Department of Physics Engg.

Physics – II Course Material UNIT - I

UNIT – I CONDUCTING MATERIALS

Introduction:
Conducting materials are generally metals and their alloys. In the study of solid materials,
the metals occupy a special position, because of their variety of striking properties such as high
electrical conductivity, high thermal conductivity etc.,

These conducting materials play a vital role in engineering and technology. While selecting
a conducting material for a particular application, one has to know about its electrical and thermal
properties.

With this view, the free electron theory and its applications are discussed in this chapter.
Further the electrical and thermal conduction are also discussed.

1.1 CONDUCTORS

Experimental measurements showed that the metals and their alloys large electrical
conductivity of the order of 108 and therefore called conductors

Conductors or conducting materials are the materials having high thermal and electrical
conductivities.

Low resistive materials are also generally called as conducting materials.

Classification of conducting materials:

The conducting materials based on their conductivity, are classified into the major categories.

i. Zero resistivity materials

ii. Low resistivity materials and
iii. High resistivity materials.

(i) Zero resistivity materials

Superconductors like alloys of aluminum, zinc, gallium, nichrome, niobium, etc., are a
special class of materials that conduct electricity almost with zero resistance below transition
temperature. These materials are known as zero resistivity materials.

They are used for saving energy in the power systems, super conducting magnetism memory
storage elements etc.,

(ii) Low Resistivity Materials

The metals like silver, aluminum and alloys have very high electrical conductivity. These
materials are known as low resistivity materials. They are used as conductors, electrical contact,
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Department of Physics Engg. Physics – II Course Material UNIT - I

etc., in electrical devices and in electrical power transmission and distribution, winding wires in
motors and transformers.

(iii) High Resistivity Materials

The materials like tungsten, platinum, nichrome etc., have resistivity and low temperature co-
efficient of resistance. These materials are known as high resistivity materials.

Such metals and alloys are used in the manufacturing of resistors, heating elements,
resistance thermometers etc. The conducting properties of a solid are not a function of the total
number of the electrons of the atoms can take part in conduction. These valence electrons are called
free electrons or conduction electrons.

Free Electrons theory of solids

We know that the electrons in the outermost orbit of the atom determine the electrical
properties in a solid. The electron theory of solids explains the structure and properties of solids
through their electronic structure.
Free electron theory is applicable to all solids, both metals and-metals. It explains the
behaviour of conductors, semiconductors and insulators. It also explains the electrical, thermal and
magnetic properties of solids.

Main stages of electron theory of solids

(i) Classical free electron theory

(Drude and Lorentz free electrons theory)

This theory was proposed by Drude and Lorentz in 1900. According to this theory, metals
contain free electrons that are responsible for electrical conduction in metals. This theory
obeys the laws of classical mechanics. Here, free electrons are assumed to move in a
constant potential.

(ii) Quantum free electron theory (Sommerfield Quantum theory)

This theory was proposed by Sommerfield in 1928. According to this theory, the
electrons in a metal move in a constant potential. This theory obeys the laws of quantum
mechanics.

(iii) Zone theory or band theory of solids

Boch proposed this theory in 1928. According to this theory, the free electrons move in a
periodic potential the periodicity of the crystal due to lattice. This theory explains
electrical conductivity based on the energy bands.

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Department of Physics Engg. Physics – II Course Material UNIT - I

1.2 CLASSICAL FREE ELECTRON THEORY OF METALS

Free electron theory of metals was proposed to account for the electrical conduction in metal by
P.Drude in 1900. It was extended by H.A. Lorentz in1909 which is known as free electron theory

Principle
This theory is based on the principle that a metal consists of a very large number of free
electrons which can move freely throughout the volume of the metal. These free electrons are
fully responsible for the electrical conduction in the metal.

Explanation
We know that an atom consists of a central nucleus with positive charge surrounded by
electrons of negative charges.
The electrons in the inner shells are called core electrons and those in the outermost shell are
called valence electrons (fig.1.1)

Fig. 1.1 Atom (Drude model)

In a metal, the valence electrons of each atom get detached and they move freely throughout the
metal. Hence, they are called free or conduction electrons.

Drude assumed that the free electrons in a metal form an electron gas. These free electrons move
randomly in all possible directions just like gas molecules in a container.

 In the absence of electrical field, the free electrons (electrons gas) move freely everywhere
there in a random manner. They collide with other free electrons and positive ion core. This
collision is known as elastic collision and it is explained in fig 1.2.

Fig.1.2 Free electrons in random direction

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Department of Physics Engg. Physics – II Course Material UNIT - I

 In the presence of electrical field, the electrons acquire some amount of energy from the
applied electric field and they begin to move towards the positive potential (in the opposite
direction to the applied electric field). As a result, these electrons acquire a constant average
velocity known as drift velocity it is explained in fig 1.3.

Free electrons

Fig. 1.3 Free electrons with external applied electric field

 Since the electrons are assumed tot be a perfect gas, they obey the laws of kinetic theory of
gasses

Hence, the free electrons can be assigned a mean free path, a mean collusion time and an average
speed.

Basic Definitions

Drift velocity(vd)

It is defined as the average acquired by the free electrons of a metal in a particular direction
by the application of an electrical field.

Mean free path()

The average distance traveled by a free electron between any two successive collisions in the
presence of an applied electrical field is known as mean free path.
Ti is the product of drift velocity of free electrons (vd) and collision time(C).

   d  c
Collision time(C)

The average time taken by a free electorn between any two successive collisions is known as
collision time.

It is expressed mathematically as c 
d
Where,  - mean free path
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Department of Physics Engg. Physics – II Course Material UNIT - I

vd - drift velocity

Relaxation time ()

The average time taken by a free electron to reach its equilibrium position from its disturbed
position due to the application of an external field is called relaxation time.

It other words, it’s the measure of time that the electrons can relax when the electrical field is
removed. It is approximately equal to 10 -14 second.

Electrical Conductivity ():

The amount of electrical charges conducted (Q) per unit time across unit area (A) of a
solid per unit applied electrical field (E) is called the electrical conductivity.

Q J
i.e,   
tAE E

 Q
If t = 1 second E = 1 volt A= 1 metre2

Where J is the current density and it is given by  Q 

 tA 
Also, J =  E (according to Ohm’s law).

1.3 ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY OF A METAL (Derivation)

( Based on Drude and Lorentz classical free electron theory)

When an electrical field (E) is applied on an electron of charge e of a rod, the electron moves in
opposite to the applied field with a velocity vd (fig. 1.4). This velocity is known as drift velocity.

Free electrons
Metallic rod

Fig. 1.4 Movement of electrons in a metallic rod

Lorentz force acting on the electron is FL = - eE …………..(1)

This is known as the driving force of the electron. Due to the applied electrical field, the electron
gains some acceleration ‘a’,
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Department of Physics Engg. Physics – II Course Material UNIT - I

Drift velocity(vd ) =
vd
i.e., Acceleration () = …………..(2)
Re laxation time( ) 
From the Newton’s second law of motion, the frictional force or opposing force on the electron is

Fr = mass of the electron (m)  acceleration ()

i.e., Fr = m …………..(3)

Substituting, equation (2) in equation (3), we have

mvd
Fr  …………..(4)

When the system is in steady state, the Lorentz force is equal and opposite to the frictional force ie.,

Fr = -FL

From equations (1) and (4),

mvd
 (eE)  eE

 e 
vd   eE …………..(5)
m
According to Ohm’s law, current density(J) is expressed as

J
J=E (or)  …………..(6)
E
Where  is the electrical conductivity of the electron.

But, the current density in terms of drift velocity is given as

J = ned …………..(7)

Substituting equation (5) in equation (7), we have

 e  J ne 2
J  ne  E (or )  …………..(8)
m E m
Comparing the equations (6) and (8), we have

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Department of Physics Engg. Physics – II Course Material UNIT - I

ne 2
Electrical conductivity  
m

Thermal Conductivity (K):

Thermal conductivity of a material is defined as the amount of heat flowing per unit time
through the material having unit area of cross-section per unit temperature gradient.

dT
i.e, QK
dx
Or Q
K 
dT
dx

Where K – Thermal conductivity of the material.

Q – Amount of heat flowing per unit time through unit cross-sectional area.

dT
- Temperature gradient.
dx
1.4 THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF A METAL (Derivation)

Consider two cross-sections A and B, where A at a high temperature (T) and B at low
temperature (T – dt ) in a uniform metallic rod AB (fig. 1.5). These two cross-sections are separated
by a distance  . The heat conduction takes place from A to B through the electrons.

T T - dT

A B

Fig. 1.5 Heat conduction in a metallic rod

Let the density of conduction electron be n and velocity of electrons be v.

During the collision, electrons near A lose their kinetic energy while electrons near B gain
kinetic energy.
3
At A, average kinetic energy of an electron = kT …………..(1)
2
1 3
( K.E. = mv2 = kT)
2 2

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Department of Physics Engg. Physics – II Course Material UNIT - I

where k is Boltzmann’s constant and

T is temperature at A.
At B, average kinetic energy of the electron

3
= k (T – dT) …………..(2)
2
The excess of kinetic energy carried by the electron from A to B

3 3
= kT - k (T – dT)
2 2
3 3 3 3
= kT - kT+ kdT = kdT …………..(3)
2 2 2 2
Number of electrons crossing unit area per unit
1
Time from A to B = nv.
6
The excess of energy carried left to right (A to B) for unit area in unit time

1 3 1
= nv  kdT = nvkdT …………..(4)
6 2 4
Similarly, the deficient of energy carried right to left from B to A in unit area in unit time

1
= - nvkdT …………..(5)
4
Hence, the net amount of energy transferred from A to B per unit area per unit time

1  1 
Q = nvkdT -   nvkdT 
4  4 

1 1
Q= nvkdT + nvkdT
4 4
1
Q= nvkdT …………..(6)
2
But from the basic definition of thermal conductivity, the amount of heat conducted per unit
area per unit time,
dT  dT 
Q=K
 Q  K ; here  dx 
 dx

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1 dT
ie., nvkdT  K
2 
1
 K= nvk …………..(7)
2
We know that for the metals

relaxation time (  ) = collision time (  c )


i.e.  c =
v
v   …………..(8)
Substituting equation (8) in equation (7), we have

1
K= nvkv
2
1 2
K= nv k …………..(9)
2
Equation (9) is the classical expression for the thermal conductivity of a metal.

1.5 WIEDEMANN – FRANZ LAW

Statement

It states that for metals, the ratio of thermal conductivity to electrical conductivity is
directly proportional to the absolute temperature. This ratio is a constant for all metals at a
given temperature.

K
i.e.,  T or K
 LT
 
where L is a proportionality constant. It is known as Lorentz number. Its value is 2.44  10-8
W  K-2 (quantum mechanical value ) at T = 293K.

Derivation

Widemann - Franz law is derived from the expressions of thermal conductivity and electrical
conductivity of a metal.
We know that
ne 2
Electrical conductivity of a metal  …………..(1)
m
1 2
Thermal conductivity of a metal K = nv k …………..(2)
2
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Department of Physics Engg. Physics – II Course Material UNIT - I

Thermal conductivity K 12 nv 2 k
 
Electrical conductivity  ne 2
m
K 1 mv 2 k
 …………..(3)
 2 e2
We know that the kinetic energy of an electron is
1 3
mv 2  kT …………..(4)
2 2
Substituting equation (4) in equation (3), we have

K 3 kT  k 3 k 2T
 
 2 e2 2 e2
2
K 3k 
(or)    T
 2 e
K
or  LT …………..(5)
2

Where L  3 

k  is a constant and it is known as Lorentz number.

2 e
K
or T …………..(6)

Thus, it is proved that the ratio of thermal conductivity to electrical conductivity of a metal is
directly proportional to the absolute temperature of the metal.

This law is verified experimentally and it is found to hold good at normal temperatures. But,
hti law is not obeyed at very low temperatures.

Conclusion
Wiedemann- Franz law clearly shows that if a metal has high thermal conductivity, it will
also have high electrical conductivity.
Among the metals, the best electrical conductors (silver, copper, aluminum) are also the best
conductors of heat.

1.6 LORENTZ NUMBER:

The ratio of thermal conductivity (K)of a metal to the product of electrical conductity() of the
metal is a constant. It is known as Lortenz number and it is given by

K
L
T
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2
Consider the expression L  3 

k .

2 e
Substituting the values of Boltzmann’s constant k=1.3810-23JK-1 and the charge of an electron
e=1.60210-19coulomb, we get Lorentz number as L=1.1210-8WΩK-2

Merits of classical free theory

(i) It is used to verify Ohm’s law.
(ii) It is used to explain the electrical and thermal conductivities of metals.
(iii) It is used to drive Wiedemann – Franz law.
(iv) It is used to explain the optical properties of metals.

1.7 DRAWBACKS OF CLASSICAL FREE ELECTRON THEORY (CFE)

Though the classical free theory has been successful in accounting for certain important
experimental facts such as electrical and thermal conductivities in metals, it failed to account for
many other experimental facts.

1. Contradication in the absorption of supplied energy

Classical theory states that all the free electrons will absorb the supplied energy; on contrary,
the quantum theory states that only a few electrons will absorb the supplied energy.

2. Fails to explain the properties of non-metals

Electrical conductivity and resistivity of non-metals such as semiconductors and insulators

are not explained by CFE theory. Band theory explains these concepts successfully for all
solids.

3. Fails to explain the concept of photo-electric effect, Compton effect and black body
radiation

The concept of photo-electric effect, Compton effect and black body radiation cannot be
explained on the basis of this theory because these phenomena are based on quantum theory.

4. Specific heat of solids

The molar specific heat of a gas at constant volume is,

3
Cv  R
2
But experimentally it was found that, the contribution to the specific heat of a metal by its
conduction electron is.
Cv  104 RT

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Thus the value of specific heat as per the prediction is much higher than the experimentally
observed value.

Also the theory predicts that the specific heat does not depends on temperature
whereas, it was found experimentally that the specific heat is proportional to
temperature.

5. Temperature dependence of electrical conductivity

It is experimentally observed that for metals, the electrical conductivity  is inversely

proportional to the temperature T.

1
i.e.,  exp 
T
But according to the main assumption of the classical free electron theory.

1

T
Now from the proportionality representations (1) and (2), it is clear that the prediction of
classical free electron theory is not agreeing with the experimental observations.

6. Paramagnetism of metals

Experimental fact is that the paramegnetism of metals is nearly independent of temperature.

This is not at all explained by this theory.

7. Widemann - Franz Law

K
This is a consequence of free electron theory. It gives the values of which is found to
T
agree with theoretical value at ordinary temperature, but deviations occurs at low
temperature.

1.8 QUANTUM FREE ELECTRON THEORY

The failures of classical theories were removed by Sommerfeld in 1928. This theory uses the
quantum concepts and hence it is known as the quantum free electron theory.

He applied Schrodinger’s wave equation and De-Broglie’s concept of matter waves to obtain the
expression for electron energies. He treated the problem quantum mechanically using Fermi -
Dirac statistics rather than the classical Maxwell - Boltzmann statistics

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Department of Physics Engg. Physics – II Course Material UNIT - I

Important Assumptions

 The potential of an electron is uniform or constant within the crystal

 The electrons posses wave nature.
 The allowed energy levels of an electron are quantized.
 The electrons are free to move within the crystal itself and they are restricted from leaving
the crystal due to potential barrier at its surfaces.

Merits of Quantum free electron theory

This theory treats the electron quantum mechanically, rather than classically. This theory
explains the electrically conductivity, thermal conductivity and specific heat capacity of metals,
photoelectric effect, Compton effect, etc.

Demerits of Quantum free electron theory

Even though it explains most of the physical properties of metals, it fails tot provides the
difference between metals, semiconductors and insulators.
It also fails to explain the positive value of Hall coefficient and some transport properties of
metals.

1.9 FERMI DISTRIBUTION FUNCTION

The classical and quantum free electron theories failed to explain many electrical and thermal
properties of the solids. However, these properties can be easily understood using Fermic –
Dirac statistics.
Fermi – Dirac statistics deals with the particles having half integral spin. The particles like
electrons are the examples of half integral spin and hence they are known as Fermi particles or
Fermions.

The expression which gives the distributions of electrons among the various energy levels, as a
function of temperature is known as Fermi distribution function.

Definition

Fermi distribution is the probability function F(E) of an electron occupying a given

energy level at absolute temperature. It is given by
1
F (E)   E  EF  / kT
1 e
Where

F(E) is called Fermi distribution (FD) function or Fermi function

E – Energy of the level whose occupancy is being considered;

EF - Energy of the Fermi level; (Fermi energy)
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 - Boltzmann’s constant;
T – Absolute temperature.
The probability value F(E) lies between 0 and 1. If F (E) = 1, the energy level is occupied by an
electron. If F (E) = 0, the energy level is vacant. If F (E) = 0.5 OR ½ then is a 50 % chance for
finding the electron in the energy level.

1.10 EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON FERMI FUNCTION

The dependence of Fermi distribution function on temperature and its effect on the occupancy of
energy level is shown in fig. 1.7 (a) and (b).

Case (i) Probability of occupation for E < EF at T = 0

1
F (E) 
1  e E  E F  / kT

When T = 0 K and E < EF , We have

1
F (E) 
1  e VE / 0 
1 1 1
F (E)    [e-=0]
1  e 1  0 1
 F(E) = 1

Thus at T = 0, there is 100% chance for the electrons to occupy the energy levels below the Fermi
level ie., below the Fermi energy level, all the levels are occupied with the electrons.

(ii) Probability of occupation for E > EF at T = 0

When T = 0 K and E > EF

1 1 1 1
F (E)     0
1  e VE / 0  1  e 
1  
 F(E) = 0

Thus there is 0% chance for the electrons to occupy energy level above Fermi energy level.
Ie, all energy levels above Fermi energy level are unoccupied.

From the Above two cases, at T= 0K the variation of F(E) for different energy values becomes a step
function, as shown in fig. 1.7 (a).

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Department of Physics Engg. Physics – II Course Material UNIT - I

T3 > T2> T1>0K

F(E) F(E) T3 T2 T1
1 T=0K 1 T=0K

0.5

0 E EF O EF E
(a) (b)

Fig.1.7 Variation of Fermi distribution function with E at different temperatures

Case (iii) Probability of occupation at ordinary temperature

At ordinary temperature, the value of probability starts, reducing from 1 for values of E
slightly less than EF

With the increase of temperature, i.e., T > 0 K, Fermi function F(E) varies with E as shown in fig.
1.7(b).
At any temperature other than 0K and E = EF,
1
F (E) 
1  e0
1 1
F (E)    0.5 [ e0  1]
11 2
Hence, there is 50% chance for the electron to occupy Fermi energy level. ie., the value of F
(E) becomes ½ at E = EF

The above result is used to define the Fermi energy level.

Further, for E > EF, the probability value falls off rapidly to zero (fig 1.7(b).

Case (IV) at high temperature

When T >> EF or T , the electrons lose their quantum mechanical character and Fermi
distribution function reduces to classical Boltzmann distribution.

Uses of Fermi distribution function

 It gives the probability of an electron occupying a given energy level at a given

temperature.
 It is very useful in the calculation of number of free electrons per unit volume at a
given temperature.
 Further, it is very useful in the calculation of Fermi energy of a metal.

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1.11 DENSITY OF ENERGY STATES

The ability of a metal to conduct electricity depends on the number of quantum states and also
the energy levels that are available for the electrons. Hence, it is essential to find the energy
states which are available for the occupation of the charge carriers.
Definition
Density of states is defined as the number of available electron states per unit volume in
an energy interval E and E + d E. It is denoted by Z(E) and its given by

Number of energy states in energy int erval EandE  dE in a metal piece( N ( E )dE )
Z ( E )dE 
Volume of the metal piece(V )

Calculation of Density of states in three dimensions (Derivation):

Let us consider a cubical sample with side ‘’. A sphere is constructed with the quantum
numbers nx, ny, nz as three coordinate axes in three-dimensional space as shown in fig. 1.8.
nz
E
E+dE

dn

nx

Fig. 1.8 Calculation of Density of states

A radius vector n is drawn from the origin ‘O’ to a point nx ,ny and nz in space and all the points on
the surface of that sphere will have the same energy E. Thus, denotes the radius of the
sphere with energy E.

This sphere is further divided into many shells. Each shell represents a particular combination of
quantum numbers (nx ,ny and nz) and therefore, it represents a particular energy value with a
particular radius. In this space, unit volume represents one energy state.

Number of energy states within

4 3
a sphere of radius n = n ……(1)
3
(Volume of the sphere)
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Since the quantum numbers nx ,ny and nz can have only positive integer values, we have to take
1
only one octant of the sphere, i.e., th of the spherical volume.
8
Therefore, the number of available energy states within one octant of the sphere of radius n
corresponding to energy E is
1 4 3 
n  …… (2)
8  3
=

Similarly, the number of number of available energy states within one octant of the radius n + dn
Corresponding to energy E + d E

1 4 3
 n  dn  …… (3)
8  3 
=

Now, the number of available energy states between the shell of radius n and n + dn (between the
energy values E and E + d E ) is found by subtracting equation (2) found equation (3). Thus we have

1  4  1  4  3
 n  dn   n   n
3 3
N(E) d E =
8 3  8 3 

1  4 
=
8 3 

  n  dn   n
3 3

  3
N(E) =  n  dn  3n dn  3ndn  n 
3 2 2 3

6

a  b 3
 a 3  b3  3a 2b  3ab2 
Since the dn is very small, the higher powers of dn are negligible. Therefore, the terms dn2 and dn3
are neglected.


 N ( E )dE  3n 2 dn
6

N ( E )dE  n 2 dn ….. (4)
2
We know that the energy of an electron in a cubical metal piece of sides a is given by

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n2h2
E= ……. (5)
8ma 2
2 8ma 2 E
Or n = …….. (6)
h2
1/ 2
2  8ma 2 E 
n = …….. (7)
Or

 h 
2

Differentiating equation (6), we get

2 8ma 2 dE
2n =
h2

8ma 2 dE
Or ndn  …….. (8)
2h 2
Equation (4) is rewritten as

N (E) dE = nndn ……..(9)
2
Substituting equation (7) and (8) in equation (9), we have

  8ma 2 E   8ma 2 dE 
1/ 2

N (E) dE =    
2 h2   2h
2


1   8ma 2 E   8ma 2 dE 
1/ 2

 
2 2  h 2   h 2 
=

  8ma 2 
1/ 2
 8ma 2 E 
  E  dE
1/ 2
=
4  h2   h 
2

  8ma 2 
1/ 2

 2  E dE
1/ 2
N(E) dE = …….(10)
4 h 
Pauli’s exclusion principle states that two electrons of opposite spins can occupy each state and
hence the number of energy states available for electron occupancy is given by

  8ma 2 
3/ 2

=2  2  E dE
1/ 2
N(E) dE
4 h 
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Department of Physics Engg. Physics – II Course Material UNIT - I

  8ma 
3/ 2

 2  a E dE
3 1/ 2
=
2 h 
4
= 3 2m a E dE
3/ 2 3 1/ 2
N(E) dE
h

 8m 8m8m
3/ 2 1/ 2


h  3 3/ 2
h3
=
4  2m4  2m 4  2m  2  (2m)1 / 2 8(2m) 3 / 2
1/ 2

   ]
h3 h3 h3
Density of states is given by the number of energy states per unit volume.

4
Z(E) dE = 3
2m 3/ 2 3
a E 1 / 2 dE .….(11)
h
This is the expression for the density of charge carriers in the energy interval E and E + d E. It is
used to calculate carrier concentration in metals and semiconductors.

1.12 CARRIER CONCENTRATION

Carrier concentration, i.e., the number of electrons per unit volume in a given energy interval is
calculated by summing the product of the density of states Z(E) and the occupancy probability F(E).

i.e., nc   Z E F E dE

Substituting the expression for Z(E) and F(E), we have

4 1
nc   2 m 3/ 2
E 1/ 2
dE …….(12)
h3 1  e E E F kT

Fermi energy

It is the energy of a state at which the probability of electron occupation is ½ (half) at

any temperature above 0k. It is the maximum energy of field states at 0k.

Expression for carrier concentration in terms of Fermi energy.

For a metal at absolute zero, the upper most occupied level is EF and all the levels are
completely filled below EF and all the levels are filled below EF,

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Department of Physics Engg. Physics – II Course Material UNIT - I

Therefore, F (E) = 1

for the energy levels E = 0 to E = EF

Now, the equation (12) reduces to

EF
4
nc   3
2m3 / 2 E 1 / 2 dE
0 h

4 E

nc  3 2m  E 1 / 2 dE
F
3/ 2

h 0

4
E
3/ 2  E 
3/ 2 F

nc  3 2m    0
h 3/ 2 
4
 3 2m
3/ 2 1
E 3 / 2 E 0 F

h 3/ 2
4
 3 2m
h
3/ 2 2

3
EF  0
3/ 2
 
8
i.e., nc  3
2mEF 3 / 2
3h
This equation is used to calculate carrier concentration in metals and semiconductors in terms
of Fermi energy.

Expression for energy

8
We know that nc 3
2mEF 3 / 2
3h
8
nc  3
(2m)3 / 2 ( EF )3 / 2
3h
 3nc   h 
3

  3/ 2 
 ( EF ) 3 / 2
 8   (2m) 
3/ 2

 3nc   h3  
  3/ 2 
 EF
 8   (2m)  
3/ 2

 3n   h  3

or, EF   c   3/ 2 
 8   (2m)  
3/ 2 3/ 2

 3nc   h 
3

EF     3/ 2 
 8   (2m) 
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Department of Physics Engg. Physics – II Course Material UNIT - I
3/ 2

 3nc   (h ) 
3 2/3

   3/ 2 2 / 3 
 8  [(2m) ] 
3/ 2

 h  3nc 
2

(or) EF    
 2m  8 
This is the expression for Fermi energy of electrons in solids at absolute zero. Thus, Fermi
energy of a metal depends only on the density of electrons of that metal.

When the temperature increases, Fermi level or Fermi energy slightly decreases.

  2  kT 
2

It can be shown that EF  EF o 1   
 12   EF

 
 o

Where
EFo is Fermi energy at 0k

T is absolute temperature

 is Boltzmann’s constant

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