Module 1+2

Basic Terms, Classification of seismic

waves, Earthquake Hazard
 Basic Terms

• Fault line: A fault line is a fracture along

which the crust has moved
• Focus: the hypocenter or focus is the
point inside the earth where an
earthquake rupture starts. It is often
confused with epicenter, which is the is
the point directly above it at the surface
of the Earth, where the quake is usually
felt most strongly.
• Epicenter: The point on the Earth's
surface vertically above the point (focus
or hypocenter) in the crust where an
earthquake occurs, i.e. where the seismic
rupture nucleates.
• Focal Depth: It is the depth from the
Earth's surface to the region where an
earthquake's energy originates (the
hypocenter or focus).
•Shallow earthquake: Focal depths <70 km
•Intermediate earthquakes: 70 km<Focal
Depth<300 km
•Deep earthquakes: Focal Depth>300 km
The foci of most earthquakes are
concentrated in the crust and upper
mantle up to a depth of 700km.
• Peak Ground Acceleration (PGA) is
equal to the maximum ground
acceleration that occurred
during earthquake shaking at a
location. PGA is equal to the
amplitude of the largest absolute
acceleration recorded on
an accelerogram at a site during a
particular earthquake.
• Seismic Zoning can be defined as a
process by which areas are
subdivided into seismic zones
based on expected of ground
motion, which is expressed in
terms of peak horizontal ground
acceleration (PGA) or peak ground
velocity (PGV)
• Micro zoning: Very small-
scale zoning, especially in order to
map small seismic zones
 What are Seismic Waves?

• Seismic waves are caused by

the sudden movement of
materials within the Earth, such
as slip along a fault during an
earthquake. Volcanic eruptions,
explosions, landslides,
avalanches, and even rushing
rivers can also cause seismic
waves. Seismic waves travel
through and around the Earth
and can be recorded with
seismometers.

Based on the medium they travel

in, earthquake waves can be
classified under two categories:
• Body waves
• Surface waves
1. Surface waves are those waves that travel on the surface of the earth. The
destruction caused by earthquakes is primarily done by these waves. Also called
Rayleigh waves.
2. Body waves are those waves that travel through the earth. They originate at the
epicenter of the earthquake and travel through the earth at amazing speeds. There
are two types of body waves namely,
• P waves
• S waves
• P waves or Primary waves are
the first waves to hit the
seismographs when an
earthquake strikes. They are
longitudinal waves which means
that the direction of motion and
propagation are the same.
• S waves also called secondary
waves and shear waves, are the
second waves to hit the
seismographs. They are
transverse waves, which means
that the motion is perpendicular
to the direction of wave
propagation. S waves can only
travel through solids and
scientists have been successful
to map the interior of the earth
by studying the routes of these
waves.
 Earthquake Hazards
• The Effect of Ground Shaking: The first main
earthquake hazard (danger) is the effect of
ground shaking. Buildings can be damaged by
the shaking itself or by the ground beneath
them settling to a different level than it was
before the earthquake (subsidence).

• Liquefaction : Buildings can even sink into the

ground if soil liquefaction
occurs. Liquefaction is the destabilization of One side of this Anchorage street dropped drastically
during the 1964 Good Friday earthquake.
sand or soil when groundwater is forced out
from between grains during the shaking of a
moderate or strong earthquake. If liquefaction
occurs under a building, it may start to lean, tip
over, or sink several feet. The ground firms up
again after the shaking has stopped.
Liquefaction is a hazard in areas that have
groundwater near the surface and sandy soil.

These buildings in Japan toppled when the soil

underwent liquefaction.
 Earthquake Hazards
• Ground Displacement: Another main earthquake hazard
is ground displacement (ground movement) along a fault. If
a structure (a building, road, etc.) is built across a fault, the
ground displacement during an earthquake could seriously
damage or rip apart that structure.
• Flooding: The fourth main hazard is flooding. An
earthquake can rupture (break) dams or levees along a
river. The water from the river or the reservoir would then
flood the area, damaging buildings and maybe sweeping
away or drowning people. Tsunamis and seiches can also
cause a great deal of damage. It is a huge wave caused by
an earthquake under the ocean. Seiches are like small
tsunamis.
 Earthquake Hazards
• Fire: Fires can be started by broken gas lines and power lines, or tipped over wood or
coal stoves. They can be a serious problem, especially if the water lines that feed the
fire hydrants are broken, too. For example, after the Great San Francisco Earthquake
in 1906, the city burned for three days. Most of the city was destroyed and 250,000
people were left homeless. Most of the hazards to people come from man-made
structures themselves and the shaking they receive from the earthquake. The real
dangers to people are being crushed in a collapsing building, drowning in a flood
caused by a broken dam or levee, getting buried under a landslide, or being burned in
a fire.

San Francisco burning

after the 1906
earthquake.