Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Bachelor of Technology
In
Chemical Engineering
By
SUSHMITA SHARMA (091431)
VINAY JAISWAL (091434)
i
JAYPEE UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
A.B. ROAD, P.B. No. 1, RAGHOGARH, DIST. GUNA (M.P.) INDIA
Phone: -7544 267051, 267310 – 14, Fax : 07544267011
Signature of Guide
Dr. K. N. Gupta
Sr.Lecturer
Department of Chemical Engineering
Place: Guna
Date
ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We wish to express deep sense of gratitude and sincere thanks to our project supervisor Dr.
K.N.Gupta – Assistant Professor, Department of Chemical Engineering & Chemical
Technology for his valuable guidance, encouragement, suggestions, and moral support
throughout the period of this project work.
We express our thanks to Professor N. J. Rao – Vice Chancellor of Jaypee University for his
valuable suggestions. We would like to thank Professor K. K. Tiwari, who is associated with
JUET after his retirement from ICT Mumbai for his guidance and suggestions during this
project work.
We would like to thank Dr. G. K. Agrawal for his suggestions during this work. Our special
thank to Dr. Hari Mahalingam –Head of Chemical Engineering Department for providing all
the necessary facilities to complete this work.
We would like to thank Dr. B.K.Nandi, Dr. K.N.Gupta, Dr. Rajkumar Arya and other faculty
members as well, of Chemical Engineering Department for their support during this
work..We would also like to extend our thanks to Library staff for their continuous support
and all theinformation providers on the internet.
Finally we would like to thank our batch mates and family for the motivation and support
they haveprovided us.
Signature of students
Name of Students Sushmita Sharma Vinay Jaiswal
Date
iii
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
The project deals with the production of Acetaldehyde. It is an organic compound with the
chemical formula CH3CHO.Acetaldehyde is a colorless, mobile liquid having a pungent
suffocating odor that is somewhat fruity and pleasant in dilute concentrations The process
technologies used for the production of Acetaldehyde is given below.
Process technologies:
Oxidation of ethylene
Oxidation of ethyl alcohol
Hydration of Acetylene
From saturated hydrocarbon
The economics of the various processes for the manufacture of acetaldehyde are strongly
dependent on the price of the feedstock used. Since 1960, the liquid-phase oxidation of
ethylene has been the process of choice. However, there is still commercial production by
the partial oxidation of ethyl alcohol, dehydrogenation of ethyl alcohol and the hydration
of acetylene. Acetaldehyde is also formed as a co product with ethyl alcohol and acetic
acid.
Process selected
Oxidation of Ethylene is selected for the production of acetaldehyde because currently, the
Wacker-Hoechst process accounts for 85 % of the worldwide production capacity for
acetaldehyde. Acetaldehyde yield almost equal (about 95%).Lower investment costs in the
single stageprocess, because of the need of only one reactor with conversion per pass: 35 -
45%
This method is technically simple, smooth in reaction, and high in selectivity. The favorable
economics of the process are due to the abundance of ethylene. It is regarded as the most
economic industrial process route, and has been widely used in many countries
Process Discription
There are two variations for the production of acetaldehyde by the oxidation of ethylene; the
two – stage process developed by Wacker – Chemie and the one – stage process developed
by Farbwerke Hoechst.
iv
chloride and chloroacetaldehydes) is cooled in a condenser to about 80° to 130° C., about.
The condensate formed thereby substantially consisting of water, small amounts of
acetaldehyde and acetic acid is generally recycled to the reactor. Small amounts of copper
oxalate and high molecular byproducts likewise formed remain persistent in the catalyst
solution whereas the volatile by-products in conjunction with the acetaldehyde and the
unreacted starting compounds leave the reactor. In order to avoid an accumulation of these
by-products a small amount of the liquid phase is withdrawn continuously from the reactor.
Next, this portion is released from pressure, whereby the dissolved low-boiling compounds
such as acetaldehyde, ethylene and carbon dioxide flash and are removed. The degassed
solution is conveyed to a regeneration vessel, where it is heated to a temperature from about
165° to 180° C.,. The regenerated solution is recycled to the reactor. The gas current leaving
the reactor, after having been cooled in the condenser, is generally cooled further to about 30°
to 80° C., in heat exchangers. Next, the acetaldehyde is washed out from the gas current in a
scrubber. The residual gas mainly consisting of ethylene, oxygen, carbon dioxide and inert
gas is recycled to the reactor, after having removed part of this gas (in order to avoid an
accumulation of carbon dioxide and inert gas) and after having added fresh ethylene. The
condensate formed in the heat exchangers and the aqueous acetaldehyde solution formed in
the scrubberare combined in a collecting vessel. This mixture designated as "crude aldehyde"
is conveyed to a two-stage distillation process. In this process the low-boiling compounds
(methyl chloride, ethyl chloride), and the dissolved gases such as ethylene and carbon dioxide
are obtained as the overhead in a first step by extractive distillation using water as an
extraction agent. The bottom product is passed to the second distillation step, where pure
acetaldehyde is obtained as the overhead product. A fraction containing mainly
crotonaldehyde is withdrawn as a sidestream. The high-boiling by-products (in particular
acetic acid and chloroacetaldehydes) and the water are withdrawn from the bottom. The
removed mixture is designated as "waste water".
v
INDEX
CONTENTS
Title page---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------i
Certificate-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ii
Acknowledgment-------------------------------------- -------------------------------------------------iii
Executive Summary------------------------------------------------------------------------------------iv
1.1-History of acetaldehyde-----------------------------------------------------------------------------1
1.2-Natural occurrence-------------------------- --------------------------------------------------------2
CHAPTER 2: APPLICATIONS------------------------------------------------------------------------3
2.1-Traditional Applications-----------------------------------------------------------------------------3
2.2-Current Applications---------------------------------------------------------------------------------3
2.3-Acetaldehyde Grades--------------------------------------------------------------------------------3
CHAPTER 3: ECONOMIC SCENARIO----------------------------------------------------------4-7
CHAPTER 4: PROPERTIES------------------------------------------------------------------------8-13
4.11-Physical properties----------------------------------------------------------------------------------8
4.2-Chemical properties------------------------------------------------------------------------------9-10
4.3-Environmental effects-----------------------------------------------------------------------------11
4.4-Health effects--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------12
4.5-Acute /fatal effects---------------------------------------------------------------------------------13
CHAPTER 5: MANUFACTURING PROCESSES -------------------------------------------14-20
vi
7.3 Control strategy ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------38-39
9.1.1Cost of Reactor-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------53
9.1.2Cost of Absorber-------------------------------------------------------------------------------53-54
9.1.3 Cost of Distillation Column I-------------------------------------------------------------------54
9.1.4Cost of Distillation Column II------------------------------------------------------------------54
9.1.5 Cost of ethylene storage vessel-----------------------------------------------------------------55
9.1.6Cost of heat exchanger----------------------------------------------------------------------------55
9.2 Estimation of Capital Investment-------------------------------------------------------------55-56
9.2.1Estimation of Total Product Cost------------------------------------------------------------56-57
9.2.2 Direct Production cost----------------------------------------------------------------------------57
9.2.3 Plant overhead cost-----------------------------------------------------------------------------58
9.2.4 General Expenses-----------------------------------------------------------------------------58-59
9.2.5 Gross Earning Income---------------------------------------------------------------------------59
vii
CHAPTER-1
HISTORICAL PROFILE
1.1-History of acetaldehyde:
Ethanal is one of the oldest known aldehydes and was first made in 1774 by Swedish chemist
Carl Wilhelm Scheele by the action of manganese dioxide and sulfuric acid on ethanol.
Its structure was not completely understood until 60 years later, when Justus von Liebig
determined the constitution of ethanal, described its preparation from ethanol, and gave the name
of aldehydes to the chemical group. The formation of acetaldehyde by the addition of water to
acetylene was observed by Kutscherow in 1881.
Acetaldehyde was first used extensively during World War I as an intermediate for making
acetone from acetic acid. Ethanal (acetaldehyde) is the name of the shortest carbon chain
aldehyde. It has a central carbon atom that has a double bond to an oxygen atom (the carbonyl
group), a single bond to a hydrogen atom, and a single bond to another carbon atom connected to
three hydrogen atoms (methyl group). Its chemical formula is written as CH3CHO. [1]
Acetaldehyde
1.2-Natural occurrence:
Acetaldehyde is listed as an approved food additive and is used to enhance citrus flavours,
helping to create natural, fruity tastes and fragrances. As a flavour ingredient, it can be found in
ice creams, sweets, baked goods, chocolates, rum, and wine.
1
In nature acetaldehyde is found in oak and tobacco leaves, in the fruity aromas of apple,
raspberry, strawberry, pear and pineapple. It is also found in the distillation waters of orris,
cumin, chenopodium, essential oils of Magnolia grandijlora, rosemary, clary sage, daffodil, bitter
orange, camphor angelica, fennel mustard, whiskey, rose wine and rum.
2
CHAPTER- 2
APPLICATIONS
2.1-Traditional application:
Traditionally, acetaldehyde was mainly used as a precursor to acetic acid. This application has
declined because acetic acid is made more efficiently from methanol by the Monsanto and Cativa
processes. In terms of condensation reactions, acetaldehyde is an important precursor to pyridine
derivatives, pentaerythritol, and crotonaldehyde. Urea and acetaldehyde combine to give a useful
resin. Acetic anhydride reacts with acetaldehyde to give ethylidene diacetate, a precursor to vinyl
acetate, which is used to produce polyvinyl acetate.
2.2-Current application:
3
CHAPTER 3
ECONOMIC SCENARIO
Figure shows that China consumed 30% , Europe and Japan 20% each and Indian and rest of
world 15% a piece of the total acetaldehyde produced in year 2009.
4
Consumption in China is expected to grow over 5% annually in the next five years.
Acetaldehyde use for acetic acid production will increase, although this will be more of a
recovery back to the pre-2009 level. Actual growth might be limited because of acetic acid
production from the methanol carbonylation process. Strong growth of over 6% annually will
actually occur in pyridine production and there will be moderate growth for use in
pentaerythritol, as alkyd resin enamel and varnish production goes up. Other uses are generally
mature, such as sorbic acid production.
Indian consumption is anticipated to have moderate growth of over 3% annually in the next
several years. Acetaldehyde demand for acetic acid production will grow 3–4% per year, while
consumption for pyridines is expected to return to the 2008 level. Other uses for acetaldehyde
will also increase 3–4% annually.
Overall, the global market for acetaldehyde is expected to grow 2–3% annually during 2009–
2014. However, some of this growth is actually a recovery from the significant decline
experienced in 2009 (for example, China's use in the acetic acid market). Major regions
including Japan, Western Europe and the United States will have low growth because of no use
or no growth for acetic acid production, minimal growth in other acetaldehyde-consuming
products, or continued product replacement of materials that consume acetaldehyde. [5]
With acetic acid manufacturing processes migrating from acetaldehyde based production
techniques towards carbonylation-of-methanol, the world acetaldehyde market is projected to
witness a steady deterioration in consumption. Global consumption of acetaldehyde is projected
to average to 1.26 million tons by the year 2012. Exacerbating the decline in demand and
consumption is the lack of new high-volume applications of acetaldehyde, and closures of acetic-
acid-from-acetaldehyde operations across the world.
The downturn in the acetic acid industry, the largest end-use market for acetaldehyde, coupled
with the phasing out of acetic acid production from acetaldehyde, is expected to result in huge
declines in consumption. In North America, acetic acid manufacturers have shut down their
operations, while in Europe; significant reductions in capacities are underway. Scaling back of
production activities is expected in Latin America and Asia Pacific in the upcoming years.
Presently however, Asia-Pacific represents the largest market for acetaldehyde with growth
stemming from the use of acetaldehyde in producing synthetic pyridines, pentaerythritol,
glyoxal/glyoxalin acid, penta-erithryte, and crotonaldehyde. Within Asia, China has emerged
into the largest consumer of acetaldehyde in the world, with the country representing the only
market where new acetaldehyde capacity installations have occurred in the recent past.
5
As stated by the recent report published by Global IndustryAnalysts, Inc., world acetaldehyde
market is dominated by Asia-Pacific, and Europe, with a combined share of 68.4% estimated in
the year 2008.
World consumption of acetaldehyde in acetane hydride end-use market, and acetic ether end-use
markets, is projected to decline by 2%, and 1.3% respectively during the period 2001 to 2010.
Positive growth is expected to stem from 1,3 butanediol end-use market , with world
consumption slated to rise of 2.7% during the period 2011 to 2015. In Asia-Pacific, consumption
of acetaldehyde in crotonaldehyde end-use market is projected to grow in excess of 3.7% over
the period 2011 through 2015.
In Europe, Germany ranks as the largest market for acetaldehyde with a 30.9% share estimated
in the year 2008, followed by France, United Kingdom and Italy. [6]
Table-3.1-Important producers and their production capacities (103 t) are listed in the
following [7]
3.3-Manufacturers
Acetaldehyde is produced by 3 companies in Germany, 2 companies in Spain & 1 company each
in France, Italy, & Switzerland. Total acetaldehyde production in western Europe on January 1,
1983 was more than 0.5 million tons, & production capacity is estimated to have been nearly 1
million tons. Most of this was based on the catalytic oxidation of ethylene; less than 10% was
based on partial oxidation of ethanol, & a very small percentage was based on the hydration of
acetylene. ... /It/ is produced (by oxidation of ethylene) by 7 companies in Japan. Their combined
production is est to have been 278,000 tons in 1982, down from an est 323,000 tons in 1981.
Japanese imports & exports of acetaldehyde are negligible.
PRODUCT CAPACITY
COMPANY NAME
(TPA)
Ashok Organic Inds. Ltd. Ankleshwar Gujarat Acetaldehyde 3600
Unit-II.
King Chemicals Ltd. Madras Acetaldehyde 6000
Trichy Distilleries & Chemicals Ltd., Trichy. Acetaldehyde 6000
Ashok Organic Inds. Ltd., Ankleshwar, Gujarat Acetaldehyde 5400
Unit-III.
6
Ashok Organics India Ltd. Ankleshwar, Unit-I. Acetaldehyde 2400
Cellulose Products of India Ltd., Ankleshwar. Acetaldehyde 3000
EID Parry (India) Ltd. Madras. Acetaldehyde 9000
Gujchem Distillers Ltd. Ankleshwar, Gujarat. Acetaldehyde 3000
Indian Drugs & Pharmaceuticals Ltd., Muzafarpur, Acetaldehyde 7500
Bihar.
Indian Organics Ltd. Khopoli (M.S.) Acetaldehyde 3000
Industrial Organics Ltd. Ludhiana. Acetaldehyde 3600
Kapchem Ltd. Bangalore. Acetaldehyde 3500
Laxmi Organic Industries Ltd., Maharashtra. Acetaldehyde 4800
Pentokey Organy (India) Pvt. Ltd. Maharashtra Acetaldehyde 3600
Polychem Ltd., Nira, Pune. Acetaldehyde 6000
Sahakar Maharshi Shankarrao Mohite-Patil Acetaldehyde 6000
Sahakari Sakhar Karkhana Ltd., Shankarnagar,
Akluj, Maharashtra.
Southern Organic Inds. Ltd. Bangalore. Acetaldehyde 2400
7
CHAPTER 4
PROPERTIES
4.1-Physical properties:
Acetaldehyde is a colorless, mobile liquid having a pungent suffocating odor that
is somewhat fruity and pleasant in dilute concentrations. Some physical properties of
Acetaldehyde is given in Table 2.
8
4.2 Chemical properties: [9]
Acetaldehyde is a highly reactive compound exhibiting the general reactions ofaldehydes; under
suitable conditions, the oxygen or any hydrogen can be replaced.Acetaldehyde undergoes
numerous condensation, addition, and polymerization reactions.
4.2.1 Decomposition:
4.2.3 Oxidation:
Acetaldehyde is readily oxidized with oxygen or air to acetic acid, acetic anhydride, and
peracetic acid (see Acetic acid and derivatives). The principal product isolated depends on
reaction conditions. Acetic acid is produced commercially by the liquid – phase oxidation of
acetaldehyde at 65°C with cobalt or manganese acetate dissolved in acetic acid as a catalyst.
Liquid – phase oxidation of acetaldehyde in the presence of mixed acetates of copper and cobalt
yields acetic anhydride.
4.2.4 Reduction:
Acetaldehyde is readily reduced to ethanol. Suitable catalysts for vapor-phase hydrogenation are
supported nickel and copper oxide. Oldenberg and Rose have studied the kinetics of the
hydrogenation of acetaldehyde over a commercial nickel catalyst.
4.2.5 Polymerization:
9
Paraldehyde can also be formed continuously by feeding acetaldehyde as a liquid at 15 - 20°C
over an acid ion – exchange resin. Depolymerization of paraldehyde occurs in the presence of
acid catalysts. After neutralization with sodium acetate, acetaldehyde and paraldehyde are
recovered by distillation. Paraldehyde is a colorless liquid, boiling at 125.35 °C at 101 kPa (1
atm).
The base catalyzed condensation of acetaldehyde leads to the dimmer, acetaldol, which can be
hydrogenated to form 1,3 butandiol or dehydrated to form crotonaldehyde. Crotonaldehyde can
also be made directly by the vapor-phase condensation of acetaldehyde over a catalyst.
Crotonaldehyde was formerly an important intermediate in the production of butyraldehyde,
butanol, and 2-ethylhexanol. However it has been replaced completely with butyraldehyde from
the oxo process. A small amount of crotonaldehyde is still required for the production of
crotonic acid. Acetaldehyde forms aldols with other carbonyl compounds containing active
hydrogen atoms.
4.2.7 Reactions with Ammonia and Amines:
Acetaldehyde readily adds ammonia to form acetaldehyde ammonia. Diethyl amine is obtained
when acetaldehyde is added to a saturated aqueous or alcoholic solution of ammonia and the
mixture is heated to 50-750C in the presence of a nickel catalyst and hydrogen at 1.2 MPa
(12atm). Pyridine and pyridine derivates are made from paraldehyde and aqueous ammonia in
the presence of a catalyst at elevated temperatures; acetaldehyde may also be used by the yields
of pyridine are generally lower than when paraldehyde is the staring material. Levy and Othmer
have studied the vapor- phase reaction of formaldehyde, acetaldehyde, and ammonia at 3600C
over oxide catalysts; a 49% yield of pyridine and picolines was obtained using an activated
silica-alumina catalyst. Brown polymers result when acetaldehyde reacts with ammonia or
amines at a PH of 6-7 and temperature of 3-250C. With acetaldehyde, a primary amines can be
condensed to Schiff bases: CH3CH=NR, the schiff base rivets to the starting materials in the
presence of acids.
Alcohols add readily to acetaldehyde in the presence of a trace of mineral acid to form acetals;
eg, ethanol and acetaldehyde form diethyl acetal. Similarly, cyclic acetals are formed by the
reactions with glycols and other polyhydroxy compounds; eg, the reaction of ethylene glycol and
acetaldehyde gives 2 – methyl – 1,3 – dioxolane.
4.2.9 Reactions with Halogens and Halogen compounds:
Halogens readily replace the hydrogen atoms of the methyl group: eg, chlorine reacts with
acetaldehyde or paraldehyde at room temperature to give chloroacetaldehyde; increasing the
temperature to 700-8000C gives dichloroacetaldehyde; and at a temperature of 80-900C chloral is
formed. The catalytic chlorination with an antimony powder or aluminum chloride ferric
chloride has been described.
10
4.3 Environmental effects: [10]
4.3.1 Environmental Release:
Acetaldehyde is released into air or wastewater from facilities producing or using the
chemical. Acetaldehyde is also released to the environment from the combustion and photo-
oxidation of hydrocarbons. Acetaldehyde is an intermediate product of respiration in higher
plants and occurs naturally in many foods, such as ripe fruits that have tart tastes before
ripening, and coffee. Acetaldehyde is a component of cigarette smoke.
4.3.2 Transformation/Persistence:
4.3.2.1 Air
In air (at 25øC), acetaldehyde reacts with OH radicals, NO3, singlet oxygen, and NO2 The
estimated half-life for the reaction of acetaldehyde with OH produced by UV light is 6.2
hours; the products of this reaction include peroxyacetylnitrate (PAN), methyl nitrate,
methyl nitrite, and nitric acid . Acetaldehyde absorbs UV light at wavelengths of 290 to
342 nm, indicating some potential for photolysis. The photolytic half-lives for acetaldehyde
are about 34 hours in the summer and 296 hours in winter at 55ø c
4.3.2.2 Soil
Acetaldehyde will volatilize rapidly in near surface and surface soils or leach into the ground, or
undergo microbial degradation. Acetaldehyde is not expected to adsorb to soils, other than
those containing montmorillonite clay.
4.3.2.3 Water
If released to water, acetaldehyde will rapidly biodegrade or volatilize (for a typical river, the
half-life is 9.3 hours). Laboratory tests demonstrate that acetaldehyde is easily biodegraded (1)
by acclimated sludge and sewage with theoretical biological oxygen demand (BOD)
11
4.4 Health effects:
Acetaldehyde is the major metabolite of ethanol. Many of the adverse effects of ethanol are
attributed to acetaldehyde. Direct administration of acetaldehyde to rats has established alcohol
dependency.
Pharmacokinetics:
4.4.1 Absorption –
4.4.2 Distribution –
Experimental studies indicate that, following inhalation or oral exposure, sufficient first-pass
metabolism occurs in the liver and respiratory tract to limit acetaldehyde access to the systemic
circulation. However, acetaldehyde was detectable in the liver, blood, kidney, spleen, heart, and
bone of rats exposed to the 20 mM vapor for 1 hour and in maternal and embryonic tissues
following administration (route unspecified) of >5 g/kg ethanol to pregnant mice
4.4.3 Metabolism –
4.4.4 Excretion –
Because the major metabolite of acetaldehyde enters into intermediary metabolism, the excretion
of the parent compound or its metabolites may be limited. Acetaldehyde has been detected in
expired air (usually no more than 5%) but only its metabolites have been detected in the urine
.
4.5.1 Humans –
12
The acute irritation of acetaldehyde is characterized by the following: eye irritation in sensitive
individuals, at 25 ppm for 15 minutes; eye irritation, at 50 ppm for 15 minutes; irritation of
respiratory tract, at 134 ppm for 30 minutes.
4.5.2 Animals –
The oral LD50 value for the rat is 1.93 g/kg .The inhalation LC50 for rats exposed for 30
minutes was 20,000 ppm . Acetaldehyde elicited mild skin irritation (open test) and severe eye
irritation in rabbits.
13
CHAPTER - 5
MANUFACTURING PROCESSES
Manufacturing processes
Oxidation of ethylene
Oxidation of ethyl alcohol
Hydration of Acetylene
From saturated hydrocarbon
The economics of the various processes for the manufacture of acetaldehyde are strongly
dependent on the price of the feedstock used. Since 1960, the liquid-phase oxidation of ethylene
has been the process of choice. However, there is still commercial production by the partial
oxidation of ethyl alcohol, dehydrogenation of ethyl alcohol and the hydration of acetylene.
Acetaldehyde is also formed as a co product with ethyl alcohol and acetic acid.
The metallic palladium is reoxidized to PdCl2 with CuCl2 and the cuprous chloride formed is
reoxidized with oxygen or air.
14
2CuCl+1/2 O2 + 2HCl 2CuCl2 + H2O
The net result is a process in which ethylene is oxidized continuously through a series of
oxidation – reduction reactions.
There are two variations for the production of acetaldehyde by the oxidation of ethylene; the two
– stage process developed by Wacker – Chemie and the one – stage process developed by
Farbwerke Hoechst.
15
conveyed to a two-stage distillation process. In this process the low-boiling compounds (methyl
chloride, ethyl chloride), and the dissolved gases such as ethylene and carbon dioxide are
obtained as the overhead in a first step by extractive distillation using water as an extraction
agent. The bottom product is passed to the second distillation step, where pure acetaldehyde is
obtained as the overhead product. A fraction containing mainly crotonaldehyde is withdrawn as a
sidestream. The high-boiling by-products (in particular acetic acid and chloroacetaldehydes) and
the water are withdrawn from the bottom. The removed mixture is designated as "waste water".
In the two – stage process ethylene and oxygen (air) react in the liquid phase in two stages. In the
first stage ethylene is almost completely converted to acetaldehyde in one pass in a tubular plug-
flow reactor made of titanium. The reaction is conducted at 125-1300C and 1.13 Mpa (150 psig)
palladium and cupric chloride catalysts. Acetaldehyde produced in the first reactor is removed
from the reaction loop by adiabatic flashing in a tower. The flash step also removes the heat of
reaction. The catalyst solution is recycled from the flash – tower base to the second stage (or
oxidation) reactor where the cuprous salt is oxidized to the cupric state with air. The high
pressure off – gas from the oxidation reactor, mostly nitrogen, is separated from the liquid –
catalyst solution and scrubbed to remove acetaldehyde before venting. A small portion of the
catalyst stream is heated in the catalyst regenerator to destroy undesirable copper oxalate. The
flasher overhead is fed to a distillation system where water is removed for recycle to the reactor
system and organic impurities, including chlorinated aldehydes, are separated from the purified
acetaldehyde product.
While according to the two-stage method, the ethylene reaction and the oxidation reaction
proceed in separate reactors. However, this two-stage variant of the method requires a catalyst
circulation entailing high energy consumption and has technically been less frequently realized
than the single-stage variant.
This method is technically simple, smooth in reaction, and high in selectivity. The favorable
economics of the process are due to the abundance of ethylene. It is regarded as the most
economic industrial process route, and has been widely used in many countries.
16
5.2 From Ethyl Alcohol: [13]
With a multitubular reactor, conversions of 74-82% per pass can be obtained while generating
steam to be used elsewhere in the process.
Acetaldehyde also, produced commercially by the dehydrogenation of ethyl alcohol.
Reaction:
C2H5OH CH3CHO + H2
Catalyst: Cu -Co-Cr2O3
5.2.1-Process Description:
The following section will describe a silver process for acetaldehyde production from ethanol
.Air and preheated ethanol goes into a saturator. The air leaving is saturated with ethanol and
overheated before entering the reactor. The main reactions that take place are:
C2H5OH + ½ O2 → CH3CHO + H2O
C2H5OH → CH3CHO + H2
The by-products are formed according to following reactions:
C2H5OH + O2 → CH3COOH + H2O
C2H5OH + ½ O2 → CH4 + CO + H2O
C2H5OH + 2 O2 → 2 CO2 + 3 H2O
Ethanol is mixed with air and passed over a silver catalyst at 500 – 650 ◦C in the reactor .The
high temperature gas (acetaldehyde and unconverted alcohol) from the outlet of oxidizer is
cooled and condensed, then sent to scrubber to absorb acetaldehyde and unconverted ethanol.
Nitrogen hydrogen, methane, carbon monoxide and carbondioxide gas and other inert gases are
discharged from the top of the tower.. The diluted acetaldehyde solution at the bottom of the
scrubber, which contains acetaldehyde, alcohol, acetic acid, and water, is sent to the distillation
tower after heating, the gas phase fraction from the tower top, after condensation, is partly
collected, which is 99% acetaldehyde and the most portion is refluxed back.The ethanol and
water solution discharged from the bottom of the distillation tower is pressed into ethanol
recovery tower. where ethanol is separated from butanol, ethyl acetate, and most of the water.
These impurities exit in bottom Stream and are sent to waste treatment. The distillate consists of
an 85-wt.% solution of ethanol, which is then recycled back in the feed.
17
Flowsheet-5.2 for Acetaldehyde production from oxidation of Ethanol
[14]
5.3 From Acetylene:
18
The liquid catalyst is a solution made of mercury (II) sulphate dispersed in sulphuric acid. As
acetaldehyde is good reducing agent it reduces Hg(II) to Hg(I) and finally reducing Hg(I) to Hg.
2Hg2SO4 + H2O + CH3CHO → Hg2SO4 + H2SO4 + CH3COOH
Hg2SO4 + H2O + CH3CHO → 2Hg + H2SO4 + CH3COOH
Fluidized bed type equipment is used as hydrator. Even zinc oxide, magnesium oxide and iron
oxide are used in place of mercury.
In general, calculations 680 kg of acetylene, 0.1 kg of mercury are consumed to produce one ton
of acetaldehyde. The conversion of this process is about 50-60% per pass. Catalyst is regenerated
through the process.
Oxidation of butane yields acetaldehyde, formaldehyde, methanol, acetone, and mixed solvents
as major products; other aldehydes, alcohols, ketones, glycols, acetals, epoxides, and organic
acids are formed in smaller concentrations. This is of historic interest. Unlike the acetylene route,
it has almost no chance to be used as a major process. From synthesis Gas: A rhodium-catalyzed
process capable of converting synthesis gas directly into acetaldehyde in a single step was
reported in 1974 (84-85).
19
The process comprises passing synthesis gas over 5% rhodium on SiO2 at 3000C and 2.0 Mpa
(20 atm). The principal co products are acetaldehyde, 24% acetic acid, 20%; and ethanol, 16%.
In the years 1980 and beyond, if there will be a substantial degree of coal gasification, the
interest in the use of synthesis gas as a raw material for acetaldehyde production will increase.
Commercial acetaldehyde has the following typical specifications: assay, 99% min; color, water-
white; acidity, 0.5% max (acetic acid); specific gravity, 0.790 at 200C; bp, 20.8 at 101.3 kPa (1
atm). Acetaldehyde is shipped in steel drums and tank cars bearing the ICC red label. IN the
liquid state, it is noncorrosive to most metals; however, it oxidizes readily, particularly in the
vapor state, to acetic acid. Precautions to be observed in the handling of acetaldehyde have been
published by the manufacturing chemists association.
Analytical methods based on many of the reactions common to aldehydes have been developed
for the determination of acetaldehyde. In the absence of other aldehydes, it can be detected by
the formation of a mirror from an alkaline silver nitrate solution (Tollens’ reagent) and by the
reduction of Fehling’s solution.
Acetaldehyde present in mixtures with other carbonyl compounds, organic acids, etc. can be
determined by paper chromatography of 2,4 – dinitrophenylhydrazones polarographic analysis
either of the untreated mixture or of the semicarbazones, the color reaction with thymol blue on
silica gel (detector tube method) mercurimetric oxidation, argent metric titration, microscopic
and spectrophotometric methods, and gas – liquid chromatographic analysis.
With the advent of gas – liquid chromatographic techniques, this method has superseded most
chemical tests for routine analysis. Acetaldehyde can be isolated and identified by the crystalline
compounds of characteristic melting points formed with hydrazines, semicasrbazides, etc.; these
derivatives of aldehydes can be separated by paper and column chromatography.
Acetaldehyde has been separated quantitatively from other carbonyl compounds on an ion
exchange resin in the bisulfite form; the aldehyde is eluted from the column with a solution of
sodium chloride. In larger quantities, it may be isolated by passing the vapor into ether and
saturating the ether with dry ammonia; the product, acetaldehyde – ammonia, crystallizes from
the ether solution. The reactions of acetaldehyde with bisulfite, hydrazine’s, oximes,
semicarbazones, and 5, 5–dimethyl – 1, 3 cyclohexanedione (dimedone) have been used to
isolate acetaldehyde from solutions.
20
CHAPTER-6
SELECTION OF PROCESS
Table- 6.1 Comparison between most likely used method and other method
So, Oxidation of Ethylene is selected for the production of acetaldehyde because currently, the
Wacker-Hoechst process accounts for 85 % of the worldwide production capacity for
acetaldehyde. Acetaldehyde yield almost equal (about 95%).Lower investment costs in the single
stageprocess, because of the need of only one reactor with conversion per pass: 35 - 45%
This method is technically simple, smooth in reaction, and high in selectivity. The favorable
economics of the process are due to the abundance of ethylene. It is regarded as the most
economic industrial process route, and has been widely used in many countries
In both processes the aqueous crude aldehyde is concentrated and byproducts such as acetic acid
crotonaldehyde and chlorine-containing compounds are removed in a two-step distillation. The
selectivities are almost equal (94%).
other remaining process can not be selected because While passing ethyl alcohol over a copper
or silver gauze catalyst about a 25 percent conversion to acetaldehyde and The production of
acetaldehyde from acetylene includes a catalyst containing mercury, as mercuric complex which
is a toxic material hence this method is discarded
21
CHAPTER-7
MATERIAL & ENERGY BALANCE
Chemical reactions:-
Main reaction:-
1.C2H4+1/2O2CH3CHO
Side Reactions:-
2.C2H4+3O22CO2+2H2O
3. C2H4+ O2CH3COOH
4.2CH3CHOCH3CH=CHCHO
5. C2H4+HClC2H5Cl
6.C2H4+HCl+1/2O2CH3Cl+H2O
22
Acetic acid=0.0907 kmol/hr=5.4456 kg/hr
Methyl chloride=0.0709 kmol/hr=3.545 kg/hr
Ethyl chloride=0.0549 kmol/hr= 3.5136 kg/hr
Crotonaldehyde=0.05349 kmol/hr =3.7443 kg/hr
From reactions-
1 mole of C2H4 reacted=2 mol of CO2 produced
=1/2*0.5876 = 0.2398 kmol/hr
1Mole of C2H4 reacted=1Mole of CH3COOH produced
=1*0.09076=0.09076 kmol/hr
1Mole of C2H4 reacted = 1Mole of CH3Cl produced
=1*0.0709 = 0.0709 kmol/hr
1Mole of C2H4 reacted= 1Mole of C2H5Cl produced
=1*0.0549 =0.0549 kmol/hr
Total C2H4 reacted =7.99694+0.2398+0.09076+0.0709+0.0549 = 8.5073
Now, O2 reacted-
From (1) reaction-
7.99694/2 = 3.99847 kmol/hr
From (2) reaction-
3/2*0.5876 =0.8814 kmol/hr
From (3) reaction-
1*0.09076=0.09076 kmol/hr
From (6) reaction-
1/2*0.0709 =0.03545 kmol/hr
Total O2 reacted= 3.99847+0.8814+0.09076+0.03545 = 5.00608 kmol/hr=160kg/hr
HCl reacted-
From (5) reaction-
1Mole of HCl reacted = 1Mole of CH3Cl produced
=0.0709 kmol/hr
From (6) reaction
1Mole of HCl reacted = 1Mole of C2H5Cl produced
=0.0549 kmol/hr
Total HCl reacted = 0.0709+0.0549=0.1258 kmol/hr=4.5917 kg/hr
H2O produced-
From (2) reaction-
= 0.5876 kmol/hr
From (4) reaction-
= 0.05349 kmol/hr
From (6) reaction-
= 0.0709 kmol/hr
Total H2O produced = 0.5876+0.05349+0.0709 = 0.71199 kmol/hr=12.81582 kg/hr
From reaction (4)-
2 moles of Acetaldehyde reacted = 1mole of crotonaldehyde produced
23
= 2*0.05349=0.10698 kmol/hr
Acetaldehyde reacted = 7.99694-0.10698 = 7.88996 kmol/hr=347.15 kg /hr
If 20% excess O2
Then, O2 required in kmol = 160.19*1.20 = 192.228 kg/hr
Moles of air = 192.228/0.21 = 915.37 kg/hr
Moles of N2=915.37*0.79=723.16 kg/hr
O2 unreacted= O2 fed-O2 reacted = 192.228-160.19=32.038 kg/hr
C2H4 unreacted = C2H4 fed-C2H4 reacted=680.568-238.2044 = 442.36 kg/hr
Input=Output
24
Inlet- Outlet
Kg/hr Kg/hr
C2H4 =
680.568kg/hr REACTOR CH3CHO=347.15 kg/hr
O2 = 192.228 kg/hr O2 unreacted=32.038 kg/hr
HCl = 4.5917 kg/hr C2H4 unreacted= 442.36 kg/hr
N2 = 723.16 kg/hr
Acetic acid =5.4456 kg/hr
Total =1600.53 Methyl chloride =3.545 kg/hr
kg/hr Ethyl chloride= 3.5136 kg/hr
Crotonaldehyde =3.7443 kg/hr
Water=12.81852 kg/hr
Total =1599.628
kg/hr
25
Crotonaldehyde =3.7443 kg/hr
Total=1587.71 kg/hr
Feed = Condensate+ non condensate
1599.628=12.81852 +1587.71
1599.628=1599.628
Input=Output
Non condensate-
CH3CHO=347.15 kg/hr Condenser CH3CHO=347.15 kg/hr
O2 unreacted=32.038 kg/hr
C2H4 unreacted= 442.36 kg/hr O2 unreacted=32.038 kg/hr
Acetic acid =5.4456 kg/hr C2H4 unreacted= 442.36 kg/hr
Methyl chloride =3.545 kg/hr Acetic acid =5.4456 kg/hr
Ethyl chloride= 3.5136 kg/hr Methyl chloride =3.545 kg/hr
Crotonaldehyde =3.7443 kg/hr Ethyl chloride= 3.5136 kg/hr
Water=12.81852 kg/hr Crotonaldehyde =3.7443 kg/hr
Total=1587.71 kg/hr
Condensate=
Water=12.81852
kg/hr
Solubility data:
Component Solubility (Kgs/ Kgs of water)
Nitrogen- 1.3462 X 10^-5
26
Carbon dioxide -1.379 X 10^-3
Oxygen- 2.87 X 10^ -5
Ethylene -1.482 X 10^-2
CH3COOH -1.42*10^-2
CH3Cl- 9.28*10^-3
C2H5Cl- 9*10^-3
Crotonaldehyde-9.8*10^-3
CO2 absorbed = (1.379*10^-3)*(381.865) = 0.52659 kg/hr
C2H4 absorbed = (1.482*10^-2)*(381.865) = 5.6592 kg/hr
CH3COOH absorbed = (1.42*10^-2)*(381.865) = 5.4456 kg/hr
CH3Cl absorbed = (9.28*10^-3)*(381.865) = 3.545 kg/hr
C2H5Cl absorbed =( 9*10^-3) *(381.865)= 3.5136 kg/hr
Crotonaldehyde absorbed = (9.8*10^-3)*(381.865)=3.7443 kg/hr
C2H4 recycle = 442.36-5.65592=436.70 kg/hr
O2 recycle =32.038 kg/hr
N2 purged=723.16 kg/hr
CO2 purged=25.32781
Water out=381.856 kg/hr
Input = Output
27
C2H4 recycle = 436.70 kg/hr
N2 purged=723.16 kg/hr
O2 recycle =32.038 kg/hr
CO2 purged=25.32781
Inlet- Outlet
Kg/hr Kg/hr
28
Crotonaldehyde = 3.7443 kg/hr
Water =381.856 kg/hr
Acetaldehyde =347.15 kg/hr
Total bottom=738.19 kg/hr
Feed=Overhead+Bottom
751.44 kg/hr =13.24439+738.19
751.44 kg/h = 751.44 kg/h
Input = Output
C2H5Cl=3.5136 kg/hr
CH3Cl = 3.545 kg/hr
CO2 = 0.52659 kg/hr
C2H4 = 5.6592 kg/hr
Total=13.24439 kg/hr
Inlet-Kg/hr
Outlet
Kg/hr
Acetaldehyde =347.15 kg/hr
CO2 = 0.52659 kg/hr
C2H4 = 5.6592 kg/hr
DISTILLATION
CH3COOH = 5.4456 kg/hr COLUMN
CH3Cl = 3.545 kg/hr
C2H5Cl = 3.5136 kg/hr
Crotonaldehyde = 3.7443
kg/hr
Water =381.856 kg/hr
29
W=F-D
W=29.24-7.8885 = 21.35 kmol/hr=391.075 kg/hr
FXf = DXd+WXw
xF = mole fraction for Acetaldehyde in feed
xF=7.8897/29.24=0.2698
xD = mole fraction of ethylene oxide in the distillate.(commercial grade
Acetaldehyde)
xD =0.9988
29.24*0.2698=7.8885*0.9988+21.35*Xw
Xw=4.64*10^-4
Inlet-Kg/hr
Outlet
Kg/hr
Total=738.19 kg/hr
CH3COOH = 5.4456 kg/hr
Crotonaldehyde = 3.7443
DISTILLATION
Crotonaldehyde =
kg/hr COLUMN 3.7443 kg/hr
Water =381.856 kg/hr
Acetaldehyde=347.15
kg/hr
Total=738.19 kg/hr
30
7.2ENERGY BALANCE:
S.No. COMPONENT A B C D
1. Ethylene 3.806 15.69*10^-2 -8.318*10^-5 17.55*10^-9
2. Oxygen 28.106 -3.68*10^-6 17.459*10^-6 -1.06*10^-8
3. Carbon Dioxide 19.795 71.43*10^-3 -5.602*10^-5 17.153*10^-9
4. Methyl Chloride 13.875 10.140*10^-2 -3.889*10^-5 25.66*10^-10
5. Acetaldehyde 7.716 18.22*10^-2 -1.007*10^-4 23.80*10^-9
6. Ethyl Chloride -.553 26.06*10^-2 -1.840*10^-4 55.475*10^-9
7. Nitrogen 31.150 -1.357*10^-2 26.796*10^-6 1.168*10^-8
8. Acetic Acid 4.840 25.48*10^-2 -1.756*10^-4 49.48*10^-9
9. Water 32.243 19.23*10^-4 10.55*10^-6 -3.59*10^-9
Q= -HR+Hp+∆HR
H=m*CP*∆t
Component Cp*dT ;
J/Mole*K
Acetaldehyde 6118.352
Unreacted 5010.481
31
Ethylene
Unreacted 3037.96
Oxygen
Nitrogen 3081.16
Acetic acid 7589.8
Methyl Chloride 4549.7
Ethyl chloride 7192.09
Carbon Dioxide 6479.6
Water 3473.3
Component Cp *dT;
J/Mole*K
Acetaldehyde 2974.9
Unreacted 2442.602
Ethylene
Unreacted 1410.47
Oxygen
Nitrogen 1477.31
Acetic acid 3691.37
Methyl Chloride 2139.47
Ethyl chloride 3497.6
Carbon Dioxide 1863.82
Water 1610.78
32
(25.827*10^3*1477.31) + (0.0709*10^3*2193.47) + (0.0549*10^3*3497.6) +
(0.7119*10^3*1610.78)
Component Cp ;
J/Mole*K
Acetaldehyde 2873.38
Unreacted 2344.7
Ethylene
Unreacted 1482.42
Oxygen
Nitrogen 1500.12
Acetic acid 3563.71
Methyl Chloride 2151.65
Ethyl chloride 3352.95
Carbon Dioxide 1889.72
33
In the absorber acetaldehyde, acetic acid, methyl chloride, and ethyl chloride are completely
absorbed in water at 25 degree C. The only energy lost is from gases which are not absorbed in
the absorbing liquid.
Heat entering in the absorber = 1.114 KW
Heat capacity data for recycled and purged streams at 25 degree C
Component Cp ;
J/Mole*K
Carbon Dioxide 183.332
Unreacted 219.46
Ethylene
Unreacted 146.96
Oxygen
Nitrogen 148.72
34
Energy balance around Distillation column
Antoine equation[22]
1. P=(A−(B/(T+C))
2. P=vapor pressure(mmHg)
o
3. T = temperature( C)
TABLE-8
component A B C
Acetaldehyde 8.00552 1600.017 291.809
Acetic acid 7.18807 1416.7 225
Water 8.10765 1750.286 235
Crotonaldehyde 7.28193 1460.08 227.632
Dew point –
For dew point calculation
[(Yacetaldehyde*760)/p*acetaldehyde]+ [(Yacetic acid*760)/p*acetic acid]+ [(Ywater*760)/p*water]-1=0
Yacetaldehyde=0.998
Yacetic acid =7.30*10^-4
Ywater=4.85*10^-4
And calculate ( p*components) at different temperature
And then check [Xacetaldehyde+Xacetic acid+Xwater]=1
Latent Heat of Vaporization of Acetaldehyde at dew pt. (294.45)=566.04 KJ/kg =24.90 J/mol
Latent Heat of Vaporization of Acetic acid at dew pt. (294.45) =467.38KJ/kg=28.04 J/mol
Latent Heat of Vaporization of Water at dew pt. (294.45)=2485.15KJ/kg = 44.73 J/mol
35
Molar flow rate of Acetaldehyde=7.879Kmol/hr
Molar flow rate of Acetic acid =5.76*10^-3Kmol/hr
Molar flow rate of water = 3.83*10^-3 Kmol/hr
Total Distillate =7.8885 Kmol/hr
(Cp*dT)acetaldehyde=7.716*(294.45-283)+(18.22*10^-2/2)*(294.45^2-283^2)- (1.007*10^-
4)/3*(294.45^3-283^3)+(23.80*10^-9/4)*(294.45^4-283^4)
Cp*dT= 607.18 J/mol
For acetaldehyde
Cp*dT=7.716*(293.45-283)+(18.22*10^-2/2)*(293.45^2-283^2)- (1.007*10^-4)/3*(293.45^3-
283^3)+23.80*10^-9*(293.45^4-283^4) = 547.93
For Water
(Cp*dT)water
Cp*dt=32.243*(293.45-283)+(19.23*10^-4/2)*(293.45^2-283^2)+(10.55*10^-6)/3*(293.45^3-
283^3)+(3.59*10^-9/4)*(293.45-283)=352.78 J/mol
36
Qc= 35.49*10^3*631.58 -7.8885*10^3*1578.66-27.60*10^3*1578.66 = -33609501.21 J/hr =
-9.39 KW
Reboiler duty
Qwater
(Cp*dT)water
Cp*dt=32.243*(372..89-283)+(19.23*10^-4/2)*(372.89^2-283^2)+(10.55*10^-6)/3*(372.89^3-
283^3)+(3.59*10^-9/4)*(372.89-283)=1069.17 J/mol
Qwater = 21.20*10^3*1069.17 = 22666521.17 = 6.29 KW
Hw= 6.49KW
Qb = W*Hw+DHD+Qc-FHF
HF = 52946.49 J/hr
QB= 21.35*10^3*23387419.8+7.8885*10^3*1578.66-33609501.21-29.24*10^3*52946.49
QB=5.08*10^11 J/hr = 1.39*10^5 KW
37
7.3 Control Strategy
Discription:-
39
CHAPTER 8
DETAILED EQUIPMENT DESIGN
Operating condition-
Rector temperature -130oc
Pressure - 400kpa = 4 atm
C2H4 + ½ O2 CH3CHO ∆H = -244 kJ(-57.84 kcal/kmol)
Working volume of reactor
Bubble column reactor can be assumed as ideal mixed flow reactor
Conversion – 35%
zero order reaction
Rate constant, k – 2.77*10^-5 s-1
.Performance Equation:
V/FAo= XA /-rA
V/FAo= XA /k
Molar flow rate of ethylene at inlet
FAo = 24.306 kmol/hr = 680.568 kg/hr
Density of ethylene at 130 oc =567.92 kg/m^3
V = FAo*XA/k = 680.568*0.35/(2.77*10^-3*3600*567.92)
V=4.206 m3
For superficial velocity of gas
Let Sg =1cm/s =0.01m/s
Mass flow rate of oxyzen at inlet
mo2=192.228 kg/hr
ρo2 = P*M/R*T = 4*32/(273+130)*0.08314 =3.82 kg/m3
Volumatric flow rate of oxygen Qv = 192.228/3.82 = 50.32 m3/hr = 0.0139m3/s
π/4*Di2 = Qv/Sg = 0.0139/0.01
Di=1.33 m
Let hL=Height of liquid during rection
V= π/4*Di2*hL
4.206 = π/4*(1.33)2*hL
hL=4 m
41
Stress intensification factor, W is given by;
W = [3 + (Rc /R1)0.5]/4
W = 1.77
Thickness of Top Head (th ) =[(Pi×Rc ×W)/(2×f×j)] + C
th = 8mm
Composition, mole %
Component Feed(Xf) Distillate(Xd) Bottom (Xb)
Acetaldehyde 0.269 0.998 5.016*10^-4
42
Acetic acid 3.10*10^-3 7.3*10^-4 3.98*10^-3
Crotonaldehyde 1.82*10^-3 4.85*10^-4 2.507*10^-3
water 0.72 6.274*10^-5 0.993
Antoine equation
4. P=(A−(B/(T+C))
5. P=vapor pressure(mmHg)
o
6. T = temperature( C)
TABLE-8.2.1
Component A B C
Acetaldehyde 8.00552 1600.017 291.809
Acetic acid 7.18807 1416.7 225
Water 8.10765 1750.286 235
Crotonaldehyde 7.28193 1460.08 227.632
TABLE-8.1.3
Components αtop αbottom αav
Acetaldehyde (LK) 41.25 10.95 21.25
Acetic acid 7.077 4.35 5.54
Crotonaldehyde 1.37 0.87 1.09
Water (HK) 1 1 1
43
Using Fenskey ‘ s equation to find minimum number of theoretical stages
Underwood ‘s method
Σ(αi*Xif)/( αi- ) = 1-q
As feed is entering as saturated liquid so, q=1
(0.269*21.25)/(21.25-)+(3.10*10^-3*5.5)/(5.5-)+(1.82*10^-3*1.09)/(1.09-)+(0.72*1)/(1-) =
1-1 = 0
By trial, = 3.25
Σ(αi*Xid)/( αi- ) = Rm+1
On putting ’ s value
(21.25*0.998)/(21.25-3.25)+(7.3*10^-4*5.5)/(5.5-3.25)+(4.84*10^-4*1)/(1-3.25)+ (6.274*10^-
5*1.09)/(1.09-3.25) = Rm+1
Rm=0.179
Gillilands Co-relation:- f(N) = N – Nm /N +1 = 1 – exp[(1+54.4 )/(11+117.2Ψ)])[(Ψ-1)/ Ψ*0.5)]
Ψ= (Rm)/(R+1)
R=3 for which N = 6
Let Tray efficiency = 0.5
Actual No. of Trays = 6/0.5 = 12
44
Assuming tray spacing = 0.3m From the fig 8.16 page no-444 (Bhatt and Thakore),
Cf = 0.052
Vf =Flooding velocity
Vf = (Cf )*(σ/0.02)^0.2* ((ρL–ρV)/ ρV)0.5
Surface tension of acetic acid at 21.45 0C
σAA1/4 = [p]*( ρ’L- ρ’v)
ρ’
L = 1049*10^-3/60 = 0.0174 mol/cm3
ρ’
v = PM/RT = 4.13*10^-5 mol/cm3
[p]AA = 129
σAA =25.14 dyn/cm = 25.14*10^-3 N/m
similarly, σacetaldehyde=21.2*10^-3 N/m
σcrotonaldehyde =23*10^-3 N/m
σwater = 58*10^-3 N/m
σ = Σ σi*Xi =(0.998*21.2*10^-3+(7.3*10^-4*25.14*10^-3+(58*10^-3*4.85*10^-4+6.27*10^-
5*23*10^03) = 0.0212 N/m
after putting all value, we get
Vf = 1.09m/s
Actual velocity = 0.85* Vf
V=0.927 m/s
Volumetric flow rate of vapour at the top
Qv= (V *Mav)/(ρV) = (31.556*43.9)/(1.818*3600) = 0.2119m3/sec
An=Net area required at the top
An= Qv / V = 0.2119/0.927 = 0.228 m2
Let down comer area Ad = 0.12 Ac
An= Ac – Ad = Ac – 0.12 Ac = 0.88 Ac
Ac= inside cross sectional area of tower
0.88 Ac = 0.228
Ac = 0.259 m2
inside diameter of column required at the top Di = 0.57 m
45
T = 99.89 0C(bubble point)
ρ
v = PMavg/RT = (1.13*18.310)/(0.08314*372.89) = 0.681 kg/m3
ρ
L=958 kg/m3
Assuming tray spacing = 0.3m From the fig 8.16 page no-444 (Bhatt and Thakore),
Cf = 0.051
Vf =Flooding velocity
Vf = (Cf )*(σ/0.02)^0.2* ((ρL–ρV)/ ρV)0.5
46
lw= length of weir = 0.775*0.57= 0.44175 m
Minimum how= 750*(0.20/(784.15*0.44175))^(2/3) = 5.2mm
At minimum rate
hw+ how= 50+5.2 = 55.2 mm
From fig 8.19 page no-449 , k = 30.2
Vhmin= 30.2 – 0.9*(25.4 - 5)/(1.818).5= 8.78 m/s
Vha =0.7*Qv/Ah
Vha= Actual vapour velocity through holes at minimum vapour flow rate
,Ah= hole area = 8% of Aa
Aa= actual area = Ac-2*Ad
Ad= downcomer area=0.12*Ac
Aa=Ac-2*Ad
Aa=(0.245)-(2*0.12*0.245) m2
Aa=0.1952 m2
Ah=8 % of Aa=0.0156m2
Vha= (0.7*0.2119)/0.0156 = 10.02 m/s
Vha> Vmin
Thus in the top minimum operating rate is well above weep point Vha> Vmin
47
Dry plate pressure drop
hd= 51*( Vh /C0)^2 *(ρ V/ ρL)
Vh=Maximum velocity of vapors through hole
Vh= Q V/A h (maximum)
Vh = 0.2119/0.0158 = 14.3
ρV= 1.818 kg/m3 ,
ρL= 784.15 kg/m3
From fig 8.20 pg no-450 ( Bhatt and Thakore)
For, plate thickness/ hole diameter = 1
Ah/ Ap= Ah /Aa=(0.0156 /0.1952) = 0.079 C0= 0.82
Ap= perforated area
After putting all value
hd = 51*(14.3/0.82)^2*(1.818/784.15)
hd=35.95 mm LC
hw= 50 mm Lc
Maximum height of liquid crest over the weir
Maximum Lmax= Lm /.7 =0.20/7= 0.28kg/sec
lw=0.44175 m
Maximum how = 750*(Lmax/(ρL* lw))(2/3) = 6.596 mm
Residual pressure drop
hr= (12.5*103)/784.15 = 15.91 mm
Total pressure drop per plate
ht= hd+ ( hw+ how) + hr =35.95+50+6.596+15.91
= 108.459 mm LC
48
Residual pressure drop
hr= (12.5*103)/958 = 13.04 mm
Total pressure drop per plate
ht= hd+ ( hw+ how) + hr =0.453+50+3.17+13.04
= 66.66 mm LC
49
Aap= 0.038896m2
Aap<Ad
Therefore take Am= Aap
Am= Aap = 0.038896m2
After putting all value in hdc equation
hdc=166{L/(Am*ρL)}hdc
= 166{0.131/(0.038896*958)}2 = 2.05*10^-3 mm
hb= Liquid back up in down comer
hb= hw+ how+ ht+ hdc = 50+3.17+66.66+2.05*10^-3 = 119.76 mm
119.76 < (Lt+ hw) /2
Lt=Tray spacing=300mm
Residence time in down comer
Tr = Ad* hbc*ρL /(Lmd)
Tr= 0.1752*0.119*958/0.131 = 152.46 seconds
Tr> 3 sec
Hence,downcomer area and tray spacing are acceptable
Checking of entrainment
For enriching section
Vapour velocity based on net area,Vn=Q/An
Vn= 0.2119 /0.228= 0.929 m/s
% of flooding = Vn/Vf = 0.929/1.09= 0.852*100 = 85% FLv =0.040 ,
Ψ=0.32 (from fig 8.18 pg no 447 B I Bhatt)% entrainment = 32% which is greater then 10%
50
8.3-Process design of scrubber
51
Gw =2.26 kg/m2*s
Toewr area required at top =Mass flow rate of gas vapour mixture/Gw
Material of construction: CS
Thickness of shell,
Internal dia.= .41m=410 mm
t=p*di/(2*f*j-p)
J=.85 (joint efficiency)
F=permissible stress=95 N/mm^2
P=0.1, taking 10% extra
Design pressure =0.1*1.1=0.11
t= 0.11*410(2*95*0.85-0.11)
=1.47mm.
Considering thickness =2mm
head thickness :
the head used will be torispherical head; the thickness of the head is given by:
th = p*Rc*W/(2*f*j)+c
head thickness :
torispherical head;
the thickness of the head is given by:
th = p*Rc*W/(2*f*j)+c
where,
W=(1/4)[3+(Rc/R1)]
Rc=crown radius=410mm
R1=6% of Rc=0.06*410= 24.6mm
W=( ¼)[3+(410/24.6)]
W=1.77
th = p*Rc*W/(2*f*j) = 0.11*410*1.77/(2*95*0.85)+c
th = .49+c =.49+1.5
th=2mm
52
CHAPTER 9
COST ESTIAMTION AND ECONOMICS
53
Current cost = C=C0*ci/ci0 =$11818.18 =Rs6.42*10^5
Where,C = present cost
C0 = cost in the base year (in our case its 2002)
Ci = Plant cost index of the present year = 585
Cio = Plant cost index in base year = 396
Purchased cost of packed column including installation and auxiliaries from graph 15-16(plant
design and economics for chemicalengineers,Peters and Timmerhaus,Cost)
C0 = 6000 $/m of height = $ 24000 (as in 2002)
Current cost = C=C0*ci/ci0 = $35544.3 =Rs 1.93*10^6
Cost of packing =75%of volume of reactor =0.39 m^3
Log10Cp = K1+K2log10A+K3[Log10(A)]^2
Where A =0.527
K1=2.4493
K2=0.9744
K3 = 0.0055
Cp=Rs 112.65 (as in 2001)
Value in present time
C=C0*ci/ci0
Where,C = present cost
C0 = cost in the base year (in our case its 2002)
Ci = Plant cost index of the present year = 585
Cio = Plant cost index in base year = 394.4
Present Cost =Rs 167.1
Total cost = Rs2.57*10^6
54
Purchased cost of trays in tray column. Price includes tray deck, bubble cap, riser, downcomer
andstructural steel parts from ch 15, graph 15-13 (plant design and economics for chemical
engineers,Petersand Timmerhaus,
C= $ 300*9 = $2700
Present year cost= $ 3988.6
Total cost of distillation column = $ 3988.6 =Rs2.16*10^5
Purchased cost of distillation colum installation and auxiliaries from graph 15-15(plant design
and economics for chemicalengineers,Peters and Timmerhaus)
C0 =$1000 per tray =1000*9 =$9000 (as in 2002)
Present year cost= C=C0*ci/ci0 =$13295.45 =Rs7.23*10^5
Total cost =Rs 9.39*10^5
55
Building (including services) 0.18*DEC 4878000
Yard improvement 0.10*DEC 2710000
Service facilities 0.60*DEC 16260000
Total direct cost (TDC) 89852000
Indirect cost
Engineering and supervision 0.33*DEC 8943000
Construction expenses 0.41*DEC 11111000
Legal expenses 0.04*DEC 1084000
Contractors fee 0.22*DEC 5962000
Contingency 0.35*DEC 9485000
Total Indirect cost (TIC) 36585000
Manufacturing Cost
Manufacturing cost is the sum of Direct Production Cost, Fixed Charges and Plant
Overhead Cost.
Fixed Charges (FC):
RANGE = 10-20% Total Product Cost
Depreciation (DC):
RANGE = Depends on life period, Salvage Value
and method of calculation-about 10% of FCI for Machinery & Equipment, 2-3%
for Building Value for Buildings.
Let us consider Depreciation Cost = 10% of Fixed Capital Investment for
Machinery & Equipment and 2.5 % for Building Value
for Buildings.
DC = 16211870 + 121950
= Rs. 16333820
Local Taxes (LT):
RANGE = 1-4% of Fixed Capital Investment
Let the local taxes = 2% of Fixed Capital Investment
LT = 2% of 126437000
= Rs. 2528740
56
Insurance (InC):
RANGE = 0.4-1% of Fixed Capital Investment
Let the Insurance Cost = 0.6% of Fixed Capital Investment
InC = 0.6% x Rs. 126437000
= Rs. 758622
Then, Total Fixed Charges = Rs 19621182.
Fixed Charges (FC):
RANGE = 10-20% of Total Product Cost
Let the fixed charges = 15% of Total Product Cost
Then Total Product Cost = Rs. 130807880
Utilities (UC):
RANGE = 10-20% of Total Product Cost
Let the Cost of Utilities = 14% of Total Product Cost
UC = 14% x Rs. 130807880
= Rs. 18313103.2
Maintenance and Repairs (M & RC):
RANGE = 2-10% of Fixed Capital Investment
Let the Maintenance and Repair Cost = 5% of Fixed Capital Investment
M & RC = 5% x Rs. 126437000
= Rs. 6321850.
Operating Supplies (OSC):
RANGE = 10-20% of Maintenance & Repairs
Let the Cost of Operating Supplies = 13% of Maintenance & Repairs
OSC = 13% x Rs. 6321850.
= Rs. 821840.45
Laboratory Charges (LCC):
RANGE = 10-20% of Operating Labour Charges
57
Let the Laboratory charges = 15% of Operating Labour Charges
LCC = 15% x Rs. 15696945.6
= Rs. 2354541.84.
Patent and Royalties (P & RC):
RANGE = 0-6% of Total Product Cost
Let the cost of Patent and royalties = 3% of Total Product Cost
P & RC = 3% x Rs. 130807880
= Rs. 3924236.4
Thus, Total Direct Production Cost = Rs. 335209853.5
58
Let the interest = 6% of Total Capital Investment
FC = 6% x Rs 162118700
= Rs. 9727122
Thus, Total General Expenses = Rs 51585643.6
Total Product cost = Manufacturing Cost + Total General Expenses
= Rs. 439937664
As available in the literature that the Tax rate is generally taken as 45%
Taxes = 45% of Gross Income
= 45% of 110062336
= 49528051.2
Net Profit = [Gross income – Taxes]
= Rs. 60534284.8
Rate of Return:
Rate of Return = [Net profit*100]/Total Capital Investment
= Rs. [{60534284.8 * 100}/ Rs1.62*10^8
37.33
Pay Back Period:
Cost Price of acetaldehyde = T P C/ Total Production of H2SO4 in (Kg/Annum)
= 439937664/2500*10^3
= Rs. 176
Assuming a profit margin of 25% = Rs. 220
Gross annual Earning = Total annual earning – total annual production cost
= 44 * 2500*10^3 = 11 crore.
Net Annual Earning = 11 – 45% of 11
= 6.05 crore.
Payback Period = TCI/Net annual Earning
= 16/6.05
= 2.6 = 3Years (approx.)
59
9.3 HAZOP Evaluation of the Reactor
This reaction is exothermic, and a cooling system is provided to remove the excess energy of
reaction. If the cooling flow is interrupted, the reactor temperature increases, leading to an
increase in the reaction rate and the heat generation rate. The result could be a runaway reaction
with a subsequent increase in the vessel pressure possibly leading to a rupture of the vessel. The
temperature within the reactor is measured and is used to control the cooling water flow rate by a
control valve.
Performing a HAZOP on this process with the assigned task of considering runaway reaction
episodes would lead to a completed form such as that shown in the Figure. The process is already
small enough to be considered a single section. Four study nodes are cooling water line, stirring
motor, monomer feed line, and reactor vessel.
The HAZOP analysis would reveal the following potential process modifications:
1. Installation of a cooling water flow meter and low flow alarm to provide an immediate
indication of cooling loss.
2. Installation of a high temperature alarm to alert the operator in the event of cooling
function loss.
3. Installation of a high temperature shutdown system, that would automatically shutdown
the process in the event of a high reactor temperature. The shutdown temperature would
be higher than the alarm temperature to provide the operator with the opportunity to
restore cooling before the reactor is shutdown.
4. Installation of a check valve in the cooling line to prevent reverse flow. A check valve
could be installed both before and after the reactor to prevent the reactor contents from
flowing upstream and to prevent the backflow in the event of a leak in the coils.
5. Periodic inspections and maintenance of the cooling coil to insure its integrity.
6. Evaluation of the cooling water source to consider any possible interruption and
contamination of the supply.
In the event that the cooling water system fails (regardless of the source of the failure), the high
temperature alarm and emergency shutdown system prevents a runaway. The review committee
performing the HAZOP decided that the installation of a back-up controller and control valve
60
was not essential. The high temperature alarm and shutdown system prevents a runaway in this
event.
Similarly, a loss of cooling water source or a plugged cooling line would be detected by either
the alarm or emergency shutdown system. The review committee suggested that all cooling
water failures be properly reported. In the event that a particular cause occurs repeatedly then
additional process modifications are warranted.
Table-9.3.1
Reactor Level
1.Reator runs Pump cavitates Damage to
Less dry pump
Reagent released
2. Rupture in. Potential fire
Discharge
Reagent released
3. Vent open Potential fire
or broken
Reagent released
Potential fire
4. Reactor
rupture
6. Unload too Tank overfills Reagent
More much released
Same as less
Composition
61
Pressure
11. Lose
nitrogen Tank implodes Reagent
closed released
More
Tank overfills
12. Overfill Tank rupture
tank Reagent released
15. Volatile
impurity
Same as less
Temperature
62
hotter than
normal Reagent
released
19.External
fire
63
64
CHAPTER 10
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Acetaldehyde is a colorless, mobile liquid having a pungent suffocating odor that is somewhat
fruity and pleasant in dilute concentrations.Acetaldehyde is a simple, naturally-occurring,
organic chemical present in many ripe fruits,apples, grapes, and citrus fruits (up to 230 ppm). It
is produced during the fermentation of sugar to alcohol, and is a natural constituent of butter,
olives, frozen vegetables, and cheese. It forms in wine and other alcoholic beverages after
exposure to air (up to 140 ppm). It even occurs as an intermediate in the metabolism of sugars
in the body and hence can be found in human blood. Acetaldehyde is used as an intermediate in
the production of acetic acid, acetic anhydride, cellulose acetate, vinyl acetate resins, acetate
esters, pentaerythritol, synthetic pyridine derivatives, terephthalic acid and peracetic acid.
Acetaldehyde is produced throughout the world primarily from ethylene, although some is still
derived from ethanol and acetylene.
Demand for acetaldehyde worldwide has continued to decrease primarily as a result of less
consumption for acetic acid manufacture, as the industry continues to move toward the more
efficient and lower-overall-cost carbonylation-of-methanol process.
Overall, the global market for acetaldehyde is expected to grow 2–3% annually during 2009–
2014.
Ethylene which is important raw material for the production of acetaldehyde is a petrochemical
product ,soit is a safe step to install the plant with a capacity of 2500tons per annum in Gujrat
We have designed a plant of 2500TPA, with techno-economic feasibility report which is stated
withneed, demand & supply analysis and by going through a process of mass, energy balance
with detailedequipment design in the process.
The payback period (3 years) and rate of return suggests the plant to be economic viable and a
profitableventure to invest, in the interest of the stakeholders for an already existing group or a
newcomer in themarket.
65
References:-
1. ULLMANN’S, an ULLMANN'S Encyclopedia of Industrial Organic Chemistry Edition
7, Page no.87
2. ULLMANN’S, an ULLMANN'S Encyclopedia of Industrial Organic Chemistry Edition
7, Page no.88
3. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acetaldehyde
4. www.carolina.com/specialty...a/acetaldehyde...grade.../841271.pr
5. www.reportlinker.com/p098302/World-Acetaldehyde-Market.html
6. Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology vol. 2 pg no. 104
7. ULLMANN’S, an ULLMANN'S Encyclopedia of Industrial Organic Chemistry Edition
7, Page no.99
8. ULLMANN’S, an ULLMANN'S Encyclopedia of Industrial Organic Chemistry Edition
7, Page no.88
9. ULLMANN’S, an ULLMANN'S Encyclopedia of Industrial Organic Chemistry Edition
7, Page no.90
10. www.inchem.org/documents/ehc/ehc/ehc167.htm
11. Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology vol. 2 pg no. 105
12. Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology vol. 2 pg no. 107
13. ULLMANN’S, an ULLMANN'S Encyclopedia of Industrial Organic Chemistry Edition
7, Page no.92
14. www.scribd.com/.../Acetaldehyde-Methods-2520of-2520-Production
15. Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology vol. 2 pg no. 108
16. Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology vol. 2 pg no. 106
17. Joshi’s process equipment design by Mahajani V.V & Umarji S. B 4th Edition
18. Joshi’s process equipment design by Mahajani V.V & Umarji S. B 4th Edition
19. Ulrich, Gael D., “A Guide to chemical Engineering Process Design and economics”, John
Wiley & sons, New York, USA (1984)
20.Introduction to process engineering and design by S B Thakore & B I Bhat
21.Design of Process Equipment, 2nd Ed. by Kanti K. Mahajan
22.Plant design and economics for chemical engineers, Peters and Timmerhaus.
23. Analysis synthesis and design of chemical engineerimg 2nd edition,Richard Turton.
24.. Chemical process safety , Danel A Crowl
25. www.sciencelab.com/msds.php?msdsId=9922768
66
APPENDIX-1
Acetaldehyde
1: Product Identification
Product Name: Acetaldehyde
Catalog Codes: SLA1309
CAS#: 75-07-0
RTECS: AB1925000
TSCA: TSCA 8(b) inventory: Acetaldehyde
CI#: Not applicable.
Synonym: Ethyl Aldehyde; Ethanal; Acetic Aldehyde
Chemical Name: Acetaldehyde
Chemical Formula: CH3CHO
Composition:
Toxicological Data on Ingredients: Acetaldehyde: ORAL (LD50): Acute: 661 mg/kg [Rat.].
900 mg/kg [Mouse]. DERMAL
(LD50): Acute: 3540 mg/kg [Rabbit]. VAPOR (LC50): Acute: 13300 ppm 4 hours [Rat]. 23000
mg/m 4 hours [Mouse].
3: Hazards Identification
67
Eye Contact:
Check for and remove any contact lenses. Immediately flush eyes with running water for at least
15 minutes, keeping eyelids open. Cold water may be used. Get medical attention.
Skin Contact:
In case of contact, immediately flush skin with plenty of water. Cover the irritated skin with an
emollient. Remove contaminated clothing and shoes. Cold water may be used.Wash clothing
before reuse. Thoroughly clean shoes before reuse. Get medical attention.
Inhalation:
If inhaled, remove to fresh air. If not breathing, give artificial respiration. If breathing is difficult,
give oxygen. Get medical attention.
Serious Inhalation:
Evacuate the victim to a safe area as soon as possible. Loosen tight clothing such as a collar, tie,
belt or waistband. If breathing is difficult, administer oxygen. If the victim is not breathing,
perform mouth-to-mouth resuscitation. Seek medical attention.
Ingestion:
Do NOT induce vomiting unless directed to do so by medical personnel. Never give anything by
mouth to an unconscious person. If large quantities of this material are swallowed, call a
physician immediately. Loosen tight clothing such as a collar, tie, belt or waistband.
68
6: Accidental Release Measures
Small Spill:
Dilute with water and mop up, or absorb with an inert dry material and place in an appropriate
waste disposal container.
Large Spill:
Flammable liquid. Keep away from heat. Keep away from sources of ignition. Stop leak if
without risk. Absorb with DRY earth, sand or other non-combustible material. Do not touch
spilled material. Prevent entry into sewers, basements or confined areas; dike if needed. Be
careful that the product is not present at a concentration level above TLV. Check TLV on the
MSDS and with local authorities.
Section 7: Handling and Storage
Precautions:
Keep locked up.. Keep away from heat. Keep away from sources of ignition. Ground all
equipment containing material. Do not ingest. Do not breathe gas/fumes/ vapor/spray. Avoid
contact with eyes. Wear suitable protective clothing. In case of insufficient ventilation, wear
suitable respiratory equipment. If ingested, seek medical advice immediately and show the
container or the label. Keep away from incompatibles such as oxidizing agents, combustible
materials, organic materials, metals, acids, alkalis.
Storage:
Store in a segregated and approved area. Keep container in a cool, well-ventilated area. Keep
container tightly closed and sealed until ready for use. Avoid all possible sources of ignition
(spark or flame).
Engineering Controls:
Provide exhaust ventilation or other engineering controls to keep the airborne concentrations of
vapors below their respective threshold limit value. Ensure that eyewash stations and safety
showers are proximal to the work-station location.
Personal Protection:
Splash goggles. Lab coat. Vapor respirator. Be sure to use an approved/certified respirator or
equivalent. Gloves (impervious).
Personal Protection in Case of a Large Spill:
Splash goggles. Full suit. Vapor respirator. Boots. Gloves. A self contained breathing apparatus
should be used to avoid inhalation of the product. Suggested protective clothing might not be
sufficient; consult a specialist BEFORE handling this product.
Exposure Limits:
TWA: 25 (ppm) from ACGIH (TLV) [United States] TWA: 200 STEL: 150 (ppm) from OSHA
(PEL) [United States] TWA: 360
STEL: 270 (mg/m3) from OSHA (PEL) [United States] Consult local authorities for acceptable
exposure limits.
69
Odor: Fruity. Pungent. (Strong.)
Taste: Leafy green
Molecular Weight: 44.05 g/mole
Color: Colorless.
pH (1% soln/water): Not available.
Boiling Point: 21°C (69.8°F)
Melting Point: -123.5°C (-190.3°F)
Critical Temperature: 188°C (370.4°F)
p. 4
Specific Gravity: 0.78 (Water = 1)
Vapor Pressure: 101.3 kPa (@ 20°C)
Vapor Density: 1.52 (Air = 1)
Volatility: Not available.
Odor Threshold: 0.21 ppm
Dispersion Properties: See solubility in water, diethyl ether, acetone.
Solubility:
Easily soluble in cold water, hot water. Soluble in diethyl ether, acetone. Miscible with benzene,
gasoline, solvent naphtha, toluene, xylene, turpentine. Solubility in water: 1000 g/l @ 25 deg. C.
70
Chronic Effects on Humans:
CARCINOGENIC EFFECTS: Classified 2B (Possible for human.) by IARC. MUTAGENIC
EFFECTS: Mutagenic for mammalian somatic cells. Mutagenic for bacteria and/or yeast.
TERATOGENIC EFFECTS: Classified POSSIBLE for human.May cause damage to the
following organs: liver.
Other Toxic Effects on Humans:
Hazardous in case of ingestion, of inhalation (lung irritant). Slightly hazardous in case of skin
contact (irritant, permeator)..
Waste Disposal:
Waste must be disposed of in accordance with federal, state and local environmental control
regulations.
71
14: Transport Information
72
Reactivity: 2
Specific hazard:
Protective Equipment:
Gloves (impervious). Lab coat. Vapor respirator. Be sure to use an approved/certified respirator
or equivalent. Wear appropriate respirator when ventilation is inadequate. Splash goggles.
73