapid population growth
capita availability falling
Stress: Less than 1667 has led to this situation.
m/person/year availability. while those of the Peninsular Plateau
Abundance More than 1667
:
m'/person/year availability. flowing through the Northern Plains are perennial, the
The rivers of
The table Most of the rivers become ribbon-like during dry period. Even the rivers
shows the populations are seasonal (rainfed).
canals have been constructed
2000 and 2025. It is observed that the living regions with water "scarcity" and water
in the as many dams, and diversion
the Northern Plains dry up during
summer

population facing water scarcity and "stress", in 1990, been achieved in various states of
population with abundance will decrease, stress will increase, while the on them. Irrigation potential
of ground water resources has not yet
continuously. India (Table 5.3).
 AMineral Resources

Geographyof Resourcer 173

metric
tonnes)
World
(in
the
Antimony
in Production % of the
172 P r o d t u c t i o n of total outpur
Annual
Couniry
Table
12.6:
e f the
Protwctin tovalo u t p 46 0.4
Cosmtry Peru 450 0.4

.00,000 42
USA
450 0.4 ,
0.3
G u a t e m a l a

Chins S,000
360
Seuth Afha
4500
Turkey
273 0.2
Mexico
Russi
150 0.1
2000 Kirghizstan
Tajikxtan 1,17,980 100.0
1.007
Bolivis 1,800
World

Austral

Commodity
Statistics,
2007.

II. N o n - F e r r o u s M e t a l s
COPPER
UN Industrial terms 'Conr
"Copper Age ORE
urre:

scovered. The
d i s c o v e r e d .
MAJOR MINES
much
before
iron
was
altuminium, lead, zine
tin. MINOR MINES
metals
were
in use

non-ferrous
metals
include
cOpper,
Fig. 12.6: Major copper producing areas in the world
Non-ferrous
The
the fact. aluminium.

testify
Brurze Age
is used largely as an
alloy
with
Table 12.7:Annual Production
of Copper Ore in the World (in "000 metric tonnes)
Magnesium 1. Copper Tew places,
aa few places, which could
copper in
a t i v e copper
native
w a s found
as n
found as
produced an alloy
calle Couniry Production % of the total
civilization.
copper
with tin
that
AlthouohZ Country Production % ofthe total
early phase ofconversion. Later it
fused
in the
was
to those of stone. Pper Chile 5360 35.5
electricali
superior
without that were

development of
Kazakhstan 459 3.0
be used directiy tools and
weapons
USA 1220
slowly. The
conductivity ofela
used for making demand grew very
8.1 Iran 249 1.6
Bronze was
desired metals,
its because
industry, ofits Peru 1049 6.9
was o n e
ofthe
most
growth ofcopper moderm
tacilitiesfor light, power Papua New Guinea 194 1.3
unprecedented role in China 915
aeroplanes, and sh 6.0
a basic
gave rise
to
However
and malleability.
Copper plays railroad equipment, in Australia 875
Argentina 180 .2
energy,
ductibility,
and radio, in
automobiles,

it is aisO
used for roofing, plumbino 5.8 Brazil 148 I.0
telegraph, ana in weapons. Indonesia 818
heat, in telephone, 5.4
other household appliances, Congo D.R. 131 0.9
refrigerators and items. Russia 675 4.5
and decorative as oxides and (in Mongolia 129
hardware, utensils,
jewellery, rocks, (1) ae
0.8
as native metal,
In
igneous Canada 607 4.0
in three forms: () to 5 percent), yet, 90% ofthe world'e Mexico 129 0.8
Copper occurs have little copper
content (
and oxides of connar
Zambia 503 3.3
sulphides. Although, sulphides
very
rockS contain sulphides Uzbekistan 103 0.7
Porphyries or Pyrites Poland 497 3.3
total outputis obtained as sulphides. the ore as mined
contains a high percentage of rock Bulgaria 99 0.7
veins, therefore,
Copper minerals occur mostly in World total 15100 100.0
material known as 'gangue.
bulky and expensive for long haulage.
Source British Geological Survey, 2008.
ores are too
Because ofthe low metallic
content, copper
the ore is reduced to 'blister
much
near mines. At the smelter,
Therefore, copper smelters must be located Copper Mining in South America
the metal must be 100% pure.
of metallic content. In electrical industries,
containing 98% or more Chile: Chile mines more than four-fifths of the South
methods. For these operations expensive America's copper ore and over 37%
Purification is accomplished in refineries by electrolytic world's total. It ranks second among the countries
having large reserves. Most of its
of the
cquipment and cheap electricity are needed.
four mines located on the western side of the Andes : output comes from
() Chuquicamata, which supplies more than half
of the Chilean output, (ii) El Teniente,
Geographical Distribution producing nearly a third of Chile's copper, (ii) El Salvador, and
Copper is quite widely distributed and is mined by nearly 40
countries. South America (39%), (iv) La-Africana.
North America (26%), Asia (14.5%), Europe (8%), Africa (6%) and Oceania (5%) contribute to the It may be noted that
Chuquicamata is the largest copper mine in the world. It is highly mechanised
global output. mine. The huge
porphyry ores averages nearly 2% copper. Huge machines mine and
transport the ore.
 Geography of Resourcey Mineral Resources
175
ertain marked
operation
presents

iadeoendent state) Kounrad and Dzhezkazgan. At Norilsk, in northern Siberia, copper is a by-product
in
are

the
mining of nickel ore, om which platinum metals are produced.
174
of2,800
metres

160 km
south a
ofSantiago in Africa
Copper Mining
clevation
Andes,

in the desert
at an rugged method. iHeavy snowfal
Located
metres
in the block
caving
Africa produces nearly 6% of the world's total copper. Zambia produces more than 58% of Africa's
handicaps. altitude
of2,400 by underground

1otal copper. South Africa (29%), Congo (former Zaire 6%), Botswana (3%), Morocco, Zimbabwe and
E-Teniente mine lies at an is
mined
opened in 1959, T h
ne
copper was

averaging nearly
2%
Namibia are the other producers.
Sulphideore,
Chuquicamata,

routes. south of
often block
transportation 480 km
(i) Cerro de asco
Pacs In Africa, the 480 km long belt extending from the northern
in the
Andes,
in tour
area : part of Zambia north west across Katarng
mine, high miles away located
bcha at more than nrovince of Congo Republic is the world's largest copper region. Copper exports are a large souroe o
located 30
E E S a l v a d o r

Mines are Morococh.

Potrerillos total. level, (i) income for these countries, In South Africa, the three major mínes are Messina, Nabadeep and Phalaborwa.
is smelted at side of Wester
world's
ore
about 7% copper
ofthe above the
sea
western
stern
metres
on
the c o m e s from
under
of4,400
produces metres

Copper Mining in Asiía

reru
alitude
at 4,260
Cordillera at an the production
ofthat mine
Casapalca Most of
n the central (ii) Peru. the copper mine. 14.5%
in western
Cordillera,
desert of
southern
which yields
80% o1 Asia produces of the world's total copper. Indonesia (5 1%), China (29%), Iran (8%). Turkey
Umetres in the
(4%6), Philippines (30), India (20), Malaysia and South Korea (1% each) are the major copper producers
Pasco
C o r d i l l e r a and (iv)
Toquepala Cerro de USA.
mine at and the
pit Europe
ground mines,
and one huge open to
western
of Asia in the descending order.
most of their output
Chile and Peru export
Mexico (13%) are
important c o n n a . Indonesia accounts for nearly 6% of the world's total and 51% of Asia's total copper output
North America and
China contributes 6% to the world total and 29% to Asian
in Canada (24%)
Copper Mining copper), output. Yunnan, Czechwan and Tangshan
ofthe
cotinent's
are the major copper producers of China.
The USA (63%
of the world. India accounts for barely 0.4% of the world's copper. Most of
producers producer and the world'e production comes from Jharkhand
is the second
leading copper and Rajasthan. Some copper of economic importance is mined in Andhra Pradesh.
during and after the
war
The USA world output, ,
about 8% ofthe net exporter,
USA was a International Trade
Accounting for World War II, the began decliníng
the world. Until on imports
c o n s u m e r in dependence
largest mid-1950's the
five states:Arizona,
Utah, Montana Zambia, Chile, Peru, Canada and Australia are the major exporters of copper. USA, UK,
t became a net
importer. Since
in the USA
comes from
mine at Bimingham. Germany, Japan and India are the major buyers.
Belgum,
Roughly, 90%
ofall the coppermined is the great open pit
mine in the country mine, Arizona contributes
Mexico. The largest copper Uiah has the largest 2. Bauxite and Aluminium
Nevada and New A lthough producer is the
the Oquirrh Range. distributed. The largest
Utah, on the eastern slopes of several deposits widely Aluminium is a highly useful metal in the modem world on accounts of its various
Arizona has Globe-Miami, and Eureka. properties lightness,
Hat, Azo, Bisbee, Ray,
half of the national output.
at Morenci,
others being at Old source of copper in the USA.
strength, electrical conductivity, and resístance to corrosion. The pure metal is compara-tively soft and
open pit mine third most important ductile, but when alloyed with other metals, it becomes as hard and strong as other structural steel.
Montana are the
zinc and manganese.
The great mines near Butte, alongwith lead,
Silicon, copper and nickel are the commercial alloys of aluminium. It is used in :
content average of
4 to 5 percent occurring (i) construction of
where copper
railroad equipment, freight containers, commercial truck bodies, ships,
from four districts construction of structural metals
aeroplanes, and automobiles;
Canada of which comes (i) for bridges and large buildings; (ii)
for about 4% of the world's copper,
most
contribute more than 80% of the foundry and metal working
Canada accounts
Ontario Quebecand industries, (iv) electrical and communication industries electrical conductors, high tension transmission
and Suskatchewan.
Ontario, Quebec, Manitoba, one in the country. It has large ore lines and towers, electrical coils, (v) consumers' items, such as furniture
district in Ontario is by far the leading utensils, refrigerators, air-
national output. The Sudbury metals and also iron. In conditioners, and other appliances, (vi) packaging items such as aluminium cans for citrus fruits etc.
of 1.46% nickel, 0.8% copper, some platinum
deposits containing an average have ores with 5% copper
and gold, silver, zinc and lead
western Quebec province, the Noranda mines Mode of Occurrence of Aluminium
as by-products
and exports the remainder to western Europe, Although aluminium is an abundant metal in nature, it never occurs as a native mineral. It is typically
Canada consumes about 40% of its copper output a component of
complex silicates. The only ore that yields aluminium readily at a reasonable cost is
USA and Japan. bauxite which is made up of one or more
hydrated aluminum oxide minerals formed most commonly by
Copper Mining in Europe weathering in a warm, moist climate. These minerals together with variable amounts of iron oxide and
by Poland is far silica are residual products left after
In Europe copper mining has been carried on for more than 2,000 years Spain.
in leaching of soluble compounds.
the leading copper producer accounting for more than halfof the continent's output. Portugal, Yugoslavia, Many of the bauxite deposits are located in tropical and sub-tropical regions and were formed
after its during the tertiary period. Economic content of bauxite is usually stated in percentage of aluminium
Bulgaria, Sweden, Spain, Mecedonia, Romania, etc. are the other producers. Former USSR,
at Oxide or alumina which
disintegration in (1991), has lost its position as a leading copper producer. The Ural Mountains area, may run from over 60 to near 50 percent. Since most main deposits occur at or
first the chief source of Soviet copper, has decreased in relative importance because of exhaustion or near the surface, bauxite can be mined by mechanised open pit methods. Cryolite is the other ore of
deposits. The most important copper mining areas in the vicinity of Lake Balkhash in Kazakhstan (on aluminium found in Greenland only.
 e r a l Resources
Geography of Resources 177
impurity, Removal of
Ro.
1. Austraia: Australia accounts for
nearly two-ffhs of the world 's and than 40% ot
world's proven rescrves or bauxite, of which three-fourths are near outputon
and
more
its moisture is separated f m the he
to
remove

in
alumina

ee the world's largest bauxite deposits 8 to 25 feet thick extend ovcr aWeipa, Cape York Peninsul.
16 value. It
is
desirable

The
a l u m i n u m

the
sources cheap lectricity,
of che
wide area. Other large deposits
bulky
and oflow the Baver
process
located
near
of lower grade occur in ncrtneastern New
South Wales and near Perth in western Australia.
by are
e s plants 2. India: India contributes 14% of the world's
ahumina

isolation ofithe redustion

silica and The output. Madhya Pradesh. Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand.

Ocissa, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Tamilnadu, and
method.
elevtrohtic
n oy (12%), North Gujarat coastal areas are the major producers ol
preferably water power
frica(16%),
Asia
hauxitc. Some bauxine Is contained in the
sub-Himalayan region of Janmu and Kashmir the laterite
America
(20°%), A onosits of the Eocene period, and in Belgaon in
Bauxite Mining Areas
South production.
de and Batabudan hills in Karnataka also.
(30%)
order of 3. Brazil: Brazil accounts for 12%%
Continent
wise,
Australia

rank in the
descending of the world's total output and more than half of Scuth America s.
Europe (3%) 4. China:China contributes over
( 6 ) and 10% to the world's tota.. Fiu nan. Guichou and Sichuan are the
main bauxe mining provinces.
5. Guinea :Guinea on the west coast
of Africa accounts for nearly 9% of the world's output Ghana
and Sierra Leone in western Airica are the other notable
6. Jamaica: Jamaica is by
producers.
of
far the leading bauxite producer in the western Hemisphere. contributing
nearly 7% the world's output. Jamaica has huge reserves of bauxite. with
masses
of ore lying in irregular basinrs in limestone,
averaging 25 feet in
British Guiana too are leadirg sources of high grade bauxite ore, with mcre thickness. Surinam
and
than 60% aluminum oxide.
7.Venezuela produces 3% of the world's total and more than
one-fifth of South America's.
Tajikistan, Turkey, Indonesia and Malaysia etc. are the other notable bauxite
Bauxite Mining in Europe
producers of Asia.
Greece produces inore than half of the continent's total. Hungary,
BAUXITE oroduce some ore. Russia contribuies 3% of Yugoslavia and France also
the world's total. It
MAJOR MINES
MINOR MINES after the disintegration of the former USSR in 1991. Easteri1 slopesceased to be a notable bauxite
of the Ural Mountains. Kola
producer
and Krasnoyarsk in Siberia are the major producers peninsula
in the world
mining a r e a s International Trade
Fig. 12.7:Majorbaixite
the World (in lakh metric tonnes) Jamaica, Surinam, Giiana, Australia, Guinea, Ghana, Brazil, India
and Indonesia
Table 12.8: Annual
Production of Bauxite in exporting couniries. are bauxite
Production % of the world
% ofthe world
Country Theimporting countries include, The USA, UK, Japan, Germany,
Country
Production
Norway, Sweden, Italy etc.
Surinam 53 2.5 Table 12.9 : Annual Production of Aluminium in the
624 29.3 World (in *000 metric tonnes)
Australiz Venezuela 50 2.3
300 14.0 Country
India 2.3 Production
Brazil 254 11.9 Kazakhstan 49 Country Production
22 1.0 Chira 12,900
216 10.1 Guyana South Africa S09
China 22 1.0 Russia 3.815
8.7 Greece lceland
Guinea 185 785
Sierra Leone Canada 3,030
160 7.5 Venezuela 610
Indonesia USA
Ghana 10 0.5 2,727
Jamaica 145 6.8
Australia
Mozambique 545
2.8 Turkey 8 0.4 1,943
Russia 60 Spain 408
World 2130 100.0 Brazil 1,536
-
Argentina 400
India 1,400
Source: British Geological Survey, 2008 Tajikisten 359
Norway 1, 130 Oman 351
At the national level, Australia (29%), India (14%), Brazil (12%), Guinea (I1%), China (10%), UAE 1,009 France 345
Indonesia (71.5%), Jamaica (7%), Russia and Venezuela (3% each), Kazakhstan and Surinam (2.7% Bal1rein 870
each), are the major producers ofbauxite in the descending order. Currently, bauxite is being minedin Netherland 300
Source: British Ceological Survey, 2010
some 26 countries.
 Ocography
phy of Resoe
ources e r g y Resources

221
Advantages of Hydro-clectrie

220
GAS FIELDS
Modvozny Urengoi he latter half of
the twentieth century, the importance of
OF US.S.R puringause of the following
consistently b e c
advantages it has other
hydro-electricity
of over
has Do"
means
energy
.austiIstible inexhaustibie
is an
URNta
OPunga
Vukly ter
resource,
resources energy. or
while coal.
petroleum, natural gas and atomic minerals ar
Water is a
renewable resource, while mineral 1uels cannot
ngra recycled or reused, t be

ater is a clean
resource, while coal, petroleum etc. pollute the
Porm
Coal and
petroleum are
bulky materials and involve atmosphere.
3.
the other
hand, has no weight. It is transmitted huge trans
ansport costs. Hydro-electricity, on

ctricity is easily transported by transmissionthrough

wires.
(uibystn1 Electr
wires from power plant to buildings
ShebeinAd
Orenourg
wires and plugs make possiDie tor machines to be connected with the energy supply by
which in

Cehe wrist. ElectriCity serves even the most difficult and flick a
Volgogrd
energy cannot reach. remotest areas, where other means
or
Rostov

Ferghana Flectricity generated by water has an unlimited degree of

rzny
ovices, such as transtormers. It js, therefore, divisibility by simple mechanical
more useful for
hich requires proper control of modern complex manufacturing
speeds in machines and heat in
Gas Extracion Areas
articularly useful in aluminium, fertilizers, furnaces. Hydro-electricity
1s

dro-electricity helps the decentralisation wood-pulp

Gazli
and
iron and steel industries.
G a s Reinng Centves
of industries. It
materials for industries are easily reach the areas where
can
/ Gas Ppelines available. Thus it helps greatly in the balanced
development of a country. regiona
USSR
Fig 13.19: Gas fields offormer Conditions for Generation of Hydro-electricity
re following physical and economic factors playa key role in the
Natural Gas in Asia indonesia (16.5%), Uzbekistan (10%1 inan area:
development of hydro-electricity
world's total output. an
produces nearly 21% ofthe
Asia China (5%), Qatar (4%), Pakistan (3 602
(9%), UAE (8%), are Physical Factors
(10%). Saudi Arabia (9%), Malaysia
tne major gas producers, in the descending
order.
Gradient of the stream largely determines the velocity of the stream.
Hydro-elecetricity The stream (river) should be perennial and should have a dependable amount of water in it. For
natural resOurce. Besides other uses in our dailu the maintenance of steady energy production.
Water is the most widely used and indispensable
subject to pronounced seasonal fluctuations in volume.
Unfortunately, however, most of the rivers are
lives, irrigation, industry and transportation, it is used for generating hydro-electric power, For centuries
man has harnessed the power of running water to in
help him his work. Until recently, he
knew only 1 There is an intimate relationship between river-regime and the climate,
the direct method of using it by having a rapidly moving stream turn a water wheel. A wheel was placed of an area. In regions with equable rainfall, the river
cover
topography and vegetation
regime shows less fluctuation than in
in a natural waterfall, where the water could drop directly on it. In some places small dams made regions with pronounced wet and dry seasons. Rivers that derives most of their water from
an artificial waterfall, ponded the water and equalized the flow. Water power used in this mountain glaciers are generally more dependable than the rain-fed rivers in low lands. Rivers
way played
a of
significant role in the development manufacturing in several parts of the world. its However, that flow through well-forested mountain regions have a more favourable
flowing through deforested mountain areas. The most favourable conditions regime
than those
application was limited by the necessity of building the mill directly on a stream, where the flow was
swift. for hydro-electric
development would be near a waterfall with a great height of fall, on a river with a large flow
Later, three major inventions gave a new dimension to the
development of water power and a very equable regime. Unfortunately, such conditions are
1. Turbine made it
possible to use much larger volumes of water and to increase greatly the height rarely encountered. Niagara
Falls on the US-Canadian border, approaches them with a great
and the pressure of the confined water column
upon the blades.
height of fall, a large flow, and
2. Dynamo made it
a fairly equable regime.
possible to convert the energy of the falling water into
3. Portland cement
enabled man to construct huge electricity. 4. In order to harness the energy of a stream and convert it
economically into power, it is necessary
dams, means of which by large rivers could be to stabilize the flow of water. This task is
impounded safely. accomplished by building a dam, so as to make a
As a result of such
inventions, hydro-electric power reservoir behind the dam in which a dependable quantity of water is maintained
source of energy in most has attained the siatus of the most year. The dam site is selected carefully.
throughout the
industrial countries. important
The above conditions are
usually available in the hilly, glaciated regions.
 nerky esnwces 223
Geography of Rexoure rising in the rainy tropical highlands Africs and with
rt regions and south-estern Africa many rapids also has s large
deser
have itle
potentisi hydro-prrwet
Nile
vast

ofhv
The

potentis
ial. Hydro-power Asia
in As
DenA
d e v e l o p m e n t

have great demand for.

the
for great
have aa Potentiz
advanced, with a vast extent of high
nass witha mountains and plateas However, it would b
p r e - r e q u i s i t e

landmass

advanced,
Economic Factors
is a ially SO0 km on only. Jarge
of
market

and
commercialy'
cost-elteciive uplo Asia
is
to Cxpe
a
larger proportion
of the world's potential hrydro-porwer in the continert becaue
Availability

areas,
industrially
iIs
the rivers,
setting
Wer ho. est Asia and Central Plateaus and
Asia
low
Such in rivers remain frozen for a long time precipitation northern Siberia wtere
power south-west

Such
investments;are
damiming
ppulated clovtnc
deseris in the
in
transmission
of involved
in c o n s u m p t i o n .

The i n v e s t m e n t s
are
to the
areas
of
born of
ve
low ar
spt ortions o f

cur iinn ssouth eastern parn, lands of

o u t h cas
during the year. Nearly all hydro-powet
rugged mountains and heavy
wines

Hugecapital
occur

through Asia

ectricgeneration,. precipitation and

i n d i v i d u a l s .

t r a n s m i t t i n g
electricity

only,
and not by
the
i n i r a s t r u c t u r e
for
hydro-elece
esources
in
rivers in t h e ountains and across central Siberia and
mountains to the south
by the
g o v e r m m e n t s

are
necessan'
for building
and skill
skill required
is required for the development of hydro large r
H y d
in Ame
r o
merica
- p o w e r

Mears oftransport technical

knowledge
Potential nsseSs about one four
about one fourth of the world's
of toa
a to prea t extent. Sweden possess
potential water power resources. In the
high degree hydel power Americas
4. A of
c The with rugged snow
capped mountains, relatively USA
have developed
development

the and oil and, as

abundant precipitation and
h e P a c i f i c c o a s t a l

eiectricity o r oil
encourages
shortage ofcoal ers possess about two fifths of the
absence ofcoal and Japan
have a
country's potential.
The Switzerland,
aratively hat similar condtions, possess nearly one fifth of the The Rocky mountain
Nonvay Italy,
with somewl

on a great
scale.
sta mbracing many rivers of the Appalachians:and part of the St. Lawrence country's
River also have eastern total. The
a little
hydel power
Hydro-Power total. In contrast, the central
It be fifth ofthe plains, despite the great
.
not
of
Potential
the world. may
Distribution
distributed
throughout
and the develoned k t
a
clea more
than
one
tenth. Alaska accounts for most of the remainder. Mississippi River. accou
Water power
resources
are unevenly
distribution of potential
hydro-power
ydro-power for only about

ntial
between the anada's potential power resources are almost as great as those of the
water
cut contrast appears Cana

ser resources: () The rugged snow-capped mountains USA. There are two
in the world. (Table 13.7) in the World (in mills bn major areas of in British Columbia and
and Developed
Water Power
p l a t e a u of southern
of On:
s o u t h e m Ontario and Quebec where continental (i) The
Table 13.7:
Distribution of Potential Laurentian
stream, wher
the flow ofstream, where precipitation is glaciation left many falls, rapids
horse power) and lakes
to regulate
comparatively heavy and evenly distributed
area is forested, and in the Niagara and St.
Developed % of the much o f the Lawrence Rivers.
% of the and
where

Potential
Continen
total total
In
America, nearly half of
the total potential lies in Brazil, most of it not
0.6 0.6
Souhas a slight gradient throughout most of its course, but from rivers the mighty
that drain the eastern
on

41.4
Africa 272
13.7
Ama where heavy rains and
steeper siopes are combined. Most of the rest of
23.0 13.6 South America's
Asia 151 lies in the Andean countries.
37 13.2 41.1 40.8 potential power
North America of
Europe 69 10.5 40.8 40.5 Potential Hydro-power Europe
55 8.4 3.1 3.1 Ossesses about one-tenth ot the world's
South America potential water power. The steep gradients of the
3.5 1.4 4
23 and mountains,
especlaiuy factors in and weaen, France, ltaly and Switzerland, and moderately
recinitation are the chiefNorway
Oceania hills
World Total 657 100.0 100.7 100.0 localizing potential hydro-power. Falls and glacial lakes in
northern Europe are also important for a high potential.
Source: US Geological Survey

Potential Hydro-power in Oceania

The total potential hydro-power ofAsia world estimated at about 657 million horse power, of
theand is
which about 15% is developed. Africa,
the former USSR possess nearly 70% of the estimated Australia's limited hydro-power is located chiefly in the southeast and in Tasmania,
potential power of the world. topography and moderate precipitation. New Zealand, with fairly heavy
regions of rugged
precipitation and mountainous
Potential Hydro-power in Africa landscape, has more than three times higher potential hydro-power than Australia's.
Africa possesses about two-fifths Hydro-electric Power Generation
(40%) of the world's total potential
lie within 15 degrees of the equator, where heavy hydro-power.fall on land that is
water power resources Most ofAfrica's
more than 300 metres above the sea level. precipitation The world as a whole
produces 26,430 billion kilowatt hours
(27.5%), North America (26.4%), Asia (22.8%), South America hydro-electricity
The Congo river has the per year. Europe
world. Uniformity of flow is favoured by the abundance of forestgreatest hydro-power potential in the (19.1%), Africa (2.6%) and Oceania
tributaries pouring into the main and marsh and several (1.6%) ranked in the descending order of
stream. The Zambezi and its
tributaries
rain-1ieia are
production in the world. (Table 10.8)
another provide large potential.
 224 Hydro-electricity
in the
World Cin billic kw/hour esource E n e r y R e s o u r c e s

225
Production
of Production The Appalachians: TheAppalachi
Country om
Table 13.S:Annual ofthe of the
7.
ortant water power
e. Abundant raintall, region.
he Pennsylvania:southward
maximum development has to Alabama constitute another
Production

total outpu 1otal outpu T e n n e s s e e .

and a relatively dense mountainous terrains, occured in North Carolina and

Countr Italy 38
graity in this region. Ine lennessee population are idealnumerous
umerous streams of large
large volume with steep
conditions for the develop
15.6 12 eloprment of hydro
496
Austria 38 elec 1933. Under this scheme several Valley Authority setup a multi-purpose ject in this
China
374
118 Switzerland 36 1.2 re electricitysidegenerated small dams have been proj
set up across the Tennessee river.
Brazil 11.6 35 of the
nere is supplied to textile mills and
and for dor tne
368 Turkey On theeastern Ap domestic and transport
Canada S.7 sites. The Fal.
sites. ns, the Piedmos purpos
TrPian of the Atlantic sea board has
.
275 Chile 32 numerousS power Fall-line Zone
USA 5.6 I.0 Columbia,
to Columbia, South Carolin extends from
from Trenton. (New Jersey), via Baltimore
30 Richmond Carolina and
178 Spain Georgia. Hydro-electricity ano
Russia
135
4.2
Argentina 30 0.9
3,
The Interior Plains:This
region receives less than 75 cm of is used use here in textile mills
ior Plains : This region
Norway 3.8 29 0.9 lume during tne
ary period, are subject to
but annual rainfall. The streams have
120 Vietnam e d by the Missouri Kiver occasional
India
84
2.6
Pakistan 28
0.8 and its
Under a comprenensIve programme to develo
tributaries, some of which risefloods. Much of the area 1
in the Rocky Mountains.
Japan 2.6 0.8
Venezuela
83
2.1
Germany 28 dams were constructed on the
e constructed
the Missouri
MISsouri river Th 5uri River Basin in 1946 a number of large
river. The major dams are: Fort Peck, Garrison, Oahe,
66 27
0.8 Bear, For Randall, and Gavins Port.
Sweden Mexico Big
2.0 0.8 rth Western
France
63
I.4
World 3175
100.00 4. region:
A The western slopes ot
Ihis region offers the greatest potential water
14 the high cascades receive power resources
Colombia
rains and winter snows. The or tne
Energy Statistics
Yearbook, New York, 2008 oulee and the Bonneville projects
along the Columbiaheavyriver Grandin
Source: U.N.
ehis region. There
arenyaro-eleric provide half of the
plantsthein the Columbia basin. The absence of coalhydro-power
Generation in North America his section of the country enhances and petroleum
Hydro-power
Anglo-America is outstanding in the generation
and consumption of hydro-electricis
tricity. California region: The slopes ot the Sierraimportance of
hydro-power resources.
Nevadas receive
The tributaries of the Sacramento and San heavy precipitation and winter snows.
Canada great power potential.
Joaquin rivers aresmall but swift and, hence
world's total and 48% North America's total hvdro.al
of provide
Canada accounts for 12.6% ofthe lorado Basin The Colorado river flows
In fact, hydro-power accounts for about
60 percent ofthe country's total electricity fromall crcCity, through one of the most arid
has more favourable conditions than
southeastern and western Canada for the devel
s. No hit melting snows
in sections of the country,
the Kocky mountains and the higher parts of the Colorado
othercountry
and Ontario supply nearly four-fifths of the co undant water. The Coolidge
abune and Roosevelt
dams on the tributaries of the Plateau furnish
of hydro-electricity. The rivers ofsouthern Quebec
hydro-electricity. Lack ofcoal and oil in these regions favour an enormous production of hydro-electrici nawer to the region. The Hoover Dam on the Colorado river is one Colorado provide hydro
British Columbia's production most of the remainder. lectricity. wer projects in the world. The Glen Canyon Dam on the of the largest
irrigation and
nroiects Colorado and three other
roje on its tributaries have doubled the
installed capacity of the multipurpose
USA Colorado basin.
Hydro-power Generation in Europe
The USA produces nearly the same amount of hydro-clectricity as in Canada. Water power ht
been in use for a long time in the USA, especially in New England, middle Atlantic States, and the production and consumption of mechanical energy, Europe ranks second after
In the
Southern generation of hydro-electricity of the world. Large scale
first in the America, but
Appalachians. During colonial times, water power played an important role in t
industrialization, especially in New England region, a glaciated area where lakes and old lake basins, has happened primarily since World War 1. The great expansion of development of hydroelectric power
small falls and rapids were numerous and where rivers and small rivers had and the tremendous reconstruction
industry between the two world wars
favourable regimes. Most following World War II were responsible for the
towns had their own
gritmills and saw mills driven by direct water power. The principal hydro-electricity hydro-electricity in Europe. development of
regions of the USA are the following: Russia, Norway, Sweden, France, Italy, Austria,
1. New England region: This region extends from Maine to Minnesota. The are ranked in the descending order of
Switzerland, Spain, Germany, Ukraine, Portugal
etc.
excellent region endowed with is hydro-electric generation in Europe.
geographical
conditions in the form of numerous streams and
lakes and nearness to (Erstwhile) USSR
population centres. The maximum development has occured at the
Lawrence river and the tributaries from the Niagara Falls, though the St. The water power potential of the erstwhile USSR was
Adirondacks also offer many favourable sites for estimated at 375 million horse power, or
electric development. A number of hydro- more than three times the potential of the USA. About four
between Buffalo and Niagara falls to major hydro-electric developments are located in the region fifths of this was located in the Asiatic part
the west, and the Hudson of the country.
in Minneapolis is another river to the east. St. Anthony Falls
developed site. The Tzarist Russia made
very little use of the exceptionally large water resources. Extensive
utilization of water power began
during the very first year of Soviet power. Towards the beginning otf the
 Geography of Reso. Energy Kesources

Station ( s
kw esources 227

capaci
the ty) w
Power

ed
Hydro-electric

were devel
Volkhov
station
at
. P e d at for
226 more than 1S% of the

tirst tive
year
plan
period
(1928)
and
the
Third
plans period,
( M u r m a n s k
pover
region).
The Lenin
in
and
Dnielecepor Chiina accounts
inent, although, h
world's
Chinthough, hydr0-eiectric power comprises abouttotal17%hydro-power, and more than 34% O
of the total electricity
Niva
produced n
Second

nrincipal centres ot nyaro-power development in China

c o m m i s s i o n e d

the and was

Tuloma kW Patriotia
During 1akh
Svir, the Great

941-45), the hydel station

: () Fangmen
the largest.
5.58
are on

Rion, Kanaker
(Armenia),
capacity
of
rivers.
After

Mingech
u n t r y .

iver, (ii) Sanmen dan the

on Hwang Ho, (ii) Liukia, (iv) Kuantíng the
Station
with an
e n o r m o u s

Volga,
Kama,
and
Dnieper V e r k h n e - S v i r ,

S t a t i o n (2.3
millio kw ca
ush
Gorky
the
sunga(Shilsetan in the Zechwan
nearBeijing, (v. MungtingChina,
province, (vi) Shangyu the Liuchi river outhern
on
rive on
in
(viii) Anhweidas
Power

sou
S i m l y a n s k a y a ,

at the (VII) Anhwei dam, and (ix)

launched c o n s t r u c t i o n
of
1957, the Lenin
volga HP and
capacity), and the Bratsk Bratsk (a
(4 million kw a Sinan
dam,
Sikiang dam.
were
launched
l957,
the (vii)
Soviet
Union
etc. In kw
capacity),
un
Farkhad, million were set at
Kakhovka.
Volga (2.5
stations
lovsk
(on th hydro-power
power
Kama,
and in 1961,
the other
och comprises only 10%
of the total
importance tor the country which lacks in mechanical energy produced in the couniry.
year,
) , Irk Altho
U s t - K a m e n o g o r s k

same
the
Obe),
these, Se
commissioned,

During
(on the these. several me k (on most

o of its potential hyar0-power because of several coal and oil. Japan has been able to develop
operation. Besides
of
were put
into
(on the
Niemen),
Novosibirsk

Dubossary (on
the
Dniester).
dium Sized it is

Ufa),.
Kaunas
Narva, and Soviet
Union.
nearly physical and economic factors. Mountainous
abundant precipitaon ana the need for industrial
Ata,
of hydro-power in the country. Honshu has as power have been the push factors the
brackas
the Angora), Alamabuilt in all republics of the high
percentage
(given in of electricity topogrant of
development
in
also a very
Stations
were

water power
supplies
LUNembOurg
(99.1%), Ireland eland (89.5%), Latvia islands have 500.
many as 1000 hydel
stations and otner
noted that (99.0),
It may be Norway
eg :
In some
countries of Europe, India
(77.5%), Switzerland (55.0%).
4ia. hydro-power
among the European countrie
European countries in deval. In iatal potential hascomprises nearly 17% of the total electricity produced in the country.
been developed so far. Oniy
Norway
first among
ranks first
eloped 20% Oal character of rainfall. Hydro-electric The major handicap in developing
generation has steadily increasing underhydro-power
Norway is
Russian Federation,
is favoured by.
Development Winter
Excluding and per capita consumption. This provides al the seiaus multi the
Five yea
hydro-electric powergeneration snowfall on
interior uplands. the year run off purpose projects such as the Bhakra Nangal, Damodar valley, Hirakud, Rihand,
and by heavy been a plan nave DEen set up in the country
climate along the west coast ofhydro-electricity major economic Chambal, etc.
Low cost production
Via streams with steep gradients. lro-power generation was started in the country as early as 1902 at Shivasamudram in
for Norway
industrialization.
ver in Asia. The major hydel scemes are (i) Tata Karnataka,
asset
the iin Shivasamudram, Shimsa, Shravani, Tungabhadra hydel scheme in Maharashtra, (ii) Koyna
Sweden Sweden has extensive potentialities in Karnataka, (iv) Pykara, Mettur,
Europe in the developed
water power. Ma Pa5am, Periyar, Kunda, Mayor in 1amilnadu, (v) Pallivasal, Sengulam,
It ranks second in natural reservoirs to regulate flow. Industrial mareo Chalkudi, Sabarigiri, Idukki,
steams are interrupted by lakes which
serve as
in central and northern Sweden during la r d elc. in Kerala, (vi) Tungabhadra, Nijam Sagar, Nagarjuna Sagar, Srisailam, Sileru, Machkund
at hand. The only handicap is the heavy
ice formation long in Andhra Prades, (vin) Hirakund in Orissa, (vii) Damodar Valley Project in Jharkhand
near
and West
winters. (ix) Kosi Project in Bihar, r) Chambal Project in Rajasthan and
France
anoal Project in Haryana and Punjab, (ri) Ganga Grid, Pathari, ShardaMadhya Pradesh, (ri) Bhakra
Project, Rihand, Matatila,
Small developments are widely distributed.
The principal areas of development are in the Alps Vamuna Project, Ramganga project etc. in Uttar Pradesh, and (rii) small hydel stations in Himachal
well watered central Plateau. The lack of coal resoure Pradesh, Nagaland, Arunachal Pradesh Jammu and Kashmir, and Manipur.
Pyrenees and along the streams that rise in the
in the southern parts of the country and the widespread availability of potential water are the factos
which have led to this regional development. Hydro-power Generation in South America
South America accounts for nearly one-fifth of the world's hydro-power.
Although most of the
Italy Latin American countries have hydro-electric plants, less than 4% has been developed so far. It is
In Italy, the absence of coal resources has served as an incentive for the development of water significant
to note that more than three fourths (77.6%) of the total mechanical
power. Part of the country is mountainous and receives considerable precipitation, especially the Alps
energy produced in the continent
comes from hydro-power.
The principal water power sites in Italy are found in the mountains around
and the northern Appennines.
densely populated and industrialized Po Valley. Brazil
Of the total electricity produced in the continent, Brazil claims more than
Switzerland
coal and oil, the need for industrialization and a
half (57.6%). Shortage of
In Switzerland, shortage of coal and oil has been largely responsible for the
huge population have been favourable economic factors
power, which accounts for
development of hydro in the development of
hydro-power in Brazil.
more than 55% of the total mechanical energy of the country. Columbia, Chile, Peru and Argentina are the other significant producers.
Hydro-power Generation in Asia
Hydro-electricity comprises nearly 23% of the total electricity
Hydro Power Generation in Africa
Turkey and Korea have made great strides in the produced in Asia. China,
Japa
development of hydro-power. Aftica with the largest potential hydro-power in the world, has developed only 0.6% and contributes
ggible (2.3%) to the world's total output. The low economic development of the continent is solely
 228 Geography of Resurce
uneconomic in most African countries. Mora
responsible for the small output. Large plants are
fifths of the developed hydro-power occurs in northern Africa, an area of smiall poter"ial and
coal resources. Algeria., Morocco and Egypt have the bulk of installed capacity. Nearly all the rer
of the developed water power is in central Africa, half of it in the Katanga province of the
Republic. The region lies far inland, has several excellent power sites, and has a copper and re
mineral industries. Central African countries produce water power from small plants. Uganda and K
are increasing their use of hydro-power at Owen Falls in Uganda. The large Kariba Dam on the Z2
river was completed in 1960. Aswan Dam in Egypt is an ambitious project. Other projects include thre
of Ethiopia. Cameroun, Guinea, Congo Dam. Republic, Angola, Mozambique, Ghana, etec.
tss

Hydro Power Generation in Oceania

Oceania contributes less than 2% to theworld's total hydro-power. In New Zealand, with litle c
and no petroleum, water power comprises nearly 90% of the total electricity North Island, with the bu
of the popuation and chief industries. has two thirds ofthe developed power.
In Australia, water supplies about one fifth of the electricity, produced largely in the south eastar
part and in asmania. Competition from coal and physical handicaps, mainly aridity have been majir
impedimenns in water power development in the continent.

Atomic (Nuclear) Energy

Nuclear energy is the energy contained within the nucleus of the atom. The constituents of the
nucleus protons and neutrons -are held together by an attractive force, called the binding force. The
strengh of the bindíng force varies from atom to atom. If the force is weak enough, the atom will spli
or undergo fission', when bombarded by a free neutron. As the atom splits, it produces smaller atoms.
more free neutrons, and heat. The release of particles initiates a chain reaction as the free neutrons strike
other nearby atoms, which also split.
Nuclear reactors are designed to sustain the fissioning proces. Uranium-235, is the fuel that powers
a nuclear reactor. U-238, an isotope that does not fission easily, is the common form.
The of one Uranium atom releases a tremendous amount of energy which is 50
fissioning
tines more that the combustion of a
millin
single carbon atom. Three reactor pellets generate approximaiety
the same amount of electricity as 3.5 tonnes
ofcoal or 12 barrels of oil, both carbon based fuels. Nucear
is
energy produced by two methods: (1) fission or splitting of the atom, and (i) fusion or
atons. Thus far, combining0
U, is the most efficient and the most practical fissionable element, and thereiores
from which it is derived, constitutes the
uraniurn,
19r Various
key substance for the development of nuclear enc
purposes. Most popular interest has been aroused the
by
wcapons. The potential destructiveness of suddenly released explosion of bombs the and
nuclear energy has been recogi
SJICe the
first bomb was
exploded at Alamogordo in New Mexico in 1945. The terrible eftectivene of
CploS10n;
development of nu demonstrated in warfare shortly thereafter, Since then, the mad race io
was