Chapter (3)

THE ELECTRONIC STRUCTURES OF

ATOMS AND PERIODIC TABLE
 Introduction

What is matter?
What does it make of?
What is atom?
 Structure of atoms
• All matter is made up of atoms.
• Atoms are so tiny that it was not released
that atoms were in fact made up of
charged particles until about 1900AD.
• Dalton atomic model has replaced by the
new model.
 The New Model?

• Atoms are the smallest particles into

which an element can be divided.
• Atoms consist of three sub-atomic
particles called proton , neutron and
electron.
• They are also known as fundamental
particles.
Bohr’s Energy Levels
Properties of Fundamental Particle

Particles Symbol Relative Relative

mass charge
proton p 1 Positive
(+)
neutron n 1 Neutron
(0)
electron e 1/1837 Negative
(-)
 Proton , Electron , Neutron
Proton
A proton is a particle carrying a positive charge..

Neutron
A neutron is a particle carrying no charge and having
a mass similar to proton.

Electron
An electron is a particle carrying a negative charge
and having a very small mass.
Atom
• The mass of an electron is approximately
1/1837 times the mass of a proton.
• In an neutral atom , the number of protons
is equal to the number of electrons.
• Atoms are identified by the number of
protons in it .
• The proton number is referred to the
number of protons in the atom and is
referred to as the atomic number (Z) of
the element.
 What is proton number?
Proton Number
The number of protons in an atom is called
its proton number.

Note: Different elements have different

proton number or atomic number from each
other.
 Nucleus
Nucleus
The atom has a small , dense , positively
charged center called nucleus. It contains
proton(s) and neutron(s).
 Mass number or Nucleon number
The total number of proton and neutron is
also known as the nucleon number or mass
number(A).
Mass Number(A)
The mass number (A) of the element is the
sum of the number of protons and neutrons.
(or)
The total number of the nucleons in the
nucleus of an atom of that element.
Mass number(A) = no of proton + no of neutron
Nucleon number
The nucleon number of an element is total
number of protons and neutrons in the
nucleus of its atom.

Nucleon number = no of proton + no of neutron

Note : Outside and around the nucleus ,

electrons rapidly move in circular orbits. It
can be represented in the following figure.
 We can describe any elements in a short
way like this:

Mass number A
X symbol of element
Atomic number Z
 The atoms of the first 20 elements
Elements symbol Proton Electrons Neutrons Nucleon
number number
hydrogen H 1 1 0 1
helium He 2 2 2 4
lithium Li 3 3 4 7
beryllium Be 4 4 5 9
boron B 5 5 6 11
carbon C 6 6 6 12
nitrogen N 7 7 7 14
oxygen O 8 8 8 16
fluorine F 9 9 10 19
Elements Symbol Proton Electrons Neutrons Nucleon
number number

neon Ne 10 10 10 20
sodium Na 11 11 12 23
magnesiu Mg 12 12 12 24
m
aluminium Al 13 13 14 27
silicon Si 14 14 14 28
phosphoru P 15 15 16 31
s
sulphur S 16 16 16 32
chlorine Cl 17 17 18 35
argon Ar 18 18 22 40
potassium K 19 19 20 39
calcium Ca 20 20 20 40
 In Nucleus
• No of proton = no of electron
• Proton number = number of protons
=atomic number (Z)
• Nucleon number = Mass number(A)
• Nucleon number = no of proton + no of
neutron
• Mass number(A)= no of proton + no of
neutron
 Check Point
1) Name the particles that make up the atom.
2) Which particle has: (a) a positive charge? (b) no
charge? (c) almost no mass?
3) An atom has 9 protons. Which element is it?
4) What does this term mean? (a) proton number (b)
nucleon number
5) Name each of these atoms ,and say how many
protons , electrons , and neutrons it has:
12 16 24 35 27 40
C, O, Mg , Cl , Al , Ca
6 8 12 17 13 20
 Isotopes

• Not all atoms of an element are necessary

the same.
• All atoms of the same element have the
same number of protons.
• However, some atoms of an element have
different number of neutrons.
Isotopes
Isotopes are atoms with the same number
of protons but different number of neutrons.
(or)
Isotopes are the atoms of the same
element with different masses.
e.g. 38 39 238 235
(a) Cl , Cl (b) U , U
17 17 92 92
• With the help of mass spectrometer ,
some of the elements were found to
consist of a mixture of the atoms having
different masses.
• Mass spectrometer is a device used to
find out the masses of isotopes and their
relative abundance.
• It becomes a mean of measuring the
ionisation energy of all elements.
• Isotopes of the same element have the
same chemical properties but there are
some small differences in physical
properties.
• Some isotopes are radioactive whereas
some are non-radioactive.
• A carbon-14 atom is radioactive but
carbon-12 and carbon-13 are not
radioactive.
• Radioactive isotopes produce radiation.
• Some radiations are harmful but some can
be used for good.
• Most isotopes in the air and ground are
not radioactive.
 Isobars
• Some of the different elements have same
nucleon number .
• Different elements with different proton
number and same nucleon number.
• Isobars are the atoms with same mass
number but different atomic number.
• E.g., 40 40 40
Ar , K , Ca
18 19 20
 Review Exercises
1. How many electrons , protons, and neutrons
are present in the following atoms?
16 39 207
O, K , Pb
8 19 82
2. Select isotopes and isobars from the
following atoms . Give reasons.
39 238 27 16 235 39
K, U, Al , O , U , Cl
19 92 13 8 92 17
 Answers
Atoms Electrons Protons Neutrons
16 8 8 8
O
8
39 19 19 20
K
19
207 82 82 125
Pb
82
(2) 238 235
 Isotopes are U and U because they
92 92
have the same number of protons but different number
of neutrons. They are atoms of the same elements
with different masses.
39 39
Isobars are K and Cl because they are atoms
19 17
of different elements with the same mass number but
different atomic numbers.
 Electronic Structures
( Electron Configurations)
What is electronic structure?
The distribution of electrons in an atom of an
element is called the electronic structure.
The way in which electrons are arranged
around the nucleus of an atom is very
important because the electron arrangement
determines the chemical properties of the
atom.
The arrangement of electrons in an atom was
suggested in 1913 by Niels Bohr.
 (a) Main Shell

• Electrons move round the nucleus in

definite shells or orbits.
• Each shell is numbered 1,2,3,4, and so on ,
going outwards from the nucleus.
• They are also known as K shell , L shell , M
shell , N shell , and so on.
Diagrammatic Representation of the
Nucleus
 Each shell has different energy levels and
can contain a limited number of electrons.
 In general , the closer the shell is to the
nucleus , the lower is its energy.
 The farther the shell is to the nucleus , the
higher is its energy.
 The maximum number of electrons in
each shell = 2n2
 The Electron Shells in an Atom
( not to scale)

Shell number 1 `2 3 4
Main shell K L M N
Maximum number of 2 8 18 32
electrons
 (b) Sub-shells
• Each main shell is again divided into a
number of sub-shells ( orbitals) , s , p , d , f.
• The letters used for sub-shells notations;
s for sharp ; p for principle ; d for diffuse
and f for fundamental .
• The maximum number of electrons in s , p ,
d , f sub-shell is 2,6,10 and 14 ,
respectively..
The shell number 1 ( K shell ) has only ‘s’
sub-shell.
The shell number 2 ( L shell ) has ‘s , p’
sub-shells .
The shell number 3 ( M shell ) has ‘ s , p ,
d’ sub-shells.
The shell number 4 ( N shell ) has ‘ s , p, d ,
f’ sub-shells.
• The order of filling the
sublevels is given as:
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6
4s2 3d10 4p6 5s2 4d10
5p6 6s2 4f14 5d10
6p6….
 ( Arrangement of Electrons)

• Integer form
• Complete Electronic Structure( CES)
• Essential Electronic Structure (EES)
What is complete electronic structure?
The arrangement of all the electrons of an
atom of the element in appropriate sub-
shells is known as the complete electronic
structure.
What is essential electronic structure?
The representation of the arrangement of
valence electrons of an atom of the element
in appropriate sub-shells is called the
essential electronic structure.
Oxygen

• Integer form –
O ( 2.6)
• Complete Electronic
Structure (CES) –
1s2 2s2 2p4
• Essential Electronic
Structure EES –
2s2 2p4
Nitrogen
• Integer Form –
N ( 2.5)
• Complete Electronic
Structure (CES) –
1s2 2s2 2p3
• Essential Electronic
Structure (EES) –
2s2 2p3
Carbon
• Integer Form –
C ( 2.4)
• Complete Electronic
Structure (CES)-
1s2 2s2 2p2
• Essential Electronic
Structure (EES)-
2s2 2p2
Phosphorus
• Integer Form –
P ( 2.8.5)
• Complete Electronic
Structure (CES)-
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2
3p3
• Essential Electronic
Structure (EES) –
3s2 3p3
Boron
• Integer Form –
B ( 2.3)
• Complete Electronic
Structure (CES) –
1s2 2s2 2p1
• Essential Electronic
Structure (EES) –
2s2 2p1
Calcium
• Integer Form - ?
• CES - ?
• EES - ?
Sulphur
• Integer Form - ?
• CES – ?
• EES - ?
Chlorine
• Integer Form - ?
• CES - ?
• EES - ?
Fluorine
• Integer Form - ?
• CES - ?
• EES - ?
Lithium
• Integer Form -?
• CES -?
• EES - ?
Beryllium
• Integer Form - ?
• CES - ?
• EES - ?
Argon
• Integer Form - ?
• CES - ?
• EES -?
Neon
• Integer Form -?
• CES - ?
• EES - ?
Sodium
• Integer Form - ?
• CES -?
• EES -?
 (d) Valence of the Element
(Combining Capacity)
Outer Shell( Valence Shell)
The shell which is furthest from the nucleus is
called the outer shell . It is also called the
valence shell.
Outer Electron ( Valence Electron)
The electrons in the outermost shell are
known as outer electrons or valence electrons.
These electrons are involved in chemical
reactions.
Valence
Valence is the number of electrons in the
outermost shell when the number of
electrons in the outermost shell is 4 or less .
 The number of outermost shell electron ≤4 ,
Valence =number of outermost shell
electrons
 The number of outermost shell electron>4,
Valence = 8-number of outermost shell
electrons
For examples:
(1)Na ( 2.8.1)
CES = 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1
EES = 3s1
Number of valence electrons = 1
valence =1
(2) Ca (2.8.8.2)
CES = 1s2 2s22p6 3s23p6 4s2
EES =4s2
Number of valence electron = 2
valence = 2
(3) B ( 2.3)
CES = 1s2 2s2 2p1
EES = 2s2 2p1
Number of valence electron = 3
valence = 3
(4) S (2.8.6)
CES = 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p4
EES =3s2 3p4
Number of valence electron = 6
valence = 8-6 = 2
(5) Cl ( 2.8.7)
CES = 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p5
EES = 3s2 3p5
Number of valence electron = 7
valence = 8-7=1
 Check Point

1. Li (2.1)
2. Be(2.2)
3. C ( 2.4)
CES , EES , Number of
4. F ( 2.7) valence electron,Valence?
5. Mg ( 2.8.2)
6. Al ( 2.8.3)
7. Si ( 2.8.4)
8. Ar ( 2.8.8)
9. K ( 2.8.8.1)
10.N ( 2.5)
 Review Question
Element Integer Complete electronic Essential Valence
electronic structure electronic
structure structure
Li 1s2 2s1 2s1
B 1s2 2s2 2p1 3
Na 2.8.1 3s1
Al 2.8.3 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p1
2.8.8.1 4s1
2.8.7 3s2 3p5
 The Periodic Table

 The periodic table was devised in 1869 by the

Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleev
( 1834-1907) .
 His periodic table was based on the chemical
and physical properties of the 63 elements that
had been discovered at that time.
 The Periodic Table is a list of chemical element
arranged in order of atomic number in rows ,
so that elements with similar electronic
structures appear in vertical column.
Periodic Table
In the modern Periodic Table,
 There are 118 known elements arranged in
order of increasing atomic number.
 There are 18 vertical columns and 7
horizontal rows.
 The vertical columns are called groups.
 The horizontal rows are called periods.
 Those elements with similar chemical
properties are found in the same columns
or groups.
Alkali metals
Group I elements ( expect hydrogen) are
called alkali metals.
E.g., Li , Na , K , Rb , Cs , Fr
Alkaline earth metals
Group II elements are called alkaline earth
metals.
E.g., Be , Mg , Ca , Sr , Ba , Ra
Halogens
Group VII elements are called the halogens.
They are salt formers.
E.g., F , Cl , Br , I , At , Ts
Noble gases or Inert gases
Group 0 elements are called the noble
gases or inert gases.
E.g., He , Ne , Ar , Kr , Xe , Rn , Og
 Group I and II consist of s-block elements .
 Group III , IV , VI , VII , and group 0 consist
of p-block elements.
 Transition elements are d-block elements.
 Inner transition elements ( lanthanides
and actinides series ) , also known as rare
earth elements are the f-block elements.
 Review Question
• You are given the following elements: A to G
represent elements.
10A 17B 3C 9D 11E 18F 19G
a. Write down the electronic structures of
these elements.
b. Which elements are alkali metals?
c. Which elements are noble gases?
d. Which elements are halogens?
e. Which elements are s-block elements?
 Answers
a. Electronic structures
A( 2.8) , B ( 2.8.7) , C ( 2.1) , D( 2.7) ,
E( 2.8.1) , F ( 2.8.8) , G ( 2.8.8.1)
b. Alkali metals = C , E , G
c. Noble gases = A , F
d. Halogens = B , D
e. s-block elements = C, E ,G
 Periodic Properties
• The Periodic Table can be used to predict
the properties of elements .
• Different elements have different periodic
properties , such as metallic and non-
metallic character , electronegativity , size ,
ionisation energy and electron affinity of
the elements.
Periodic Properties
 a) Metallic and Non-metallic Character
In Periodic Table , the elements change in
properties from metals to non-metals. The Periodic
Table can be divided into two as shown by the red
line that starts beneath boron.
All metals to the left of the red line are metals.
The elements to the right of the red line are non-
metals.
For along each side of the red line are elements
that have the properties of both metals and non-
metals . These elements except Al are called
metalloids.
Hydrogen is also a non-metal.
 Metallic Character
Metallic character is the tendency of an atom to
lose an electron.
Metals are lose electrons to form cations .
Trend of metallic elements
Metallic character increases going from right to
left because metals are on the left side of the
Periodic Table and they have fewer protons in their
nucleus that are holding in the outer electrons.
It increases going down because there is more
repulsion , so outer electrons are easier to lose.
Metallic Character
 Non-metallic Character
Non-metallic character is the tendency o fan atom
to gain an electron.
Non-metals are gained electrons to form anions.
Trend of non-metallic elements
It increases going right because non-metals are on
the right side of the Periodic Table and they have
more protons in their nucleus that attract outer
electrons.
It increases going up because there are less
electron energy levels and therefore a greater
attraction to the nucleus for electrons.
Non-metallic Character
 (b) Electronegativity

Definition;
Electronegativity is a measure of the
tendency of an atom to attract a bonding
pair of electron; the higher the
electronegativity , the greater is an atom’s
attraction for electrons.
 Trends of electronegativity
Electronegativity of elements increase
from left to right across a period and the
bottom of a group to the top.
Electronegativity of elements decrease
from right to left across a period and the top
of a group to the bottom.
Increase
Decrease
Electronegativity
Electronegativity
 For Example
• Electronegativity increases from left to
right in a row and from bottom to top of a
column.

Na Mg (2.8.2)
(2.8.1) ( higher)
K(2.8.8.1) Ca
(lower) (2.8.8.2)
Atoms which high electronegativity tend
to form negative ions (e.g., fluorine ,
oxygen).
Atoms which low electronegativity , which
is highly electropositive elements ( e.g.,
caesium , potassium ) tend to from
positive ions.
Metals are the electropositive elements.
They tend to lose electrons and form
positive ions.
Non-metals are the electronegative
elements. They tend to gain electrons and
form negative ions.
The most electronegative element is
fluorine and the least electronegative( the
most electropositive) element is caesium.
The noble gases or inert gases are neither
electropositive nor electronegative. It is
because they have very stable electronic
structures and have tendency to gain or
lose electrons.
Question Form; Are the noble gases or inert
gases electropositive or electronegative?
Why?
 Extended Note
Why is fluorine the most electronegative
element?
Fluorine is the most electronegative
element because it has 2s2 2p5 essential
electron configuration. It is so closed to
noble gas (Ne) electron configuration ( 2s2
2p6) , thus the electrons are held tightly to
the nucleus.
 (c) Sizes
• Atomic Sizes ( Atomic Radii)
Atomic radius is a measure of a neutral
atom’s size based on the radius of a sphere.
Atomic Size
 Trends of Atomic Sizes
Atomic radii decrease from left to right across a
period. This is because as you move across a period
from left to right , an atom has more number of
protons and therefore its electrons become slightly
more tight and more compact.
Ongoing from left to right across a period , the
nuclear charge increases while the added electrons
enter the outermost shell.
The increased nuclear charge attracts the electrons
in the outermost shell closer to the nucleus. Hence ,
the shell contrasts resulting in smaller atoms.
 The atomic radii increase from top to
bottom down a group in the Periodic Table.
This is because there are more energy
levels of electrons and therefore more
repulsion between electrons.
 As the number of electrons increases ,
these additional electrons are in the larger
electron shells make farther and farther
from the nucleus.
 Hence , the shell expands resulting in larger
atoms.
 Example
• Atomic radii increase from right to left in a
row and from top to bottom of a column.

Na Mg
(lower)
K Ca
(higher)
Atomic Sizes

Decrease

Increase
Atomic Sizes
 Ionic Sizes
When one or more electrons are removed from a
metal atom , a positive ion ( a cation) is formed.
E.g., Fe - 1e Fe+
(Parent atom) ( positive ion)
Both a positive ion and the parent neutral atom
have the same nuclear charges.
There is a lesser number of electrons in the
positive ion.
Hence , the repulsion between electrons is reduced
in the positive ion.
Thus , a positive ion is always smaller than its
parent atoms.
 When one or more electrons are added to a
neutral atom , a negative ion ( an anion) is formed.
E.g., I + 1e I–
Parent atom Anion
Both a negative ion and the parent neutral atom
have the same nuclear charges.
There is a greater number of electrons in the
negative ion.
Hence , the repulsion between electrons is
increased in the negative ion.
Thus , a negative ion is always larger than its
parent atom.
 Examples
• Select the one which has the largest radius . Give
reasons.
(a) Fe , Fe2+ , Fe3+
Fe is a parent atom.
Fe2+ is formed by removal of two electrons from Fe atom.
Fe3+ is formed by removal of three electrons from Fe
atom.
They have the same nuclear charges.
Number of electrons Fe>Fe2+>Fe3+
Repulsion between electrons Fe>Fe2+>Fe3+
Size Fe>Fe2+>Fe3+
Fe has the largest radius.
(b) Cl , Cl - , Cl 2-
Cl is a parent atom.
Cl- is formed by addition of one electron to Cl
atom.
Cl2- is formed by addition of two electrons to Cl
atom.
They have the same the nuclear charges.
Number of electrons Cl 2->Cl - > Cl
Repulsion between electrons Cl 2- > Cl - > Cl
Size Cl 2- > Cl - > Cl
Cl2- has the largest radius.
 (d)Ionization Energy
The amount of energy required to remove an electron
from a gaseous atom to form a gaseous ion is called
the ionization energy.
These electrons are held strongly within the atom by
the attraction of the nucleus.
The ionization process can be expressed in an
equation.
element(g) + ionisation energy cations (g)+
electron
M (g) + energy M+ (g) + e-
 Ionisation energies measure how tightly
electrons are bound to atoms.
Low ionisation energies indicate ease of
removal of electrons.
As ionisation energy (I) increases , atoms are
harder to ionise.
Successive ionisation for electrons are
represented by I , ( i= 1,2,3….)
I1 < I2 < I3 < …..
This is because , the nuclear charge increases
across a period and the electrons are more
strongly held by the force of attraction between
the nucleus and the electrons.
Trends of Ionisation Energy
 Ionisation energy increase from lift to right
across a period.
This is because , the nuclear charge
increases across a period and the electrons
are more strongly held by the force of
attraction between the nucleus and the
electrons.
Therefore , more energy is required to
remove an electron from the element.
 Ionization energy decrease from top to
bottom down a group.
This is because the atomic size increases
and the outermost electron is farther from
the nucleus making it easier to remove it.
Therefore , less energy is required to
remove an electron from the element.
 The noble gases have the highest
ionisation energies.
This is because the noble gases are known
to have the closed electronic structures (
the octet) which resist the removal of
electrons.
 Example
Ionisation energies increase from left to
right in a row and from bottom to top of a
column.

Na Mg
( higher)
K Ca
(lower)
 (e) Electron Affinity

The electron affinity of an element is the

energy released when an electron is added
to a gaseous atom to form a gaseous ion.
Element(g) + electron anion(g) +
energy
X (g) + e- X-(g) +energy
Trends of Electron Affinity
 The electron affinities generally increase
from left to right across a period.
This is because the size of the atom
increase decreases and the electron being
added goes to lower shells.
The electron affinities decrease from top to
bottom down a group.
This is because the size of the atom
increases and the electron being added
goes to higher shells.
 Example
Electron affinity increases from left to right
in a row and from bottom to top of a column.

O
(higher)
P S
(lower)
 Review Questions
1. From the following groups , select the
one which has the largest radius . Give
reasons.
a) Fe2+ , Fe3+
b) Cl , Cl-
c) Li , Na , K
d) C, N, O
 Answers for(1)
(a) Fe2+ , Fe3+
Fe2+ is formed by removal of two electrons from Fe atom.
Fe3+ is formed by removal of three electrons from Fe atom.
They both have the same nuclear charges.
Number of electrons Fe2+ > Fe3+
Repulsion between electrons Fe2+ > Fe3+
Size Fe2+ > Fe3+
Therefore Fe2+ has the largest radius.
(b) Cl , Cl-
Cl is a parent atom.
Cl- is formed by addition of one electron to Cl atom.
They both have the same nuclear charges.
Number of electrons Cl- > Cl
Repulsion between electrons Cl- > Cl
Size Cl- > Cl
Therefore , Cl- has the largest radius.
(c) Li , Na , K
Li ( 2.1) , Na ( 2.8.1) , K( 2.8.8.1)
They are in the same group. Atomic radius
increases from top to bottom in a group.
Therefore, K has the largest radius.
(d) C , N , O
C ( 2.4) , N ( 2.5) , O ( 2.6)
They are in the same period. Atomic
radius decreases from left to right across a
period.
Therefore, C has the largest radius.
(2) Explain which of the following elements
has the highest ionisation energy:
(a) 2.8.1 (b) 2.8.5 (c) 2.8.8
(3) Arrange the following elements in order
of their increasing electronegativity:
oxygen, carbon, fluorine, nitrogen
 Answers for (2,3)
(2) (a) 2.8.1 (b) 2.8.5 (c) 2.8.8
They are in the same period . Ionization energy increases
from left to right across a period.
Therefore , (c) 2.8.8 has the highest ionisation energy.
(3) Carbon, nitrogen, oxygen , fluorine

Increasing electronegativity
Because electronegativity increases from left to right
across a period.
 Bonds Between Atoms
There are two main ways of forming
chemical bonds between atoms: ionic
bonding and covalent bonding.
And there is another important type of
chemical bonding , called metallic bonding .
This is only found in metals.
Metallic Bond
The bond found in metals is called the
metallic bond.
 Formation of Bonds
The electronic structures of noble gases are very
stable and unreactive , so they do not need to lose or
gain any extra electrons to fill up their outermost shells.
• Atoms of most other elements are reactive.
• They combine with other atom to form molecules or
compounds.
• In forming a chemical bond, atoms gain , lose or
share electrons in such a way to attain the stable
electronic structures of the noble gases i.e., to have
eight electrons in the outermost shell . This is known
as the octet rule.
• Noble gases have octet electron configuration.
• Helium has a duplet electron configuration.
 (b) Ions Formation
An ion is formed when an atom loses or gains
electrons , so that it has a charge on it.
Ions
A charged particle is an ion.
Cation
Cation is a positively charged ion.
Metals tend to lose electrons to form positively
charged ions ( cations).
Anion
Anion is a negatively charged ion.
Non-metals tend to gain electrons to form negatively
charged ions ( anions).
 Ionic Bond
An ionic bond is formed when there is
complete transfer of an electron or electrons
from one atom to another resulting in the
formation of cations and anions . These
oppositely charged ions are held by a force of
electrostatic attraction known as ionic bond.
Ionic Bond = Metals + Non-metals
Compounds that contain ionic bonds are
called ionic compounds.
Examples
 (d) Covalent Bond
A covalent bond is formed by the sharing of
electron between two atoms by weak
intermolecular forces of attraction.
Covalent bonds are formed when non-metal
reacts with one another.
The bond can be formed between atom of the
same element ( e.g., H2 , O2 and N2 molecule) or
between atoms of the different elements ( e.g.,
CO2 , H2O , NH3 , and CH4)
 When a pair of electrons is shared , a
single covalent bond is formed.
When two pairs of electrons are shared , a
double covalent bond is formed.
Dot-cross diagrammatic representation is
used to explain more explicitly for the bond
formation between atoms.
(i) Covalent bond in same elements

• H2 molecule contains a single covalent

bond.
Chlorine
• O2 molecule contain a double covalent
bond.
• N2 molecule contains a triple covalent
bond.
 (ii) Covalent bond in different
element

When atoms of different elements are

joined together by covalent bonding , a
covalent compound or molecular compound
is formed.
• CO2 molecule
• H2O molecule
• NF3 molecule
(e) The Physical Properties of Ionic
and Covalent Compounds

The physical properties of compounds

depend on the type of bonding in the
compounds. The physical properties of
ionic and covalent compounds are shown in
Table as follow;
No. Ionic Compound
1 Ionic compounds do not
contain molecules. They
consist of aggregates of
oppositely charged ions.
2 Ionic compounds are solids
and do not vaporise easily.
3 They conduct electricity when
molten or in aqueous solution.
4 Most ionic compounds have
high melting points and high
boiling points.
5 Most ionic compounds are
soluble in water but not usually
soluble in organic solvents
such as toluene , ether ,
benzene , etc.
Covalent Compound
Covalent compounds consist of
molecules.
Simple covalent compounds are
gases or volatile liquids ( e.g.,
ammonia , carbon dioxide ,
ethanol).
Most of simple covalent
compounds do not conduct
electricity.
Simple covalent compounds
have low melting points and low
boiling points.
Simple covalent compounds are
usually insoluble in water and
soluble in covalent organic
solvents , such as toluene , ether
benzene, etc.
 Review Questions
1) Lithium has the electronic structure 2.1 .
Fluorine has the electronic structure 2.7 .
Lithium and fluorine react together to
form an ionic lithium fluoride. Draw
arrangement of electrons in fluorine and
lithium . Explain how ionic bond is
formed in lithium fluoride.
 Answer

• Lithium reacts with fluorine to form lithium

fluoride. In this reaction , a lithium atom
loses an electron to become a lithium ion,
Li+ . The electron is taken by a fluorine
atom to become a fluoride ion , F- . There
is transfer of an electron from lithium
atom to the fluorine atom.
2) Carbon has the electronic structure 2.4 ,
Chlorine has the electronic structure 2.8.7 .
Draw the structure of the compound formed
between carbon and chlorine.