3RT20_Layout(543_568) 10/14/02 3:29 PM Page 543

20
C H A P T E R

Aerospace Applications of
Radiographic Testing1

Lisa Brasche, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa

Donald J. Hagemaier, Huntington Beach, California
3RT20_Layout(543_568) 10/14/02 3:29 PM Page 544

PART 1. Film Radiography of Aviation

Components

Radiography inspection plays a critical missiles and the beginning of the space
role in the life cycle management of shuttle program. These advances placed
aviation components with applications new demands on radiographic testing.
during production and service. Initial
applications of radiography to aerospace
inspections occurred over 50 years ago.
During the years from 1955 to 1965, the Automated Inspection5,6
aircraft industry produced the first Computers are used in all aspects of
commercial jet transports with expansion inspection, for data gathering, processing,
in the aerospace field to ballistic missiles, transmission and storage. Automation of
research rocket aircraft and the beginning radiographic testing can take any of
of manned space flight. The rapid growth several forms.6
in engineered systems placed new
demands on nondestructive testing.2,3
Initial routine applications used
radiographic testing to check castings and FIGURE 2. Radiograph showing corrosion in bonded
weldments for discontinuities as part of honeycomb.
fabrication quality control.4,5 Many small,
lightweight aluminum castings were
inspected semiautomatically by
fluoroscopy. Nationally, commercial
aircraft and military aircraft were Water filled honeycomb cells
periodically X-rayed to detect fatigue Corrosion in honeycomb
cracks (Fig. 1) and corrosion (Fig. 2).
Lightweight portable X-ray machines were
not available at this time, which required
specialized designs like the boom
mounted, mobile X-ray unit (Fig. 3) that
allowed placement of the X-ray source in
the proper position for each exposure. It
was especially useful for radiography of
wings and empennage structures. In the
1970s, the aerospace industry was
engaged in the moon projects, wide body
commercial transports, research and
military satellites, advanced ballistic FIGURE 3. Mobile X-ray system.

FIGURE 1. Radiograph showing cracks at door corner.

Skin crack

End of titanium crack

Frame crack

Jamb crack

544 Radiographic Testing

3RT20_Layout(543_568) 10/14/02 3:29 PM Page 545

1. Radioscopic inspection may take place 203 mm (8.0 in.) wide, at a 1.22 m
in assembly lines for mass production (48 in.) source-to-film distance. Table 1
of components, such as printed compares the techniques used.
circuits, that are later integrated into In-motion radiography has also been
aircraft. used for liquid hydrogen tanks in solid
2. Robotic inspection calls for rocket motors (Fig. 5).
programmed control of test object
position, including loading into,
orientation with and offloading from
test system. Flight Test Aircraft
3. Automatic inspection involves Inspection7
programmed manipulation and
indexing of source or sensor system Applications also include a nondestructive
components relative to a test object testing unit to perform inspections of
in situ. flight test passenger jet aircraft. To address
issues that arise with performing
nondestructive testing in the field, such as
In-Motion Radiography5 the transportation of equipment to the
job, a mobile laboratory was designed
Applications of radiography have involved specifically to house portable equipment
inspection in support of the manufacture and to serve as an X-ray film processing
of intermediate range ballistic missiles. A darkroom. The system was used for
major problem is to provide techniques inspection of jetliners and military
for the X-ray inspection of large tank aircraft. An elaborate, accelerated test
weldments — imperative to meet schedule program was undertaken during the flight
requirements for reliability, to make test phase of the passenger jet in 1957.
timely delivery of missile components and
to keep costs commensurate with those of
an average product development.
In-motion radiography of weldments FIGURE 4. In-motion radiography of welded steel tanks:
in one case has required that an X-ray (a) schematic; (b) photograph.
facility be built and special equipment
(a)
designed or purchased. In the absence of travel
riage
packaged strip film, engineers have tion of car
Direc
designed and built a machine to cassette
70 mm roll film. The technique consists Weld
of placing two rod anode X-ray tubes on a Aft X-ray tube with
boom and porting the X-rays through an restricted aperture
aperture that projects a narrow beam to
the longitudinal welds of the tank. The
welded tank was placed on a carriage that
rode a track anchored on the floor of the Forward X-ray tube
exposure room (Fig. 4). An electrical with restricted
variable speed drive propelled the carriage aperture
Weld
and tank along the track at a speed of
0.15 m·min–1 (0.5 ft·min–1). 70 mm (2.8 in.) strip
Simultaneously, the three longitudinal film outside shell
weldments were exposed to the X-ray
beams.
Two 150 kV X-ray units were used to 70 mm (2.8 in.) film
reduce the exposure time by half. One outside three welds
tube was located at the end of the boom
(b)
and a second was located half the tank
length behind it. With this arrangement,
it was necessary to propel the tank only
half its length to obtain complete
exposure of the three longitudinal welds.
The aft X-ray tube was positioned inside
the boom to compensate for the two
different tank lengths. The carriage drive
mechanism and X-ray machines were
synchronized to operate simultaneously
when the start button was pushed in the
control room. Three lead ports were used
to restrict the X-ray beams to the three
longitudinal welds. The slits in the port
ends were 3.2 mm (0.13 in.) long and
25.4 mm (1.00 in.) wide, producing a
beam 25.4 mm (1.00 in.) long and

Aerospace Applications of Radiographic Testing 545

3RT20_Layout(543_568) 10/14/02 3:29 PM Page 546

TABLE 1. Comparison of techniques used for in-motion radiography of longitudinal welds.

Distance from Focal
Thickness
______________ Length
____________ Point to Sensor
Voltage Amperage ___________________ Travel
__________________
Material mm (in.) m (ft) (kV) (mA) m (in.) mm·s–1 (in.·min–1)

2014 aluminum 9.53 (0.375) 6.1 (20.0) 90 15.0 1.22 (48) 2.5 (6.0)
2014 aluminum 9.53 (0.375) 4.6 (15.1) 90 15.0 1.22 (48) 2.5 (6.0)
4340 steel 2.29 (0.090) 3.7 (12.1) 150 3.5 0.46 (18) 1.7 (4.0)
4340 steel 1.65 (0.065) 2.0 (6.6) 140 3.5 0.46 (18) 1.9 (4.5)
4340 steel 3.81 (0.150) 4.3 (14.1) 160 4.0 0.51 (20) 1.5 (3.5)

The equivalent of 40 to 120 years of

endurance (depending on the type of FIGURE 5. In-motion radiography of liquid
operation) under simulated service loads hydrogen tanks: (a) X-ray tube, collimating
was imposed on the test specimens. In slit and drive mechanism; (b) film transport
this way, damage propagation rates and mechanism for stop frame radiographic
failsafe characteristics of the structure system used on forward dome.
were studied under deliberately prolonged
exposures to fatigue beyond that (a)
permissible in actual service. From this
information, the company decided what
areas to survey with nondestructive
testing.
The passenger jet was X-rayed to
ascertain that all extraneous material
(debris) had been removed from all
control surfaces — ailerons, flaps,
elevators, rudder and vertical or
horizontal stabilizers. It required 480 films
of 360 by 430 mm (15 × 17 in.) each to
cover the necessary areas. The airplanes
were then turned over to a testing
division for evaluation and certification.
In flight tests aircraft were subjected to
stress levels above those normally (b)
encountered in regular service. Hence, all
critical areas were periodically surveyed
100 percent. The technician placed the
film on one side of the vertical stabilizer
and then moved the bucket to the
opposite side to make the exposure
(Fig. 6).
The closed areas and control surfaces of
jet aircraft are also radiographed for debris
or discontinuities as part of final assembly
inspection. Figure 7a shows the placement
of 360 by 430 mm film over the structure
to be inspected. The X-ray source is
positioned to expose a large area of the
assembly, as shown in Fig. 8. The film is
read and discrepancies are reported. The
area is opened up and the debris is
removed and compared with the object
indicated by the film images. Typical
debris includes tools, springs, wire clips, and workmanship errors consisting of
flashlights, nuts, bolts and paint brushes. inadequate rivet shank-to-hole fit and
Routine inspection for fabrication short hole-to-edge distances. Radiographs
errors or discontinuities in closed areas is of aircraft structure contain a wide range
accomplished simultaneously with the of densities and complicated geometrical
debris survey. Defective areas are reported images.
and corrective action is implemented. Aircraft X-ray inspection can readily
Film evaluation and corrective action are locate the following discrepancies: cracks,
performed in the shortest possible time. corrosion, double drilled holes, oversized
The radiographs may show both debris holes, short hole-to-edge distances, loose

546 Radiographic Testing

3RT20_Layout(543_568) 10/14/02 3:29 PM Page 547
rivets and loose hardware. It is also used
to check for missing assemblies and used
for general inspection of closed areas.
Composites
Radiographic testing has found various
applications in the inspection of
engineered materials such as composite
laminates.4,8-10
Brazed Honeycomb Structures
In the 1960s in-motion radiographic
inspection of brazed honeycomb
structures was developed for military
aircraft. A radiation collimator was
designed and fabricated with an
FIGURE 6. Radiographic inspection of aircraft
stabilizer.
FIGURE 7. X-ray film placement on vertical stabilizer for debris
and structural inspection.
adjustable aperture for controlling the
radiation pattern and hence the
unsharpness gradient necessary for
blurring of all preselected details nearest
to the radiation source without causing
unsharpness of the image surface adjacent
to the film. The focal-to-film distance was
established at 910 mm (36 in.). The
optima in definition, area coverage,
radiation potential and speed of travel
were considered in determining the
focal-to-film distance for brazed
honeycomb. The X-ray exposure was
accomplished by controlled linear
movement of the brazed assembly across
the area of radiation emitted by the
stationary collimated X-ray source (see
Fig. 9).
FIGURE 8. Position of X-ray source to expose maximum area
of structure being radiographed.
FIGURE 9. In-motion radiography facility for brazed
honeycomb structure.
Aerospace Applications of Radiographic Testing 547
3RT20_Layout(543_568) 10/14/02 3:29 PM Page 548
The fine grained, high contrast film
was cut in widths of 300 mm (1 ft) and
varied in length. Cassettes to
accommodate the various lengths of X-ray
film were designed and fabricated from a
special plastic material suitable for
radiographic work. The plastic cassettes
were secured in intimate contact with the
honeycomb panel by precut lengths of
magnetic rubber strips placed on the
cassette and magnetically attached to the
honeycomb panel.
In all phases of the operation,
in-motion radiography was less time
consuming than conventional
X-radiography. The ease of operation
was particularly noted in the
interpretation of the radiographs.
Figure 10a is a conventional (still)
radiograph showing brazed fillets on the
source and film side (double surface) of
the panel. Figure 10b is an in-motion
FIGURE 10. Brazed honeycomb structure:
(a) conventional (not moving) radiograph of
two surfaces; (b) in-motion radiograph of
one surface.
(a)
(b)
548 Radiographic Testing
radiograph showing only the brazed fillets
on the film side (single surface) of the
panel. It is much easier to detect lack of
braze and to measure the fillet width on
the latter radiograph.
Helicopter Composite
Rotor/Propeller Blades11
Significant performance improvements in
rotor/propeller blades were realized by
proper use of composite materials. From
1954 to 1962, intensive research into
materials and fabrication techniques were
performed and backed up by component
and sample fatigue testing. The successful
use of fiber reinforced composite materials
in helicopter rotor blades leads naturally
to an improved capability for a successful
V/STOL propeller design.
To fully appreciate the enormity and
importance of the nondestructive
inspection to be done, one must be aware
of the types of loads that rotor blades bear
and the general construction of the blade.
Rotor blades in service are subjected to a
variety of static and cyclic loads. These
loads include beam, centrifugal, torsional
and flatwise and cordwise bending.
One of the most important tasks in the
use of composites is the development of
the nondestructive testing capability to
ensure that the hardware to be tested is of
known quality. Some of the most
challenging efforts come not in the
selection of nondestructive test technique
to use but in the mechanism necessary for
practical application of that technique to
the complex structure of a rotor/propeller
blade. Figure 11 shows a concept of the
automated penetrating radiation
inspection equipment provided for an
X-ray sensitive vidicon and image
intensifier presentation. The system was
basically a mobile X-ray unit in which the
blade is fixed within two tracks and the
FIGURE 11. X-ray structure sensitive vidicon
and image intensifier system concept.
Blade
Camera
Handling equipment Television
monitor
Control console
3RT20_Layout(543_568) 10/14/02 3:29 PM Page 549

enclosed generator-and-detector system

traverses the length of the rotor blade.
The X-ray vidicon image was presented
on a remote 430 mm (17 in.) video screen
at about 30×. The image amplification
system also presented a view on the same
screen at 1:1. The viewing area using the
vidicon tube was about 13 by 13 mm
(0.5 × 0.5 in.) with 1 to 2 percent image
quality indicator sensitivity whereas the
viewing area of the image amplifier is
about 200 × 200 mm (8 × 8 in.) with 3 to
4 percent image quality indicator
sensitivity.
Both the X-ray generator and pickup
tubes had free 90 degree movement to
allow for selection of the viewing angle
that proved to be most desirable. Viewing
speed was variable, the maximum speed
being limited by interpreter perception.
All controls and viewing apparatus were
remote. Figure 12 shows some
photographs taken of the video screen
showing various conditions and
discontinuities.

FIGURE 12. Typical vidicon monitor presentations: (a) image

of honeycomb structure; (b) cell wall fracture and separation;
(c) cell structure deformation; (d) cell wall separation.
(a) (c)

(b) (d)

Aerospace Applications of Radiographic Testing 549

3RT20_Layout(543_568) 10/14/02 3:29 PM Page 550
PART 2. Radiographic Testing of Space Flight
Components
Solid Propellant Rocket
Motors
Saturn Fuel and Oxidizer Tank
Weldments
During the early 1960s, many engineering
talents were applied to the National
Aeronautics and Space Administration’s
efforts for manned space flight. This
included fabrication of 6.7 m (22 ft)
diameter tanks for the Saturn moon
rocket (Fig. 13). The weld joint
configuration for the SIV-B is illustrated in
Fig. 14. Initially, the in-motion technique
using the welding fixture was used on the
dome welds but was discontinued because
smooth movement of the fixture was not
achieved. The conventional techniques
located a 100 kV beryllium window X-ray
tube on a fixture inside the dome.12 About
1.2 m (4 ft) of extra fine grain film was
covered in each exposure. Circular dome
movement was used between exposures to
align each of nine segment welds with the
X-ray beam. In Fig. 15, the operator is
placing 70 mm (2.8 in.) strip film over
each weld. After the nine films are
exposed, the operation was repeated three
FIGURE 13. Liquid propellant rocket engines
used to launch Apollo Saturn moon rocket.
Third stage
Second
stage
Booster
stage
550 Radiographic Testing
times to cover the full length of each
weld. The cylindrical section welds, or
tank welds, were similarly radiographed.
Large Rocket Motors
During a time of international tension in
the 1950s and 1960s, solid propellant
rockets became an important part of the
United States arsenal. These missile
systems consisted of ground, air and
submarine launched vehicles. They were
used in intercontinental and intermediate
range missiles, where high performance
and immediate readiness were required.
Discontinuities in the propellant and
propellant-to-liner joint affect the
performance, reliability and safety of
these motors.
Radiography of large, 0.75 to 1.5 m
(2.5 to 5 ft) diameter, solid propellant
motors can be accomplished in several
ways. If the central perforation is of a
design that permits the insertion of a
cassette, radiography can be accomplished
with a 2000 kV X-ray source or a
cobalt-60 gamma ray source located on
the exterior and the film placed inside the
motor (Fig. 16a). If the motor design does
not permit the insertion of a cassette,
then radiography can only be
accomplished by radiation penetrating the
entire unit (Fig. 16b). For thicknesses
greater than 760 mm (30 in.), X-ray
energies above 2 MeV are required.
Therefore, most of the earlier work was
done with 10, 22 and 31 MeV betatrons.13
In the 0.5 to 6 MeV range, the van de
graff and resonant transformer types of
X-ray equipment were capable of
providing the intensity and penetrating
power necessary for high quality
radiography in propellant thickness range
up to 760 mm (30 in.). Above about
5 MeV, however, and for heavier
propellant sections, these two direct
acceleration techniques became
impractical. In their stead, the betatron
and microwave linear electron accelerator
(linac) were required. The radiation
output from betatrons is in the 25 to
50 mC·kg–1 (100 to 200 R) per minute
range, whereas the linear accelerator
radiation output ranges from 130 mC·kg–1
to 2.5 C·kg–1 (0.5 to 10.0 kR) per minute
and can thus rapidly radiograph thick
propellant sections as illustrated in
Fig. 17. High energy equipment was
developed in the 1950s.14
3RT20_Layout(543_568) 10/14/02 3:29 PM Page 551

FIGURE 14. Weld joint configuration for Saturn SIV-B rocket.

Fittings Flange and center plates

Meridian seams on forward

and aft dome and common
bulkhead face assembly

Tank assembly and Cylindrical tank

forward cylindrical longitudinal seams
tank rings

Seal weld

Tank assembly and

aft cylindrical tank rings
Common bulkhead and
liquid oxygen tank
assembly

MOVIE. FIGURE 15. X-ray technician placing film on FIGURE 17. Exposure thickness data for
Automated dome segment welds before radiographic propellant at various X-ray energies.
inspection of inspection.
rocket motor. 1000

B
100
Exposure time (min)

C
10

1.0

FIGURE 16. Radiography of solid propellant 0.1

rocket motors: (a) single-wall radiography; 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
(20) (40) (60) (80)
(b) double-wall radiography.
(a) Film Propellant thickness, m (in.)
Liner
Legend
A. 2000 kV peak at 1.5 mA
Film Source B. 10 MeV betatron at 7.0 Sv·min–1 (700 R·min–1)
Propellant C. 22 MeV betatron at 1.4 Sv·min–1 (140 R·min–1)
D. 10 MeV linear accelerator at 10 Sv·min–1
(1000 R·min–1)
Film
(b) Film

Film

Source

Film

Aerospace Applications of Radiographic Testing 551

3RT20_Layout(543_568) 10/14/02 3:29 PM Page 552
Jet Engine Inspection14,15
On-aircraft, periodic gamma ray
inspection of jet engines is used for
detection of compressor and turbine blade
damage, including hot gas damage of
burner cans. Possibly one of the greatest
assets of the inspection is the ability to
judge turbine blade alignment. The
flexible isotope guide is inside a rigid
aluminum tube and inserted through the
axial engine drive shaft to a
predetermined distance. The iridium-192
source is stopped at the selected
longitudinal locations along the engine
axis, as illustrated in Fig. 18. The film is
placed on the outside of the area to be
inspected. The film (as shown in Fig. 19a)
is evaluated for evidence of excessive
wear, misalignment or other
unsatisfactory conditions. Figure 19b,
photographed after engine disassembly,
shows that a stator blade had worn its slot
excessively and the resulting vibration
had caused a crack in the retainer ring. If
not detected, the resulting internal
damage to the engine can cause complete
failure.
Small Ablative Thrust
Chambers16
Silica phenolic materials have been used
extensively in the manufacture of exhaust
nozzles for solid propellant rocket motors.
In this particular application, the material
must withstand high intensity, short time
ablation and erosion. In spacecraft
engines for Gemini or Apollo, however,
the motor is pulse fired at intervals
throughout the mission to a total
accumulated time of 10 to 20 min. The
hypergolic engines are designed to
produce from 111 to 445 kN (25 to
100 lbm) of thrust in environments found
FIGURE 18. Iridium-192 gamma ray inspection of jet engine.
Sixteenth stage exit guide vanes
Film around engine circumference
552 Radiographic Testing
at over 160 km (100 mi) above sea level. It
is apparent that the quality reliability of
these small engines must be ensured for
the intended mission of the spacecraft. An
illustration of the type and number of
motors in the Gemini vehicle is shown in
Fig. 20.
The radiographic testing of ablative
materials has revealed various
discontinuities, such as delaminations,
porosity, cracks and resin rich or resin
starved bands. Detail parts inspection
revealed discontinuities similar to those
found in the billets. These discontinuities
were undetected because the original
billets were not radiographed or were
improperly radiographed. Tangential
radiographs also revealed case-to-ablative
adhesive voids and porosity.
Tangential radiographic inspection of
the case-to-ablative bondline is illustrated
in Fig. 21. Measurement of the film
density at an interface is not possible
unless a separation of 0.75 mm (0.030 in.)
or greater exists, because the minimum
aperture on a standard densitometer is
0.75 mm (0.030 in.). Measurements of
gaps less than this require an automatic
scanning microdensitometer.
It was found generally that the X-ray
absorption of most adhesives was very
low, causing interpretation problems of
case-to-ablative and other bond joint
interfaces. Thick or thin bond joints
yielded different radiographic results that
were difficult to interpret. To compensate
for the problem, a small percentage of
antimony trioxide was added to the
adhesives. This material did not affect the
cohesive bond strength but made the
joint more opaque to X-ray and bondline
discontinuities became more apparent by
revealing the presence of adhesives as
illustrated in Fig. 22.
The verification of delaminations and
location of leakage paths was proved by
radiographing various specimens and
Film around engine circumference
Spherical gamma ray emission
Isotope iridium-192
Sixteenth stage exit guide vanes
3RT20_Layout(543_568) 10/14/02 3:29 PM Page 553

FIGURE 19. Gamma radiography of vane FIGURE 21. Tangential radiographic technique for case bond
segments in jet engine: (a) gamma using a microphotometer: (a) setup; (b) recording.
radiographs; (b) visual crack indication
previously revealed by gamma ray (a) (b)
inspection of vane guide.
X-ray focal point Brush pen recorder
(a)

X-ray
Microphotometer
response from
Light tangent radiograph
Motor meter
Film tangent Film motion
Light
image
source

(b)
FIGURE 22. Case-to-ablative bond
discontinuities are revealed by radiopaque
additive in adhesive: (a) first image;
(b) closer image.
(a)

FIGURE 20. Gemini vehicle space engines.

Sixteen 11 kg (25 lbm) engines
Four 45 kg (100 lbm) engines
Two 39 kg (85 lbm) engines (b)

Two 45 kg
(100 lbm)
engines

Eight 11 kg (25 lbm) engines

Aerospace Applications of Radiographic Testing 553

3RT20_Layout(543_568) 10/14/02 3:29 PM Page 554
motors before and after soaking in X-ray
opaque solutions. Different solutions were
tried but the one yielding the best results
was a concentrated water solution of lead
acetate and lead nitrate. All delaminations
and leakage paths were detected after a
1 h soak period and rinse (Fig. 23). Motors
showing delaminations and leakage paths
were rinsed thoroughly with deionized
water to remove most of the lead solution
and were then dried and pressure
impregnated with resin. Reradiographing
after resin impregnation usually indicated
that the void was filled, thereby making
the part acceptable for use. Motors
repaired in this way were hot fired
successfully, indicating the adequacy of
the repair procedure.
Video Radioscopy and X-Ray
Image Intensifier Tests17
The normal technique of inspecting small
ablative thrust chambers requires that
each chamber be radiographed before hot
firing and also at subsequent intervals
during the test program. This plan entails
disassembly of the chamber and shipping
it to the X-ray laboratory for radiographic
FIGURE 23. Soaking in saturated solution of
lead acetate and lead nitrate: (a) before
soaking; (b) after soaking.
(a)
(b)
554 Radiographic Testing
testing. After inspection, the chamber is
returned to the cell for further testing.
The prime factor of discovering
discontinuities when they occur and
before they can lead to failure is missed
by this technique of using X-ray image
equipment in conjunction with motion
picture film. Sequencing of the thrust
chamber image during hot firing will
ensure that complete failure analysis data
are obtained.
Cinefluorography has been used
successfully to establish the mode of
failure in small solid propellant rocket
engines during hot firing.18 A similar
study on solid propellant rocket engines
was reported.13 Cinefluorography of solid
propellant engines reveals the flame front
pattern and burning rate as a function of
contrast differential in the test object. The
failure analysis of liquid hypergolic
ablative engines by cinefluorography is
more concerned with the detail resolution
of discontinuities as they develop in the
test object.
The equipment consisted of a
fractional focus X-ray tube, full wave
rectified voltage transformer, X-ray
control panel, high gain, image intensifier
tube and an optical system for viewing.
Additional accessory equipment can be
used for special purpose applications.
Such equipment consists of a 16, 35 or
70 mm motion picture camera capable of
7.5, 16, 30 or 60 frames per second
(Fig. 24a). In this way, cinefluorographic
time lapse studies may be made of
systems while functioning. Such studies
may include the analysis of small solid or
liquid propellant engines during hot
firing. Other techniques include the use of
a television camera (kinefluorography) in
place of the positive print and
FIGURE 24. Comparison of cinefluorography
and kinefluorography: (a) cinefluorography,
direct photography of output phosphor of
image intensifier tube; (b) kinefluorography,
photography of picture tube image of
output phosphor.
(a)
Image intensifier tube
Film
Optics
(b)
Image intensifier tube Display tube
Film
Optics
Television
camera
tube
3RT20_Layout(543_568) 10/14/02 3:29 PM Page 555
transmitting the image to a television
monitor (Fig. 24b).
An X-ray image intensifier system has
proved successful in determining the
mode and sequence of failure of ablative
thrust chamber during actual firing.
Delaminations, bond joint separations
and cracks were readily detected in test
materials and assemblies. A high gain
X-ray image system was installed at the
Rocketdyne test facility for hot fire
studies. Excellent results were obtained
using a 150 kV, 4 mA, 0.3 mm (0.012 in.)
fractional focus X-ray tube in conjunction
with a 230 mm (9.1 in.) diameter, high
gain image intensifier.
Radiographic results of a chamber fired
to failure are shown in Fig. 25. Test results
of the failure mode were recorded on
16 mm motion picture film at 32 frames
per second.
Used as a process and quality control
device during manufacturing operations,
the X-ray image intensifier has many
applications involving direct viewing of
the image tube. Thus, the cost of film and
the time involved for film processing are
avoided. Unusual phenomena might be
photographed with a positive print or
regular camera when required. Cylindrical
objects can be rotated through
360 degrees during viewing; in film
radiography, they would likely have to be
X-rayed in two exposures at 90 degrees.
Confidence in the detection of
discontinuities is greatly improved by the
360 degree scan.
Parts to be inspected are placed on a
130 mm (5 in.) turntable capable of
supporting and rotating a 23 kg (50 lbm)
assembly in either direction at 1 rotation
FIGURE 25. Ablative thrust chamber: (a) before firing;
(b) after firing.
(a) (b)
Case separation
Delamination
separations
Bond joint separation
per minute. The turntable can be elevated
and depressed over a 250 mm (10 in.)
travel. It can be positioned within about
100 mm (4 in.) of the input phosphor for
best detail resolution of as far as 760 mm
(30 in.) away for direct geometric
magnification. A horizontal travel of
250 mm (10 in.) transverse to the X-ray
beam also is provided. The X-ray tube
head itself can be traveled horizontally to
provide a range of 150 to 760 mm (6 to
30 in.) from the input phosphor. This
range permits the use of very high
radiation intensities at short focal lengths
or improved image sharpness at greater
focal length, as different test problems
dictate.
In selecting parameters for a specific
test, the technician first positions the item
on the turntable and adjusts the
electrically driven lead shutters to confine
radiation to the area of interest. Then,
while observing the image tube, the
technician selects the geometric
relationship best suited for the test
objectives. Next, the energy level (kV) is
adjusted for the desired contrast and the
tube current (mA) is adjusted for
brightness. The component then is
scanned on either axis or is rotated, or
combinations might be used. When a
significant anomaly is observed, it can be
recorded in a variety of ways for later
observation.
A functional multienvironmental
fluoroscopic facility has been used for the
evaluation of valves, switches, actuators
and other components. The system can
reveal the operation of internal
components under various dynamic and
environmental conditions expected to be
encountered during flight. The
temperature and pressure of the
inspection chamber can be varied to meet
environmental requirements. A general
view of the test room and inspection
cabinet is shown in Fig. 26a and the
control console and X-ray image monitor
are shown in Fig. 26b. Radioscopic results
can be seen on the monitor and images
are recorded on video media that provide
playback capability for the system
engineers responsible for analysis of each
component tested.
Large Liquid Propellant
Rocket Engines19-21
Throughout the modern era of rocketry,
liquid propellant rocket engines have
demonstrated their ability to provide high
performance, high reliability and
operational flexibility. It is mandatory to
have highly reliable launch vehicles.
The engine reliability program begins
with design and manufacture to ensure
Aerospace Applications of Radiographic Testing 555
3RT20_Layout(543_568) 10/14/02 3:29 PM Page 556

accurate, high strength, failure free procedures have been developed for
hardware. Extensive inspection procedures unique problems as indicated in the
further assist this phase. Engine following paragraphs.
component testing follows inspection and
finally the liquid propellant rocket engine
can be subjected to extensive testing in
the development phase to uncover any Neutron Radiography of
potential weakness. This extensive test Special Aerospace
effort provides a high degree of
confidence in the engine reliability. Components
Liquid propellant rocket engines also Typical aerospace items that have been
provide the capability of testing the article neutron radiographed include jet engine
that will be used during the actual launch.
Also, each engine is tested before it is
delivered to the customer and later each FIGURE 27. Apollo space vehicle booster engine, 6.67 MN
stage and engine is tested as a unit and (1.5 × 106 lbf).
completely checked out before the
launch. Fig. 27 shows a completed engine.
Five of these 6.67 MN (1 500 000 lbf)
thrust engines were used on the manned
Saturn moon rocket booster stage.19
Radiography is used to detect internal
discontinuities in weldments and high
strength castings, to determine braze alloy
distribution in brazed thrust chambers
(Fig. 28) or components and to internally
inspect electrical assemblies for missing or
broken components. Special radiographic

FIGURE 26. Functional multienvironmental fluoroscopic

system: (a) installation; (b) control console.
(a)

FIGURE 28. Radiographic testing of thrust

chamber tube-to-tube braze joints:
(a) technique setup; (b) positive prints of
radiographs, arrows marking indications.
(a)

Braze joints

(b)

(b)

556 Radiographic Testing

3RT20_Layout(543_568) 10/14/02 3:29 PM Page 557
turbine blades, adhesively bonded
honeycomb and laminates, ordnance or
pyrotechnic devices, flight controls and
metal assemblies containing nonmetal
O rings or seals.22-24 Inspection of such
parts is possible because neutron
radiographic testing can detect certain low
density materials through heavy metal
sections.
Attenuation of X-radiation is
determined largely by the electron density
of the material being examined, so that
thicker and/or denser materials appear
more opaque. Neutrons undergo two
main types of reactions with atomic
nuclei: absorption (capture) and
scattering. The mass attenuation
coefficient for thermal neutrons is thus a
function of both the scattering and
capture probabilities for each element; the
density of a particular material or
component is a poor predictor whether it
will be relatively transparent or opaque to
the passage of neutrons.25
High attenuation coefficients for
thermal neutrons are exhibited by
hydrogen and boron. Hydrogen has the
highest scattering coefficient whereas
boron, cadmium, samarium and
gadolinium have unusually high neutron
capture probabilities. For this reason,
hydrogenous or boron containing
materials being inspected by neutron
radiography can be seen or delineated
from other elements in many cases where
X-radiography is inadequate. It is thus
possible to expose a specimen (for
example, a hydrogenous or borated
explosive or a fuel sealed in a metallic
container) to a beam of thermal neutrons
and to project an image having excellent
resolution and contrast, thereby
distinguishing between the charge
material and its container while revealing
any imperfections in the specimen.
Similarly, neutron radiography permits
detection of hydrides,26 which can cause
hydrogen embrittlement in welds and can
be used for nondestructive testing of
ordnance (explosive) devices to determine
the relative density of the charge material
and/or the presence of voids or cracks.
Explosive and Pyrotechnic Devices
One of the important applications of
neutron radiography is the quality control
of certain critical explosive devices, such
as pilot seat ejection cartridges,
detonating cords and pressure cartridges
for aerospace applications. These devices
normally contain explosives or
propellants of low atomic numbers. In
most instances, they also have metal
housings. Therefore, it is nearly
impossible to inspect them effectively
with postassembly X-ray examination.
However, because hydrogenous materials
have a high neutron scatter rate, a
neutron radiograph will image gaps,
cracks, low density areas or other
discontinuities that could prevent normal
operation.
A neutron radiograph will image
certain materials of low atomic number
whereas the X-radiograph does not. The
powder train inside an explosive device is
well defined in the neutron radiograph,
for example, but is not shown in the
X-radiograph. Hence, neutron
radiography has played a major role in
yielding a no failure reliability for
ordnance devices in aerospace programs.
Adhesive Bonded Composite
Structures27
Thermal neutrons are highly attenuated
by boron and hydrogen atoms. Therefore,
when an adhesive bonded laminate or
honeycomb specimen is neutron
radiographed, the hydrocarbon adhesive
becomes very apparent because of its high
neutron scatter. This condition is reversed
for X-radiography where metal
components are high attenuators. A high
density boron fiber composite would be
completely opaque to a thermal neutron
beam, as shown in Fig. 29.
In Fig. 29, specimens have aluminum
honeycomb cores with adhesive bonded
skins of graphite epoxy, boron epoxy and
fiberglass.
FIGURE 29. Attenuation in adhesive bonded, aluminum
honeycomb core, fiber matrix facing sheet, composite
specimens: (a) low kilovoltage X-rays; (b) thermal neutrons.
(a) (b)
1 1
2 2
75 mm 3 3
(3.0 in.)
125 mm (5.0 in.)
Legend
1. graphite
2. boron
3. fiber glass
Aerospace Applications of Radiographic Testing 557
3RT20_Layout(543_568) 10/14/02 3:29 PM Page 558

reactivity of molten titanium. Ceramic

Investment Castings materials used to produce face coats for
the investment casting of titanium must
Investment casting, also known as the lost be stable and have low reactivity with
wax process, is a manufacturing method molten titanium. If the ceramic face coat
used to produce near net shape metal materials are reduced by the molten and
articles. A wax pattern is produced by solidifying titanium a type of brittle,
injection molding into a die cavity oxygen enriched titanium called alpha
typically machined into aluminum. The case is generated. The amount of alpha
die cavity replicates the desired casting case produced on a casting must be
shape. After molding, the wax pattern is limited as mechanical properties are
dipped into a series of slurries that negatively affected. This in turn restricts
contain ceramic particles. Multiple the candidate ceramic face coat materials
coatings of ceramic slurries are applied to that can be used.
build a sufficiently thick mold layer. The
dip layers are allowed to dry and harden
between applications.
The first layer of the mold is referred to
as the face coat, important because it is in
contact with the molten metal and
determines the quality of the casting.
Subsequent layers are referred to as backup
layers. After sufficient layers have been
applied, the wax is melted from the shell,
leaving a cavity whose shape is an exact
replica of the desired metal article.
The ceramic mold is sintered to make it
denser and stronger. Metal is then melted
and poured into the mold. After
solidification and cooling, the ceramic
shell is removed leaving a metallic casting
of the same geometry as the wax pattern.
After shell removal, the casting is
nondestructively tested to reveal
inclusions of mold material. These
discontinuities are removed by grinding
and subsequently repaired by welding.
Investment casting has been used to
produce precise, high quality aerospace
engine components that range from 0.1
to 1.2 m (a few inches to several feet) and
are cast in a variety of alloys including
steel, nickel, cobalt and titanium.

Titanium Castings for Aerospace

Structures
Airframe manufacturers have been
exploring the use of titanium investment
castings to replace components
traditionally produced from forgings.
Titanium investment castings in these
applications reduce weight, costs and lead
time. The fatigue driven, fracture critical
environment of these aerospace structures
requires a quality level higher than
necessary for titanium castings in
aerospace engines. The design of these
fracture critical titanium castings is driven
by the ability to detect mold face coat
inclusions in the components. The
required thicknesses have challenged the
limits of radiographic testing.

Investment Casting of Titanium

The investment casting of titanium poses
several challenges due to the high

558 Radiographic Testing

3RT20_Layout(543_568) 10/14/02 3:29 PM Page 559

PART 3. Techniques for Advanced Materials

In the decade from 1975 to 1985, the
aerospace industry was busy launching
the space shuttle,28 producing high
performance jet fighters, attack
helicopters, missiles and satellites.
Considerable work was accomplished in
developing fiber reinforced plastic
composite aircraft structures. In the 1980s
and 1990s, radiography, particularly X-ray
based imaging techniques and
applications, saw tremendous growth.29
As with many technologies, advances in
speed of data acquisition/analysis were
enabled by the improvements made in
computers and semiconductors. Advances
in digital radiography continue to affect
the aerospace industry, with many
benefits leveraged from medical
applications. The Air Force Research
Laboratory has served as a major funding
source30-32 driving the development of all
three of the main components of a
penetrating radiation system: a source of
radiation, a manipulation system for the
test object and a detector system. Air
Force Research Laboratory investments
have focused on improvements in
sensitivity with emphasis on cost effective
applications. Simulation tools have been a
focus of work at several research
laboratories.33,34 Recent aerospace
applications are provided in the
remaining section.
processed in automatic film processing
equipment and special film reading boxes
have been fabricated, some of which
provide for viewing up to 1.5 m (5 ft) of
film at one time. The assemblies are
oriented with the honeycomb cells
parallel with the X-ray beam and the
direction of motion is parallel to the
ribbon direction.
Composites
Figure 30 shows in-motion radiography
being performed on carbon to epoxy
composite upper wing skin. The
composite skin is about 8 m (26 ft) tip to
tip and 1.8 m (71 in.) forward to aft at the
centerline. The stainless steel tool is
designed to manipulate the assembly in
five axes to permit orientation of the
contoured surface perpendicular to the
X-ray beam. The X-ray tube head has a
lead shielded cone attached to the port to
limit radiation onto a narrow line about
13 mm (0.5 in.) wide in the direction of
tube motion. The tube support is
mounted on the ceiling and has an
extension up to 12 m (40 ft).
A more detailed view of the gooseneck
tube support and in-motion cone is
shown in Fig. 31a. This figure shows a
bonded honeycomb assembly with boron
epoxy skins on 360 mm wide roll film
that is on 3 mm (0.12 in.) vinyl lead
backup material. The pendant control

Advanced Materials
FIGURE 30. In-motion radiography of composite wing skin.
Adhesively Bonded Honeycomb
Structures
In-motion fluoroscopic inspection of
metallic bonded honeycomb structures
has been done for years by several
prominent manufacturers.35,36 In-motion
radiographic techniques have been used
to inspect a variety of bonded honeycomb
structures. These structures are composed
of aluminum core bonded to either
aluminum, boron epoxy or carbon epoxy
skins. The inspections are performed to
detect crushed core, core node separation,
foreign objects, core splice discontinuities
and core tie-ins at closures.
A collimator is used to limit the X-ray
beam in the direction of motion. Roll
films of required lengths and 70, 120, 254
and 355 mm wide are used. The films are

Aerospace Applications of Radiographic Testing 559

3RT20_Layout(543_568) 10/14/02 3:30 PM Page 560
permits movement of the tube support in
three directions.
The control console for a representative
in-motion radiography system has the
standard X-ray control panel modified to
provide kilovoltage slope control during
the in-motion exposure (see Fig. 31b). As
many aircraft structures taper in thickness
from inboard to outboard, it is impossible
to maintain constant film density without
adjusting X-ray parameters during the
in-motion exposure. Kilovoltage was
chosen as the variable because it can be
changed to match energy level with the
thickness of the part. Another
improvement in the in-motion control is
constant speed control, which
automatically compensates for varying
loads and maintains a constant speed
readout on a digital tachometer. The
television monitor (Fig. 31b) displays the
area of the assembly being subjected to
radiation. It does not provide an X-ray
image but is used to aid in alignment of
the assembly.
Microfocus Radiography
Normal radiography is accomplished
using 1 to 3 mm (0.04 to 0.12 in.) focal
spots. Projection radiography can be
accomplished with a true microfocus
X-ray source; that is, an X-ray tube with
FIGURE 31. In-motion radiography: (a) gooseneck tube support and cone assembly; (b) control
panel.
(a)
560 Radiographic Testing
an electron focal spot smaller than
0.1 mm (0.004 in.). In practice, focal spots
from 0.002 to 0.25 mm (8 × 10–5 in. to
0.01 in.) have proven to be useful for
radioscopic systems37 and spots from
0.025 to 0.075 mm (0.001 to 0.003 in.)
have proven satisfactory for film
techniques using magnification.
A typical system might contain a
160 kV constant potential microfocus
X-ray tube capable of continuous
operation at 0.5 mA with a focal spot size
of 12 µm (5 × 10–4 in.). Using a 12 µm
(5 × 10–4 in.) focal spot size, the system
can resolve details as small as 25 µm
(0.001 in.) without magnification. The
system may also contain a 230 mm
(9.0 in.) X-ray image intensifier optically
coupled to a 15 MHz closed circuit
television fitted with a 25 mm (1.0 in.)
vidicon image tube. With low absorbing
materials, projection magnification of 50×
or more may be obtained.
A useful technique that can be
achieved with radioscopic projection
microfocus radiography is that of
zooming or dynamically positioning the
object with a manipulation between the
X-ray tube and image receptor.38 In this
technique, magnification is achieved
when the object is moved away from
image receptor and toward the X-ray tube.
Figure 32 illustrates a single integrated
circuit that was initially situated for low
(b)
3RT20_Layout(543_568) 10/14/02 3:30 PM Page 561

projection magnification of 2×. The inspected, including cases, propellants,

integrated circuit was then zoomed liners and igniters (Fig. 34).
toward the X-ray tube through 10×, 50× The inspection system features a
and 250× magnification. It is evident that 420 kV X-ray source to inspect objects up
the higher the magnification, the more to 1 m (40 in.) diameter (Fig. 35). The
detail one can see on the video monitor. range of measurable signal levels
A similar test, done on a metal jet produced is about 106 to 1, superior to
engine turbine blade is shown in Fig. 33a that offered by alternative techniques at
and at 10× magnification in Fig. 33b. Jet the time of testing. The information is
engine turbine blade inspection using more complete, detailed and accurate and
radioscopic microfocus radiography has the computer sorted images can be
been performed for jet engine manipulated and analyzed by design,
manufacturers. The blades are inspected manufacturing and quality engineers or
for cracks, voids, inclusions and plugged stored for future reference.
cooling passages. Work has been completed for the
United States Air Force to develop and
implement an automated device to X-ray
inspect turbine blades and vanes.40 This
Computed Tomography radiographic inspection module uses a gas
Computed tomography (CT) combines ionization X-ray detector as the image
the capabilities of the computer with an medium. A computer processes the
X-ray source for the inspection and detector output signal to generate digital
analysis of the internal structure of X-ray images. Advanced image processing
objects. Very minor changes in density
can be accurately detected by a computed
tomography system. Ordinary film
radiography inspection systems have FIGURE 33. Microfocus radioscopic images:
some major weaknesses. One is that they (a) jet engine blade; (b) enlargement.
create only superimposed images of (a)
artifacts. The superpositioning of images
— lying one on top of another — distorts
the inspection results. Computed
tomography eliminates superposition by
examining an object in a series of cross
sectional slices from different views along
the length of the object.
A computer calculates an image based
on the information in all the slices and
reconstructs a two-dimensional picture of
a slice through the object. This precise,
highly accurate, two-directional data
package can be viewed on a cathode ray
tube screen, printed out in hard copy and
stored on optical or magnetic media.39
In the 1980s computed tomography
was developed for industrial applications.
Solid rocket motor components were
(b)

FIGURE 32. Microfocus radioscopic images of

integrated circuit.

Aerospace Applications of Radiographic Testing 561

3RT20_Layout(543_568) 10/14/02 3:30 PM Page 562

software, operates on these digital images detection of hydrogenous substances,

to make automated accept/reject such as moisture and corrosion in aircraft
decisions. The handling of the part during components. The advantage of neutrons
X-ray exposure is carried out robotically is that low atomic number nuclei, in
under computer control. particular hydrogen, have higher
To detect internal material and interaction cross sections than the
manufacturing discontinuities and to surrounding material. Figure 37 shows a
make inspection decisions, the computer neutron radiograph of an aerospace valve,
operates on two data representations, in which the O rings are clearly visible as
depending on the application. The first is light horizontal bands.
digital fluoroscopy, or digital radiography, A neutron tomography system
and results in a filmlike image (Fig. 36a). generally consists of an intense neutron
Digital fluoroscopy allows quick source, object turntable, a scintillator
identification of internal anomalies and screen, a mirror, a cooled charge coupled
other features of interest. The second is device camera, and computer imaging and
computed tomography (CT) and results in processing support. With such an
a cross sectional image (Fig. 36b). This arrangement, the actual distribution of
latter data format, although requiring materials across a given path can be
more time to generate, yields significantly determined.
higher material discontinuity sensitivity
and a better ability to resolve internal
anomalies such as thin wall
discontinuities. Computed tomography FIGURE 35. Computed tomography system.
provides additional geometric detail not
available with conventional film
radiography. Computer based X-ray
inspection is expected to yield significant
improvements in productivity, reliability
and sensitivity for airfoils. In addition, the
new industrial computed tomography
capability provides new inspection
capability and offers new freedom to
design engineers, allowing them to be
more innovative. Advanced
nondestructive testing techniques, like
computed X-ray tomography, will be a
key to the practical realization of
optimum designs.

Neutron Tomography
Neutron radiography has already proven
itself as a reliable method for the

FIGURE 34. Simplified illustration of computed tomography

for aerospace structures.

Data
Reconstruction
FIGURE 36. Digital images of turbine blade: (a) fluoroscopic;
Solid acquisition (b) tomographic.
propellant and
and
motor imaging
processing (a) (b)
Density for
each matrix Scarfs
element in
Detector
pixel
array
X-ray
energy
source

M pixels N pixels
Scarfs

Tomograph
image

562 Radiographic Testing

3RT20_Layout(543_568) 10/14/02 3:30 PM Page 563
As aerospace and nondestructive test
engineers have become more familiar
with the capabilities of neutron
radiography and tomography, the
techniques have been used more. Neutron
tomography systems have been used to
determine the hydrogen content in
aircraft compressor blades41 and the exact
placement and shape of O rings in critical
components of spacecraft (Fig. 38).
An Air Force Research Laboratory
program42 was initiated to develop and
evaluate advanced radiographic and
radioscopic systems. To ensure broad
applicability to many aerospace
inspection needs, a diverse team was
assembled consisting of commercial
companies and government contractors.
The program evaluates detectors that are
proven in other industries and that are
fast and easy to use. To reduce reliance on
more costly film techniques and enhance
inspection productivity, these detectors
include large area, flat panel, X-ray
detectors modified from medical
applications, recently available dental
sensors and photographic industry digital
charge coupled devices modified for
radiography.
Reversed Geometry,
Scanning Beam Technique
The National Aeronautics and Space
Administration has explored a technique,
reversed geometry scanning beam
FIGURE 37. Neutron radiograph of aerospace
valve. O rings are visible as light bands.
radiographic testing.43 The technique uses
an electronically scanning X-ray source
and a discrete detector for radioscopic
imaging of a structure.
The scanning source system has several
advantages. Miniaturization of the
discrete X-ray detector enables easy
positioning inside a complex structure
(such as an aircraft wing) allowing images
of each surface of the structure to be
obtained separately. Additional
advantages include multiple detectors that
enable the simultaneous acquisition of
data from several different perspectives
without moving the structure or the
measurement system. This provides a
means for locating the position of
discontinuities and enhances separation
of features at the surface from features
inside the structure. Finally, the amount
of secondary scattered radiation
contributing to the noise in the image is
reduced compared to conventional
radiography. Noise reduction facilitates
the acquisition and analysis of
quantitative data about the integrated
material density along the ray path
between the source and the detector.
Details of the techniques and
application to crack detection in aircraft
structures have been published.43,44
Results are shown for different crack sizes
in a range of thicknesses. Application to
honeycomb structures is also being
presented. A honeycomb specimen with a
fatigue crack in one of the face sheets was
imaged with the scanned X-ray system. It
was shown that the variation in contrast
as a function of incident angle can be
used to remove some of the image clutter
due to the effects from the underlying
honeycomb structure, thereby improving
the detectability of the crack. A
FIGURE 38. Neutron tomographic image of
aerospace valve, showing bend in O ring.
Aerospace Applications of Radiographic Testing 563
3RT20_Layout(543_568) 10/14/02 3:30 PM Page 564

differential laminography image produced

from examining the difference in
laminographic images at different depths
Closing
gave the best image of the crack. Initially, radiographic testing was used for
The reversed geometry, scanning beam the quality control of weldments and
technique is discussed at greater length castings — it is still used for this purpose.
elsewhere in this book. Various publications cover the history of
nondestructive testing in the aerospace
industry,1,48 including radiographic testing
of aircraft during World War II.49 Every
Simulation Tools decade since then has seen major
advances in technology. Applications of
Advances in computational power has
the method have been expanded to
enabled not only new capabilities in the
include the inspection of components and
inspection systems but in the physics
materials for experimental rocket and jet
calculations used to design and optimize
aircraft, missiles, solid propellant and
X-ray techniques.45 Validated inspection
liquid propellant rocket engines, space
models offer an opportunity to design
vehicles (Fig. 39) and satellites.
inspection techniques for a given
component.
Advances include the development of
an X-ray computer simulation program FIGURE 39. Space shuttle: (a) Atlantis touches
capable of accurately simulating the down, 1992; (b) Discovery is launched,
output of an X-ray imaging system and 1995.
involves a number of components, (a)
including X-ray beam models for isotope
sources and bremsstrahlung sources, the
interaction of that beam with the part
including material effects, complex
geometry issues and finally the
conversion of the beam into a visible
form, in the case of radiography, film or
image intensifiers. Tools developed
include the ability to insert a
discontinuity of any size into the part at
any location, which provides a powerful
tool to evaluate the capabilities of a
particular inspection. The use of a
computer assisted design representation (b)
for the discontinuities allows realistic
cracks, shrink cavities and inclusions to be
evaluated. The limit of detectability for a
discontinuity at a particular location can
be calculated simply by varying the size of
the discontinuity and calculating the
resulting image. The location can be
changed at will and a detectability map
can be computed for the entire part at
particular kilovoltage, setup, orientation,
sensor type and all other parameters
currently modeled in the simulation
program.
Techniques to consider the probability
of detection as a function of position have
been developed. The application of a
quantitative X-ray simulation code has
applications at the earliest stage of design
where inspectability issues can be
evaluated. The simulation code can be
used to optimize an inspection to ensure
adequate coverage with the best
sensitivity at a minimum cost and can be
used as a training tool. Applications to
aerospace castings46,47 and other
components are being explored.

564 Radiographic Testing

3RT20_Layout(543_568) 10/14/02 3:30 PM Page 565

The high reliability of these vehicles

and systems can be directly attributed to
proper application of nondestructive
testing as a whole and industrial
radiography in particular. This reliability
has been made possible through the
dedication of scientists, engineers and
technicians of the aerospace
nondestructive testing community.
Radiographic testing continues to be
important for aerospace quality and safety
in the twenty-first century.

Aerospace Applications of Radiographic Testing 565

3RT20_Layout(543_568) 10/14/02 3:30 PM Page 566
References
1. Hagemaier, D.J. “Aerospace
Radiography — The Last Three
Decades” [1984 Lester Honor Lecture].
Materials Evaluation. Vol. 43, No. 10.
Columbus, OH: American Society for
Nondestructive Testing (September
1985): p 1262-1264+.
2. Hagemaier, D.J. “Nondestructive
Testing Developments in the Aircraft
Industry.” Materials Evaluation. Vol. 49,
No. 12. Columbus, OH: American
Society for Nondestructive Testing
(December 1991): p 1470-1472,
1474-1476, 1478.
3. Dodge, D.O. “A Time of Opportunity”
[1980 Lester Honor Lecture]. Materials
Evaluation. Vol. 39, No. 1. Columbus,
OH: American Society for
Nondestructive Testing (January 1981):
p 32-35.
4. Chitty, F. “Radiography as a Control in
Aluminum Alloy Spotwelding and the
Fabrication of Plastic Honeycomb
Panels for Aircraft.” Nondestructive
Testing. Vol. 6, No. 4. Columbus, OH:
American Society for Nondestructive
Testing (Spring 1948): p 11-12.
5. Hitt, W.C. and D.J. Hagemaier.
“Radiography of Weldments
In-Motion.” Symposium on
Nondestructive Testing in the Missile
Industry [San Francisco, October 1959].
Special Technical Publication 278.
West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM
International (1960).
6. Gallar, J.J. “Modular Robotic
Manipulation in Radiographic
Inspection.” Materials Evaluation.
Vol. 46, No. 11. Columbus, OH:
American Society for Nondestructive
Testing (October 1988): p 1397-1399.
7. Hagemaier, D.J. and A. Barath.
“Mobile Field Testing of Missiles and
Aircraft.” Symposium on Nondestructive
Testing in the Missile Industry [San
Francisco, October 1959]. Special
Technical Publication 278. West
Conshohocken, PA: ASTM
International (1960).
8. Hastings, C.H. and M.V. Grund.
“Radiographic Inspection of
Reinforced Plastics and Resin-Ceramic
Composites.” Nondestructive Testing.
Vol. 19, No. 5. Columbus, OH:
American Society for Nondestructive
Testing (September-October 1961):
p 347-351.
566 Radiographic Testing
9. Hasenkamp, F.A. “Radiographic
Laminography.” Materials Evaluation.
Vol. 32, No. 8. Columbus, OH:
American Society for Nondestructive
Testing (August 1974): p 169-174, 180.
10. Becker, G.L. “A Brief Look at the
Low-Energy Radiography of
Composite Materials.” Materials
Evaluation. Vol. 43, No. 6. Columbus,
OH: American Society for
Nondestructive Testing (May 1985):
p 596, 598.
11. Whealy, R.D. “NDT of an Advanced
Geometry Composite Blade.”
Proceedings, Aerospace — AFML
Conference on NDT of Plastic/Composite
Structures [Dayton, OH]. Wright
Patterson Air Force Base, OH: Air Force
Materials Laboratory (March 1969).
12. McFaul, H.J. “Automated Radiographic
Film Interpretations.” Presented at
Voordrachten: 5th International
Symposium on Industrial Radiography
[Antwerp, Belgium]. Mortsel, Belgium:
Gevaert-Agfa (1969).
13. Criscuolo, E. et al. “Radiography of
Large Solid Propellant Rocket Motors.”
Symposium on Nondestructive Testing in
the Missile Industry [San Francisco,
October 1959]. Special Technical
Publication 278. West Conshohocken,
PA: ASTM International (1960): p 3-11.
14. Burrill, E.A. “High-Energy Nuclear
Radiations — Their Implications for
Industry” [1961 Lester Honor Lecture].
Nondestructive Testing. Vol. 19, No. 3.
Columbus, OH: American Society for
Nondestructive Testing (May-June
1961): p 167-176.
15. Failor, J.A. “Life Beyond the Limits:
Radiography and Aircraft Turbine
Repair.” Materials Evaluation. Vol. 54,
No. 6. Columbus, OH: American
Society for Nondestructive Testing
(June 1996): p 659-660, 662.
16. Hagemaier, D.J. Nondestructive Testing
of Silica-Phenolic Materials for Small
Ablative Thrust Chambers.
AFML-TR-66-274. Wright-Patterson Air
Force Base, OH: Air Force Materials
Laboratory (1966).
17. Hagemaier, D.J. and R. Kleint.
“Cinefluorography of Small Ablative
Thrust Chambers during Hot Firing.”
Materials Evaluation. Vol. 24, No. 4.
Columbus, OH: American Society for
Nondestructive Testing (April 1966):
p 186-191.
3RT20_Layout(543_568) 10/14/02 3:30 PM Page 567
18. Weiley, R.G. “Photo Recording
Internal Ballistics and Flame Fronts of
Solid Propellant Engines by Cine-X
Data Process.” Presented at
Symposium for the Society of
Photo-Optical Instrumentation
Engineers [Miami Beach, FL].
Bellingham, WA: International Society
for Optical Engineering (August 1964).
19. Hagemaier, D.J. “Testing Rocket
Engine Materials.” Metal Progress,
Vol. 94, No. 2. Materials Park, OH:
ASM International (August 1968):
p 87-90.
20. Barclay, J.L. “X-Ray and Ballistic
Missiles” [1958 Lester Honor Lecture].
Nondestructive Testing. Vol. 17, No. 2.
Columbus, OH: American Society for
Nondestructive Testing (March-April
1959): p 73-79.
21. Viswanathan, K., K.V. Rao, C. Subbiah
and M.C. Uttam. “Performance
Characteristics of Conventional X-Ray
Generator, Isotope Source, and
High-Energy Accelerator in Rocket
Motor Evaluation.” Materials
Evaluation. Vol. 44, No. 1. Columbus,
OH: American Society for
Nondestructive Testing
(January-February 1987): p 86-90.
22. Tomlinson, R.L. and P.E. Underhill.
“Production Neutron Radiography
Facility for the Routine NDT
Inspection of Special Aerospace
Components.” AGNTP-29. San Ramon,
CA: Aerojet-General Corporation,
Nuclear Division (March 1969).
23. Lewis, W.J. and L.G.I. Bennett. “The
Use of Neutron Radiography in the
Inspection of Aircraft Composite
Flight Control Surfaces.” The First
Pan-American Conference on
Nondestructive Testing: Alliance of the
Americas [Toronto, Canada, September
1998]. Columbus, OH: American
Society for Nondestructive Testing
(1998): p 51-55.
24. DeVolpi, A. and E.A. Rhodes. “Neutron
and Gamma-Ray Tomographic
Imaging of LMFBR SAREF-Program
Safety-Test Fuel Assemblies.” Materials
Evaluation. Vol. 40, No. 12. Columbus,
OH: American Society for
Nondestructive Testing (November
1982): p 1273-1279.
25. Berger, H. Neutron Radiography. New
York, NY: Elsevier Publishing (1965).
26. Hagemaier, D.J., J. Halchak and
G. Basl. “Detection of Titanium
Hydride by Neutron Radiography.”
Materials Evaluation. Vol. 27, No. 9.
Columbus, OH: American Society for
Nondestructive Testing (September
1969): p 193-198.
27. Hagemaier, D.J., H.J. McFaul and
J.T. Parks. “Nondestructive Testing
Techniques for the Fiberglass, Graphite
Fiber and Boron Fiber Composite
Aircraft Structures.” Materials
Evaluation. Vol. 28, No. 9. Columbus,
OH: American Society for
Nondestructive Testing
(September 1970): p 194-204.
28. Buetzow, G.C. “Automated
Radiography of Space Shuttle Motor.”
Materials Evaluation. Vol. 47, No. 6.
Columbus, OH: American Society for
Nondestructive Testing (June 1989):
p 686-687, 690-691.
29. Gray, J.N. and G.R. Tillack. “X-Ray
Imaging Methods over the Last
25 Years — New Advances and
Capabilities.” Review of Progress in
Quantitative NDE. New York, NY:
Plenum Press (2000).
30. Kropas-Hughes, C.V. and S. Trent Neel.
“Basics of Computed Tomography.”
Materials Evaluation. Vol. 58, No. 5.
Columbus, OH: American Society for
Nondestructive Testing (May 2000):
p 630-633.
31. Maranville, C. “Requirements for
Radioscopy of Aerospace Structures.”
Real-Time Radioscopy and Digital
Imaging [Mashantucket, CT, August
1998]. Columbus, OH: American
Society for Nondestructive Testing
(1998): p 37-43.
32. Jones, T. “Evaluation of Digital X-Ray
Imaging Systems for US Air Force
Applications.” ASNT Fall Conference
and Quality Testing Show Paper
Summaries [Phoenix, AZ, October
1999]. Columbus, OH: American
Society for Nondestructive Testing
(1999): p 137-139.
33. Gray, J. “Three Dimensional Modeling
of Projection X-Ray Radiography.”
Review of Progress in Quantitative
Nondestructive Evaluation. Vol. 7A. New
York, NY: Plenum (1988): p 343-348.
34. Inanc, F. and J.N. Gray. “New
Developments in the Computer
Simulation of X-Ray NDE Process.”
Review of Progress in Quantitative
Nondestructive Evaluation. Vol. 10A.
New York, NY: Plenum (1991):
p 355-362.
35. Hoppins, W.K. “In-Motion
Radiography.” Precision Metal.
Cleveland, OH: Industrial Publishing
Company (August 1968).
36. Bulban, E.J. “Fluoroscopic Inspection
Assures Quality.” Aviation Week and
Space Technology. New York, NY:
McGraw-Hill (August 1979).
Aerospace Applications of Radiographic Testing 567
3RT20_Layout(543_568) 10/14/02 3:30 PM Page 568

37. McDaniel, G.A. “Recent Developments 45. Xu, J., R. Wallingford, T. Jensen and
in High Output Microfocus X-Ray J. Gray. “Recent Developments in the
Systems.” Automated Nondestructive X-Ray Radiography Simulation Code:
Testing: Proceedings of a Topical Seminar XRSIM.” Review of Progress in
[Idaho Falls, ID, June 1983]. Sponsored Quantitative Nondestructive Evaluation.
by American Society for Vol. 13A. New York, NY: Plenum
Nondestructive Testing South Idaho (1994): p 557-562.
Section. Amsterdam, Netherlands: 46. Conley, J., B. Moran and J. Gray.
Gordon and Breach Science Publishers “A New Paradigm for the Design of
(1986): p 209-212. Safety Critical Castings.” Aluminum in
38. Chapter 19, “Specialized Radiographic Automotive Applications. SP 1350.
Methods.” Nondestructive Testing Warrendale, PA: SAE International
Handbook, second edition: Vol. 3, (1998) p 25-38.
Radiography and Radiation Testing. 47. Gray, J. “Recent Developments of an
Columbus, OH: American Society for X-Ray NDE Simulation Tool.” Modeling
Nondestructive Testing (1985): of Casting, Welding and Advanced
p 759-835. Solidification Processes. Vol. 9. Aachen,
39. London, B., R.N. Yancey and Germany: Shaker-Verlag (2000):
J.A. Smith. “High-Resolution X-Ray p xxxvi-xliii.
Computed Tomography of Composite 48. Straw, R. “Voices in the Air — The
Materials.” Materials Evaluation. Early Days of Aircraft NDT.” Materials
Vol. 48, No. 5. Columbus, OH: Evaluation. Vol. 42, No. 2. Columbus,
American Society for Nondestructive OH: American Society for
Testing (May 1990): p 604-608, 629. Nondestructive Testing (February
40. Wojciechowski, C. “Automated X-Ray 1984): p 152-160.
Inspection of Air Foils.” Presented at 49. Ito, G. “A Review of the History of
Qual-Test®-3 [Cincinnati, OH, October Nondestructive Testing in Japan.”
1984]. Program, Materials Evaluation, Materials Evaluation. Vol. 40, No. 11.
Vol. 42, No. 10 (September 1984): Columbus, OH: American Society for
p 19. Nondestructive Testing (October
41. Richards, W.J., M.R. Gibbons and 1982): p 1138, 1140-1141.
K.C. Shields. “Neutron Tomography of
Aerospace Structures.” Fifth World
Conference on Neutron Radiography
[Berlin, Germany, June 1996]. Berlin,
Germany: Deutsche Gesellschaft für
Zerstörungsfreie Prüfung (1997):
p 644-649.
42. Bueno, C., M.D. Barker, R.A. Betz,
R.C. Barry and R.A. Buchanan.
“Nondestructive Evaluation of Aircraft
Structures using High Resolution Real
Time Radiography.” Nondestructive
Evaluation of Aging Aircraft, Airports,
Aerospace Hardware and Materials. SPIE
Proceedings 2455. Bellingham, WA:
International Society for Optical
Engineering (1995): p 114-124.
43. Winfree, W., R. Parker and P. Howell.
“Detection of Cracks in Aircraft
Structures with Reverse Geometry
X-Ray®.” Proceedings of the 5th Joint
DOD/FAA/NASA Aging Aircraft
Conference (September 2001).
44. Albert, R., W. Pember, J. Garrison and
D. Reyna. “Aircraft Inspection with a
Portable, Filmless X-Ray System Using
Reverse Geometry.” Materials
Evaluation. Vol. 58, No. 5. Columbus,
OH: American Society for
Nondestructive Testing (May 2000):
p 634-638.

568 Radiographic Testing