Class : M.A. Semester- I Subject : Pub. Admn.

Name/Code of Paper : Comparative and Development

Administration/III
Chairperson : Prof. Madhurima Verma
Subject Co-ordinator : Dr. Purva Mishra
Course Leader : Dr. Purva Mishra

M.A. SEMESTER- I
PAPER: III COMPARATIVE AND DEVELOPMENT ADMINITRATION

CONTENTS
(i) Introductory Letter i
(ii) Syllabus ii

L.No. Topic Author Page No.

Unit -I
1. Comparative Public Administration : Meaning and Prof. Swinder Singh 1
Significance
2. Evolution of Comparative Public Administration ” ” 9
3. Environment of Administration ” ” 19
Unit -II
4. Approaches to Comparative Public Administration Dr. Namit Kumar/ 35
Prof. Swinder Singh
5. Administrative and Political Systems of UK & USA Dr. Jyoti Marwaha/ 53
Prof. Swinder Singh
6. Administrative and Pol. Systems of Japan & ” ” 65
France
Unit -III
7. Concept and Significance of Development Prof. Vijay Rattan/ 75
Prof. Swinder Singh
8. Sustainable Development ” ” 85
9. Development Administration – Concept & ” ” 93
Significance
10. Administrative Capability and Development ” ” 105
11. Role of Bureaucracy in Development ” ” 115
Unit -IV
12. Organization for Development Planning Prof. Swinder Singh 127
13. Role of United Nations Systems in Development Prof. Vijay Rattan 147
14. Gender and Development ” ” 162
15. Millennium Development Goals and Sustainable Prof. Swinder Singh 176
Development Goals

E-mail of Department - coordpubadmn@pu.ac.in

Phone Number of Department - 0172-2534311
Editor & Vetter: Dr. Purva Mishra
 i

INTRODUCTORY LETTER

In the context of evolution of Public Administration and its growth and development as an
independent discipline the significant outstones among others are the growth of Comparative
Public Administration ad Development Administration. In Paper-I on Administration. Theory
you can find a brief outline of growth and evolution of Public Administration in which some
reference can be found in relation to Comparative Public Administration and Development
Administration. This paper concern the detailed aspects of Comparative Public Administration
– its growth, significance, models and approaches. This paper also covers thorough analysis of
Development and Development Administration.

Dr. Purva Mishra

Coordinator
Dept. of Public Administration
 ii
SYLLABUS
Paper – III Comparative and Development Administration

UNIT-I
Comparative Public Administration : Meaning nature, scope and significance.
Evolution and Relevance of Comparative Public Administration.
Environment of Administration in Developed & Developing Countries: economic, political social
and cultural.
UNIT II
Approaches: Structural Functional Approach; Ecological approach
Administrative and Political Systems: UK; USA; France; Japan
UNIT III
Concept and Significance of Development and Sustainable Development
Development Administration: Concept and significance
Administrative Capability and Role of Bureaucracy for Development Administration
UNIT IV
Organization for Development Planning a Centre, State and District Levels in India.
Role of United Nations System in Development
Overview of Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) and Sustainable Development Goads
(SDGs)
Gender and development
 1

Lesson - 1

COMPARATIVE PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION

MEANING, NATURE, SCOPE AND SIGNIFICANCE

Structure
1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Meaning of the Term CPA
1.3 Nature of CPA
1.4 Scope of CPA
1.5 Significance
1.6 Summary
1.7 Model Question
1.8 Glossary
1.9 Further Reading
1.0 Objectives
After going through this lesson unit you should be able to :
 elaborate the meaning of comparative public administration
 appreciate the significance of CPA
 explain the nature of CPA
 discuss the scope of CPA
1.1 Introduction
To study and compare governments is an age old practice. Since public administration as old as the
government, the comparative studies relatings to public administration too cannot be regarded as
new. However, the Comparative Public Administration as a Sub-discipline of Public Administration
in relatively of recent origin. With only a few isolated efforts towards the comparative studies in
public administration there has not been any significant development towards this direction. Since
the end of the Second World War, there has been a vast outpouring of books, research reports,
articles, conferences etc. associated with the emergence of Comparative Public Administration as an
academic field. As with most academic disciplines, this field extends upon work done in other
areas, especially American Public Administration and Socio-economic theories. It developed upon
source of the pre-existing ideas and models and also borrowed from related field. It is, there for a
significant for the students of Public Administration to be aware of this vital dimension of the
discipline. In this opening session we’ll focus mainly on the meaning, basic concepts, nature, scope
and significance of Comparative Public Administration.
1.2 Meaning of the term (CPA) and Basic Concepts
Before analysis the term comparative public administration it would be appropriate to look
into the terms public administration and related terms.
 2

Basically, the concern here is with studying the “process” of Public Administration, the
activity of administering Public affairs. There are some sharp differences of opinion among scholars
of Public Administration on the definition of Public Administration. Therefore the best possible way
is to state those points which are of central concern to all students of public administration and in
all administrative studies. The central points of features are three : (i) public administration includes
the characteristics and behaviour of public administration, that is the motivations and conduct of
participants in the process of administration, particularly those who are permanent members of the
civil service; (ii) Institutional arrangements for the conduct of government administration, such as
organization and relationships for administrative action, and (iii) The environmental factors such as
the relationship of the administrative branch of the government to the political branch and to the
society in general.
The term comparison has got a special significance both in theory and methodology is social
sciences. In social science, comparision is a technique of conceptualisation – a means of scientific
enquiry and a tool of analysing and understanding any new phenomena. This scientific tool or
technique is given a general name in social sciences, viz., theory or model which means a conceptual
construct through which we can the phenomena under study.
At this level, theory is a set of inter-related proposition that are designed to syntheses the
data contained in an organised body of singular generalisation. But is the process of synthesis the
theory that is developed goal beyond the school data included in the original cluster of
generalisation. It becomes possible to understand not only the phenomena to which these
generalisation originally related but also other phenomena which had hitirto been shroued in doubt.
Example of this form of theory are Max Waber’s “Essay on Bureaucracy” and Peter Blau’s “Dynamics
of Bureaucracy”.
It fully developed, this system would be comparable to the theory of relativity in physics.
From this theory if can be possible to formulate deductively the whole body of intermediate theories
and from this, in turn, to predict the occurance of aspirical events in the administrative life of a
people. From such prodiotism the ultimate validity of the conceptual framework is, them, of the
affirmed or of denied in the whole or in part.
The comparative approach, then, is the basic for any systematic explanation. It should not be
regarded as a specific method in social research “rather a special focus on cross-societal and cross-
institutional analysis”. In other words, with the expansion of the universe of social analysis, the
comparative perspective is a “basic intellectual outlook that helps one overcome natural
inclinations to view the world through egocentric and ethnocentric lenses, “Skills notes that :
An inquiry may be considered comparative if it proceeds by the use of an analytical scheme
through which different societies may be systematically compared so that, by the use of a single
set of categories, their identities and uniqueness may be discovered and explained. The analysis
is comparative if the explanation draws on variables and the values of variables that are applicable
to the description and analysis of societies widely different in time and place from that under
immediate considerations. An inquiry into a particular society will be considered comparative if its
descriptions and explanations assert, imply, or permit the systematic juxtaposition of that society or
of some sectors of it with other societies or their corresponding sectors.
Like public administration generally, comparative public administration is both a field of
academic study and an ongoing governmental activity. Its meaning includes , on the one hand, use
of the comparative method to study administration across and within governments around the
 3

world. On the other, it denotes a rich array of administrative realities around the globe whose
existence is critical to billions of people regardless of whether the activity is studied or understood.
The adjective “comparative, “ rather than “foreign” or international”, is used because of a
commitment to comparison as a method of study. It is believed that by comparing administrative
practices, values, and institutions we can both describe and evaluate public bureaucracies more
effectively than would otherwise be the case. As in all gaining of knowledge, by nothing similarities
we discover patterns and simplify reality so that it can be grasped, and by nothing differences we
appreciated the variety and uniqueness of individual phenomena.
Indeed, even when studying exclusively American public administration, we find ourselves
contrasting agencies, jurisdictions, techniques, administrators, and so on. In comparative public
administration such analysis is made explicit – we either compare these items an organisation
(cross-cultural study) or within them.
1.3 Nature of CPA
Comparative public administration is an inevitable outcome of the need to know basic
elemental or say 'fundamental (even peripheral) similarities or differences between "developed"
administrative systems and "developing" ones. it is true that such an established sub-field exists in
political science entitled as "comparative Politics" or "Comparative Governments". It is worth-while
to refer to Keith M. Henderson, who informs us about the initiation of some researches in
comparative Public Administration. "Although the subject is not construed consisting, there is ample
evidence of interest in comparative Public Administration in the form of bibliographies conferences,
new courses and a wide range of scholarly articles and books. Even the American political Science
Review, which in the past had been slow to respond to new thinking in Public Administration,
recognized this movement by inaugurating, as of March, 1963, a bibliographical section entitled
Comparative Public Administration.
Lynton K. Cald well explains nature of Comparative Public Administration in older pre-world
war 2 as…, largely (but of courses not exclusively) focussed on western democratic societies, and
relied principally upon analytic studies for its data. It had historical dimension. Indeed in the older
“Comparative Administration blended imperceptibly into admninistrative history. The newer post-
war comparative public administration incorporates a greater diversity of methods and subject
matter rearived from sociology, cultural authropology, and organization theory. Its field of inqury
has been primarily in the so called new or “under-developed nations.
It has generally been pointed out that criticism by three stalwarts of political science who
unintentionally has done more demage to the discipline of public administration than anybody else.
It was the case of an infant discipline (public administration) being subject to surgical triurings by
competent medical practitioners, In 1947, Robert Dahl had bemoaned the absence of a universal
public administration. The other critics of public administration are simon Waldo and stane. 'The
student of Public Administration has to come to the expectations and look to the deficient areas of
public Administration as pointed out by the senior teachers in order to make the discipline
convincingly relavant, scientific and useful to the humanity at large.
Comparative' Public Administration, too has to be analytical and not merely descriptive. The
younger administrative thinkers need to realise the disirability of comparative administrative
studies to 'be critical analytical and based upon sound judgements supported by "true" data
collected from different countries.
 4

"The most significant development in public Administration currently engaging the attention
and energies of a large number of students both young and mature is the focusing of attention on
Comparative Public Administration and the related problems of development administration.
Why young students “attention” is attracted toward Comparative Public Administration ? It is
because of their "personal experience”, "World-wide developments" in administration by developing
countries and a also because on addressed to a "wide spectrum of interests" from concrete policy
question to the abstractions of pure social defences.
In Comparative Public Administration movement what is essential is to precisely define the
following :
1. Concepts to be used in urderstanding administrative phenomenon.
2. Comparable variable to be identified by scholars to be used to differentiations one
category of administrative system from another.
3. New reliable techniques for investigation and inquiry. For the most part it is the younger
students in Public Administration who are active in the comparative movement and
certainty, it is they who are chiefly interested in the theoretical-scientific question. For
the most part and in a general sense these younger students are behaviourally oriented
with the central problems of the social sciences.
1.4 Scope of CPA
Comparative Public Administration deals with administrative organizations or system
pertaining to different cultures and settings whose similar or dis-similar features/or characteristics
are studied and compared in order to find out “causes” or “reasons” for efficient or effective
persormance or behaviour of administrations, civil servants or bureaucrats.
The scope of comparative research then is broad : It can be inter-cultural, cross-national
but intracultural, or intra-national in scope and cross-temporal in dimension. Such emphases
should be taken into account when comparative research is involved.
In terms of public administration, the scope of comparative public administration seems to
generate considerable debate. The need for comparative research is crucial for the development of a
more scientific public administration; for “……. as long as the study of public administration is not
comparative, claims for a ‘science of public administration’ sound rather hollow” Heady writes
accepting the description ofoffered by the Comparative Administration Group of the American
Society for Public Administration “….. the theory of public administration as applied to diverse
cultures and national settings and the body of factural data, bywhich it can be expended and
tested.” Thompson offers even a broader view that goes beyond the “cultural dimensions” to include
comparative private administration. Raphaeli emphasizes two key questions in any comparative
study a question of purpose and a question of methodology :
We compare to learn the distinctive characteristics of a particular administrative
system or cluster of systems ; to find out what makes certain administrative features
work well in one country or era while they fail dismally in another; to identify the
factors-cultural, political and social that are involved in success or failure; to explain
the differences in behavior or bureaucrats ad bureaucracies in different countries and
cultures; and finally to discern what change, if any, ought to be introduced and how
they can be introduced, to improve the performance of a bureaucracy. Above all, we
compare to arrive at a conceptual knowledge rather than a knowledge of details.
 5

In the words of Prof. Dwight Wald : To compare is to examine similarities and differences
simultaneously, the effort is bent forward to two main ends : (1) to discover, defineand differentiate
the staff/(politics or admn.) to be compared, wherever in the world it may be ; and (2) to develop
criteria of differentiation that are useful in ordering and analyzing the ‘staff’ once it has been
identified. In this task, the contemporary stock ofprovoked or fashionable concepts in the social
sciences (as well as those ‘indigenous’ to Pol. Science) has been drawn upon extensively. The works
of Waber and Parsons, structure-functionalism as conceived in various sources, the concept of
culture, the decision making scheme, communications theory and cybernetics systems theory-
allthese and several more sources have seen drawn upon by both movements. The comparative
emphasis has been shifting from structures and institutions to processes and functions. Briefly, as
Robert Jackson writes, ‘the goal of such comparison is the development of a body of theory or
general propositions about administrative behviour transcending national, societal or cultural,
boundaries-in other words, general science of public administration.
Comparative Administrative System
In studying administrative system of different countries, a comparative scheme can be
employed which includes the study of of structure, purpose, process and environment.
Professor Garnald Caiden explains the comparative scheme. In the following manner.
“Although each administrative system is unique, administrative sytems : can be compared
according to their (a) process, (b) purposes. (c) structures and environmental interaction, trans-
cultural administrative processes – that is, how different cultures get things done-can be examined
at many different levels, from individuals to inter-national arrangements and according to race, sex
and other ascriptive criteria.”
In is widely believed that Comparative Administrative Systemsare studied on the mode of
comparative governments. The Comparative Public Administration approach had more or less closely
followed comparative political analysis, Comparative analysis had not to be description of formal
institutions. To be formally descriptive of organization rules, regulations etc. may lead to a
conclusion that such comparision are not comparative, but unreal, narrow, subjective and static.
In Princeton University, the Public Administration Clearning House had hosted a conference on
comparative administration in the year 1952. The conclusions of the conference are summarized below :
1. Distinction should be drawn between policy values in government programmes and
academic values in understanding administration.
2. Focussed research would be more rewarding than reclassifying existing data.
3. Criteria of relevance were Indispensable.

Self Assessment Exercise

1. What was the need for comparative studies.
 6

2. Two features of CPA.

1.5 Significance of Comparative Public Administration

It is a discipline which uses enipirical tools of comparison to study the total universe of Public
Administration irrespective of time, place, or cultural variables. All efforts in the field of Comparative
public Administration are directed towards the construction of such a theoretical systera. Thus,
comparison has the same significance in Public Administration as it has in other social sciences,
viz., analysing and comprehending administrative phenomena in different settings and situations
and in general, developing of' a capacity for prediction of the future course of administrative events
and behaviour in a given situation.
It has been rightly pointed out that "Within Public Administration proper perhaps the area of:
greatest current scholarly activity – and some would say of greatest promise is the Comparative
study of public administration". Comparative administration is the only hope for the growth and
development of public administratlon.
It is evident and self-explanatory that the future of the discipline, of public administration is
hinged with the ever-expanding directors of comparative studies. Cross-cuitural studies should
eventually place the discipline on a firm footing and supply sufficient material for providing
satisfactory explanation to administrative problems establishing it on solid bed-rock of scientism.
Only scientific explanations in the literature of public administration can silence critics like Simon
Stene and walds. Therefore, cross-cultural analysis is essential.
As the complexities unfold the problems increasingly require interdisciplinary and multi-
functioal approaches. An important dimension to develop interdisciplinary perception, knowledge
and skills would be to expose an increasing number of administrators to a board spectrum of
knowledge. Only by exploring the different conditions faced by different administrators in different
countries can exports hope to identify the variety of administrative strategies that are to be adopted
to overcome specific conditions of the respective countries. Here lies the importance of comparative
public administration.
Comparative public administration as a movement delineates an area of concern and a
methodologic orientation to study the administrative process and organization for the purpose of
answering common problems and questions. Established analytical categories of institutions are
analysed and compared, with an aim towards the development of a body of knowledge so that policy
recommendations can be made. The effort is to discover define and differentiate various approaches
or arrangements and to develop criteria of differentiation that are useful in ordering and analyzing
the issues once they have been identified. It purports to examine not only similarities and differences
in the norms; institutions and behavior of adum, but also accounts for them and aims towards the
development of a body of knowledge in the light of which prediction of trends can also be made. It is
in this sense, writes Prof. R.B.Jain, that it becomes a matrix from which theories emerge and at the
same time serves as a labortary for their testing.
According to Caldwell, the main aim of comparative approach to public administration has
been “to hasten the emergence of a universally valid body of knowledge concerning administrative
 7

behavior in brief, to contribute to a genuine and generic discipline of public administration.” It is

not merely juxtaposing the description of a number of similar administrative institutions in different
countries at one place.
Further, it offers to study the administrative processes and organizations for the purpose of
answering common problems and questions.It attempt to identify the characteristics of various
administrative system in terms of certain established analytical atagories in the light of which,
identification of administrative phenomena becomes possible for as many administrative systems as
possible. It further purports not only to examine similarities and dissimilarities in the norms,
institutions and behavior ofadministrative system; but also to account for them and aim towards the
development of a body of knowledge so that policy recommendations can be made and trends
predicted. It is in this sense that it becomesa matrix for which theories amerge and at the some time
serve as a laboratory for their tasting.
Leonard D. White to a traditional public administration scholar had once pointed out that the
principles of public administration axihibit cross-cultural character. A principle considered as
tested hypothesis and applied in the light of its appropriate frame of reference, useful guide to
action in the public administration Russia as a Great Britain, of Iran as of the United States. “It
clearly shows cross-cultural aspacts of public administration for us the area content of comparative
public administrative as a sub-discipline.”

Self Assessment Exercise-II

1. Two elements of Scope of CPA.

2. Two areas of significance of CPA.

1.6 Summary
The intellectual development or 1950’s and 60’s in the field of Public administration was the
efforts of its students to developtheoretical constructs with across cultural, cross-national, cross
temperal perspectives. There was an exposure to foreign, often non-western, governmental systems
and cultures which stimulated a sense of comparativeness in general and in particular raised
questions either about the appropriatness of the sheer possibility of transferring familiar
administrative devices or applying what had been considered to be good or scientific principles of
administration. A vast outcome of literature on comparative public administration has failed to
establish itself as a discipline. One common complaint has been that theorizing had been amplebut
that most of the theory had not been tested or was even untestable. There has too many dis-
agreements and veryfew points of consensus. Though it has seen viewed by many as to be in the
state of insecurity, self-examination and, identity crisis-with doubtful future, it has made a positive
impact and seems to carry considerable promise.
1.7 Model Question
• Discuss the Origin, nature and significance of CPA.
 8

1.8 Glossary
• Conceptualization - An abstract idea or concept of something
• Ecology - Environment (Socio-eco., Pol. Etc.)
• Models - A copy of something thatis usually smaller than real
• Cross - Cultural - Relating to different cultures, or comparison
between them
• Interdisciplinary - Involving two or more different areasof study
1.9 Refernces
• Ferrel Heady, Public Administration – A Comparative Perspective
• Fred Riggs, “Trends in Comparative Study of Public Administration” International Review
of Administrative Science, 21, No. 1, 1962.
• Mohit Bhattacharya, Bureaucracy and Development Administration, Uppal Publishing
House, New Delhi, 1979, P.5.
• Romesh K. Arora ''Comparative Public Administration Associated Publishing House, New
Delhi, 1919. p. 24.
1.10 Further Readings
• F.W. Riggs. The Ecology of Public Administration, Asia, New Delhi, 1961, p. 1.
• Lynton Caldwe!l's article entitled : “Conjectures on Comparative Public Administraiion" in
Public Administration and Democracy,' Roscoe C. Martin (ed.) Syracuse University Press,
1965. pp. 229-244.
• Howard E. McCurdy, Pubiic Administration : A Synthesis, Cummings Publishing
Company, 1977, c. 9. pp. 98-332.
Suggested Answers to SAEs
I. 1. For setter understandingof concepts and practices; to strengthen the theories;
Scientific enquiries.
2. Development of Models; Conceptualization; Focus on ecology. Adoption of various
approaches and models.
II. 1. Cross-national ; inter-cultural as well as intra-cultural; Environment of Public
Admn.)
2. Enriched the discipline of Public Administration Cross culture studies; strengthening
of the theoretical base.

*****
 9

Lesson - 2

EVOLUTION OF COMPARATIVE PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION

AND ITS RELEVANCE

Structure
2.0 Objectives
2.1 Introduction
2.2 The Early Period (Genesis)
2.3 Post World War-II Rise of CPA
2.4 Signs of Breakthrough
2.5 Comparative Administration Group
2.6 Relevance and Evaluation
2.7 Summary
2.8 Model Questions
2.9 Glossary
2.10 Further Reading
2.0 Objectives
After going through this lesson you should be able to :
◙ draw the origin of CPA
◙ trace the comparative trends in Public Administration
◙ highlight the major milestones in CPA movement
◙ appreciate the relevance of CPA.
2.1 Introduction
In the previous lesson you have studied the meaning, nature and scope of CPA. Alongwith
that you must have noted the origin and significance of CPA. However, despite the earlier trends in
comparative studies the sub-area, CPA got some definite foundation after the end of Second World
War. The CPA evolved and developed with definite objectives, grounds, directions and
methodologies. In this lesson we’ll b gocusing on the evolution and growth of Comparative Publis
Administration.
2.2 The Early Period (Gensis)
As the genssis of comparative administration can be found in the early periods of the
development of public administration, the refers it is logical to start our discussion with a brief
reference to the origin of Public Administration.
The systematic study of public administration is just over a contury old phenomenon; Wood
row Wilson’s article. ‘The study of administration’ (1887) is gererally considered to be a symbolic
beginning of its academic study in America. Wilson, in this article, expressed the view that, spoiled
by the ‘spoils system’, the United States Civil Service could learn a lot from the Europeon personnel
practices, especially Britian. Thus the interest was shown in learning from administrative practices
of foreign countries.
 10

In early twentieth century, F.W. Taylor initiated the scientific Management Movement which
was aimed at meetng the challenge of grenter productivity. Around the 1920’s it became an
international movement. The “principle” of “Taylorism” were found consistent with the objectives of
large scale production and were applied by leninin the administration of Soviet industrial enterprises.
The two inportant textbooks on public administration, by Leonard White and William
Willoughby, published in 1926 and 1927 respectively, and other writings on public administration in
the 1920's and 1930's generally adopted a "management" approach to public administration, and
also showed a heavy concern with the enterprise of building a science of administration through the
articulation of certain "unlversal" principles of administration. Later, studies' in Human Relations
added new elements in ths understanding of administrative behaviour but because of various
reasons Human Relations Movement could not develop a cross-cultural perspective.
During and after World War II, challenges to administrative theory came from at least two
major directions. First, scholars such as Edwin Stene, Herbert Simon, and Dwight Waldo stressed
the need for more "scientific" explanations in the literature, and second, some writers called for
rigorous cross-cultural analysis in public administation. Robert Dahl, for example, asserted that “as
long as the study of public administration sound rather hollow.” Dahl’s article, wherein the ‘third
problem’ is that and we cannot afford to ignore the relationship between public administration and
its social setting’. '
There should be no reason for supposing, then, that a principle of public administration has
equal validity in every nation-state, or that successful public administration practices in one country
will necessarily prove successful in a different social, economic and political environment. A
particular nation state embodies the results of many historical episodes, traunas, failures and
successes which have in turn created peculiar habbits, mores, institutionalized patterns of
behaviour, Weltarschauungen, and even 'national psychologies'. One cannot assume that public
administration can escape the effects of this conditioning or that it is somehow independent of and
isolated from the culture or social setting in which it develops...
'These conclusions suggest themselves :
1. Generalizations derived from the operations of public administration in the environment
of one ration-state cannot be universalized and applied to public administ ration in a
different environment...
2. There can be no truly universal generalizations about public administration without a
profound study of varying national and social characteristics impinging on public
administration, to determine what aspects of public administration, if any, are truly
independent of the national arri social setting. Are there discoverable principles of
universal validity, or are all principles valid only in teims of a special environment ?
3. It follows that the study of public administration inevitably must become a much more
broadly based discipline, resting not on a narrowly defined knowledge of techniques and
processes, but rather extending to the varying historilcal, sociological, economic and
other conditioning factors that give public administration its peculiar, stamp in each
country ( Dahl, 1947, II) .
2.3 Post World War II – Rise of Comparative Public Administration
The traditional literature on 'comparative government' focussed on foreign relations, political
parties, election machinery, pressure groups, constitution or institutions in their formal aspects.
 11

"Comparative administration" on the other hand, concentrated on central administrative machinery,

decentralisation patterns, civil services structures, public finance, financial administration, control
over executive branch of government and the functions of administrative officers. But post-World
war II studies made severe criticisms of the traditional comparative government literature. They
found it to be essentially "non-comparative" in character, for, despite the study of governments of
several nations within a single volume, cross-cultural and cross-temporal analysis and explanations
were rare. Riggs called this old material as the study of the "governments of foreign areas" Instead of
the study of "comparative governments".
The turn of events during and after World war II changed the state of comparative literature
drastically. Comparative public administration gained a respectable academic and professional
status and a very large number of publications are the proof of it. This was due to various factors
such as :-
(a) American package of traditional po1itical science and public administration lost much
utility to solve governmental problems and the scholars working in different cultural
contexts became conscious of the multl functionality of structures. This awareness led to
a great interest in systematic comparative studies.
(b) After World War II, the Marshall Plan for the economic recovery of Europe and later, the
Point Four Programme for developing countries had increased United states political and
economic commitment abroad. Also," the United Nations' technical assistance teams,
joined by American scholars, were in operation.
And it became like an international reform campaign. However, comparative public
administration developed somewhat slowly in the initial stages of the technical assistance programme.
(c) Stress was laid on the development of under developed countries with the aid of
developed countries. 'Development’ was recognised as a universal goal. Since the
emergent nations range quite widely with regard to their historical background;
geographical conditions; population distribution, social, cultural and economic
conditions, so the creation of the conceptual constructs became important. The result
was that important strides were made in the evolution of the study of comparative public
administration.
(d) Another important concern of the students of public administration in the post-World
War II period was to move away from the legal-formal approach to the study of public
administration and to concentrate on the actual behaviour of human beings in an
administrative organization. This concern was part of the so called "behavioural
movement" in social sciences.
U.N. Technical Assistance Programme
It was in 1948 (December) that the United Nations General Assembly passed a resolution that
recognised the need in the less developed countries for training public administration, and
programmes were begun in 195'0. In 1951 the Public Administration Division of the Technical
Assistancc Administration was established, and its programme ircluded not only training of officials
but ‘advice and assistance to governments in the improvement of public administration’. The Public
Adninistration Division of the United States Technical Cooperation Admnistration (later the Foreign
Operations Administration, the International Cooperation Administration, and the Agency for
International Development) was founded in 1955. The first of several contracts made directly
 12

between American universities and overseas countries was made by the University of Michigan with
the Phili, in l952. Paul Appleby’s consultency in India in 1951 was among several supported by the
Ford Foundation. One way and another, then, scores of American professors of political science and
Public Administration were sent abroad in the years 1950-60; and even if some of them were aware
of Dahl’s article, they found themselves with nothing to replace the tried and tested principles of
good administrative practice in which they had been brought up. Weidner (1964) produces instance
after instance of intellectual bank ruptey, and worse. But the experience was traumatic: scores of
American professors became personally aware of a whole universe of ways in which the 'univeisal
principles' did not fit, indeed were almost totally useless.
The search was on for some scheme, some framework to rander manageable the mass of new
information coming from the developing countries. 'The search merged with another, starting, from
dissatisfaction amongst teachers of comparatives politics with the old Syllabuses which, typically,
consisted of serial studies of Britain (for US student, USA for British students), Franch, Gemany,
Italy, and Soviet Russia, built up from the work of scholars specializing in these countries, and
related in a genera1 fashion to the constitution and politics of the base country by the use of
categories such as Single Chamber and Two Chamber Legislatures, Parliamentary and Presidential
Executives, Two party and Multi -party Systems and so on. Teachers found that these methods
offered little help in understanding such events as the collapse of the Weimar Republic and the rise
of the European dictatorships, and no help at all in even describing the virulent politics of the
Colonial and post-colonial countries. Sui generis accounts of each country, on the other hand,
would not offer a basis for comparisons. What was wanted, therefore, was a better scheme for the
recognition of types, or ‘politics' (Aristotie's word came back into vogue), hopefully one that would
most the stringent reuirements of 'science’ a thing to compare, in two specimens, while something
else is held Constant :
to compare political institutions and functions in the sense that a common
denominator for diversified phenomena is found and deviations from the
standard pattern are explained (Loewenstein, 1944-542).
2.4 Signs of Breakthrough
The signs of breakthrough came with Riggs’ ‘Agraria and Industria’ (1957), and what would be
generally accepted as the key work in the new comperative politics, Almond and Coleman's The
Politics of the Developing Areas (1960).
During this period, although the subject was not construed consistently, there is ample
evidence of the interest, in Comparative Public Administration in the form of bibliographies,
conferences, new courses and a wide range of soticiarly articles and books. Even the American
Political Science Review, which in the past has been slow to respond to new thinking in Public
Administration, recognized this movement by inaugurating as of March 1963, a bibliographical
section entitled Comparative Public Administration.
Since of the important works appeared during this period include: W.J. Siffin: Toward the
Comparative study of Public Administration (1957), Fred W. Riggs : “Trends in Comparative study of
Public Administration, International Review of Administrative Sciences (1962),Fervel Heady and
Syhil L. Stokes (eds): Papers in Comparative Public Administration (1960), R.S. Milne: “Comparative
and models in Public Administration” Political Studies (1962), Admini. Science quarterly- Special
Issueon comparative Public Admn. (June 1960), Keith M. Henderson: Emerging Synthesis in
American P. Admn. (1966), Dwight Waldo Comparative Public Administration James Heaply,
 13

“Comparative Public Administration, Comments and current characteristics” P.A.R. (1968), Milton J.
Esman, “CAG ad the study of Public Administration (1960). Riggs:Ecology of Pub. Admn. (1961),
Eiggs & Edward Weidner: Models and Priorities in Comparative Study of Public Administration.
Comparative Politics Movement
The post-World War II period has witnessed the emergence of a major interest in the
comperative study of political systems. The comparative politics movement and the comparative
public administration movement share many common stimuli and motivational factors, including
the emergence of a host of non-western nations, America’s worldwide involvement in political and
economic spheres, and the rise of behaviouralism.
Both the comparative politics and the comparative public administration movements have
experienced strong dis-satisfaction with the traditional approaches; they share the dominating
concern with conceptual frameworks, and both are interdisciplinary in orientation; they have
focused predominantly on the developing nations; and they are still faced with the obvious gap
between the needed and ths actual field research,
Developments in comparative politics in ths post-World War II period have influenced the
emerging developments in comparative public admnistration.
2.5 Comparative Administration Group (CAG)
Comparative Administration Group was set up in 1963 in a committee of the American
Society for Public Administration (ASPA). Fred Riggs was its chairman from its inception to the and
of 1970. The GAG developed a three fold programme designed to encourage research, teaching, and
more effective public policy formulation in the area of development administration. It was organised
into 11 committees on: Asia, Europe, Latin America, Africa, national planning; comparative urban
administration and politics, theories of organization, international administration, comparative
legislative studies, comparatives educatianal administration and systems theory. It has organized
numerous seminars and research projects hold at American universities and in far-flung placessuch
as Korea, Brazil and Italy. It also brought out a periodical newsletter, which served as a vehicle of
communication among the Group’s members. Since 1969, SAGE Publications in co-operaton with
the CAG, have published a quarerly ‘Journal of Comparative Administration.’ The CAG was very rich
so far as its scholarship structure was concerned. World know scholars like: Ralph Bribanti, samuel
Eisenstadt, Bertram Gross, Ferrel Heady, Fred Riggs, FrankSherwood, William Siffin and Dwight
Waldo etc. However, most of these scholars no more find themselves attached to it. Because of its
disillusioned performance, many of them turned critics of it.
Relationship with Other Developments
Prof. Waldo has attached more Importance to the relationship of the movement with certain
developments than its mere history. He limits his observation to three: 1) certain general tendencies
and problems in Public Administration : and Political Science, 2) the significance of Prof Herbert
Simen’s work and 3) the significance of Comparative Political Science Movement. Waldo notes that
the matrix of ideas that gave meaning and force to Public Administration during the twenties and
thirties collapsed in the forties under the combined impact of new experience and critical analysis.
Since then Public Administration as a focus, of research and teaching has not only survived but has
in several ways grown. Certainly there has been a reaction to the older self-confident parsetialism. a
general willingness to in corporate new ideas, new influences. There has been considerable
experiencetation WIth new approaches there has been a strenous attempt to relate Public
Administration to other' fields’ especially, tte various social sciences. But the disciplines remained
 14

undisciplined". There was a hope that Comparative Public Administration would provide a sense of
unity and direction. Despite all this, the future of Public Adminstration very much attached with
Political Science. What has happened in Political Science is therefore also relevant to the
development of Comparative Public Administration.
Behaviouralism, says Prof. Waldo, is the one word that best signifies and summarizes the
development of Political science. In general it refers, to a desire' and an attempt to make Political
Science genuinely scientific. In general, the impact of behaviouralism on tte Public Administration
band on the Political science spectrum has been slow. But, Herbert Simons Administrative
Behaviour was not only a critique of old public Administration, it offered in its place a strongly
argued reconstruction along behavioural lines. In the views of Prof. Waldo, Simon's work got general
recognition from social sciences but the students of Public Administration were not persuaded.
However, the behavoural approach in public administration motivated greater scientific
research and systematic theory construction. Testing of hypotheses in cross-cultural contexts made
the study of' comparative public administration a necessity. In order to study the differing ecologies
of a variety of administrative system, comparative public administration has borrowed concepts,
tools and findings from various social sciences, and thus has developed an interdisciplinary
orientation. Behaviouralism itself has acted as an umbrella under which comparative public
administration has found several modes of interaction not only with public administration but also
with other disciplines.
Regarding the third development i.e. comparative politics, it has already been noted it
emerged in the post World War period and shares manay things with Comparative Public
Administration. For decades there has been a field of comparative government with limited scope of
direct comparison of constitutions, constitutional sytems, legislatures, executives, party systems and
so forth. In the post War period there was a protest to replace it with comparative politics. As
indicated, the comparative politics and the comparative public administration movements have had
much in common in outlook and aspirations. Since both have taken the entire world as their
scientific univaerse, both been engaged in a aeroic attempt to find or create theoretical constructs
adequate for the task of world wide comparison. Both have common sources like the works of Max
Weber and Talcott Farsons.

Self Assessment Exercise-I

1. Name any three space contributing authors to CPA.

2. In which year Comparative Admn. Group eas established ?

 15

2.6 Relevance and Evaluation

The comparative approach to public administration has because dominant for a variety of
reasons. The cultural setting in which administration operates has long been recognized as a major
determinant of the pattern of administration that evolves, but with the spread of public
administration through developing countries, the cultural patterns are constantly more varied and
interesting. Similarly the influence of the environment on administration is an increasingly strong
determinant for change in the environment became much faster and started making more
compelling demands on administration in the later part of twentieth century than earlier.
Consequently, in each nation and in most institutions, the pattern of administration that evolves is
in some degree distinctive. And since there is much to be learned through example and analogy,
there is much borrowed back and fouth and even a mixing of patterns to create new integrations.
The comparative study of administrative system has grown up with the comparative study of
the political system. Both movements were having a general commitment to the outlook identified
with behaviouralism, having interdisciplinary approach, and tried to arrive at concepts, fomulas, and
theories that are truly universal, 'bridging and embracing all cultures. It was expected to evolve, a
scientific and useful body of administrative knowledge from comparative studies. But despite
exportations from scholars, the students of public administration have not been exclusively and
extensively involved in studying comparatively administrative systems. As a result of this research in
activity Comparative public administration has not evolved an adequate body of knowledge which
could form part of "theory of public administration" so directly needed. Despite all scholarly efforts to
strengthen development administration abroad and also emphasis on ecological perspectivs, it is yet
not clear as to what are the objects to be compared under Comparative Public Administration, Prof.
Henderson voices this' just what whould be compared in comparative Public Administration-specific
structure; functions; patterns; of Behaviour, national administrative systems , policies, societies,
cultures or how the task is to be accomplished. But it is clear that “Comparisons" could be made by
assessing structure, processes, values regulations, codes, patterns of behaviour and votes of all
those what consist of a administrative system in cross cultural context.
It is now a highly accepted, proposition that there should be a multi-dimensional approach
to the study of non-western public administration systems.
The American political Sciences Asociation had appointed a four-member team consisting of
oyrs, Kaufmansharp (as chairman) and Riggs. Sayre-Kaufman draft was rewarded into a conceptual
scheme to be applied to there similar cultures on a general cological approach advocated by Riggs.
As funds could not be made available to pursue the research design. This hope red investigation in
corporative public administration movement.
Besides its other shorts curing, to comparative public administration does not offer any
consensus over its future growth. Their has been an attempt, at theory building but without
building one. The literature offered by comparative public administration has failed to offer
solutions to solve the practical problems of the world. Further, the models developed for
comparative administration, particularly the bureaucratic and structural functional models are not
comprehensive enough to explain the social phenomenon which varies from country to country.
Through the CPA movement is passing through its ending phase, yet the contribution of the
comparative approach to public administraton cannot be overlooked. Even the move severe critics
of the CAG and its records acknowledge the impressive productivity of the 1960’s and the growth of
knowledge in comparative public administration which regulated. However the following paragraphs
outline the accomplishments of comparative public administration movement.
 16

According to Peter Savage, “the work in Comparative Administration and under the aegis of
the CAG has had a significant and perhaps lasting impact that no longer need any “movement”; that
the concerns and perspectives of the movement have became a part, possibly a fundamental part, of
the discipline and that the dissolution of the CAG "holding Company" does not necessarily mean the
disappearance of its legacy. The ground-work laid by the CAG is alive and flourishing, not just in developing
countries but on the domes the front too."
While students of Comparative Administration were a minority, the views they espoused were
novel rather than ceviant and their influence has been significant rather than constituting major
force which substantially changed the face of Political Science of Public Administration. The
influence of Comparative Administration is perhaps more appropriately regarded as supplementary
rather than’ revolutionary. It had a "rounding-out'' rather than a transfomational effect. Nor did
people in Comparative Administration become the ‘establishment' as a function of the
persuasiveness of their scholarly concerns in the sense that has been attributed to the leading
figures in the behavioural movement. .
According to Alfred Dismont, "Comparative Administration has kept Comparative Politics
honest. The point was well taken than and is more so. today. The studies of Comparative
Administration, for all the real and imagined inadequacies, shed a bright light on the existence and
importance, in many settings, of the public bureaucracy. No longer could political system and
political happenings in other countries be explained solely in terms of the categories traditional to
the study of Comparative politics, such as political parties, legislature, ideologies and the like.
Comparative administration focussed wider scholarly attention on the existence and influence of
public bureaucracies on matters not only of national policy but of the quality of the human,
condition (though the degree of influence they wield is not everywhere the same). Moreover, in a
sense, Comparative administration pre-dated the now familiar social critique of the bureaucratic
nature of contemporary existence. Some of the loaders of the New Public Administration movement
and its indictment of the growing bureaucratization of American life came from the ranks of
Comparative Administration.”
According to Ramesh K. Arora, "The Comparative Administration Group has widened the
horizons of public administration; it has opened the doors of the disclpline to all kings of social
scicntists (including foreign scholars), has made the scop of the field more systematic by studying
different administrative systems in their ecological settings, and has stimulated interest on the part
of its members in the problems of development administration.
Major Limitations
Once a fancied one for the students of Public administration, the CPA movement suffered
satback due to a variety of reasons. Riggs and many other scholars who were once very much
interested in this field have repeatedly expressed their disappointment. The movement suffered the
followed major limitation.
1. The various modals adopted by it had doubtful applicability.
2. Half baked theories were produced.
3. Comparative research pases a number of practical difficulties.
4. Insufficient availability of literature.
5. Problem of consensus.
6. Non-acceptability of the solutions offered to solve problems.
 17

Self Assessment Exercise-II

1. In which year the journal on CPA started its publication and by which Publisher ?

2. Point out two limitation of CPA movement.

2.7 Summary
The Comparative Public Administration as a intellectual development is relatively not very
old. Its emergence as integral part of the study and research in administration increased
particularly during and after the second World War. It was because of the nations coming closer
and the identification of the fact that public administration in various countries operate in their
peculiar environment and for the growth the discipline it has to be necessarily comparative. An
important milestone may be noted in 1952 when in USA a conference on Comparative Public
Adminitration was held in Princeton University. Similarly the setting up of Comparative
Administration Group in 1963 and publishing of a quarterly journal by Sage, since 1969 may be
regarded as the other major developments in this direction. The CPA movement has enriched the
discipline of Public Administration in a significant manner. Although, of late the interest of the
researchers and authors in CPA had declined, still the CPA has secured its place as an important
sub-field of Public Administration. CPA has definitely provided new dimensions towards the totality
of the discipline.
2.8 Model Question
Q. Evaluate the origin and growth of Comparative Public Administration and highlight its
relevance.
2.9 Glossary
► Generalizations - A general statement based on a few facts.
► Universality - A feature being shared or applicable in various parts of
world.
► Agraria - Relating princarily to agricultural societies
► Industria - Relating to Industrially advanced societies
► Behaviouralism - An attempt to apply the methods to study human behaviour,
(such as political behaviour) admire behaviour).
2.10 Further Readings
• Ferrel Heady, Public Administration – A Comparative Perspective
 18

• Fred Riggs, “Trends in Comparative Study of Public Administration” International Review

of Administrative Science, 21, No. 1, 1962.
• Mohit Bhattacharya, Bureaucracy and Development Administration, Uppal Publishing
House, New Delhi, 1979, P.5.
• Romesh K. Arora ''Comparative Public Administration Associated Publishing House, New
Delhi, 1919. p. 24.
• F.W. Riggs. The Ecology of Public Administration, Asia, New Delhi, 1961, p. 1.
• Lynton Caldwe!l's article entitled : “Conjectures on Comparative Public Administraiion" in
Public Administration and Democracy,' Roscoe C. Martin (ed.) Syracuse University Press,
1965. pp. 229-244.
• Howard E. McCurdy, Pubiic Administration : A Synthesis, Cummings Publishing
Company, 1977, c. 9. pp. 98-332.
Suggested Answers to SAE questions
I 1. Fred Riggs, Dwight Waldo; W.J. Siffin, Ferrel Heady, Braisanti
2. 1963
II 1. 1969, Sage Publications
2. Half-baked theories; Problem of concensus; Doubtful applicability

••••.
 19

Lesson - 3

ENVIRONMENT OF ADMINISTRATION IN DEVELOPED

AND DEVELOPING COUNTRIES

Structure
3.0 Objectives
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Socio-Economic Characteristics
3.3 Socio-Political Characteristics
3.4 Environmental Influences
3.5 Political Context of an Administrative System
3.6 Social and Cultural Context of Public Administration
3.7 Economic context of Public Administration
3.8 Summary
3.9 Model Questions
3.10 Glossary
3.11 Further Reading
3.0 Objectives
After going through this lesson unit you should be able to :
 compare the basic features of developed and developing countries
 analysis he environmental influences on administration.
 highlight the political context of public administration
 describe the influence of socio-economic environmental on administration.
3.1 Introduction
In the modern world we can easily observe the level of development of various countries.
However most of the countries are generally divided into two broader categories – developed and
developing countries. Infact every country’s administration is influenced by its environment –
political, economic, social and cultural. Infact Development is a multi-dimensional concept. Social
change has repercussions on economy and polity and vice-versa. In other words there is continuous
interaction between social development, economic development and political development. This
means that development planners have to take a holistic or an entire view of development and
develop the goals and strategies accordingly. The politicians and administrators need to ensure that
implementation of of development plans in each field takes place in unison and is not,
disharmonious or out of step.
There are socio-economic and socio-political characteristics which can be said to indicate the
extent of development in a country. These characteristics of developed and developing countzies a
discussed as follows :
3.2 Socio-economic characteristics
Some of the key socio-economic characteristics of developed and developing countries are :
 20

Unemployment and underemployment

Developing countries are characterized by unemployment and underemployment. According
to A.P. Thirlwall, there are three main types of structural imbalances in most developing countries
which affect employment. First, it is between skills, attitudes and expectations on the one hand and
opportunities on the other. This mainly affected the educated people. Secondly, there is imbalance
between regions. Thirdly, there is the sheer lack of co-operating factors for labour to work with,
particularly capital and Skilled managerial enterprise.
Average level of Per Capita Income
Though the average level of per capita income in the developing countries has increased over
the years, yet majority of the people seem to be deprived of the benefits of growth development. The
growth, it appears, has largely benefitted only few, i.e., the richest 20 per cent of the population.
Distribution of Income
In developing countries there is a high degree of inequality in income distribution. On the
other hand, the developed countries seem to have a comparatively better income distribution.
Health and Nutrition
It had been estimated by the UN Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) that there are at
least one billion people in the world suffering from various degrees of malnutrition, including two-
thirds of the world's one billion children. Most of these affected people happen to be in developing
countries. The relation between low income and food intake is two way. Low income is a cause of
Malnutrition. "Malnutrition in turn a cause of low income by impairing working efficiency and
productivity -a picture so common in developing countries.
Poverty
Large pockets of poverty exist in, developing countries and rural and urban poverty are both
widespread An estimate by Adelman and Morris had shown in serventies that on average, the per
capita income of the poorest 20 per cent of the population in a typical developing country was about
30 per cent of the national average. The biggest challenge before the developing countries was how to
raise the living standards of the poorest and narrowing the overall income distribution.
Education
The developing countries have mostly very poor literacy rates and low achievements in the
field of education. The public expenditure on education in developing countries has gone up in
absolute terms over the years but according to an estimate expenditure per capita is still only one-
twelfth of that in developed countries. There is still relative under provision of educational facilities
and opportunities in developing countries which is one of the major obstacles to their speedier
development.
Food Production
Food production has generally not kept pace with population growth in, developing countries
and the worrying factor also is that there has been no margin of safety or very little provision for
improving the distribution of food supplies. A dangerous dependence regarding food requirements
has grown up on North America and the EEC. Also, most of the increase in world food production
that has taken place recently has been, in the granary of North America. This is a disturbing trend.
In developing countries there seem to be a neglect of agriculture which has to be reversed.
 21

In, developing countries lack of adequate food supply and nutrition, combined with
rudimentary health facilities, leads to low life expectancy and a high incidence of infant and child
morality.
Basic Needs
The provision of health services; education, housing, sanitation, water supply and adequate
nutrition, came to be known in development circles in the 1970s (also supported by the World Bank)
as the "basic need approach" to economic development: The rationale of the approach was that the
direct provision of such good and services is likely to relieve absolute poverty more immediately than
alternative strategies which simply attempt to accelerate growth or which rely on raising the incomes
and productivity of the poor. A lot still needs to be done for meeting the basic needs of a vast
majority of population in the developing countries, whereas, in the developed countries that was not
so much of a problem.
Human Development Index
In 1990, the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) produced its first annual
Human Development Report which gave alternative measures of the economic well being or
development of nations which do not necessarily accord the usual measure of the level or growth of
income per head. As the UNDP Report said "although GNP growth is absolutely necessary to meet all
essential human objectives, countries differ in the way that they translate growth into human
development."
The UNDP define human development as a process of 'enlarging people's choices' that fairly
depends not only on income but also on social indicators such as health provision, education,
leisure time and so on. The UNDP constructs a "Human Development Index" which combines a
measure of income per head with measures of life expectancy and adult literacy. Countries are then
ranked by the index and compared with their income per head ranking from the lowest to the
highest. Through this new method, some countries that rank low by per capita income, rank high by
the human development index, and vice versa. For example, at that time, the United States ranked
only 19th on the human development index, but second according to the level of per capita income.
Other "rich" countries which also scored low on human development index were Kuwait, United
Arabs Emirates, Libya and Saudi Arabia. In 2005 however, the United States moved upto 10th
position on the Indes and India stood at 127th.1
3.3 Socio-Political Characteristics
Here we shall be concerned with examining the development or modernisation which takes
place in the society and polity as they move from the level of under development to comparatively a
developed level or status. On account of these changes both society and polity gain in differentiation
and integration, achievement, motivation, rationality, and secularism, people's involvement and
participation, pluralism, rule of law and freedom of the people. They begin to have larger capability
for coping with highly complex and expanding problems (political, social and economic) as well as,
more dynamism and social justice.
In the following paragraphs we would briefly examine these characteristics or traits :

1. United Nations Development Programme. Human Development Report 2005, Oxford University Press. New Delhi, 2005,
PP. 219-22.
 22

Differentiation
A traditional or underdeveloped society has a limited number of functions to perform as
compared with a developed society and polity; Moreover, the number of institutions and organization
performing these functions is comparatively few as one institution or organization may be entrusted
with more than one major function. Thus multi-functional organization exists. As society and polity
begin to face the challenges of development they begin to perform an increasing number of functions.
Moreover the performance of these functions is required to be more efficient, effective and just than
before, in order to develop the new social, political and economic capacity of the national system a
specificity of functions and structural differentiations begin to take place. In other words,
specialization of functions or division of labour results in allocating specific functions to specific
organisation. More organisations thus come into existence. At the some time within each
organization there is an increasing division of labour of functional specialization among its various
units or organs and the units are created if the need for further division of labour dictates it.
Competent professionals are recruited to man each organizational unit and the organisation as a
whole. There is thus proliferation of different organization and growing complexity within each
organization. Moreover interrelationship between organizations and units grow more complex. Thus
specificity of functions and structural differentiations result in the evolution of a complex and
pluralistic society. The need arises then for effective co-ordination or integration among the various
organizational structures. Given these two factors-increasing differentiation accompanied by
increasing co-ordination or integration the performance of society becomes larger in scope and more
effective qualitatively, if the environmental factors are not unfavourable.
This is also reflected in the political field. Within the political system also functional specificity
specialization along with structural differentiation and integration take place. In other words, more
and more political functions are allocated in accordance with the principle of division of work and for
this purpose more and diverse political institutions come into existence by the splitting up of the old
ones and the creation a new ones. Political institutional frame-work grows in size and complexity. In
order to make it work in unified way, rather than let them drift into cross purpose integrative or co-
ordinative institutional devices have to be created at the same time. These changes contribute to the
Improvement of the performance of each of the elements comprising a political system as well as of
the system as a whole, If due and continuous care is take that there are no long term incongruencies
or dieharmonies between the various political institutions as we as between any of these and the
social institutions which comprise the social system.
In short, one important characteristic of under-developed socio-political system is limited
differentiation while that of a comparatively developed system is very considerable and increasing
differentiation, function and structural, of course this is supplemented by effective co-ordination.
Achievement Motivation
In an underdeveloped socio-political system, the roles assumed or assigned within it are
based more up considerations other than merit such as birth, wealth religion, race or sex. Ascription
or status is the main criterion for the selection of social-leaders as well as for the political leaders
and occupants of public offices (such as Ministers) and administrative officers (civil servants). On the
other hand in a developed socio-political system primary importance is given to merit or achievement
of persons to be selected for social positions a political or administrative offices. It is obvious that the
performance of institutions or organizations as well as of the system of which these are parts, would
tend to improve quantitatively and qualitatively with increasing change from ascription to merit at
 23

the basis of recruitment. Moreover such a change would promote equality of opportunity among the
people of a country. Egalitarianism thus tends to gain in momentum by this process. Social and
political mobility also improves when the occupants of social positions and politic administrative
officers are not to be hereditary wielders of power but have to give way in the course of time to other
persons of merit who wish to compete for these positions and offices Mobility and free competition,
in other words, are necessary complements of social, political and administrative recruitments by
merit or on the basis of achievement.
Rationality and Secularism
In an underdeveloped social and political system, decisions and actions are undertaken
within an organization or institution or a sub system of organization in a manner which may be
irrational, partisan, selfish and superstitious; by and large. On the other hand as social and
political, development takes place, rationality and secularism begin to be increasingly the basis of
social and political decisions and actions. This means substantive evidence sound arguments and non-
partisan views provide the rationale for education and make use of scientific knowledge, accurate
information and modern management technologies.
Moreover, universalistic values i.e. values and norms prevalent in the world as a whole begin
to be given an increasing attention in decisions, actions and behaviours as a social and political
system develops. This does not mean that local or particularistic interests, beliefs and values are
thrown overboard. Rather, a suitable synthesis between universal or widely spread norms and
values on one side and the local culture or value is increasingly brought about, thereby
strengthening secularism. Moreover, rationality and secularism as guiding principles are
supplemented by the concepts of social justice and social equity in the formulation of policies and
strategies of action, as the social and political systems develop. These concepts did not receive much
attention in the past but are now the declared goals to be striven for by the government and people
of many countries. Social justice means the exploitation of man by man is to be progressively
eliminated by public policies. It also means that people should not be considered only as a
collectivity but as comprising various individuals with their distinctive need for social and
governmental assistance. A humanistic approach should replace a formalistic approach. The concept
of social equity implies that the more needy section of the people should be extended relevant and
even larger assistance by the social organisations and governmental agencies than given to the other
sections of people who are less needy. In short, justice and humanism supplement rationality and
secularism as the traits of the new culture of a developed society.
People's Involvement and Participation
In an underdeveloped social and political system the involvement and participation of the
people in the decision making processes or contemplated action is very limited. This means that the
parents do not consult the children within the family and the ruler or ruling class does not consult
the people when public decisions are taken. The people may not even be informed about the basis of
these decisions but are asked to co-operate loyally when the ruler or administration is to take steps
to implement the decisions which have been already taken.
On the other hand, in a comparatively developed social and political system, there is
considerable involvement and participation of the people.
Involvement means that people should take active interest in decision making and strategies
of action. Participation means the opportunity be given to individual or groups to influence the
 24

making of decisions. Democratic government is based upon the involvement and participation of the
people in the field of political decisions and actions. Besides long term national interests, people's
view points should be taken into account by a good legislature of municipal council representing the
people while taking public decisions of making public laws.
Besides activating and improving standards of citizenship, involvement and participation
would tend to reinforce the legitimacy of a governmental agency or the large political system. But
due safeguards are to be created that involvement and participation do not result in delays or
increase in element of irrationality in public decisions, policies and laws.
Interest Articulation and Aggregation
Related to public involvement and participation is the provision of facilities for interest
articulation and aggregation. In an underdeveloped social and political system people are generally
not, given adequate, opportunities to express their view points. Thus view points may remain
suppressed by and large. On the other hand, in a comparatively developed system individual as well
as their groups and organizations get increasing opportunities to express, their needs, demands and
view points. The social leaders and politicians are expected to facilitate this process of interest
articulation.
But interest articulation can turn out to be as a disharmonious and confused babble of
voices. This would hold up decisions and actions by an organization or institution. Articulation
should therefore be clear and not ambiguous, Moreover interest aggregation should accompany
interest articulation. Aggregation implies that political parties, associations, unions and
representative bodies should try to organize and crystallize the various interests openly expressed.
Interest articulation and interest aggregation, if carried on properly, contribute to better decisions
and actions. It has been aptly remarked by a social scientist (Lucian Pye): "the sum effect of the
inadequate processes for articulating particular interest is to weaken the possibilities for a rationally
based system of interest aggregation, when leaders are unsure of the distribution of particular
interests they cannot follow strategies of different policies in support of different combination of very
specific concerns under such circumstances public discussion tends to drift away from the hard
realities of social conflicts and to become mixed in vague generalities".
In short, open debate and discussions (without the participants losing self discipline)
accompanied by aggregation (adding up and crystalisation) of the views expressed would contribute
realism to policies, and strategies of action formulated or undertaken by authoritative organizational
structures and govenment institutions. At the same time measures need to be taken to ensure that
the groups and parties responsible for interest articulation and aggregation do not work in such a way
so as to create political and social fragmentions.
Rule of Law
In an underdeveloped social and political system, the law may neither be wholly impersonal
nor impartial in application. The law may contain personal views, preferences and prejudices of the
ruler or of the ruling class. Moreover it may tend to make discrimination between one section of the
people and the other or else between one individual and the other.
We may recall that the decisions or pronouncement of the Mughal king (i.e. fireman) were the
basis; the law in Mughal India. These were not based always on rationality and justice but reflect
considerably the predilections and moods of the king or the ruler. Moreover, the law was not applied
uniformity but the state of the individual or sections of the people could be an important influence in
its application.
 25

As society and polity develop, we find that law gets to be based more and more on rationality,
universalistic values and justice. Moreover, it is applied ilmpartially by and large, to different sections
of the people. This has also meant codified legal system, explicitly legal procedures and independent
Judiciary.
Rights of the People
Not all social scientists agree that the expansion and safeguarding of the civil and political
rights of the people, is a distinctive feature of a developed society and polity. But we do hold the
view that the, introduction and protection of a system of a civil and political rights as suited to the
heritage and aspiration of the people, a distinctive feature of a politically developed society. Civil
right means right to „ life and liberty (i. e. freedom of expression, association and movement).
Political rights mean the (a) right to choose the government (b) right to dissent and to criticise its
policies and actions and (c) right to change the government according prescribed constitutional
procedures. Within the broad environment of national consensus, the basic preservation of public
order and national security, an increasingly (effective exercise of these rights, according to the
constitution and laws of the land, provides not only the much needed personal freedom but also
promotes human dignity. It also tries to build a civil society on firm grounds and reinforces
legitimacy of the political set as a whole.

Self Assessment Exercise

1. Give features of developing countries.

2. Give administrative features of developed countries.

3.4 Environmental Influences on Public Administration.

In todays complex world a manager in an organisation can not perform effectively without the
comprehensiveness of environment surrounding his area or responsibility. The same is true in the
administrative system itself The total surrounding is the macro environment made up of atleast three
major systems cultural, political and economic). The intermediate environments the net work of
systems that connects an organisation to the macro environment such as technology system,
pressure group system and soon. This environment differs from-organisation to organisation,
depending on the nature of its function i.e. whether it is engaged to the maintenance of law and
order, or development activities or regulatory activities.
After having a brief idea about the term environment, we can now move further to understand
the ecology of public administration the environmental influences on an administrative system.
Here the term ecology means the influences which socio-economic and political factors have an
public administration and the way the way public administration influences the economy, the social
systems and the policy making. The interation/influence of environmental factors on an
organization or an administrative system may be depicted diagram in atically.
 26

PUBLIC ORGANISATION’S SYSTEM

3.5 Political Context of an Administrative System
Politics is defined as "a struagle among competing forces for the right to control the character
of public policy." "Politics" is thus 'struggle" for the control of public policy. The concept of struggle
implies that "Competitors who seek different objectives in mind and that each does battle with other:
competitors have different objectives". The competitors in a democratic state are political parties. The
''objectives" .of the competitive political parties are formulated within the framework of ideologies of
the parties. Hence, the struggle among competitive political parties pursuing different political
"objectives" are informed by different ideologies in an attempt to formulate policies for the country.
Ideologies and policies are thus, intimately linked. Struggle for the capture of state organs of
power and ultimately the policies is the whole process of politics. Public admini-stration is the
essential and the major instrument of public policy formulation. Admimstration refers to all those
processes that contribute to the efficient implementation of a pre-determined goal or policy.2 Thus, the
study and practice of public administration cannot be separated from the struggle for power and
policies by competitive ideologic.
We have to identify linkages between the "struggle" component of politics and policy making
and its "implementation" component. Thus, policy-making has two majar inter-related components :
1. Struggle among competing, rival political forces and ideologies, with differing objectives.
2. Implementation of the policy.
Public administration has to be linked thus, with the study of policies. This linkage has to be
made between the administrative agencies and the elementary component of "struggle"-among
competing rival political ideologies.
 27

Professor Marrow talks of integration of administration with politics. Such an integration is not
possible without studying "policy discrcation" and "organization'', as, these both relate to the study of
public administration. We can hardly subscribes to the ideathat "policy" is an integrative aspect of
the complex politico-administrative phenomenon.
Harold Lasswell had explained, "who gets what" dimension of politics, Lasswell said that in
politics the unifying frame of reference is the rich and variable meaning of influence and the
influential, power and the powerful. 5 But politics and policies are not synonymous, because, policy
suggests broadly the setting or articulating of goals, (Whereas) politics concerns what is frequently, a
raw contest for power without any particular reference to the directions or goals of the organization.
Politics is the process by 'which power and influence are acquired and exercised. The ^particular
goals sought may fall in the "policy'' category or may concern a relatively low level contests for
promotion."
Political Influence on Public Administration
"No aspect of, public administration can be conceived without an inevitable political''
influence. Politics permeats almost every aspect of public administration. The whole field of public
administration is very much related with the'political'environment. We, enumerate below the areas
which are vastly influenced by the competitives force of polities :
(a) Organizational structure of public administration. .
(b) Administrative processes viz. planning, policy-making, and budgeting etc.
(c) Administrative procedures, rules, regulations arid codes,
(d) Administrative output and performance.
1. Structures of Public Administration Organisation : 'It is the constitution or an Act
which establishes the whole apparatus of public administration at all levels of government.
Constituent Assemblies and legislative bodies formulate acts which establish public administration
organizations, Constitutent Assemblies and Federal or State Legislative Assemblies operate on
political considerations exclusively.
2. Planning Policy-Making and Budgeting : These three major processes of public
administration are basically and inseparably the areas of public bureaucracies, but at every stage
and at every level, political instruction continuously now to "influence" these processes till finally
approved by the legislature.
3. Administrative Procedures, Rules, 'Regulations & Codes : All administrative
procedures, rules and regulations are framed by the executive branch and approved by the executive
or the legislature as it mav be required by the legislation. But it is very clear that all rules and
regulations should be formulated by an authority established by' law. Authorities empowered to
make rules and regulations are mostly controlled'by the ministers'or the political executive.
4. Administrative Performance and Output : At everylevel of execution, there is political
supervision of public administration. N0 administrator can claim any exclusive authority of his own.
All programmes, projects and works are executed by the permanent bureaucrates under strict
surveillance of a political-supervisor.
Every aspect of public administration is impregnated under the influence of politics. It is no
exaggeration to say that all public administration is politicised.
 28

Political Process and the Public Administration

We have been emphasizing that the political process and the administrative'process are
although distinct yet interwoven and inter-mingled in a manner as to prove no clear clues to public
policy making. "All unalterable and unchallenged fact of contemporary politics is that
administrative agencies are the major areas wherein most major issues of policy-making and
administration are resolved. It is true that legislature'retain'the right of ligitimizing public policy
and that elected chief executives (presidents, governors, Mayors) present policy agendas and long
range plans for seeking solutions to major policy problems, But most policy-alternatives, however,
officially presented, are rooted in what administrative agencies have been doing and think ought to
be done.....:while change-oriented president confess to be bona-ned chief executives in control of
their administrative subordinates, in tact, they inveriably become prisoners of bureaucratic
expertise and experience.
3.6 SOCIAL AND CULTURAL CONTEXT OF PUBLIC ADMINlSTRATION
Structure refers to the inter-relationship between component parts of any whole. The term
social structure implies, "ths mash of mutual positions interms of which the inter-dependence of the
component parts may be described; the function of any part is the way it operates so as to maintain
the total system is good health."
Professor Redcliff Brow described society as a living thing, having life of its own; it is not, for
him, an object so much as a creaturs so that the study of structure the inter-dependence of the
component parts of the system is indissolubly linked with the study of function or how the
component parts of the system "work" in relation to each other and to the whole.
The structure which persists, 'is the structure of a particular society associated with a
particular culture and a particular geographical locality. Lcvi Strauss believes that the structure
which persists is an attribute of human social organisation as such." The structure of a society can
be regarded as a pattern of inter-related group roles.
Free! W. Riggs—a known administrative ecolosist, explained social context of public-
administration in these words :
"In order to understand any society, we must also learn something about its social structure.
By this I mean such things as how groups torn, whether we talk about families religious sects,
political parties, business corporations or social classes.
Such matters also affect the system of public administration”. The Social organizations are,
thus, important objects which continously influence public administration, of a country.
Bertram M. Gross also attracts our attention in these words : An immediate environment of
public administration organizations consists of a complex of people, units orgnisations and opinions
that inter-relate with it on the basis of various roles. The board social environment of public
administration organization consists of large aggregation of all people and groups living-within a
defined geographical area called "societies."
It is now an established belief that social factors or social context of public administration
organisation consists of "inter-actions" among individuals and groups of individuals living within a
geograpical area called "society". Public Administration organizations are also rooted, themselves in a
larger social system. All governmental departments' agencies function within a set of social
environment. Any social system, according to George Homans, exists within a three part
environment :
 29

a) Physical Environment, (terrain, climate'etc.),

b) Cultural Environment, (norms, values, goals).
c) Technological Environment (the state of knowledge and instrumentation available).
Indian society can be conveniently described as a "Prismatic Society", having "sala" pattern of
administration. The administrative sub-culture, the colonial hang-over and the past culture of the
country-all : collectively influence .the administrative behaviour.
Professor V. Jagannadham had described Indian society as a "spong society", which is soaked
by the ex-ruler culture-elites and squeezed by the new ruling—class in the name, of development."
Indian society, is, thus known for continuity of tradition, as well as craze, for blind adoption of
modern ways of life modem styles and acceptability of technology; and patterns of development.
Indian society is diverse and loosely knit society.
Pursuing the theoretical postulates of George Romans, a "change in the work technology will
produce some change in the other. A change in the work technology will produce a change in
patterns of inter-action, which in turn, will change (or sometimes temporarily) destroy the eternal
system.
Indian Class Structure and Public Administration
The Indian society could be divided into numerous classes on the basis of the following
criteria :
A. Economic basis
B. Caste basis or communal/religious basis,
C. Professional basis.
The economic basis of social stratification is usually favoured to other- criterion. The chief
measure-yard-stick is annual incomes of the classes or groups.
As a matter of fact, there are three major categories or class of people distmguished on the
basis of annual income viz. upper classand lower class.
Unfortunately the cast-criterion identifies classes of low grade and upper grade will i.e., the
upper castes also belong to the upper classes and the lower caste or communities are poorer and
belong to lower class as well. The social stratification scheme, in India, itself is responsible for
economic exploitation of lower caste people and keep them subued and strangulated for centuries
together. Harijans, scheduled castes. Scheduled tribes, farm labourers from downtrodden
communities'had still, been living like bonded-labours' in India.
The professional basis of class structure in India has found slight variation and change.
Previously higher caste, and upper class people were those who occupied positions of honour respect
and prestige in society as well as in government. But with the change in the policies of government of
India, people from lower castes and poorer communities of Indian society also started entering the
All India competitive examinations. The reservation policy of Government of India has resulted in
class mobility particularly 'in case of the people belonging, to the scheduled castes and scheduled
tribes. Now a days, in every profession one can find persons belonging to the down trodden classes.
Indian Culture and Public Administration
Norms and values refer to the common beliefs an evaluative type which constitute a coherent
inter-related syndrome. System norms make explicit the forms of behaviour appropriate from
 30

members of the system. System values or ideology provide a more elaborate and generalized
justification both for appropriate behaviour and for the activities and functions of the system.
"Social justice" and "equality" are-new values of Indian society which have influenced the
administrative system to a great extent. The behaviour of bureaucrats and other officers is informed
of the constitutional recognition of these "new values". Other new values of modern India are
"secularism'', "economic upliftment" of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes and "socio-economic
justice". A recently advocated value in respect of women, war against atrocities on women, women
emancipation, women equality with men, women education and secure penaIties. For dowry deaths.
The administrative" "system in Indian at district level is being re-oriented in order to see that the
values of secular outlook, fair treatment to fair sex are proposed, advocated and practised.
Similarly, the role of women in development and these influence in public administration in
another issue. Their role and position have changed a lot since independence. Further dimension
on this aspect has been made in Lesson 14 ahead.
3.7 ECONOMIC CONTEXT OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
Economics as a discipline encompasses the-study of almost every economic, aspect of human
life. Which makes it of, paramount importance to know how money transactions, labour unrest,
trade and business slumps, imports and exports, taxation policies, rise m incomes of business firms,
accumulation of wealth, saving-capacity of common man, purchase—capacity, rate of increase in
farm out-put, minerals extraction and other industrial .development have any bearing on the public-
administration of a country ?
Professor Fred W. Riggs says that there are some "features" which condition administration...
these characteristics have affected the' 'way in which we have studied written and taught public
administration. To Professor Riggs, economic productivity is the most obvious characteristic which
has influenced public administration. In other words, production, and consumption of material
goods affect the evolving nature and characteristic of public administration of a country."
The mode of production and production-relations, determine, almost every other human
activity. Public administration influenced by the "mode of production" and "production relations"
without doubt.
In order to understand the economic context of Public administration we shall explain the
nature of market economy mode of production, (private, and public and analysis of the policies of
government of India and that of the Indian planning agencies having direct relevance to the Indian
administrative system.
India we now have a well established and organized private sector. The public
administrative system can intervenes in only prevailing "upon the large houses from becoming
monopolists and also to avoid concentration of wealth, Indian governments licensing policies can go
a long way to obstruct large houses unwanted expansion only in case it goes against the common
interests "of the country., Unfortunately administrators are under a great obligation to help large
industrial houses. Government has failed, to invest in consumer goods industries resulting in large
scale expansion and exploitation of common consumer by monopolist industrialists.
Indian Planning System and Economics of Public Administration
The level of economic activity can be influenced by money supply and availability of finances.
The level of state or national incomes and employment opportunities can, be influenced by the way
 31

the capital resources, are made available to the states. Economic growth and development is
considerably influenced by'the finances made available to states for purposes, of funding, protects
etc. which ultimately help in capital generation.
The erst while Planning Commission helped in the creation of preconditions necessary for
economic growth as given below :
[1) Availability of physical and human resources.
(2) Technological innovations and Improvements.
(3) The motivation to transform traditional modes of production and social relations
associated with them.
Availability of finances is one single potential factor to influence economy of the country. The
policy of planning, resources, mobilization, resource utilization is thus, the function of public
administrators.
The political elite particularly the influential members of the cabinet and the permanent
secretaries as well as the personal staff of the Prime Minister and his secretariat are the makers of
policies with regard to planning of economic growth and development of the country.
Capital formation is .most significant outcome of the entire, activity of planning and financial
system. Assets formation and capital formation are two concrete outcomes of any economic
administrative system which is politically controlled.
Finances are not only made available by the Planning agencies to the union, and the states
but also the adequacy of finances, i.e., the quantity and the manner in which finances are procured
to the governments. We do not only emphasize the formation of capital but also the formation of
assets like buildings, roads, bridges machines etc. Other functions of financial system in India ...
controlled by the Planning Agencies and theFinance Ministry are :
(1) Enhancement of Savings
(2) transfer of savings to enterpreneurs.
(3) to induce enterpreneurs to utilize available savings for re-investment resulting in
capital generation and so on. In India the "mixed economy" model is being practised- The policy is to
bring about socio-economic transformation with planned economic development by encouraging
both private as well as public sectors of the economy. Central planning as an instrument of
development is accepted with an object to bring about democratic Socialism.
Acceleration of Economic Inequalities
The pattern of distribution of income and wealth in India could not here-structured by the
Planning Commission. There is still wide disparity between the rich and the poor sections of society.
"The share of the poorest (30 percent) of the population in consumption expenditure in 1958-59 was
13.1 percent in rural and 13.2 percent in urban areas, About 75 industrial houses account for two
thirds of the industrial assets in the private corporate sector of industries.
The top 10 per cent of the rural population accounts for 51 percent of the rural assets.
5. Planning Process And Inability to Control Population Explosion :
In 1981, population of India had touched 685 million mark. Annual growth rate is 2.5 per
cent (24.78 per cent during 1971-81). The family planning and-welfare programmes have failed to
 32

make any appreciable dent in the population profile. The population is expected to reach 543 million
in 1994-95 (at growth rate of 1.86 per cent per annum). The per capita income comes down because
of the rise in population despite rise in national in-come.
The following measures would help improve planning process :
1. Independent and influenced research'activity should be encouraged by the Planning
Commission in order to correctly assess needs and requirement of country's population.
2. Plarimng process has failed to fix "realistic targets”. It should try to fix achievable and
realistic targets.
3. Planning Commission has considerable ignored the' element of "administration".
Public Sector in India
Public sector is that part of economy which functions on the basis of state owned property.
Over the period of fifty years it grew enormously and many of PSUs Proved to be white elephants
only they mostly worked in losses only.
The public sector in India suffers from the following basic drawback besides others :
1. Generalist I.A.S. Officers as managing directors 'are creating havoc withthe finances of
public corporations and companies. There are losses to the tune of hundreds of crores of
rupees every year and not a" single l.A.S. Officer hasf been punished so far' for plundering
the poor people's money.
2. Politically influenced feasibility reports which are bound to bring no profits because of
wrong selection of sites, marketabitity and relative higher cost of production.
3. Public sector has not attempted to exploit remunerative consumer goods sector so far.
An improved public sector is bound to prepare country far a "take off” estate; Conversely a
buoyant public sector is not possible if administration of public sector is not satisfactory. The
administrative influence on the economy can have a detrimental effect because of immaturity and
sluggisbnsss of the administrative structures themselves, their bureaucratic and inefficient
functioning, and their increased vulnerability towards corruption and nepotism.
Therefore, the public sector can not improve without improving public administration.
Influence of Budgetary Process
The organisation and administration of national finances requires budget as an instramentt of
policy and control. It is most convenient and advantageous method or administering national
finances. 'Budget provides a coordinated map of public 'policy. The budget is planned by the career
officials : assembled, coordinated and standardized by a budget agency, submitted to the political
overseers for approvaland, relayed to the legislature for concurrence and official execution
supervised by the budget.agency.
The Finance Ministry and particularly the Bureau of Budget thus, performs, economic-policy-
functions. Economic policy Making isessenlialy function of the Council of Ministers where the Prime-
Minister and the Finance Minister play active role. The Bureau of Budget under thebroad guide lines
or.instructions from the P.M. and the cabinet prepares a blue print of the entire economic policy.
The budget department consisting of public administration thus, can, provide major trust to the
entire economic structure of the country.
It is never wrong to say that budget is heart of public administration, Budget is major
instrument of administration. It is no exaggeration to say that budget is the principle economic
 33

aspect of public administration. It is the instrument of administering a “mixed-economy",

enterprises in India through fiscal policies. The economic policies, and policies to procure finances,
i.e., generation of financial resources depends upon national economic planning which is the task of
Indian Planning and policy making agencies which finally gets a concrete shape by the Finance
Ministry.
Budget constitutes a plan of public products and a design for income redistribution. It
reflects dominant political ideologies, past compromises and electoral promises. It is an
administrative (management) device for improving - administration and public-policy-making. It
informs the public about information with respect to the economy, new aoveramsntal programmes,
debt management, economic objectives and resources allocation between public and private sectors.

Self Assessment Exercise-II

1. What are the basic social factors which influence administration.

2. Any three economic environmental factors which influence Public administration.

3.8 Summary
For any administration set up, its environment plays significant safe in its working and
performance. The public administrative system is largely influenced by political, economic, social
and cultural conditions. There environmental factors very from one country to another and from
this point of view most of the countries are grouped into developed and developing countries. It is
mainly the level of development – socio-economic and political which directly or indirectly influence
the working of public administration.
3.9 Model Questions
Discuss the major environmental influences on administration of developed & developing
countries.
3.10 Glossary
► Differentiation - Highly specialized officer
► Rationality - Based on in accordance with heavon or logic.
► Secularism - Based on principle of separation of state from religious
institutions.
► Interest Articulation - A way of expressing interest bymembers of a society
► Interest Aggregation - An activity in which political demands of groups and
individuals are combined
 34

► Rule of Law - Supremacy of law and notpersons Equalitybefore law.

3.11 Further Readings
► Harold Lasswell, “Politics who Gets what, when and how”. Whittlesey House, New York,
1936, p.19.
► F.W. Riggs, The Ecology of Public Administration, Asia, New Delhi, 1961.
► Geralt Caiden, The Dynamics of Public Administration, Hold Rienhart, 1971.
► V. Jananadham, Administration and Social Change, Uppal Publishing, New Delhi, 1978.
Suggested Answers of SAEs
I 1. Low per capita income ; Low productivity ; Low literacy rate
2. Specilization, Clerity of roles, Rule of Law, Merit-system.
II 1. Level of Education, caste system, Population, social inequalities.
2. Level of Economic development, Public sector, economic planning, budgetary system

^^^^^
 35

Lesson - 4

APPROACHES TO CPA – STRUCTURAL FUNCTIONAL

AND ECOLOGICAL APPROACH

Structure
4.0 Objectives
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Major Trends in CPA
4.3 Various Models and Approaches
4.4 Structural-Functional Approach
4.5 Agraria-Industries Model
4.6 Fused-Prisatic-Diffracted Model
4.7 The Ecological Approach
4.8 Prismatic Sale Model (Administrative Sub-System)
4.9 Bazar-Canteen Model (Economic Sub-system)
4.10 Criticism
4.11 Summary
4.12 Glossary
4.13 Further Reading
4.14 Model Questions
4.0 Objectives
After going through this lesson you should be able to :
 enlist the various approaches to comperative studies
 highlight the features of structural functional approach
 discuss the ecological approach
 appreciate the contribution of F. Riggs to CPA
4.1 Introduction
In the first two lesons we have studied ths meaning, scope and growth of Comparative Public
Administration. We have also noted the hints towards various trends in comparative public
administration. Infact the GAG was quite, rich in resourees as will scholarship in the 1960's and
shoved promise in doing considable job for spreading 'the GPA movement, In this lesson ww shall
study the major trends and various models of CPA.
4.2 Major Trends
In this paper on "Trends In the Comparative Study of Public Administration1 presented in the
ASPA meetiog in 1961, Fred 'Riggs outiined three trends in the comparative study of public
administration.
- A trend from ‘normative’ towards ‘empirical’.
 36

- A shift from 'ideography’ towards ‘nomothetic’

- A shift from predomenantly’ non necological' to an ecological basis for the study of
public administration.
The first was the trend from normative to empirical approaches. Under normative he
described the ‘mirror for Americans’ style of the early UN and US bilateral and ‘public
administration experts’, and an emerging ‘mirror for all’ style, exemplified by the UN Handbook of
Public Administration (1961) where, Riggs said, the autheor trand to synthesise from the ‘good’
features of several national systems those which might be recommended for general use. (Weidner
found this to be a characteristic of UN programme planning; it ‘reflects a little bowing in the
direction of each of the several major administrative systems of the world’ (weidner, 1964) Under
expirical, Riggs distinguished between two approaches which make the second trend: from
idiographic towards nomothetic approaches :
.. .any approach which concentrates on the unique ease - the historical episode or 'case
study’, the single agency or country, the biography or th- 'culture area'- is basically idiographic. By
contrast, an approach which seaks generalizations, ' lavs', hypotheses that assert regularities of
behaviour, correlations betwaen variables, may be called nomothetic (Riggs, 1962).
There is an intermediate approach which although idiographic rather than nomothetic is
nevertheless comparative: Riggs names it the ‘classified data' approach, are instances the work of
Finer and Friedrich, and Brian Chapman's The Profession of Government’ (1959). These works, he
says, are ‘homological’: they find siallarities and differences of structure for constant function.
Others might be 'analogical', and would be concerned with functional variables ratter than
structural.
Riggs own work which he characterises as namothetie and analogic cal; but his third trend is
ths shift from all such approaches to the ecological approach, which ha said in 1962 was as yet
'barely discernible'
4.3 Various Models and Approaches to CPA
A comparison of administrative systems has had a long tradition. But a focus on this aspect
of administrative studies is not that old. Only after the Second World War and with the emergence of
new nations in Asia and Africa, a vigorous interest in comparative studies of Public Administration
had evolved.
There are a number of approaches, models and theories characterizing the subject-area of
Comparative Public Administration. Particularly after Second World War, a number of approaches
have emerged in comparative administrative analysis. The various approaches/models in the study
of comparative public administration are :
1. the Bureaucratic System Approach adopted by Alfred Diamant, Robert Presthus, Ferrel
Heady, Micheal Crozier, Morroe Berger, and so on
2. The General System Approach adopted by F.W. Riggs, in his "Fused-Prismatic-Diffracted
typology" and John T. Dorsey in his 'Information Energy Model'
3. The Development Administration Approach adopted by Riggs, Wiedner, and others
emphasizing directed socio-economic change.
4. The decision making approach advocated by Martin Landau to increase the decision-
making capacity of developing countries' administrative systems to avoid 'muddling
through'technique.
 37

5. Anthony Downs model which differentiated five categories of bureaucrats, namely,

climbers, conservers, zealots, advocates and statesmen.
6. Structural-Functional model advocated by Talcott Parsons, involving the concept of social
system as given and the society in terms of its structures and functions.
7. Some other models developed by Ecological approach, mainly, adopted by F.W. Riggs, Gaur
and others models developed by Poul Meyer, F.M.Marx, and Brian Champman,
emphasising on the comparative study of administrative organisation and civil service
systems in the western developed countries.
4.4 Structural Functional Approach
Talcott Parsons' development of structural functionalism had significant influence on political
science and public administration. The essence of structural-functionalism is two-fold. It involves
the concept of ‘social system” as a given and the discussion of a society in terms of that society's
structure and functions. According to Parsons. a “'system" is a collection of parts or variables or
roles, which interconnect in a definable pattern. A social system is defined as "a system of processes
of interaction between actors, it is the structure of the relations between the actors as involved in the
interactive process which is essentially the structures of the social system." Ths two most inportant
aspects of a system are the interdependence of a number of parts and the tandency to maintain an
equilibrium in their relationships relational and a product of the social system.
The structural-functional approach is derived from earlier ues of functionalism and system
models in anthropology, sociology, biology, and political science, which interpret society as a
structure with interrelated parts. This approach was developed by the eminent anthropologist
Malinowski and Radcliff Brown. According to them, a society has a structure and functions. These
functions are norms, customs, traditions and institutions and can be assumed as organs of a body,
as explained by Herbert Spencer. All these functions need to work together to make the body
function as a whole. Various scholars such as Talcot Parsons, Robert Merton, Marion Levy, Jr.,
Gabriel Almond and David Apter have used the structural-functional approach in social analysis.
In structural- functionalism social structure is considered as any pattern of behavior which
has become a standard feature of a social system. This approach analyses society in terms of its
various structures and their functions for reaching an understanding regarding their positioning and
functioning. Structures here can refer to government (political arrangement) and function is seen as
the discharge of duties by these structures in the society.
Persons also introduces four basic problems of scclal systems necessary for their very survival
and equilibriums: 1) goal attainment, ensuing that social system is noving toward goals', ii)
adaptation, the way in which system relates to environment, iii) integration, the problem of social
Cooperation, and iv) pattern maintenance and tension management, problems related to the
satisfaction of the units within the system and maintenance of values.
Using the basic concepts of the sociologists,, Talcotte parsons and Marion Levy, the new wave
of Comparative politics scholars began to study not political institutions but societies or 'cultures'-
wholes made up of parts kept to getter by matually beneficial interaction. Certain as pacts of such
interactions can then be distinguishsd, so that, conceptually, a society cannot sustain itself unless
they are present; these are the 'functional requisites of any Society, that can provide a constant, or
common denominator. There can also be distinguished in any particular society certain enduring or
recurrent patterns of discrete behaviour (routines, customs, 'institutions' in the sociologist's sense)
that can be called ‘structures', which are typical of that society and different from those, of another.
 38

It can then be shown then be shown that structures which, may look alike two different societies
actually perform different social functions, and structures which may look very different are found
to perform essentially the same function. A functionary be dis-chargad by a single structure in one
culture, by a complex of many structures in another. AIthough the logic of it is not impeccable, it is
a powerful conceptual tool.
As noted above social structures perform some functions. In structural functional terms a
function involves a pattern of interdependence between two or more structures and a relationship
between variables. A social structure may perform more than one function, and likewise one
function may be performed by more than one structure. These premises allow the structural
functional analysis to remove the misconceptions that ;
(1) Structures having resemblance to each other in different environmental setting perform
similar functions;
(2) The non-appearance of any particular structure implies the absence of some functions or
(3) Structure may be only unifunctional in character.
Some ‘functional requisities’ of a society can be grouped together in ‘system’-the economic
system, the political system, the social system, and so on. The 'political system' is recognised by
nothing the structures which incorporate the society's mechanisms for (amongst other things)
controlling the use of violence.
Even though not all kinds of functions are performed in all societies, the structural functional
approach assumes that there are some structures and functions which are requisite or prerequisite
for the survival of health of a society.
The thrust of this theory is that government perform functions (maintenance of law and order,
education, health services, defence, foreign and diplomatic services and so on) through certain
institutions, agencies or organs of government which can be termed as structure. Almond
postulates that within the political system, six types of political/administrative structures are
visible, namely: political parties; interest groups; legislature; executive; bureaucracies and courts. In
order to implement governmental activities, there are specialized agencies or structure like the
legislature, executive and judiciary performing functions which enables government to formulate,
implement or enforce its policies. The policies are the goals of government while the
agencies/structure provides the means.
According to Riggs social structures can be concrete (like Government department and
Bureaus or even specific societies held together by shared beliefs, customs and morals) and also
analytic like structure of power or authority.
These structures perform certain functions and in terms of structural functional approach,
these functions have an interdependent pattern between structures. So as a public administration
student, if one would want to study bureaucracy, the first step would be to view bureaucracy as-a
structure which has administrative system with characteristics like hierarchy, specialization, rules
and roles. The behavioural characteristics can be rationality, neutrality, professionalism and rule
orientation. Subsequently, one can proceed to analyse the functions of bureaucracy. Riggs has
identified five functional requisites for any society- economic, social, communicational, symbolic,
and political. The same set of functional requisites applies to an administrative sub-system.
Thus the structural functional approach is a method of analysing the functions that are
carried out in a society, the structure that are responsible to perform the functions and the methods
that are adopted in undertaking the functions.
 39

Based on the structural functional approach F.W. Riggs has constructed two ideal models to
explain the administrative systems in a comparative context. These are :
(i) Agraria-lndustria model; and (ii) Fused-Prismatic-Diffracted model
4.5 Agraria-lndustria Model
Riggs developed the agraria-industria typology in 1956. In this model, he distinguished
between two types of societies. Societies dominated by agricultural institutions and societies
dominated by industrial institutions. These two polar types represented the Imperial China and
contemporary USA. According to him, all societies move from agrarian stage to industria stage. This
is a unidirectional movement. He identified the structural features of the agrarian and industrial
societies. These are mentioned below :
AGRARIA MODEL : Agraria is agriculture dominated society and their characteristics are functional
diffusion, particularistic norms, self-sufficiency, ascriptive (the attribution of something to a cause)
values, stable local groups and limited or no mobility, differentiated stratification. In Agrarian society
primitive preferences like caste and community are given priority. Occupational pattern is fixed that
is Agriculture and carries on for many generations. Very few administrative structures are there and
their functions or duties were not at all specified.
INDUSTRIA MODEL : It refers to an industrial dominated or developed society. Its characteristics are
Universalistic norms. Achievement values, specific patterns, high degree of social and spatial
mobility, well-developed occupational system, egalitarian class system, prevalence of associations
which are functionally specific and non ascriptive. USA is an example of this society.
Features of Agrana and Industria
Agraria Industria

1. Ascriptive values I. Achievement values

2. Particularistic norms 2. Universalistic norms
3. Diffuse patterns 3. Specific patterns
4. Stable local groups and limited spatial 4. High degree of social and
mobility spatial mobility

5. Simple and stable occupational differentiation 5. Well-developed occupational

System
6. Deferential stratification system 6. Egalitarian class system
7. Prevalence of associations which are
functionally specific and non-ascriptive
Later in 1957, he developed an equilibrium model named 'transitia' which represent the
transforming societies. The transitia represent the traditional stage between agraria and industria
and possess the features of both agraria and industria.
TRANSITIA MODEL : It is the society which is in between both the Agraria and Industria society.
Because it is in between so the term 'in transition' has been used. It has the characteristic of both
the Agraria and Industria society and resembling to both. It is on the path to become a developed
society from an agricultural society. Examples are India, Thailand etc.
But the typology of agraria-industria was criticised as having many following limitations :
 40

1. Agraria-industria typology does not help in studying the problems of transitional societies
since modern societies also have the agrarian attributes.
2. It does not provide sufficient mechanism to study mixed-type societies. It was argued that
the modern industrial societies will always have some agrarian features
3. It assumes a unidirectional movement from an agrarian stage to an industria stage.
4. Its major stress is on the environment of the administrative system but not on the
administrative system per se.
5. It is too general and abstract with little resemblance to concrete reality
In view of these limitation and criticism Riggs abandoned this model and responding to these
criticism Riggs developed another set of models, discarding old ones, to analyse the administrative
system in developing countries. The Fused-Prismatic-Diffracted Model is the result of this effort.
4.6 Fused-Prismatic-Diffracted Model
The Fused-Prismatic-Diffracted Model represents the underdeveloped, developing and
developed societies respectively. Riggs created this model on the basis of a structural- functional
approach. Accordingly, in a fused society, a single structure performs all or various functions. In a
diffracted society, separate structures are created to perform specific functions. The prismatic
society has the features of both the fused and diffracted societies. However, Riggs emphasizes that
all societies are generally prismatic in nature. Riggs' classification of societies into fused, prismatic
or diffracted is based on the nature of its various structures and the functions performed by them.
The process of transition of a ray through a prism is taken symbolically to explain the process
of transformation of a society. The starting point of the ray is termed as fused, the process of internal
vibration of the ray within the prism is called prismatic and finally when the ray comes out of the
prism it gets diffracted to project a rainbow and this process is called diffraction. Traditional
agrarian society is fused society and modern industrial society is diffracted one. The former is
functionally diffuse and latter is functionally specific. In between both of them is prismatic society.
Thus a fused society is one in which a structure perform a large number of functions. A diffracted
society on the other hand is one in which a structure performs a limited number of functions. In
between is the transitional society which has the feature of both the societies.
RIGGS FUSED-PRISMATIC-DIFFRACTED MODEL

FUSED PRISMATiC DIFFRACTED

It is the more improvised and specified version of his previous typology where the fused
society can be compared to the agrarian'model, the prismatic society can be compared to the
Transitia model and the Diffracted society can be compared to the Industria model. This Model was
designed to silence those critics who stated that Riggs had not effectively and in detail specified the
'Transitia' society which was very important as most of the world is in that phase. This model
 41

effectively detailed all of the typologies. The new model is based on the principle of a prism and how
it diffracts fused/colours of white light backiinto the seven colours of the spectrum when passed
through it. White light represents a society with very less degree of specialisation and development
and the diffracted spectrum reflects the highly specialised and developed society. The in between
prismatic society is the transition society. He stated that neither of the extreme sides exist in totality
or as it is but yes, it is certain that they do but in varying degrees as suitable to the
environment/ecology.
First we will discuss the Fused and Diffracted model and then proceed to explain the
Prismatic model. A good understanding of the Fused and Diffracted Model will only be the tool to
understand the Prismatic Model.
FUSED MODEL (Ex- Imperial China and Thailand)
Riggs selected Imperial China and the pre-revolutionary Siamese Thailand as examples of his
concept of fused society. These societies had no classification of functions and a single structure
carried out a number of functions. These societies heavily depended upon agriculture, knowing no
industrialisation or modernisation. Their economic system was based on the law of exchange and
barter system which was called a 'redistributive model' by Riggs. The Royal family played a very
important role in the administration of the country. The King and the officials nominated by him
carried out all administrative; economic and other activities by themselves. No separate structures
existed to manage the economic and administrative affairs. The relation between the government and
the people were generally at low ebb. People showed respect to the King by offering their services and
presenting material goods to him without expecting anything in return. The government was not
responsible and accountable to the people though the public had an obligation to obey the dictates
of the government.
The family played a prominent role in the Siamese Kingdom. It used to carry out a variety of
economic, political and social functions. Apart from providing the base to the social structure, it
stood at the apex of the administration. As a result, the administration in these societies strives to
protect the special interests of the family and certain sects rather than aim at universal happiness
and development. Indeed, the administrative system was based on the structure of the family and
special sects and helped to preserve the system generally, these societies tended to be static with no
developed communication systems. People would have no demands and never raised any issue with
the government. The King and his nominees enjoyed absolute power which they generally used to
protect their own personal interests. These societies did not differentiate between justice and
injustice, formal and informal set-ups, governmental and non-governmental activities. Ascriptive
values played a predominant role in the society, and the behaviour of the people was highly
traditional. Age-old customs, beliefs, faith and traditional ways of living enabled the people to live
together and control their behaviour.
DIFFRACTED MODEL
These societies are based on universalistic principles with no differentiation in treatment.
There is a high degree of specialisation and each structure carries out a specialised function.
Ascriptive, values cease to exist, giving way to the attainment values in the society. The society
would be highly dynamic and diffracted. Here exists in these societies open class structures
represented by various associations which play a prominent role in achieving rational results in the
society. All organisations and structures in the society are created and based on scientific rationale.
The economic system is based on market mechanism. The influence of market has both direct
and indirect effects on the other Facets of the society. Riggs called it 'marketised-society'. Various
 42

associations discharge various functions. Communications and technology are highly developed and
governments give top priority to maintain the cordial public relation. Governments would be
responsive to the need of the people and protect human rights. People would bring pressure on the
government to get their things done and control its behaviour to a great extent. Government officers
have no coercive and absolute powers. The public pays attention and gives respect to the laws of the
nation on their own. This facilitates the implementation of the laws and the discharge of its
responsibilities by the government without any difficulty. There would be a general consensus
among the people on all basic aspects of social life.
PRISMATIC MODEL
The prismatic model is intermediate between "fused" model in studying primitive societies and
the 'refracted' model useful for the analysis of government and administration in the advanced or
industrial Western Societies. It is feasible to construct sub-models within the prismatic society for
its various structures which includes political, administrative, economic and social. In real no
society is completely fused or completely diffracted, Riggs concentrated all his efforts to explain in
detail the prismatic model-the focal point of his models. According to Riggs, the prismatic society is
one which has achieved a certain level of differentiation; the specialisation of roles necessary for
dealing with modern technology, but has failed to integrate these roles. The prismatic society shares
the value-patterns of both fused and diffracted societies.

Self-Assessment Questions —I
1. Give the name of any four models/approaches to CPA.

2. Name any three Contributors to structure-functional approach.

4.7 Ecological Approach

Ecology is a term borrowed from biology. It is concerned with the science dealing with the
inter-relationship of organism' and their environment. It is a study of the interplay of living organism
and their physical and social environment. It is concerned with the question of how a balance
involving organism and environment is achieved for survival. In biology it is established that a
particular plant requires a particular climate, soil, humidity, temperature, etc. for its growth. A plant
that can grow well in a particular climate cannot do so under a different climate, likewise the growth
of each society is conditioned by its own history, economic structure, values, political system, etc.
just like the plant that cannot grow well in different settings an institute cannot work well in
different settings. Thus, to understand the ecology of Public Administration (the interaction of
administration and its environment) it is necessary to have an understanding of the society and the
various factors affecting its functioning. Ecology in simple words relates to 'environment' and this
environment includes physical, social and cultural aspects. Environment is a larger system and
other systems, in as political system, administrative system, economic system, etc. are all sub-
systems which work within it. It influences its sub systems and also influenced by them. So they are
interdependent and not mutually exclusive of each other.
 43

Riggs adopted the ecological approach to the stimulization. Administration skill environment
(ecology) influence each other and the understanding of the dynamics of this process is necessary to
understand the administration. Developing the concept further, Riggs anslysed the relations hip
between the administration and economic, social, technological, political and communication factors
in a larger perspective. In analysing the administrative systems from ecological point of view, Riggs
mainly used structural functional approach.
The need to study the ecology of public administration was emphasized by several scholars,
such as John M. Gaus, Robert A. Dahl, Roscoe Martin and Fred W. Riggs. But the ecological
approach to Public Administration was first propagated popularly by Fred W. Riggs who studied
administrative systems in different countries (emphasis on developing countries) and why there was
a vast amount of disconnect among them while applying the Americanised theories of Public
Administration and how they coped up. He found that the main reason for this uniqueness of
administrative systems in the world is the environment that they are set in. Each country had a
different environment setting and that played a major role in the shaping of the administrative
system because without the help and approval of its people an administrative system cannot survive
and thus it acts according to its environment and in turn it also influences the society with its work
and procedures.
When Riggs began his research on the relationship between ecology and administration, he
observed that Ecology/Environment affects the administrative system both internally as well as
externally. Internally it affects when we take note that in actuality the administrator is a man of
society and thus when he is taking an administrative decision, he will definitely be influenced by his
values, societal and cultural attitude, etc. to quite an extent and that needs to be taken into
account. Externally also the ecology/environment affects the administrative organisation by means
of social values and rules, culture of the society, depending on other important sub-systems
prevalent in the society. The administration and politics here have to be in context of the people's
wishes and demands and if they go against that, it will face a possibility of overthrow and revolt
anytime. Therefore, one can very conveniently understand the delicate and crucial relationship
between Ecology and Administration.
Riggs made a significant contribution to this approach. He developed the ecological concept
based in his studies in Thailand, Philippines and to some degree, India. In his study of the
administrative systems of developing societies Riggs analysed the relationship between the
administration and the economic, social, technological, political and communication factors from a
wide perspective. He has explained with illustration how environmental conditions influence
administrative systems on the basis of his studies in Thailand and Philippines. Riggs raised the
basic questions about the relevance of western organisational theories to the developing countries.
He finds that most of the western concepts and theories look 'inside' the system, not 'outside' socio-
economic environment. Thus he observes that the Western concepts of public administration have
major shortcomings for understanding the problems of developing countries. He pointed out that
each society has certain unique characteristics which influence the working of its sub-systems.
According to Riggs, administration does not function in isolation from its environment (socio-
cultural, political and economic), and there is a continuous interaction between the two, both
influencing each other. The understanding of the dynamics of this process of interaction between the
two is necessary for the understanding of the problems of administration. This approach adopted is
called the 'ecological approach', which is the focal point of Riggsian analysis and has been one of the
most creative models in analyzing the administration of developing countries. Thus to study the
 44

behaviour of a particular administrative system, It is necessary to have a deep understanding of the

environment in which it functions because the environment has a direct effect on its component
system.
4.8 Prismatic-Sala (Administrative Sub-System) Model
To have a better insight into the structural functional and ecological aspect of CPA we
can discuss the prismatic-Sala Model.
Prismatic society is characterised by various economic, social, political and administrative
sub-systems. Riggs called the administrative sub-system 'Sala Model'. In a diffracted society its
counterpart is called 'Bureau' or 'Office' and in a fused society 'Chamber'. Each of them has
distinctive features of its own.
The Spanish word, 'Sala', has a variety of meanings like a government office, religious
conference, a room, a pavilion, etc. The word, 'Sala', is also generally used in East Asian countries
more or less with the same meaning. Sala has certain features of both the diffracted 'bureau' and the
fused 'chamber'. However, the 'bureau' features of Sala do not well represent its basic character. The
heterogeneous value system and the traditional and modern methods of the prismatic society are
reflected in its administrative rationality and efficiency found in the Bureau is absent in Sala.
In a prismatic society, family welfare, nepotism and favouritism play a significant role in the
making of appointments to various administrative positions and in the performing of certain
administrative functions. In a diffracted society, the considerations of kinship are kept away from
the administrative behaviour and the exercise of governmental power. In a fused society the politico-
administrative system has a patrimonial character, and therefore, attaches importance to kinship or
family. In a prismatic society, on the other hand, apart from the super-imposition of new formal
structures on family and kinship, universalisation of laws is disregarded. Though patrimonialism is
officially prescribed, in reality it is widely practised and it is reflected in all administrative practices.
The 'Sala' officer gives priority to personal increase in power and wealth rather than social
welfare. His behaviour and performance are influenced by parochialism, and as a result, the rules
and regulations are not made universally applicable. A few people get more benefits from the
governmental programmes than the others, resulting in the ignoring of the interests of a large
number of people.
Further, the poly-communalism also creates certain administrative problems. Theoretically
speaking, the government officers have to implement the laws impartially. But a government official
may be found to be more loyal to the members of his own community than to the government. As a
result, a dominant minority community may gain a high proportion of representation in the matter
of recruitment etc., thereby creating dissatisfaction among the larger numbers of people, to diffuse a
situation and protect the interest of other minorities the 'quota' or 'reservation' system may be
adopted to provide some sort of proportional representation to all communities in the
administration. However, such an arrangement might lead to compartmentalisation and mutual
hostility among various communities, which might further aggravate the tensions prevailing among
the different communities working in various governmental agencies. This situation, however, is not
peculiar to developing countries alone. The 'Whiteman-Negro' relations in Southern America, also
relates to the same problem.
Though family, community and caste play decisive roles in a prismatic society, there is a
simultaneous growth of new groups in the society. Riggs called them 'elects'. A 'elect' is a typical
prismatic group, 'which makes use of modem, associational methods or organisation, but retains
 45

diffuse and particularistic goals of a transitional type'. Thus the elect combines the features of 'sect'
of the fused society and 'club' of the diffracted society. 'elects' represent exclusively the people of a
particular community or group, and government officials belonging to that category serve only the
members of their respective 'elects' effectively by ignoring others. Sometimes the sala-or one of its
agencies develops close relations with particular elects or starts functioning like a elect. As a result,
the elect maintains close links with a particular group and functions primarily in interest, and pays
lip-service to achievement and universalistic norms.
In a prismatic society the traditional behaviour pattern coexists with 'new' sets of norms. As a
result of overlapping of the 'formal' and the 'effective' standard of conduct, the prismatic society's
social interactions are characterised by a lack of consensus on the norms of behaviour.
Sala officials may enter service by virtue of higher educational qualifications or through
success in competitive examinations but in regard to the matters of promotions and career
development, they depend largely on ascriptive ties, and also the support of seniority, or on the
influence of their senior officers. These officers claim to apply modern norms in their behaviour,
while actually being indifferent or rejecting all inconvenient norms in their day-to-day functioning.
The public also follows the example of Sala officials in their behavioural pattern and in general,
plead for the strict observance of rules and regulations. But when their personal issues are involved
they would either try to break the rules or plead for exemption in their favour.
While referring to overlapping in the power structure of a prismatic society, Riggs observes
that it consists of a 'highly centralised and concentrated authority structure overlapping control
system that is highly localised and dispersed. There exists a separation of 'authority' (officially
sanctioned or legitimate power) from 'control' (real, but unofficially permitted or illegitimate power).
In practice, the de jure 'authority' succumbs to the de-facto 'controls'. The authority of the Sala
overlaps the society's control structures which are based on polycommunalism, elects and poly-
normativism. A number, of structures at times behave in a peculiar fashion and many a time even
act against the very purpose for which they have been created. Sometimes, structures lacking
primary orientation towards administration carry administrative functions along with other concrete
structures responsible for it. Such overlapping influences the relationship between politicians and
administration.
Riggs has termed the prismatic society an 'unbalanced polity' in which bureaucrats dominate
the politico-administrative system, despite the political leaders' Constitutional powers. As a result,
the Sala officials play a more dominant role in decision-making processes in a prismatic society than
the officials in a diffracted society. Owing to such a concentration of powers in the hands of
bureaucrats, there would be lack of response to the people's needs and wishes: In such a situation
the strengthening of the Public Administration in developing societies is likely to impede political
development. He further pointed out that such a weak political system marked by leadership failure
to control the bureaucracy would lead the rendering of the legislature, political parties, voluntary
associations and public opinion ineffective.
The strength and weakness of any political leader in power varies with his ability to reward
and punish the administrators. A weak political leader may fail to recognise the services of an
efficient official and reward him suitably for achieving the organizational goals, and at the same time
an inefficient official may escape punishment for his failures. As a result, a talented Sala official
tends to spend most of his time for increasing his power and for the promotion of personal interests
and in the process inefficient officials may go scot free. Since the performance of the government
depends on the level of output of the Sala official, Riggs says, there is a close link between
 46

bureaucratic behaviour and administrative output; the more powerful a bureaucrat is the less
effective he is as an administrator. As a result, the Sala is characterised by nepotism in recruitment;
institutionalised corruption and inefficiency in the administration of laws. According to Riggs
prismatic society has three important characteristic features (1) heterogeneity (2) formalism (3)
overlapping.
Heterogeneity
The prefix 'hetero' is derived from the Greek word ‘heterous' which means 'different'. The
prismatic society has heterogeneous structures existing side-by-side. The existence of a high degree
of heterogeneity is the main characteristic feature of a prismatic society. Heterogeneity refers to 'the
simultaneous presence, side by side, of quite different kinds of systems, practices and view-points'.
Owing to the parallel co-existence of diametrically opposite view-points and practices, the social
change in a prismatic society would be inconsistent, incomplete and unresponsive. The
heterogeneity also influences the administrative system.
There are in a prismatic society urban areas with a 'sophisticated', intellectual class, western
style offices and modem gadgets of administration. There also exist a well-developed
communications system and the specialised agencies to discharge various social, political, economic
and technical services. On the other hand, in the rural areas, people lead a highly traditional life
with no facilities for modem living like telephones, refrigerators, etc. The village 'elders' combine
various political, administrative, social, economic and religious roles. Heterogeneity exists in a
prismatic society in all walks of life presenting a paradoxical picture.
In the field of education, society pays a great emphasis on the western type of education while
equally upholding traditional Gurukuls. Hospitals with all modem facilities giving allopathic
treatment co-exist with Ayurvedic, Unani, Homeopathic and Naturopathic centres. Such a co-
existence of contrasting systems pulling the society in different directions makes it difficult to make
generalisations.
In the prismatic societies political and administrative offices enjoy enormous influence, power
and prestige and help in making money. Although equal opportunities exist for all, only some people
are privileged enough and hope to get the jobs in higher levels. Those who fail to get jobs would
waste no time in forming 'pressure groups' against the government and start agitations on some
pretext or other. Despite the existence of a government duly elected through democratic processes,
the government would not be in a position to control the people. The people in power tend to make
all efforts to protect their interests and stick to power. Thus, there is always a misunderstanding and
misrepresentation of facts giving rise to tensions and instability in the society.
The problem becomes much complicated in a poly-communal society where different
communities try to pull the society in different directions in furtherance of their own sectional
interests. This is evident in almost all the developing countries of Asia, Africa and Latin America.
Lack of integration thus forms the basic feature of a prismatic society.
All these disparities, differentiations in almost all aspects of life not only influence the working
of the administrative system and condition its behaviour but also create a number of problems for
the administration. The ruling class would normally try to protect the interests of 'haves' and ignore
the interests of 'have nots', which, according to Riggs, would create a revolutionary atmosphere in
society.
A major characteristic of a prismatic society is a high degree of heterogeneity which implies a
mixture of fused characteristics and modern refracted traits, such as a sophisticated intellectual
 47

class, Eastern style officers and other traits juxtaposed with undeveloped rural communities ruled
by traditional chiefs and/or councils of elders. The mixture is a set of new administrative structures
and traditional institutions characterized by charismatic and ascriptive status. This also means that
there are differences in ways of life.
Formalism
Formalism refers to 'the extent to which a discrepancy exists between the prescriptive and the
descriptive, between formal and effective power, between the impression given by the Constitution,
laws and regulations, organisation charts and statistics and actual practices and facts of
government and society'. In other words, it means the degree of difference between the formally
prescribed and effectively practised norms and realities and the existence of gap between the 'stated
objectives' and 'real performance'. Greater the difference between the formal and the actual, the
more will the formalism be in a system. The fused and diffracted societies have relatively a high
degree of realism in comparison with a prismatic society where there is a high degree of formalism.
This refers to the degree of discrepancy or congruence between formerly prescribed and effectively
practiced norms and realities. The greater the congruence, the more realistic the situation; the
greater the discrepancy, the more formalistic it is. In traditional and fused societies and in modern
industrial or refracted societies, a relatively high degree of realism prevails. Complete realism does
not exist
Though the laws, rules and regulations prescribe the style of functioning for the government
officials, there are wide deviations in their actual behaviour. The officers sometimes stick to the rules
and sometimes overlook and even violate them. This formalistic behaviour is caused by the lack of
pressure on the government towards the, programme objectives, the weakness of the social power to
influence the bureaucratic performance and a great degree of permissiveness for arbitrary
administration. Thus, the behaviour of the government officials and bureaucrats would be highly
unpredictable, inconsistent and depends on the situational variables. The reason for such a type of
behaviour may be ascribed either to the natural inclination of the employees towards collecting easy
money or to the existence of chances for maladministration. Thus, generally formalism in
administration paves the way for corruption in society.
Formalism exists in all aspects of social life. Generally, the laws relating to social and cultural
aspects of life are not respected and adhered to. They exist only in the record rooms of the
government, and the government also is not serious about their implementation. To quote a few
instances in India, prohibition laws are respected more in breach than in observance thereof. The
town planning regulations are more violated than observed. Such hypocrisy in social life is,
generally, found to be the rule rather than an exception in almost all the developing countries.
While explaining the dimensions of formalism Riggs also considered Constitutional formalism.
Constitutional formalism refers to the gap between the Constitutional provisions and their actual
implementation. This can be found in India/ For instance, according to the Constitutional practice,
the Chief Ministers are to be elected by the members of the majority party in the State Assembly. The
Council of Ministers are to be chosen by the Chief Minister. But in practice, in most cases the
central party leadership plays a decisive role in their selection. The Constitution legally vests the
governance in the hands of the elected representatives of the people but in practice the real
governmental power and influence may be wielded by some individuals or groups of people outside
the Parliament.
The Constitution entrusts law making responsibility to legislators but in reality they spend
only a little time on law making. They may be engaged more in power politics than in the discharging
 48

of their legislative responsibility. This facilitates the bureaucracy, to play a major role in law-making
in the prismatic societies. The bureaucrats may even form groups or align themselves with various
political leaders owing to the presence of factions within the ruling party or the Council of Ministers.
Thus formalism exists in all aspects of social life in a prismatic society.
Overlapping
According to Riggs, Overlapping refers to "the extent to which formally differentiated
structures of a diffracted society co-exist with undifferentiated structures of a fused type". In
administrative systems what is described as administrative behaviour tends to be influenced by non-
administrative criteria, i.e., by political, social, religious or other considerations. In a fused society,
traditional structures perform almost all kinds of functions and the problem of overlapping does not
arise, because in such a society whatever is formal is also effective. However, in a prismatic society,
although 'new or modem' social structures are created, in essence the old or undifferentiated
structures continue to dominate the social system. Though formal recognition is given to new norms
and values which are generally associated with a diffracted structure, in reality they are paid only lip-
sympathy and are overlooked widely in favour of traditional values associated with undiffracted
societies.
Thus, in a prismatic society, the Parliament, the Government offices, market, schools, etc.
perform various administrative, political, and economic functions. In reality, their behaviour is
influenced by certain traditional organisations like family, religion, caste, etc. overlapping in a
prismatic society manifests in several noticeable dimension in various fields and these are
conceptualised as 'nepotism', 'poly-communalism', the existence of 'elects', 'poly-normativism', and
lack of consensus and separation of 'authority' from 'control'.
Nepotism
In a prismatic society, nepotism and favouritism play a dominant role in the making of
appointment to various administrative posts. Members of a family and their kin are given preference
in employment and other matters. The close relatives of a government official derive a variety of
advantages from his official position in various ways. On the contrary, the considerations of kinship
are kept out of the administrative behaviour in a diffracted society. In a fused society, the politico-
administrative system has a patrimonial feature in which family or kinship plays a significant role.
In a prismatic society the laws, rules and regulations laid down in the statutes are not adhered to in
practice. The sala officer attaches importance to personal increase in power and material gains
rather than paying attention to the social welfare of the people. His behaviour and performance are
influenced by parochialism and, consequently, the laws and their rules are not made universally
applicable.
Poly-communalism
Poly-communalism is the name given by Riggs to plural society where we find the
simultaneous existence of several ethnic, religious and racial groups. Most of them are in hostile
interaction with each other. They lack proper motivation for social change. This affects the society as
well as the administration. If a member of a minority community is able to occupy a high position in
a public or private organisation, he begins to show preference of the members of- his own
community in administrative matters, such as recruitment, promotion, transfer, etc. because
different communities try to pull the society in different direction to fulfil their own communal
interest, administrative problem are likely to arise. To prevent such a situation and to protect the
interest of other minorities, the quota or reservation system may be adopted to provide some sort of
 49

proportional representation of all communities in the administration. However, such an arrangement

may lead to mutual hostility among various communities, thereby creating administrative crisis.
Poly-normativism (lack of consensus)
In a prismatic society, people subscribe to different values and norms of their own, these lead
to differences in society, moreover, the traditional and modern ideas co-exist and are in hostility with
each other, as a result of overlapping, decision-making becomes more complicated.
The sala bureaucrat may enter into service by virtue of his possession of educational
qualification or through success in competitive examinations, but in respect of his promotion and
career development, he depends largely on ascriptive ties and seeks favours from his superior
bureaucrats, the sala official publicly may adhere to modern set of norms but secretly reject them as
meaningless. A sala official may insist on a strict enforcement of regulations by the public, but when
his personal issue is involved, he may openly violate them.
Authority Versus Control
Riggs says that the prismatic society consists of a highly centralised and concentrated
authority structure overlapping a control system that is highly localised and dispensed. Thus
authority and control overlap each other. The authority of a sala overlaps with the control
mechanism which is based on poly-communalism, elects and poly-normativism. This form of
overlapping influences the relationships between politicians and administrators.
According to Riggs, a prismatic society is an unbalanced polity in which bureaucrats
dominate the politico-administrative system. Bureaucrats in an unbalanced polity exercise much
more power than their formal authority suggest. They have statutory authority which is used for
influencing decision over the allocation of human and physical resources. Due to such a
concentration of powers in the hands of bureaucrats, there would be lack of response to the
demands of the people. Riggs also states that when such a weak political system and leadership fail
to control the bureaucracy, the legislature political parties, voluntary associations and public
opinion also become ineffective.

Self-Assessment Question
1. What are the essential features of Prismatic Sala Model ?

2. What is the thrust of ecological approach to CPA ?

4.9 Bazaar-Canteen (Economic Sub-System) Model

Riggs called the economic sub-system of prismatic economy-'Bazaar Canteen Model'. In a
diffracted society the economic system operates depending on 'market factors' of supply and demand
and economic considerations alone govern the market. In contrast, in a fused society, 'arena factors'
(religious, social or familial consideration) determine the economic transactions. In the prismatic
society both the market factors and arena factor play side by side. It has the characteristics of both
market economy and traditional economy. Both the economic and non-economic factors interact and
influence the economic structures and finally reduce a stare of 'price indeterminacy'. Under such
circumstances, it is not possible to determine common price for a commodity or service.
 50

Besides the 'price-indeterminacy', a small section of people enjoy all benefits with control over
economic institutions and exploit a large number of people. Bargaining, rebates and bribes are
common features of this model. This further influences the whole financial administration and
ultimately destroys the economic system.
In a diffracted society everyone gets the service on equal basis without discrimination and
favouritism. In the same manner employees get their emoluments and remuneration in proportion to
their work, turnout, service, and its market value. But in a prismatic society, the relationship
between the public official and people, would be in terms of buyer-seller relationship. The price for
the service is determined by the nature of relationship between the public officials and people. The
price varies from place to place, time to time and person to person. The price of any commodity or
service depends on family contacts, kinship, individual relationship, bargaining power and politics.
Services are guaranteed and sold to the members of the 'elects' and dominant communities at
reduced prices and members 'outside' the 'elects' and minority community are charged higher prices.
Thus the economic structures in a prismatic society behave like a 'subsidized' canteen to the
members of the privileged groups and politically influential person having access to the canteen.
Conversely it behaves like a tributary canteen, where they charge higher prices to the members of
less privileged, politically non influential or members of the outside groups.
The state of price-indeterminacy in a prismatic society further deteriorates the economic
conditions, encourages black marketing, hoarding, adulteration etc. and ultimately leads to high
level of inflation. In a situation the sala official would try to take benefit out of it by developing
contacts with foreign businessmen and misuse foreign exchange for private purposes. This would
generally lead to exploitation, poverty, social injustice in prismatic society.
The wage relations in a prismatic society also depend on family relations. A good number of
public officials receive higher pay and salaries without doing any work. Generally, the gap between
the lowest and the highest wages would be very wide and those people who draw les pay will have to
do more work. In such a situation, low wages earners would be inclined and feel motivated to
increase their income through illegitimate means. Thus, the norms of official conduct are affected
which in turn, effects the economic sub-system of a prismatic society.
4.10 Criticism
The Riggsian theory of prismatic society is regarded as a valuable contribution to comparative
public administration. Yet his models and proposition have been questioned and subjected to severe
criticism. The Riggsian theory of prismatic society is primarily an explanation of the ecology of
Thailand, the Philippines and, to a degree, India. But it may be more difficult to apply it to
contemporary China, Iran, Cuba, and a host of other developing countries, untii politics in the
traditional sense gets incorporated into the theory, one fails to understand differential allocation of
resources within the bureaucracy, the relating to different parts of the bureaucracy to the often
shifting coalition of elites could eliminate the tendency of Riggs to treat bureaucracies in highly
monolithic terms.
To explain his models and concepts, Riggs borrowed most of his terminology from physical
sciences, but free use of certain new words, with different meaning may create confusion instead of
clarifying the concepts. Champman, writes that Riggs should have prepared his own dictionary to
explain his terminology.
'Hahn-Been Lee' considers Riggs' models as equilibrium models which explain in terms of
preserving the system but not introducing any change in the system. He observes that Riggs' models
 51

are not useful when the objective of administration is to change the system, rather than the
maintenance of the system.
'Daya Krishna' point out that Riggs' prismatic model serves no purpose as it does not find out
the stages in the process of development. He finds no logic in the three-fold classification of the
societies in the background of the concept of development. He feels that the Riggs' view of integration
as a result of a penetration and participation cannot be relevant to all situations, moreover, Riggs'
model are mostly based on certain assumption, but in the absence of a measuring scale, the
identification of prismatic or diffracted societies becomes very difficult.
Riggs has not attached as much significance to the positive character of a prismatic society as
to its negative character, for example, he projected formalism has a negative aspect. But it is also
true that sometimes people might stand to gain if the rules and regulations are not strictly adhered
to. Riggs'has also failed to recognise the role of internal as well as external forces in the process of
development. While acknowledging the pioneering enterprise of Riggs, it needs to be admitted that
the prismatic-sala model has lost its specificity.
Irrespective of the criticism Riggs attracted there is no denying that he set the table and
standards for Comparative Public Administration and got to the root of the failure of Americanised
and Europised Public Administration practices, failing in developing countries, through his
important paradigm called "The Ecological approach to Public Administration", and also suggested
the issues that plague the developing countries and how to rectify them.
4.11 Summary
CPA has witnessed a number of models and approaches which have been used as convenient
tool to understand the various systems. However, their applicability is still doubtful and there is
still no one voice about it. Which particular model is most appropriate, and for what purpose, and
where should it be applied ? The central problem in CPA is that it is large enough to embrace all
the phenomena that should be embraced without being by virtue of its large dimensions, too
unwieldy. Another problem is of relating the universal and the unique in one system. But to make
comparisons implies not only the identification of the universals but also discovering a criterion of
differentiation. Riggs ecological approach and other models help us in understanding the
administrative process in developing countries. Although his administrative models are difficult to
find out in practice, they help us in understanding the realities. The Sala model provides an
opportunity to analyse and understand the administrative system in developing countries. It also
facilitates to conduct further studies that are based on empirical and ecologic approaches.
4.12 Glossary
Bureau : In this economy there is an exchange of goods and services
without the use of money. It is a characteristic feature of
traditional economic system.
Barter system : Bureau or office refers to administrative sub-system
Chamber : Refers to administrative sub-system in a fused society.
Differentiation : Existence of a situation in a society where every function has a
parallel specialised structure for its performance. (High degree
of specialization).
Ecology : Political, economic, social and physical environment.
Formal : The official norms, as expressed in constitutions, laws, rules
and regulations.
 52

Integration : A process to connect together, to coordinate the various kinds of

specialised roles in a society.
Market Exchange : It is the buying and selling of goods and services at money price
according to law of supply and demand.
Nepotism : Favouritism shown to relatives in conferring offices.
Poly-communalism : It is the name given by Riggs to plural society where we find the
simultaneous existence of several ethnic, religions and recall
groups.
Poly-normativism : Displacement of traditional values by new ones, it leads to
increase in opposed values in a society.
Refracted : Refracted society is one where there is high level of structural
differentiation and functional specialisation.
Structure : Arrangement of various parts into one.
Sala : : A Spanish word having a variety of meanings – a govt. office,
religious conference, a pavilion, etc.
4.13 FURTHER READINGS
1. Arora, Ramesh K. (1972). Comparative Public Administration (An Ecological Approach).
New Delhi: Associated Publishing House.
2. Bhattacharya, Mohit. (1987). Public Administration. Calcutta: The World Press Private
Ltd.
3. Prasad, Ravindra D; Prasad, V S; Satyanarayana, P (2000). Administrative Thinkers. New
Delhi: Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd.
4. Sapru, R.K. (2009). Administrative Theories and Management Thought (Second Edition).
New Delhi: PHI Learning Private Limited.
5. Riggs, Fred W. (1964) Administration in Developing Countries, The theory of Prismatic
Society: Boston, Houghton Mifflin.
6. Riggs, Fred W. (1961). The Ecology of Public Administration. New Delhi: Asia Publishing
House.
4.14 Model Questions
1. Explain the Ecological Approach to CPA and contribution of Riggs to this approach.
2. Enlist the major approaches to comparative Pub. Admn. and analyse the structural
functional approach.
Suggested Answers to SAE Questions
I. 1. Ecological Approach; Bureaucratic; Structural functional; systems; Decision Making Model.
2. Talcott Parsons; F.W. Riggs; Marion Levy; Robert Merton; Almond.
II. 1. Nepotism, favouritism, heterogeneity, formalism, overlapping.
2. Basic thrust is that Public Adinistration in any society is largely influenced by its
environment, - political, economic, social and geographical.
*****
 53

Lesson-5

ADMINISTRATIVE AND POLITICAL SYSTEMS :

GREAT BRITAIN AND UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

Structure
5.0 Objectives
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Great Britain
5.3 United States of America
5.4 Summary
5.5 Further Reading
5.6 Glossary
5.7 Model Questions
5.0 Objectives
After going through this lesson unit you should be able to :
 Make a sketch of British system of government
 Enlist the major features of administrative system of U.K.
 Draw an online of of U.S. system of government
 Describe the administrative system of USA
5.1 Introduction
Public Administration as a governmental activity is an entity which has been an integral part
of the human civilization for ages, especially, accustoming it through the lens of the political systems
in practice. However, the, same as an academic discipline has had a recent origin, as different
scholarly advisers to the rulers have maintained a narrative of their activities from Kautilya's
Arthashastra to Aristotle's Politics to Machiavelli's Prince; but it was only in the nineteenth century
i.e. 1887 that marked a paradigm shift in the study of Public Administration, wherein, Woodrow
Wilson wrote the very famous essay, "The Study of Administration" which set the dice rolling about
the study of systematic management of governmental affairs. Henceforth, public administration has
gained recognition both a field of study and an entity to achieve the desired political objectives.
Moreover, the functioning of administrative systems in various countries has witnessed
significant developments, both progressive and retrogressive, as it is not possible for these systems
to work in isolation to the basic societal structures. Rather their dependency or interdependency on
other entities helps them manage and control the resources efficiently. Therefore, coordination
among the controlling agencies requires assured access to resources to the management of the
administrative structure. These structures include an array of organisations, namely, governmental
organisations, non-governmental organisations, intergovernmental organisations, private or
commercial organisations and academic institutions. Although, they are varying in their size and
functionality, however, a common element in these institutions is the quality of leadership fostering
the effective utilisation of resources. Thereby, an administrative system irrespective of it’s a political,
 54

social, cultural, historical and economic milieu works on the availability of resources manned by an
intellectual and effective leadership.
Thus, larger the organisation, the greater is the dependence and interdependence between
its components. Thus, large organisations are composed of multiple layers and branches, each
with specific assigned functions, much like the systems inherent in each of the basic societal
functions. Often, divisions of responsibility within organisations are assigned titles, such as
upper, middle, and lower management, and have functions similar to those of coordination and
control entities. In many ways, the processes used in leading, controlling, and decision-making
basically are the same.2
5.2 GREAT BRITAIN
5.2.1 THE CONSTITUTION
The English Constitution is an evolutionary product of incessant process of gradual and
unconscious development. A sum total of rules, regulation, conventions, statutes, bye laws and laws
it regulates the governance of the country. A constitution that was never created by a Constituent
Assembly rather it is a 'child of wisdom' of many centuries of political growth. The English
Constitution cannot be presumed as entirely unwritten as there are certain charters, petitions and
statutes in which some principles of the Constitution find their embodiment' in writing. Thus, the
oldest constitution of the world is neither written nor enacted; however, it is an amalgamation of
uniqueness and flexibility as it can be amended with the same ease with which an ordinary law
enacted. In the words of Munro, "it is a rambling structure, to which successive owners have added
wings and gables, porches and pillars. "
The edifice of the British polity is unitary and not federal in form. All the powers of the State
are vested in the Crown aka the King or the Queen, thus, making them the titular head. These
powers are exercised by the Cabinet, wherein, all of them are drawn from the Parliament. The Prime
Minister is the head of the Cabinet, hence, the most powerful individual in the country. This type of
government is called the responsible government because all ministers are both collectively and
individually responsible to the House of Commons. Also, it is the Cabinet which is the connecting
link between the monarch and the legislature.
Furthermore, the nation has no principle such as the supremacy of the Constitution as this
quotient is taken over by the Parliament. Rather an edifice so profound that often it is referred to as
the 'mother of all Parliaments', a progeny that has spread into every civilised nation. This august
assembly of intellectuals, business magnates and statesman was an effort of eight centuries; the
period of struggle culminated on June 15, 1215 under King John who was made to sign the Great
Charter and the Magna Carta, respectively. Thereafter, the Parliament has stood the test of time to
incorporate a substantial control over matters of legislation, finance and administration.
The sovereignty of Parliament can be better understood by the fact that it is both a legislature
and a constituent assembly, simultaneously. There is no practice of judicial review in England. No
court of law can find any flaws and faults in its functioning; thus, everything done by it is legal and
constitutional, with the executive fully under its control. The ministers cannot retain the office
except during the pleasure of the lower house.
An outstanding feature of the Constitution is the 'Rule of Law' i.e. the government according
to laws against a government the whims of men. Therefore, the law is same for everybody and all are

1. https://doi.orR/10.1177%2F14034948135151Ql
 55

equal before the law. In consensus, the political system of Great Britain is based on the myth of an
absolute monarchy with, the sovereignty of the Parliament. To be more precise, the country is an
example of parliamentary democracy with a liberal government whilst respect the monarchy with a
cementing force of the real men and women on the political system.
5.2.2 THE ADMINISTRATIVE SYSTEM
The most peculiar feature of the British Political System is the vital and subtle distinction
between the Crown and the King, as this distinction is the most significant form of unreality of the
Constitution. Walter Baghot refers to this distinction as the difference between dignified and efficient
parts. The entire story of development of the British Constitution is primarily a narrative of the shift of
authority from King as a person to its Kingship as an institution. The major landmarks in this are :
These significant advancements have assured the fact that although the King wears the royal
cap but the most important entity of this discussion is the institution of the Crown. Though the
personal status of the King has remained unchanged for years yet his functioning has been bound
by various conventions brought about by the establishment of the parliamentary control over this
institution. Moreover, the King continues to wear the Crown being the chief executive yet its
functions are exercised by others aka the Parlisfment and its Ministers. Thereafter, inspite of
holding a ceremonial position the King's advice cannot be overseen, especially, in the selection and
appointment of a political leader as the Prime Minister; and authorising the dissolution of the House
of Commons for fresh elections.
The parliamentary form of government in Great Britain has been described as the rule of the
majority party under the Prime Minister and his Cabinet with the mammoth like responsibility
towards the real constituents of the society i.e. the people. This omnipotent position of the
Parliament has been achieved from the following prospects :
1. The Cabinet sets the guidelines of national policy.
2. The body is responsible for every administrative work carried out by the administrative
machinery.
3. It is responsible for all legislative proposals.
4. The budget is prepared by the Ministers from the guidelines laid for finances.
5. All high appointments both internally and externally is the responsibility of the Cabinet.
6. Lastly it also decides as to matters of utmost priority for parliamentary discussion.
Thus, all laws-are made by the Queen-in-Parliament, which means that it is a combination of
the Queen, the 'House of Commons and the House of Lords; however, the parliamentary sovereignty
resides with the House of Lords; as the latter is a permanent institution which cannot be dissolved.
5.2.3 CIVIL SERVICES IN BRITAIN
The organ of the government which is involved in a plethora of work, namely, collecting taxes,
auditing accounts, arresting criminals, inspecting factories, etc. is the part of the government which
is in close contact with the masses. The evolution of Civil Services in Britain has been divided into
two periods, namely,
• The period from 1689 to 1855, this marked the era of political favouritism as the basis of
appointing the officials. This phase witnessed the following changes :
 The buying; and selling of offices was a regular activity; it was Edmund Burke, the
first statesman who could identify the evils of robbery and nepotism. Furthermore,
 56

Jeremy Bentham in his revamping of the Constitutional Code suggested an oral

examination in addition to the written test.
 The reformation of Civil services can also be attributed to the era of Industrial
Revolution which laid the certainty of removal of the lasses-faire atmosphere which
could be eased out by a competent civil service with the adoption of merit rule.
 The other development in this time was the extension of franchise to the middle class
which has the able statesman, such as, Gladstone and Peel, who could envision that
the growth of trade and commerce rests upon competent civil servants.
 The efforts of Lord Macaulay in modernising the civil services is of paramount
importance as it is he who open the gates of the examination for Indian candidates.
 The reforms were further materialised with the inception of the Haileybury School,
1813 followed by the Northcote Trevelyn Committee Report (1854) which has
presented in its report that patronage had created a room for incompetent civil
servants.
 The second phase saw certain changes in terms of reforms to the rejuvenation of civil
services by various acts, legislation and reform committees. Some of them are listed,
hereunder:
☻ Setting up of an open competitive examination to achieve merit by an order-in-
council
☻ The National Whitley Council (1920) which suggested various reforms by providing a
classification to the civil services.
☻ The Assheton Committee Report (1944) emphasised on the need and quality of
training in civil services.
☻ In 1965, the Estimates Committee of the House of Commons published a report on
the 'Recruitment of Civil Services', wherein, it recommended an inquiry into the
structure, recruitment and management of service.
☻ The Fulton Committee Report (1968) suggested a cult of the generalists; with division of
classes being an impediment and development of manageable and skilful techniques.
☻ The era of Margaret Thatcher (1979) indeed tried to bring about a change in the -
structural pattern of civil services. Michael Heseltine introduced a comprehensive
system of corporate and business planning (MINIS).
☻ A Financial Management Initiative (1982) was launched with the aim to build
efficiency in civil services through a scrutiny programme with a wider focus on
corporate planning, efficiency and objective setting.
☻ Robin Ibbs heading the Efficiency Unit published his report 'Improving Management
in Governance: The Next Steps' which aimed at the delivery featuring clear targets
and personal responsibility. Rather a more focused approach on smaller units, more
accountable units, etc. revived the keenness of Ministerial interest with private
sector efficiency.
☻ Though the Thatcher Reformation period had the efficiency improved to another level
yet there were reports of carelessness and lack of responsiveness in the quality of
 57

services delivered. Thereafter, to tackle this issue John Major introduced the concept
of Citizen Charter in 1992 to empower the service users, by setting out their rights
and standards along with arrangements for their compensation.
Thus, it is these evolutionary landmarks that the executive organ of a parliamentary
monarchy has undergone to make itself accustom the dynamism of the changes in the political and
social set up.
5.2.4 SALIENT FEATURES OF THE BRITISH CIVIL SERVICES
The evolutionary development of the British Civil Services has transformed it as a trademark
institution of the administrative system. The following essential features are responsible for its
progress over the years :
1. Diversified Civil Service : Although the Civil Services account nearly 10 percent of the
workforce in the country yet the diversified process of recruitment of staff with specialist
qualifications is an essential attribute of the organisation. Two important landmarks in this avenue
are......
☻ Firstly the dramatic growth in field administration during the 20th Century which
has resulted in the creation of a network of regional and local offices acting as a
connecting link between the citizen and the administration,
☻ Secondly, a large and steady increase in the number of public bodies which
neither form a part of ministerial or local authorities. An example of the same is
that the civil services now employ one-tenth of the public workforce as compared
to about one-quarter in 1914 (Fadia and Fadia).
2. Generalist Administrator : An attribute of the civil services which has been strongly
recommended by the Northcote-Trevelyan Committee. However, the, Fulton Committee
Report vehemently opposed it to incorporate an element of professionalism.
3. Ministerial Responsibility: The civil services perform and function under the cloak of
ministerial responsibilities', thus, they being the real administrators are performing in
the background.
4. Career Services : Like any other country the civil servants in this country also make
civil services a permanent career. The promotions are based on interests of efficiency and
morale. The two pillars of promotion are seniority and merit.
5. Job Security : A significant feature of the services is job security which provides them
with their distinct organisations to protect their rightful functioning. Moreover, the
Whitley Councils have been the lynchpin of personnel management.
6. Politically Neutral : The neutrality of civil servants in the United Kingdom is a
remarkable feature, as the change of the government does not affect the functionality
and efficiency of this public office. Though there have been reports of political affiliation,
especially in reference the Select Committee enquiry presented in the House of Commons
to review the working of public administrators. There have also been instances of
political involvement in the appointment of senior civil servants, especially in the
Thatcher government.
7. Anonymity : The system has the civil services working in the name of the ministerial
order, thereby; the quotient of anonymity of the work of the administrators is
 58

maintained. Both the success and the failure of the department is rewarded, however,
the glare of the publicity remains confined to the minister.
5.2.5 THE BRITISH BUDGETARY SYSTEM
The financial system in Britain is managed by the 'Treasury' which is the central agency as it
directs and supervises the process of financial administration. First commissioned in 1612, it is
headed by Lord Commissioners i.e. First Lord of Treasury (Prime Minister), Second Lord of Treasury
(Chancellor of the Exchequer) and five junior Lords. The Lords of the Commissioner never meet as a
board rather it is the decision of the Chancellor of the Exchequer to take the decisions regarding the
financial and economic policy matters. In 1959, the Plowden Committee was constituted to study the
role of the Treasury in financial administration and according to its report in 1961 the Treasury was
divided into two parts, namely, the Finance and Economic side and the Pay and Management side.
To render the task of financial administration'the Treasury performs functions viz. preparation and
preparation of the single budget, setting up committees to review the procedure of financial
management, the review of the public expenditure through the office of the Comptroller and Auditor
General (created in 1866), etc.
5.2.6 THE BRITISH LOCAL GOVERNMENT
The unitary feature of the British Constitution empowers the Central government to have all
powers vested in it, thus, being the single supreme Central government. It can create and abolish
the units of the local governments as their source of authority is the Central government. The system
of local government was created in 1974 by the Local Government Act, 1972 which created a two tier
structure for the metropolitan areas (Conurbations) and three tier structures for the mixed urban
and rural areas. The former is divided into six metropolitan counties with each county being divided
into metropolitan districts; there are altogether thirty-six (36) such districts.
Similarly, the mixed urban and rural areas are divided into thirty-nine (39) non-metropolitan
counties with each county being further sub-divided into non-metropolitan districts and there are
296 such districts. They are further divided into parishes and towns.
The distinct feature about the British Local government is that the edifice of the government
in London is seemingly different than the rest of the country, through the London Government Act,
1963 which bifurcation nomenclature pertaining to the districts. Therefore, the British pattern of
local government is characterised by features such as legislative dominance, decentralisation,
committee system, voluntary citizen participation, multi-purpose activity, etc.
Self Assessment Questions Exercise
1. What is the type of British Govt. System. (Unitary or Federal)

2. Type of British Constitution. (Written or Unwritten)

3. Write anythree features of British Admire System.

 59

5.3 UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

5.3.1 THE CONSTITUTION
One of the oldest written constitution, framed in 1787, the Constitution of United States of
America is a document known for its brevity, rigidity, based on the Declaration of Independence,
1776. A document comprising of 4000 words which can read in about half an hour; is also the
supreme law of .the land based purely upon the principle of separation of powers. Moreover, the
name 'United States' was first officially used in the Declaration of Independence. Thus, thc
Constitution is superior to any ordinary law and specifies agencies and organs for exercising
governmental powers along with the specification and protection of civil liberties of the people.
An important feature of the American administrative system is the principle of separation of
powers, wherein, the functions of the government i.e. law making, administration of law and
interpretation of law are assigned into three different organs of the government. The Congress makes
the laws, the President administers them and the Supreme Court (along with its other appendages)
imparts justice. Although, complete separation of powers in any given milieu is an unrealistic
situation, thereby, the constitution makers provided a system of checks and balances to protect the
functioning of the three organs. Thus, no branch can interfere with the jurisdiction of the other and
yet the balance of power is maintained without the element of despotism. This has formed the basis
of the Presidential form of government by providing the executive a fixed term.
The federative structure of government in United States of America has two stands of
government side by side. The people in the 50 states are under the governance of the national
government and also under one or another of the state government, wherein, the latter is not merely
a part of the former structure. Therefore, the powers which are not given to the Centre are exercised
by the State without any interference of the former. This constitutional division of power is written
and rigid, with the amendment to the Constitution not being and easy task as it requires
concurrence of the other party.
The American Constitution professes dual citizenship (introduced by the 14 th Amendment),
wherein, a citizen enjoys political rights with two facets i.e. all American citizens are eligible to be
elected and to elect at the federal level and at the state level only the state citizen enjoy the political
rights.
The Constitution has created the interpreter of the constitution in the form of Supreme Court
which is competent enough to settle all disputes between the national and the state governments;
along with the final authority over various constitutional laws and executive orders. Also, the
Supreme Court acts as a custodian of the Constitution through the process of judicial review. Thus,
signifying the esse^e of judicial supremacy subjected to sovereignty within the governmental
framework.
In a nutshell, a constitution known for its brevity the American document of supremacy
embodies liberalism, limited government, federalism and Presidential form of government as its
prime facets.
5.3.2 THE ADMINISTRATIVE STRUCTURE
A. THE PRESIDENT
The President of United States of America is decidedly the most powerful elected executive in
the world; various authors have used vaiymg terms to describe his supremacy and power i.e.
greatest ruler of the world, leader of the major political party, chief formulator of public policy,
spokesperson of the country, chief architect of the American foreign policy, etc.
 60

Though constitutionally the President is an indirectly elected representation, however, the

growth of political parties and conventions has converted it into a procedure of direct election. For
the conduction of the Presidential elections an electoral college is established, wherein, the members
of this college are directly elected representatives from the states. The total number of elected voters
in each state is equal to its members in the Congress (both in the House of Representatives and the
Senate). The total strength of the college is 538 and in order to win the election a candidate needs
270 votes. If no candidate secures the desired majority then the House of Representatives selects the
candidates from the top three candidates.
To be elected for the President of the country a person has to fulfil the following conditions :
• A natural born citizen of the country.
• He must be at least 35 years of age.
• He must have resided for 14 years in the nation (though not consecutively).
The President holds office for a term of four (4) years and can be re-elected only once. The 22nd
Amendment act, 1961 has fixed the term of the President for a maximum of ten (10) years. The
President can be removed from the office on account of treason,'bribery or any other high crimes of
misdemeanour through the process of impeachment. So far no president has undergone
impeachment although there have been three attempts,'namely, Andrew Johnson (1868), Richard
Nixon (1974) and Bill Clinton (1998), respectively.
As the executive head of the state the American President is vested with enormous powers
which expands his zone of functioning, thus, making him the supreme commander of the system.
The President renders the following powers and functions :
☻ He has to enforce the Constitution, federal laws and treaties; and the judicial decisions.
☻ He is the supreme commander of the armed forces in U.S.A.
☻ He is the highest appointing authority of the Supreme Court judges, heads of the
executive departments, diplomatic officials, consuls, etc.
☻ He formulates the foreign policy and its related affairs.
☻ He can grant pardon and reprieve for offences against federal laws.
☻ He has to approve the Bill sent to him approved by both the Houses of the Congress; in
lieu of which he can exercise powers such as giving assent to the Bill, Pocket Veto and
Qualified Veto.
☻ He can sent messages to the Congress in reference to the proposition of legislative measures.
☻ He can adjourn or call special sessions of the House for consideration of some urgent
matters.
☻ He prepares the national budget and submits the same.
☻ He is empowered to exercise powers of delegated legislation.
☻ He heads 13 departments which now constitute the Cabinet; the functioning of the same
is consultative and advisory.
Harold Laski has rightly said, that the American President "is both more and less than a king;
he is also both more and less than a Prime Minister".
B. THE CONGRESS
The American Congress is a bicameral legislative body of two Houses i.e. the Senate (the
Upper House) and the House of Representatives (the Lower House). The former is presided over by
 61

the Vice President is a permanent body with the senators being elected for a term of six years with
one third of them retiring after every two years; with hundreds of a officials appointments made by
the President but subjected to their approval by the Senate; thus, making it the second
most'powerful chamber in the world. Furthermore, the House of Representatives is an elected body
of representatives with a term of two years.
5.3.3 EVOLUTION OF CIVIL SERVICES IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
Though the President, the Congress and the Supreme Court are the principle organs of
government enforcing the functionality of governance yet they rely upon 'others' for the execution/
implementation of decisions. These 'others' are the permanent organs of the government which are
engaged in the implementation of policies, enforcement of laws, execution of judicial .decisions, etc.
which are directly or indirectly involved in the delivery of public services. Moreover, they constitute
the principle organ of government whose prime objective is day to day administration aka the
executive organ of the government. Also, popularly known as 'bureaucrats' rendering the prime
function of collective responsibility.
Historically speaking the federal government's capacity of the civil servants only 3000 at the
end of the 'Federalist Period'; this reached to 95000 in 1881 under the reign of the President G.
Cleveland which further ascended to half a million in 1925. This growth expanded further in lieu of
not the government functioning but rather addition of bureaucrats in the personnel department. The
following phases of evolutionary growth are the most significant milestones :
☻ The mark through period in the history of evolution of civil services came from 1789 to
1829, wherein, the executive branch expanded under the influence of President George W.
Washington on the administration. The administration was known as 'government by
gentleman', wherein; competence, character and a high degree of formal education were
regarded as the prime attributes of civil servants.
☻ The system of public recruitments driven by merit were not introduced until 1883, as the
then idea was 'public offices were spoils of victory' and were distributed to the workers of
the political party. Also, popularly known as the Spoils System given by the President
Andrew Jackson. This system remained extensively entrenched in America for the next
fifty years. In this time period there was absence of merit and competence rather
dominance of politics, patronage and power.
☻ The turmoil of history unfolding in the assassination of President Garfield in 1881 by a
job seeker followed by the Republicans suffering a disastrous defeat in the mid-term
elections in 1882 made the American realise the vagaries of the civil service system
coupled by the Senator George H. Pendleton's proposition to reform the system with the
British Civil Services as the benchmark. The Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act was
highlighted by competitive entrance examination, relative security of tenure and political
neutrality.
☻ This Act also marked the setting up of the American Civil Service Commission followed by
some important legislation such as Hatch Acts, 1939 and 1940. This was also
accompanied by severe confusion pertaining to the service related matters such as
receiving rates of pay, inequality of employee cadre, etc. Therefore, this saw the
establishment of the Classification Act of 1923 and 1949 which laid the foundation of
grade and salary demarcations.
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☻ Since 1955 the Federal Service Entrance Examination is being held for the University
graduates; there are two types of examinations i.e. assembled and unassembled.
☻ The Civil Service Reform Act, 1978 sponsored by the Carter administration established
two separate agencies i.e. an office of personnel management (OPM) directly under the
supervision of the President managing the personnel policies. An independent Merit
System Protection Board to enforce merit principles and decide upon employee appeals.
☻ Lastly, most of the personnel which have been career administrators with significant
policy responsibilities have been brought under the Senior Executive Service, 1978
established by the Civil Service Reform Act, 1978 which clearly differentiates between the
career civil servants and non-career appointees.
These advancements are clearly indicative of the fact that although the civil service system in
the United States of America has experience patronage and politics in one of its phases yet with
significant changes undertaken in the ambit of positive politicization a new personnel system has
evolved over the years.
5.3.4 SALIENT FEATURES OF THE CIVIL SERVICES
In the light of the above mentioned evolutionary facets of the civil system the following salient
features can be enlisted :
1. Spoils System : A system prevalent in the light of politics and patronage in America until
1883 purely based on political consideration rather than merit had laid the notion that
the public offices were 'spoils of victory'. Though there was no system prevailing prior to
1828 but under the stewardship of the American President Andrew Jackson such a
system flourished in the country and made the people realise about the viscous cycle of
the vagaries of absence of competence and merit.
2. Managerial Approach in Recruitment : The public services recruitment was dominated
by adoption of a managerial approach entrenched in performance examination, written
examinations, oral examination and ranking tests.
3. Restrictions over the political activities of the civil servants : Unlike all other
countries the civil servants in U.S.A are not allowed to take part in active politics. This
helps the preserve the sanctity of the public services as on one hand its protects the civil
servants from political pressure and on the other hand it restrains them from any
partisan activity.
4. Preference for specialists : A feature characteristic of the country believes in the
adoption of a special approach to its civil services, wherein, preference is given to
specialist skills to foster practical job oriented selection.
5. Unionization of services : Though the attitude of the public service officials towards the
unionization of services was restricted till 1912 but then the legal barriers were uplifted to
let the employees organise and belong to unions.
6. Shift between the governmental and non-governmental careers : A unique feature of
the civil services Which allows its employees to switch between governmental and non-
governmental opportunities, thus, not insisting upon permanent career options.
7. Position Classification System : Irrespective of the tier of government the system follows
position classification.
 63

8. Service Ratings : A device established for determining not only the promotions but also
pay increases, decreases, demotions and dismissals. A scheme proposed by the first
Hoover Commission it was based on two prospects i.e. trait and performance rating,
respectively. This method is used by both the national and the state governments to
review the performances.
In a nutshell, as pointed out by Mosher the two overriding values of the personnel system in
United States of America will be based on professionalism and management.
5.3.5 THE AMERICAN BUDGETARY SYSTEM
The Office of Management and Budget (0MB) is the 'central financial agency' responsible for
preparation and administration of budget. The office was set up in 1970 by an executive order
established to replace the Bureau of Budget. As a part of the Executive Office of the President (HOP)
it is the major staff agency of the President in terms of financial administration; which is headed
over by the Director appointed by the President as approved by the Senate.
Furthermore, the country also houses a Department of Treasury established in 1979,
primarily concerned with the supervision of public funds barring the budgetary control; thus,
differentiating it from the Indian and the British systems, respectively.
5.3.6 LOCAL GOVERNMENT IN UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
The American Constitution provides for the establishment of a federal state with division of
powers between the central and the state governments. Though local government is a state subject
yet each state has established its own system of local government depending upon its historical and
social milieu. Thereafter, heterogeneity and autonomy in the nomenclature, organization and
functions of the local government prevails in each state in U.S.A. However, the nation has the
following set up of the local government units :
- county
- City
- Town and Township
- Special District

Self Assessment Exercise-II

1. Type of US political system govt.

2. Name of the US Legislature ?

3. Three features of US admn. System.

 64

5.4 Summary
Administrative systems are varied and represent many different entities of society.
Administrative structures of public government bind society together during normal times, and cross
the artificial boundaries of the basic societal functions. At times of crisis, coordination and control
must be in control of all of basic societal functions of society and those administrative structures
that are relevant to its mission, and must work with these multiple administrative structures to
accomplish its mission. The interactions between coordination and control and the respective
administrative organisations represent an area that is ripe for evaluation, especially performance
evaluation.2
5.5 Further Readings
1. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F 1403494813515103
2. Prof. Fadia and Dr. Fadia (2007), "Public Administration", Sahitya Publications.
3. Laxmikanth (2007), " Public Administration", Pearson Publications
4. Vishnoo Bhagwan and Vidya Bhushan (2008), World Constitutions: A Comparative
Study", Sterling House.
5.6 Glossary
Sovereignity — Supremacy, Rule with autonomy
Child of wisdom — A well developed judgement, insight
Reformation — The act of improving/reforming some one/system
Anonymity — Where persons name is not known
Spoils system — A practice in which the party in power give jobs and positions to its
own supporters
County — A small geographical region
5.7 Model Questions
1. Discuss the political and administrative system of U.K.
2. Compare the administrative set up of USA & UK.
Suggested Answers to SAE Questions
1. Unitary
2. Unwritten
3. Diversified civil service, Generalist, Job Security, Anonymity
II
1. Federal
2. Congress
3. Based on spoils system; Managerial approach, Service Rating system

^^ ^^ ^
 65

Lesson-6
Lesson-6

ADMINISTRATIVE AND POLITICAL SYSTEMS

Of FRANCE AND JAPAN

STRUCTURE
6.0 Objectives
6.1 Introduction
6.2 France
6.2.1 The Consitution ^
6.2.2 Administrative System
6.2.3 Civil Services in France
6.2.4 Salient Features of the French Civil Services
6.2.5 The French Administrtaive Courts
6.2.6 The French Local Government
6.3 Japan
6.3.1 The Japanese Administrative System
6.3.2 Evolution of Civil Services in Japan
6.3.3 Salient Features of the Civil Services
6.3.4 The Japanese Local Government
6.4 Summary
6.5 Glossary ;
6.6 Further Readings
6.7 Model Questions
6.0 Objectives
After going through this Unit, you should be able to :
 Describe the administrative structure of France
 Trace out the salient features of the French civil services
 Analyse the administrative system in Japan with its significant features.
 To draw an insight of the significant features of the Japanese Civil Services.
6.1 Introduction '
A nation often referred to as a factory of political experiments and constitution making has
about twelve regimes and thirteen constitutions till the finalization of its present politico-
administrative set up. Though countries like U.S.A. and Britain have managed to retain the
authenticity of their political arrangement but the French scenario has been swinging from the
 66

Government d' assemblee to a highly personalised regime. Thus, the study of its administrative
structure becomes interesting undermining the essence of its political events.
The prime feature of the French administrative system is its contemporary transformations,
thus signifying its dynamics and diversity with the disciplines of sociology, political science, and in
history. Adopting a comparative perspective, it emphasizes the richness of the French bureaucracy,
its institutions, regulation, reforms, and agents. Four pillars of the French administrative system are
identified (centralization, territoriality, administrative law, and administrative elites). The emphasis
of French public administration has been exploring the various dimensions and effects of neo-
managerial reforms (policy elites,' street-level bureaucrats, professional groups)1.
6.2 FRANCE
France as a country is described as a laboratory of political experiments with the most
scintillating revolution followed by an illustrious constitution at its disposition. Since 1789, as a
nation it had had no less than twelve regimes and thirteen constitutions. In view of these historically
significant changes the study of the French system becomes an interesting entity to understand
various connotations of constitution making and ideals of democracy.
6.2.1 THE CONSTITUTION
The constitution of France was drafted by the Fifth French Republic drafted by a Ministerial
Committee headed by Michel Debre under the authority of General de Gaulle was submitted to a
popular referendum of September, 1958 and by October 7, 1958 the new constitution came into
force.
The prime objective to draft the constitution was establishing a stable executive with the
rendering of more powers. The Constitution is a detailed document of 92 Articles, grouped in 15
Chapters; and a Preamble. The Preamble is the proclamation of the solemnity to the Rights of Man
and to the principles of national sovereignty as given by the Declaration of 1789. The source of
authority to the Constitution is the people. Likely to the constitution of the Fourth of Republic, the
Constitution declares France, "a Republic, indivisible, secular, democratic and social", thus,
ensuring equality to its citizens without any discrimination. Also, it is a rigid constitution with an
amendment referred in Article 89, whereby, the initiative for the same lies with the President and the
Republic on the proposal of the premier submitted to the members of the Parliament. The proposed
amendment can be approved by a 3/5"' majority of the votes cast.
Moreover, the French Constitution is purely a democratic entity which is an embodiment of
government functioning; often referred to as an amalgamation of the British Parliamentary and the
American Presidential system with centralization as its central tenet of governance.
6.2.2 THE ADMINISTRATIVE SYSTEM
The French administrative system is characterized by supremacy of the President in the
Republic; wherein, he is elected for a term of seven (7) years directly by universal suffrage (since
1962). However, this term has been reduced to five (5) years since September 24, 1999. Although the
President has no direct executive powers yet he renders the following administrative functions :
• It is the President who appoints the members of the premier and terminates the functions
upon the submission of the resignation.

1. Philippe Bezes (2017), "Challenges to French Public Administration: Mapping the vitality of its knowledge sources".
The Oxford Handbook of French Politics.
 67

• He also presides over the Council of Ministers and has the capacity to materially influence
their decisions and policy promulgations.
• Being the commander of the forces he is also in charge of making official civil and military
appointments.
• He has been provided with emergency powers under Article 16.
• In the light of the wide powers granted to him, he can overshadow the Parliament, the
Constitutional Council and the Council of Ministers.
• The indirect involvement of the President in the administrative activities is aided and
assisted by the Prime Minister and his ministers.
• The shift in the power from the Parliament to the Prime Minister (1952) has brought
about a drastic change in the government functioning.
• Although the Prime Minister has the power to choose the size and shape of the
government yet it is the final approval of the President in this matter.
• The policy making process, thus, make the position and functioning of the Prime Minister
essential with certain pivotal responsibilities, namely.........
► To decide the policy making area.
► To supervise and coordinate the work of the ministers.
► To control the administrative services of the office.
► To develop a liaison with the Parliament, i
► To direct the operations of the government.
• As the Constitution rests upon the principle of ministerial responsibility; henceforth, the
ministers without being the members of either house are responsible to the Parliament.
Amidst all this, the French Prime Minister (the Premier) is merely an agent who puts the
Presidential will into action, moreover, he is caught between the President, who appoints him and
the Parliament who can dismiss him,
The French Parliament is a bicameral legislature, with the National House (lower house) and
the Senate (upper house). The deputes of the lower house are directly elected by suffrage, with the
ultimate government responsibility towards them and the prime instrument of legislation; whereas,
that of the upper house is instituted on the basis of indirect suffrage, making it purely a fanctionless
authority.
The laws made in France primarily revolve around Administrative Laws and Administrative
Courts. The Constitution has established three organs of the judiciary i.e. ........
► The High Council, which primarily assists the President.
► Article 67 lays the establishment for the High Court of Justice
► The Constitutional Council which possess powers and elements provided by the new
Constitution.
6.2.3 THE EVOLUTION OF THE FRENCH CIVIL SERVICES
France as a nation is popularly known for the centralisation in its administrative system,
wherein, over the years this facet of the administrative system has grown profoundly. The times
before the revolution saw the facet of government service whereby it became a saleable commodity,
thus, it was the revolutionary ideas of the people which brought this system of sale, purchase, gift,
 68

inheritance and etc. to an end. Moreover, it was till 1946 that the condition of the services was in an
appalling state. Although, significant efforts were made to improve the condition yet went in vain. In
1915, the civil services were divided into five divisions, namely.
• Superior Administrative Class
• Executive Clerical Group
• Clerical Manipulative Services
• Labourers and Security Employees
• Technical Group
The regulations of the civil services is guided under the law enacted in 1946 which due to its
mammoth like structure has replaced more than hundred statutes and innumerable ministerial
orders, thus, laying down generalised rules of recruitment, classification and conditions of service.
Herein, each ministry is responsible for its own staff. The 'Civil Administrators' who form the top
rung of the hierarchical ladder are recruited through an open competitive exam by inviting
applications from the university graduates aged between 26 to 30 years of age; with at least five (5)
years of active public service. The services are organised into 'corps', the system into which the
services are graded post recruitment. Furthermore, to train the top class administrators the National
School of Administration was established in 1945, respectively.
In the French system of governance the civil servants enjoy a strong and powerful position.
This strong foothold is mainly due to two reasons, namely,
► The system of governance is based on the principle of centralisation of administration,
wherein, civil services form the law enforcing authority.
► The service cadre is accorded a separate and higher place in the society.
► It is a service which is dominated by law experts.
► The services are taken as a career service and the officers enjoy political rights i.e. they
can participate in political meetings with no bar on public campaigning.
6.2.4 SALIENT FEATURES OF THE FRENCH CIVIL SERVICES
Under the Fifth Republic, France as a nation has evolved in its pattern of administration and
governance, which has an amalgamation of old and new features. Though the State remains unitary
and centralised yet there are major changes which have occurred at all levels of governance.
Structurally the government is divided in ministries which are further divided in principal operating
units.
Thereafter, the detailed description of the features of its administrative services is listed below :
1. Oldest Form of Public Personnel System : Being one of the oldest forms personnel
systems the French institution was referred to as 'Prefects'. The pre-revolutionary society
had the Intendants which were under the control of the king; wherein, each Intendant
was supervising a single province. In 1800, Napolean Bonaparte replaced the provinces
with territorial division and by the 19 th Century the Prefects took over the management of
the administration.
2. Existence of an Administrative Superiority : The civil servants of France are divided
into 'corps', which is further divided into 'ranks' and further classified. Members of the
great administrative services corps are well represented in politics.
 69

3. Political Rights : A unique feature provided to the French civil servants is their right to
join political parties and to participate in politics. Unless selected into any political
organization under a ministerial post they are not suppose to disclose their identity; it is
only after their election that they are suppose to reveal their political affiliation and
declare their administrative status as 'inactive'. It is this reason that the civil servants are
able to establish their virtual monopoly after the formation of the Fifth Republic.
4. Ubiquity of the French Civil Servants : A noted aspect of the services is that the civil
servants hold many analogous influential posts, especially the ones who have achieved
membership in one grate corps. Frequently, the civil servants have been shifted to the
private sector institutions in the ambit of this feature.
5. ENA : The Ecole National d' Administration is a highly competitive entrance exam since
1945 for those who wish to join the administrative services. Also, there is another
competitive exam after two years of ENA clearance which ascends the students to
subsequent administrative career. The ENA graduates have access to 'grands corps' and
the ministries, respectively. All aspire to reach the prestigious corps but it is only 20% of
the total which achieve their entry into the grand corps.
6. Administrative Courts : The civil servants are also subjected to certain restrictions,
namely, their work can only do what their superiors and the law authorise; if they
exercise their powers, this may result in a citizen bringing a case in the administrative
tribunals. Like the 'Supreme Court' it is the 'Council of State' who determines the
disputes between branches of the government and citizens along with its advisory role to
the government on legal matters.
Thus, the civil servants in France are not only controlling the mammoth structured
administration but also occupy key positions in decision-making in both public and private sector
organisations. Moreover, some even enjoy legislative decision-making.
6.2.5 THE FRENCH ADMINSITRATIVE COURTS
A unique feature of the French administrative system is the establishment of administrative
courts in France for grievance redressal against the administrative authorities. These courts deal
with administrative law for the trail of cases for the settlement of disputes between the citizens and
the administration. These courts are separate from the ordinary courts dealing with civil and
criminal suits. It is headed by the Minister of Justice as the ex-officio president, three judges of the
court of cassation and three members of the council of state. These courts also popularly known as
"Droit Administratif are characterised by the following features :
• These courts distinguish the personal and professional acts of the public authorities.
• It relieves the public officials from the jurisdiction of ordinary courts
• It provides for trials in tribunals when the officials are tried for administrative wrong
• It deals with the rights and liberties of the citizen vis a vis administration.
• It provides compensation to the citizens for the injuries received from administration.
The growth of this type of justice system is defined by its jurisprudence as the judgment
rendered by them cannot be challenged in ordinary courts.
6.2.6 THE FRENCH LOCAL GOVERNMENT
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The Constitution of France provides for a unitary form of government, wherein, the powers of
the government are vested in the supreme Central Government. It has the powers to create and
abolish the units of local government for administrative convenience. Thus, centralisation forms the
most important feature of the local government controlled by the central government through the
Minister of Interior as the final authority. In fact, the local government is an authority which is
neither autonomous nor self-governing. Another important facet of the local government is its
rigidity, namely, organisational pattern and its powers and functions. These local units are divided
into four types.....
• Department
• Arrondisement '
• Canton
• Committee
These units are controlled by an elective council comprising of the Prefects, Sub-Prefects and
Mayors; uniformly applicable to the entire country.

Self Assessment Exercise-I

1. What are the basic features of French Constitution ?

2. What is Droit Administratif ?

6.3 JAPAN
A nation also called the 'England of the East'; Japan is a group of islands which have thrived
as a nation after the industrial revolution by significant changes which has established it as a
thriving example of industry, commerce, finance and agriculture. The nation today is though in an
advanced stage yet has come over a long period characterised by monarchy, feudalism and
democracy. Although, the Emperor had never ruled effectively yet the people instil deep faith in
monarchy with a sovereignty resting in the hands of its populace i.e. democracy.
6.3.1 THE CONSTITUTION
As a nation Japan had promulgated its Constitution on November 3, 1946; the birthday of the
Emperor Meiji and it came into application after six months i.e., May 3, 1947. The constitution
consists of a Preamble and 103 Articles grouped into eleven chapters. The previous constitution is
referred as 'The Constitution of the Empire of Japan' while the new constitution is called 'The
Constitution of Japan'; wherein, the new document is enlisted with the following main features :
1. The new constitution recognises that ultimate sovereignty resides with the people whereas
the old had empowered the Emperor.
2. The new constitution renounces war and discards it as a means of settling disputes,
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3. The new document grants its citizens a truly imposing list of rights, freedom of thought
and conscience, religious and academic freedom, equality before law, rightful and
peaceful petition; with equal rights given to women.
4. The constitution regards 'Diet' as the highest organ of state power; with a collective
responsibility to the Cabinet. It designates the Prime Minister with the establishment of
Parliamentary form of government.
5. The judiciary has been provided an independent status. The Supreme Court is the highest
court of order. The principle of judicial review has been added as a latest tool in the polity.
6. The constitution also recognises the importance of local autonomy as a principle in the
governance of local affairs.
The constitution is an amalgamation of the British and the American constitutions,
respectively.
6.3.2 THE ADMINISTRATIVE SYSTEM
The administrative system of Japan is constituted by the Emperor of Japan; the Prime
Minister, the Cabinet, the Diet and the Supreme Court as the principle organs of governance.
As the titular head of the state the Emperor enjoys a symbol of statehood and unify of the
people; rather it is the people who are the sovereign authority in the nation. The matters of the state
are acted upon by the Emperor by the approval and advice of the Cabinet; thus, making the latter
responsible for the Emperor's actions. He has no political and constitutional powers, thereby,
making his position and role insignificant in the government machinery. However, he appoints the
designated Prime Minister as approved by the Diet; also promulgates the all laws and amendments
without any power to dissolve a resolution. He also makes the appointment of the Chief Justice.
Thereby, the Emperor reigns but does not rule; henceforth, the ceremonial role of the Emperor
without any discretion in the exercise of any functions.
With the Constitution of Japan providing for a parliamentary form of government, the real
political executive is the Cabinet, as the highest organ of the executive it rules the country whilst
directing its government and administrative machinery. As a cohesive body it works on the principle
of collective responsibility and it responsible to the Diet. The constitution makes the Prime Minister
the undisputed head of the country; with each ministry headed by a Minister. Herein, each house of
the Diet separates votes and elects the P.M.; normally he is the leader of the majority in the House of
Representatives. The Prime Minister of the country is more akin than his counterpart in England;
however, the impact of the American President is manifest from the dominant role granted to the
premier in constitution which allows his superiority over his colleagues.
Diet, is the highest organ of state power which comprises of two houses, namely, the House of
Representatives and the House of Councillors. The former is the lower house of elected
representatives with a period of four years subjected to dissolution; while the latter is a permanent
body with half of its members retiring every three years.
6.3.3 EVOLUTION OF THE JAPANESE CIVIL SERVICES
The Japanese civil services today boasts of a workforce for over a million employees but has
started as a government body with major changes after the Meiji regime. Some of the evolutionary
landmarks in the growth of the civil services are the Occupations Authorities (1945-52), the United
States Personnel Advisory Mission (1946), the National Public Service Law (1947), the Mac Arthur
 72

Constitution of 1947, the First Provisional Commission for Administrative Reform (1962) and the
Second Provisional Commission for Administrative Reform (1981).
Today with even a higher number which decreased after the post-war period due to rampant
privatization of public institutions. Most importantly after the decline of the Japanese asset price
bubble private services were reduced and cut, thus, the public officials still enjoy varied perks and
privileges. The National Government civil services are divided into two groups, namely, the special
and regular categories. Appointments to the special category are governed by political factors with
any competitive examination such as the Cabinet Ministers, heads of independent agencies, officials
of the Diet, etc. Whereas, the regular category employees are recruited through an open competitive
examination, thus, constituting an elite bureaucracy determined internally by the principle of
seniority.
6.3.4 SALIENT FEATURES OF THE CIVIL SERVICES
The civil services in Japan are characterised by the following features :
1. Democratic Bureaucracy : The civil services in Japan is a blend of the pre-war
bureaucracy with the reformist period, democratizing the structure, especially, Article 15
of the 1947 Constitution granting it a semiautonomous status.
2. Reformation of the Bureaucracy : There was a remarkable growth in the period from
1940 to 1975 which marked an eight fold increase in the bureaucratic setup catalysed by
the reformist period of the 1980s. These reforms were aimed at providing structural
reorganisation, personnel monitoring, deregulation, devolution of functions, privatisation
of services, etc.
3. Career Based Service : The government service constitutes to be an attraction of the
Youth due to its stability of career, though having hazardous series of qualifying
examinations.
4. Narrow Educational Base : Though education as a base for the bureaucratic structure
seems to be narrow yet the higher rung of administrators have an educational
background stronger than their western counterparts; especially with a graduate degree
with honours being an imperative for the qualifying exam. ;

5. Wide Social Base : The civil services in Japan are an amalgamation of an array of
population disproportionately representing towns and cities. This is a significant aspect of
cumulative effects of disappearance of most traditional forms social stratification clubbed
withy opportunities of greater social mobility due to a modem education system.
6. Scarcity of Women Candidates : Sex discrimination forms an integral part of civil
service cadre in Japan which restrict the entry of women in the services. Although, very
few women may qualify the administrative service exam yet their expectation of rising
higher is scarce than that of a section chief.
7. Political Activism : Historically, political activism has been an integral part of the
Japanese bureaucratic culture with deep involvement into the political decision making
which has become a major source of policy initiative with the modernizing society. Most
often it is the civil servants rather than the ministers who undergo the meticulous
questioning and brow beating that passes the parliamentary interpellations.
6.3.5 THE JAPANESE LOCAL GOVERNMENT
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The principle of decentralisation is the touchstone of local governance in Japan introduced

similarly to the concept of democracy post the Second World War by the Occupation Authorities. The
organisational structure, powers and functions of the institutions of local government are
determined by the Constitution and the Local Autonomy Law, 1947. Though there exists a unitary
form of government yet the Japanese Constitution grants extensive and autonomous rights to the
units of local government with the following provisions :
◙ The regulations of the organisation and operation of the local government are to be in
accordance with the laws of the principle of local autonomy.
◙ The local bodies shall establish assemblies as their deliberative organs.
◙ The local bodies have been given rights to manage their property, affairs and
administrative functioning for the maintenance of their own regulations.
◙ To enact a special law for the local institutions the majority concern by the people of the
local area is a mandate.
These provisions are granted in the ambit of the Local Autonomy Law, 1947 which
supplements the constitutional provisions by taking away the powers of the' central government to
control the lower rungs of governance and further. Also, it provides for the implementation of direct
democracy in Japan.
The following units of local government are established in Japan :
• Prefecture
• City
• Town
• Village
For the purpose of local administration, the entire nation is divided into forty-six prefectures,
wherein, each prefecture is further sub-divided into cities, towns and villages. Also, the executives of
the central civil service agency are different than the local government civil services; as the latter
recruits its own officials who remain in their respective careers throughout.

Self Assessment Exercise-I

1. What are the basic features of Japanese Constitution ?

2. What are the units of local government in Japan ?

6.4 SUMMARY
A comparative study of the administrative systems of various countries enables the learners to
acquaint about the varying prospects of governance and government functioning. It also fosters an
opinion as to which system is worth adoption and which circumstances are congenial to the
blossoming of a particular administrative system. The sytems of France and Japan are altogether
different but help us to understand the diversity based and their own history and culture.
6.5 GLOSSARY
 74

A. Fifth Republic : It is France's current republican system of government, was established

by Charles de Gaulle under the Constitution of the Fifth Republic on 4 October 1958. The
Fifth Republic emerged from the collapse of the Fourth Republic, replacing the former
parliamentary republic with a semi-presidential, or dual-executive, system that split
powers between a prime minister as head of government and a president as head of state.
B. Arrondisement : The 101 French departments are divided into 342 arrondissements,
which may be roughly translated into English as districts. The capital of an
arrondissement is called a subprefecture. When an arrondissement contains the
prefecture (capital) of the department, that prefecture is the capital of the arrondissement,
acting both as a prefecture and as a subprefecture. Arrondissements are further divided
into cantons and communes.
C. Diet : The National Diet is Japan's bicameral legislature. It is composed of a lower house
called the House of Representatives, and an upper house, called the House of Councillors.
Both houses of the Diet are directly elected under parallel voting systems.
D. Activism : Activism consists of efforts to promote, impede, direct, or intervene in social,
political, economic, or environmental reform with the desire to make changes in society.
Forms of activism range from mandate building in the community (including writing
letters to newspapers), petitioning elected officials, running or contributing to a political
campaign, preferential patronage (or boycott) of businesses, and demonstrative forms of
activism like rallies, street marches, strikes, sit-ins, or hunger strikes.
E. Canton : A canton is a type of administrative division of a country. In general, cantons
are relatively small in terms of area and population when compared with other
administrative divisions such as counties, departments, or provinces.
F. Prefecture : Japan is divided into 47 prefectures, forming the first level of jurisdiction and
administrative division. They consist of 43 prefectures proper, two urban prefectures, one
"circuit" or "territory" and one "metropolis". In 1868, the Meiji administration created the
first prefectures (urban -fu and rural -ken) to replace the urban and rural administrators in
the parts of the country previously controlled directly by the shogunate and a few territories
of rebels/shogunate loyalists who had not submitted to the new government.
6.6 FURTHER READINGS
1. Fadia and Fadia (2007), "Public Administration", Sahitya Publications.
2. Laxmikanth (2007), "Public Administration", Pearson Publications
3. Vishnoo Bhagwan and Vidya Bhushan (2008), "World Constitutions: A Comparative
Study", Sterling House
4. Tummala, Krishna K. (Ed.). (2003). Comparative Bureaucratic Systems. Maryland,
Lanham: Lexington Books.
5. Tan Rong and Hao Rifang (2013), "A Analysis of Development of Public Administration
Study in Western Countries", Canadian Social Science Vol. 2.
6. Philippe Bezea, “Challenges of French Public Administration:Mapping the vitality …..”
The oxford of Handbook of French Politics (2017)
6.7 MODEL QUESTIONS
a. List the prime features of the French Administrative system.
b. Describe Japanese system of government with brilient features of their administrations.
 75

Suggested Answers of SAE Questions

1. Stable Executive Human Rights, Equality afairness.
2. Droit Administratif in a part of Administrative Law with emphasis on Admive Courts.
II. 1. Democratic Bureaucracy; Reformed Bureaucracy; Career Based; Wide Social Base.
2. Prefecture, City, Town & Village.

*****
Lesson -7

CONCEPT AND SIGNIFICANCE OF DEVELOPMENT

STRUCTURE
7.0 Objectives
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Concept of Development «
7.3 Definitions of Development
7.4 Pre-requisites for Development
7.5 Problems on the Path to Development
7.6 Objectives and Goals of Development .
7.7 Social Development and Social Modernization
7.8 Dimension of Development – Political, Economic and Social
7.9 Summary
7.10 Model Questions
7.11 Glossary
7.12 Further Readings
7.1 Objectives-
After reading this lesson, you should be able to:
◙ Explain the concept of Development.
◙ Give various definitions of Development.
◙ List the objectives and goals of Development.
◙ Describe the dimension of Development.
7.1 Introduction
We generally use the term ‘development’ in serious ways. In fact ‘development' is not a static
concept, it is continuously changing. In the 19th century, national development meant the building
of modern state characterised by the use of machines; the spread of a system of division of labour,
the rise of new forms of organisation in Business and Public Administration, economic growth,
capitalism in a system of free enterprises and political democracy. The last two characteristics were
responsible for marking this period of history one of individualism. Individualism has as its purpose
 76

freedom and puts the individual in any political system as a voter and the economic system as a
consumer. After the turn of the century, specially after 1914, changes began to take place.
Somewhere revolutionary changes (such as the revolution of 1917 in Russia) but many occurred
slowly and yet were not less drastic. It was only after the World War II that some of these changes
and their implications on Public Administration became clear.
7.2 Concept of Development
Development in the beginning meant economic development. However, later it was recognized
that the technological revolution was more basic. The new technology is used on principles of
accuracy, standardization, consistency, safety and coordination with the help of instruments like
computers. It has led to an increase in the scale of production and thus to monopoly and
monopolistic competition. The new technology is based on science and is now recognised as an
established institution and as the basis of separate profession. It is notable that the new technology
comprises not only technical technology but also a management technology, i.e., a better
organization and more efficient management.
The term 'Development' has come to acquire a fashionable expression now-a-days. Its use
seems to equal the more prosaic growth or change and has become increasingly complex in
application. We now speak of economic development, political development, social development and
so on. In the context of Public Administration, we read of Administrative Development.
7.3 Definitions of Development
"Development is the rational process of organising and carrying out prudently conceived and
staffed programmes or projects as one would organize and carry out military or engineering
operations."
Colm and Geiger write as follows : "The term development is not used synonymously with
growth. In the underdeveloped countries of Asia, Africa and Latin, America, development requires
social and cultural change as well as economic growth, that is, qualitative transformation must
occur concurrently with quantitative increases. There is, in fact a reciprocal relation between the
two. Neither process is likely to continue for long or very far without the other. Hence Development
means that plus growth".
"In goals and methods it is a vision of rationalization. The rationalization is to be more
consciously directed process resting on comprehensive scientific analysis of what must be done and
the deliberate training of men for new tasks and ways of behaving". "The function of an ideology of
development seems to be mobilization of the masses by a modernizing elite for the vast tasks of
modernization," as Sutton suggests in terms of nationalization.
Taking up a few more definitions of development, Fred W. Riggs defines Development in terms
of rising levels of autonomy or discretion (of social systems) in the sense of ability to choose among
alternatives.
Riggs introduces the concept of Development as "an increase in the fevel of discretion of social
system." His definition first stresses the growth made possible by the autonomy of the social system
which (Social System) can transform or reshape the environment. Second, it emphasizes
performance—"Increasing efficiency, reducing costs, improving the machinery of production of
government, of administration". Third, it stresses "the justice value of freedom, independence,
equality, change, even revolution". Fourth, it seeks to restructure the social systems. Fifth, "it
involves levels of diffraction which is a necessary condition for achieving autonomy". Riggs says,
 77

"Development involves the ability to choose whether or not to increase outputs, whether or not to
raise levels of per capita income or to direct energies to other goals, to the more equitable
distribution of what is available to aesthetic or spiritual values or to qualitatively different kinds of
outputs".
Edward E Weidner defines Development as the process of growth "in the direction of
modernity and particuTarly1n''the "direction of nation-building and social and economic progress".
A comprehensive definition of Development has been given by Hahn Been Lee He defines it "as
a process of acquiring a sustained growth of a system's capability to cope with new, continuous
change lumids the achievement of progressive political, economic social objectives".
In brief, Development is a process of change from traditionalism to modernity which is greatly
influenced by human beings. Activity related to the Development is generally directed towards nation
building and socio-economic progress.
Development is essentially a dynamic concept and the study of Public Administration of
Development Administration also changes with the change in time. The present nature of
Development differs greatly from that in the early 1960s.
"The new phase of development which started after the Second World War differs from the old
please not only in the scope and substance but also in the pace of change. In the period extending
from whole period of the 1900 to the middle of 1970s more technological changes have occurred
than in the whole 'period of human history up to 1945. Similarly, social and economic changes have
been rapid and turbulent. Under such changes no economy can be self regulating or self adjusting
and no invisible hand would be strong enough to guide the working of the economic system. New
management technology would be required to cope with the situation".
It may be noted that after the World War il many colonies which were under the foreign rule
became independent and as a result of this, the new states were in the transitional stage. "On the
other hand, the world is becoming more and more interdependent as jet transport, improved
methods of communication, and mutual economic dependence are uniting nations almost into a
single entity or a small number of entities. Multinational or regional economic integration are
increasing in importance. On the other hand, politically the world is divided into different groups.
Nation building is thus the process of Development which to a considerable degree is influenced by
politico-socio-economic factors.
7.4 Pre-requisites for Development
Since Development is continuously changing concept, it is not possible to state clearly the
conditions through which Development as a national goal can be achieved. However, some
prerequisites for development can be outlined.
First and foremost the need is of political order and stability. Without these development as a
sustainable goal in the direction of nation building and socio economic process in the developing
countries cannot be achieved.
Secondly, the agent for Public Administration System (bureaucracy) need to adapt itself to
rapid changes in environment. In order for growth to proceed in the direction of nation building and
sodo economic progress. Weidner suggests "system change in the form of increased differentiation,
and coordination together with appropriate accompanying specialization".
Thirdly, environmental and cultural factors that are barriers to Development should not
come in the way of those who are engaged in the Development work of bringing about change.
 78

Fourthly, most Development goals particularly directed towards achieving modernity-nation

building and socio-economic progress require planning. -'
Fifthly, A.P. Barnabas suggests "for Development to be achieved, there is clearly a need, for
establishing a close relation with the people. Change cannot be brought about without motivating
people and motivation cannot be achieved without establishing personal relations."
Apart from these, pre-requlsites emphasis should be on urbanization, literacy and media
production and consumption which should be regarded as indices of geographic and social mobility.
People's active participation and support in the Development tasks is very essential because it is for
the people that goals are intended to be achieved.
7.5 Problems on the Path to Development
The developing countries are facing many problems with regard to Development. The role of
government in decision making process, resource allocation institutions, goal setting is not very
much clear and many problems are consequently present in nation building and socio economic
progress of developing countries.
Again linguistic, racial, cultural, obstacles stand in the way of social change. Those countries
which have developed appropriate language can use advanced scientific ideas in the field of
administration.
Developing countries as already pointed out are passing through a phase of transition and
heading towards becoming modern societies. But when we use the word traditional societies we
assume that tradition offers resistance to modernization. Ralph Pieris maintains that it is
traditionalism which is an obstacle to development and not tradition. S.H. Alatas a Malaysian
sociologist, also is critical of those who put forth the view that religion and tradition are grave
obstacles to Development.
In fact, it is the lack of quality of organizational, human and physical resources in the
developing countries are impediments to Development.
One major difficulty confronting the developing countries is that these countries could not
adjust themselves to the changing needs because of inheritance of colonial institutions. "The
problems of development in a non-western society lie not primarily in borrowing technology and
organizational method from the west but in adapting them to the specific peculiarities of the
borrower's culture and in discovering how they affect and are effected by the motives, institutions
and perceptions of reality held by people into whose life these new technologies and organizational
forms are thrust".
These are some of the obstacles confronting the developing countries. If these are removed the
path to modernization or development associated with socio-economic progress and nation building
can be located easily.
7.6 Objectives and Goals of Development
The objectives and goals of Development are multiple. It is mainly aimed at increasing
national income and raising standards of living of the people and to secure them justice, freedom,
equality and security in the society.
The classical doctrine of economic growth in terms of an increase in national income is no
longer accepted as the only development objective. Now the emphasis is increasingly on :
(a) Equitable distribution of wealth and income.
 79

(b) Full utilization of manpower.

(c) Better utilization of natural resources.
(d) Protection of the human environment are included as major development objectives.
7.7 Social Development and Social Modernization
Apart from economic development, social development has come to gain a far reaching
importance in a welfare society. It is now recognized as a great dimension of the total Development
which is directed towards improving the well-being of the people. Well being of the people may
include in its purview reduction of diseases, poverty and social illness and satisfaction of the
material needs of.the people in terms of capital goods.
Growth and Development are often used synonymousiy in economic discussion as pointed out
by Charles P. Kindieberger. Generally speaking economic growth mean more output and economic
development mnpftes both more output and changes in the technical and institutional arrangements
by which it is produced. Growth may also imply not only more output, but also inputs and more
efficiency, i.e., and increase in output per unit of input. Similarly, when we speak of the growth of a
person, we generally refer to increase in his height and weight while when we talk of development we
think also of change in functional capacity such as learning capacity.
Growth and development go together up to a point. In the early stages, any economy that
grows is likely to develop and vice versa. In less developed countries growth and development go
hand in hand. Growth without Development leads no where. Thus if we were to produce more and
more cloth, we could say that growth is taking place but not Development which includes other
aspects like equlable distribution, etc. as well. At the same time development implies growth since
change in functions requires a change in size. Growth is usually measured in terms of national
income. This measure has drawbacks.
Eisenstadt points out that "Historically modernization is the process of change towards those of
social-economic and political systems that have developed in western Europe and North America from
the seventeenth century to the nineteenth and have then spread to other European countries and in
nineteenth and twentieth centuries to the South American, Asian and African continents". Hence one
meaning of modernization may be said to be Westernization. However, sometimes the term
modernization is also used to indicate the process of development which is taking place, more or
less, all over the world. It has some key aspects : social, political and economic.
Eisenstadt points that the characteristics of social modernization may be divided into two
types'.
Socio-demographic aspects
Structural aspects
7.7.1 Socio-demographic aspects.
The socio-demographic aspects of modernization are denoted by the term "Social mobilization"
which has been coined by Kari Deustch. He has defined social mobilisation as "the process in which
major clusters of old social, economic and psychological commitments are eroded and broken and
people become available for new pattern of socialization and behaviour." He has indicated that some
of its main indices are exposure to aspects of modern life through demonstrations of machinery,
buildings, consumers goods etc. response to mass media; change of residence; urbanization; change
from agricultural occupation; literacy; growth of per capita income etc. In other words, one set of
characteristics related to modernization consists of industrialization, urbanisation, use of
 80

newspapers, radio and television, increasing ability to read and write, and growth of per capita
income.
7.7.2 Structural Aspects
Modern societies are highly differentiated and specialized with respect to individual activities
and institutional structures. Recruitment is not determined in characteristically modern societies in
any fixed ascriptive kinship, territorial or caste framework. The specialised roles are free-floating.
Thus, while in earlier societies often the eldest son of the king used to succeed him in modern
societies anyone can be elected as the head of the state. Wealth and power are not ascriptively
allocated. Further, in a modern society there is separation between different roles held by an
individual. In earlier societies family, kinship, occupational and political roies were often mixed. In
modern' societies, the separation of roles chiefly results in family and kinship roies being separated
from occupational and political roles. Occupational and political' roles have been separated amongst
themseives also.
This Separation of Roles Means
(i) The occupation of any given role within one institutional sphere does not automatically
entail the incumbency of a particular role in the political or cultural Spheres. Thus while
in an earlier society, it might be taken for granted that ex-teacher of the king would be
his chief advisor even in regard to matters of state, this need not be so today. A head of
state might have had many teachers but they may have no political role whatever.
(ii) Within each institutional sphere there are distinctive units that are organized around the
goals specific to each sphere and are not fused as in more traditional societies, with
other groups in a network based of family, kinship and territonal bases In India,
particularly even economic roles were often related to the caste of family of a person.
While a Brahmins could be a landlord, he was often prevented by custom from
participating in agricultural activities himself. In some areas of northern India Brahmins
were not permitted even to touch the handle of the plough. In modern societies, however,
there are no such restrictions.
In the economic sphere, the development of, technology has led to specialization of economic
roles and units of economic activity for production, distribution and exchange.
In the political sphere, modernization has been characterised by the following features: (1)
growing extension of the territorial scope anc especially the intensification of the powers of the
central, legal, administrative and political agencies of the society, (2) continual spread of political
power to wider groups in the society, and (3) the decline of traditional legitimation of the rulers with
reference to powers outside their own societies (God, reason), and by the establishment of some sort
of ideological accountability of the ruler to the ruled. In other words, modernization consisted in the
formation of states, the strengthening of the national sentiments within states, spread of power and
family democratization which means the acceptance that the people are sovereign and also that
there should be institutional safeguards over those who may have been appointed temporarily to
rule.
In the Social and cultural sphere, a modem society is characterized by a growing
differentiation of the major 'elements of the major cultural and value systems, i.e., religion,
philosophy and science. In other words, while in earlier societies religion, philosophy and science
were more or less fused, in modern societies they tend to be separated. Each one of them has a
 81

somewhat different value system now-a-days. That is why modern man often experiences conflicts
between his religious, philosophic and scientific beliefs. Thus, according to some Hindu scriptures
the earth rests on the hood of a giant snake or on the horns of a divine cow. This religious belief
conflicts the scientific finding that the earth takes its place in the solar system due to law of
gravitation. Cultural modernization also means'the spread of literacy and secular education. In
earlier days, all true knowledge was considered to be religious. However, in modem societies we have
scientific knowledge which is non-religious. It is an indication of the transitional nature of Indian
society that there is so much controversy over the meaning of true education. One view is that
education which does not impart the principles of religion is no education at all, the other view is
that religious education need not necessarily be a part of education. The latter view has to some
extent been accepted by the Indian Constitution where we find the following provision under the
Right to Freedom of Religion as part of our Fundamental Rights.
"Article 28 (1) : No religious instruction shall be provided in any educational institution wholly
maintained out of state funds".
Development should not be discussed in terms of economic development alone1. The political
component of development seems to consist of increasing rationality, secularization, equality and
participation in the political system. As regards the social component of development, it seems to
consist of such features as accent on rationality as opposed to reliance on IradUons and customs,
transformation of obligations from a network of individual, family or group lefafaihhips into
obligations to the community and selection by achievement rather than by ascription. Increase in
social mobility and social freedom as opposed to social rigidities are regarded as desirable. It may
however, be stated that it is not possible to draw a line of demarcation between the economic,
political and social components of development. All these component tend to come into play when
dewtopment is seen taking place through the cumulative circular causation process. Thus
development is a complex phenomenon comprising many dimensions— social political, economic,
administrative and cultural.
7.8 DIMENSIONS OF DEVELOPMENT
7.8.1 Political Development
Political development may be defined as the capacity of a political system to deal with its own
fundamental problems more effectively while responding to the changing political demands of the
people.
Gabriel A. Almond defines political development in terms of performance capabilities. To him
political development is "the acquisition of new capability, in the specialized role structure and
differentiated orientations which together give a political system the possibility of responding
efficiently, and more or less autonomouely, to a new range of problems".
Lucian W. Pye recognises three dimensions of equality, capacity and differentiation as
syndrome to the development process and suggests that "in the last analysis the problems of
political development resolve around the relationships between the political culture, the authoritative
structures, and the general political process'.
7.8.2 Economic Development
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Economic development is essentially an important component of development. Raising

national income, reducing poverty and more equitable distribution of wealth and income are all
essential components of economic development.
The World Development Report (1991) defines economic development "as a sustainable
increase in living standards that encompass material consumption, education, health, and
environment protection".
Kindleberger uses both growth and development in economic discussion. To Kindleberger
'economic growth means more output, and changes in the technical and institutional arrangements
by which it is produced. "He further points out that growth is "an increase in output per unit of
input," and development implies "changes in the structure of outputs and in the allocation of inputs
by sectors".
For the definition of economic development, Gerald M. Meier lays emphasis on three words
'process, real national income and long period". To him, (i) process is the operation of certain forces
whereby real national income actually increases. As regards (ii) real national income, It refers to a
'country's" total output of final goods and services, expressed not in money terms but in real terms:
the money expression of national income must be corrected by an appropriate price Index of both
consumer and capital goods." Finally, (iii) long period of time, implies the underlying upward trend in
neq national product.
Meier concludes that a policy maker should be "concerned ultimately with the achievement of
better nourishment, better health, better education, better living conditions, and an expanded range
of opportunities in work and leisure for the poor people of the world." In this way, economic
development is a means and not an end for accelerating the progress of a country.
7.8.3 Social Development
Social development is a broad concept which is quite close to economic development. In fact,
in the process of modernisation, both economic and social development have to go hand in hand in a
politically developed country. As Schumpeter rightly says that "economic development is not a
phenomenon to be explained economically... (but) is dragged along by the changes In the
surrounding world".
According to T.K.N. Unnithan "Social development may be seen as a process of ushering in a
new order of existence. The quality of life and the quality of social relations which exist would
indicate the level of the order of existence".
In brief, social development has come to mean bringing about improvement in the social being
of the people. Social development lays stress on provision of health services, education, housing,
cultural amenities, protection of children, a change in the status of women, regulation of labour and
improved status for workers and reduction of disease, poverty and other social ills.
Also, political and civil liberties do constitute the non economic components of overall
development. A free press and expanding flow of information often-spur social and economic
progress by exposing actions of the government or the private sector that might otherwise hold
development back.
Gastil's survey (undertaken every year since 1973) ranks countries according to thirty specific
tests under two criteria: political rights and civil liberties. Political rights are defined as "rights to
participate meaningfully in the political process" and civil liberties, or the "rights to free expression,
to organize or demonstrate, as well as rights to a degree of autonomy such as is provided by freedom
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of religion, education, travel, and other personal rights." The resulting index is highly correlated with
another constructed by UNDP. All such measures may not support firm conclusions. However, there
is a strong relation between economic growth and civil liberties. Liberties may not contribute
positively to income growth, yet they imply that they do not hold growth back. Dasgupta's study
reports a clearer effect for 1970-80, finding that "political and civil rights are positively and
significantly correlated with real national income per head and its growth". Liberties appear to be strongly
and positively associated with the measure of welfare improvements such as education and health.
S.L Sharma deplores that the cultural dimension of human life has not been accorded due
recognition in the current western thought on development. He observes :
"The culture of the developed countries seems to be dominated more by the logic of economic
rationality than of human morality. The economic rationality has become so pervasive in the process
of development that it has led to a perverse morality. The need of the hour is to provide a moral
framework to economic development."
Social Development acquired an added significance in mid-nineties when for the first time in
history, in March 1995 over 14,000 participants including world leaders and delegates from 186
countries bad gathered at Copenhagen for the World Summit for Social Development and adopted a
Declaration and Programme of Action which represented a new consensus on the need to put people
at the center of development. The then United Nations Secretary-general had pointed out: The acute
social ills of todays-crime, drugs, disease, disaffection, urban decay and declining standards of
education-all have crucial consequences for human security in its largest sense. These social
problems, which once could be confused within borders, now spread across the world.

Self Assessment Exercise

1. Basic hurdles in the way of development.

2. What are various dimensions of development ?

7.9 Summary
Deve!opment indeed has been an area of concern even earlier of the national governments but
it is only recently due to its global ramifications more and more emphasis is being placed on it in the
context of sustainable development. Also it has been realised that development is central to the
needs and aspirations of people throughout the world and to the responsibilities of Governments and
all sectors of civil society. Its importance is highlighted further heads of State and Government at the
Summit were also "deeply convinced that economic development, social development and
environmental protection are interdependent and mutually reinforcing components of sustainable
development, which is the framework of our efforts to achieve a higher quality of life for all people".
7.10 Model Question
Q. Give definition and explain the concept of development. What are various dimensious of
development.
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7.11 Glossary
Modernity – The condition of eing near and modern (recent)
Rationalization – To be based on reasons for behaviours and decisions.
Pre-requisites – Pre-conditions for a desired action/process
Modernization – Adoption of rational and scientific orientation (progressive)
7.12 Further Readings
1. United Nations. World Summit for Social Development, New York, DPI/1707, August
1995, pp. V-3.
2. UN Publications on Nature and Problems of Development, U.N. New York, 1990s.
3. Sahib Singh and Swinder Singh, Development Administration in India, New Academic,
Jalandhar, 2016.
4. Safar, R.K. Development Admn., Sterling, N. Delhi, 1994.
Suggested Answers to SAE Questions
1. Law administrative capability; Lower productivity ; discuss circle of poverty, Low Literacy
rate; poor infrastructure.
2. Social, political, economic, administrative, sustainable.

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Lesson - 8

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT :
CONCEPT AND SIGNIFICANCE

STRUCTURE
8.0 Objectives
8.1 Introduction '
8.2 Concept and Significance of Sustainable Development
8.3 Elements of Sustainable Development
8.4 Ecological and Life Support Issues
8.5 Operationalising the Sustainable Development Concept: Important Indicators
8.6 Features of Sustainable Technology
8.7 Sustainable Technologies '
8.8 Summary
8.9 Model Question
8.10 Glossary
8.11 Further Readings
8.0 Objectives
After reading this lesson, you should be able to :
• Explain the concept and Significance of Sustainable Development in eluding its elements
• Describe Operationalising the Sustainable Development Concept
• Give features of Sustainable Technology and the Role of the Government
8.1 Introduction
Unbridled economic growth and population explosion in some parts of the globe coupled with
speedy Industrialisation and rapid consumption of additional man-made and natural resources are
raising questions in regard to a Sustainable future. Planning a Sustainable future, on the other
hand, is also becoming increasingly difficult in view of unprecedented rates of population growth
specially in the developing world, over the last century. All these factors have created new
imbalances and vulnerabilities which threaten future sustainability.
Development alone is no longer the issue but whether development was Sustainable. No
doubt, Asian and other developing countries developed patterns of agricultural and rural life that
were Sustainable over many centuries accompanied by effective, methods of land and water
management. But at the global level, the gross imbalance that has been created by the concentration
of economic growth in the industrialised countries and population growth in the developing
countries is at the centre of the current dilemma. Redressing this imbalance will be the key to the
future security of our planet in envirmental and economic as well as traditional serurity terms. This
will require fundamental changes in both our economic behaviour and our international relations.
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Effecting these changes peacefully and cooperatively is, without, doubt, tha principal challenge of
our time. In this important undertaking, according to Mr. Mawrice F. Strong, Secretary-General,
United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, cooperation can only be based on
common interests, and, given the disparities between them, it should be no surprise that the
perspectives of developing countries on the issues differ substantially from those of industrialised
countries. Developing countries point out that the industrialised countries are largely responsible for
the major global environmental risks created to date, and have been the main beneficiary of the
Wealth that has accumulated through the process of economic growth. They insist that they cannot
divert resources required to meet the most immediate and fundamental needs of the people, to pay
the additional cost of incorporating into their development policies and practices the measures
needed to reduce major global risks.
Meanwhile, the industrialised nations have faced environmental problems of their own;
problems which are, ironically the result of the same processes that have produced their
unparalleled levels of wealth and prosperity. Mr. Strong goes on to suggest that the changes we must
make in our economic life and international relations in order to effect the transition to sustainable
development are fundamental in nature and will be extremely difficult to achieve. For they will initial
changes in economic energy, transport, industrial and urban policies which will be fundamental in
nature and will have major impacts on the economic interest and competitiveness of nations and of
industry as well as the lives of people. This will require the full engagement and co-operation of
business and industry as the primary agents through which we conduct our economic affairs.
Similarly, it will require the active involvement of people and the non-governmental
organizations through which they act from the grass roots to the national and international levels. It
will involve significant changes in lifestyles as more people in the industrialized world opt for lives of
sophisfcated modesty and people of developing countries receive greater support in their attempt to
achieve frveiihoods which do not undermine of destroy the environment and resource base on which
their future ivefihoods depend.
The primary responsibilrty for our common future on this "Only one Earth" is really "in our
hands" and depends upon a more careful and more caring use of the earth's resources and greater
cooperation and equity in sharing the benefits as well as the risks of our technological civilisation.
Therefore, the focus now is on sustainable development and not just development as such.
8.2 Concept and Significance of Sustainable Development
At the 1992 U.N. Conference on Environment and Development, Rio UNCED Principle #3
characterized sustainable development as "the right to development must be fulfilled so as to
equitably meet developmental and environmental needs of present and future generation."
Principle 4 further states: "In order to achieve sustainable development, environmental
protection shall constitute an integral art of development process and cannot be considered in
isolation from it." These two principles are states as part of the U.N. Conference Agenda 21.
Understanding Sustainable Development : Sustainable development as a model and
important environmental theme, is evolving. On the one hand, sustainable development means
economic development and a standard of living which do not impair the future ability of the
environment to provide sustenance and life support for the population. On the other hand, it is more
difficult to visualize all of the forms and implications of sustainable development" to relate one's
professional career or personal lifestyle to its pursuit.
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The objectives of sustainable development are to provide for the economic well-being of
present and future generations and to maintain a healthy environment and life support system.'
In essence the sustainable development promotes development which (1) reduces the
disparities in lifestyles and global consumption and (2) improves and maintains a healthy local
environment and (3) then, and only then, contributes towards solving critical global environmental
management of the global "commons" such a global climate change, oceans and fisheries, and
forests.
Therefore, it's vital to ask
i. What kind of growth is desirable?
ii. What kind is not, and
iii. How to develop economic policy and environmental policy accordingly while maintaining
consumer choices and a sense of equity within a market economy. '
Aside from all projections of the future, contemporary issue like rapid population growth, etc.,
and experience point out the necessity to live within the carrying capacity of the Earth's ecosphere,
to make the global economies more efficient in the use of natural resources and to reduce population
pressures. Ethically speaking sustainable development has two dimensions: (1) our relationship to
fellow inhabitants of our country and planet and (2) our relationship to the land and plant and
animal inhabitants of the world. Therefore, sustainable developments not strictly a problem of
science or engineering or economics or proper management. The roots are found in values, ethics
and culture of both developed countries and developing countries.
8.3 Elements of Sustainable Development
(i) Population stabilization.
(ii) New technologies/technology transfer.
(iii) Efficient use of natural resources.
(iv) Waste reduction and pollution prevention.
(v) Integrated environmental systems management.
(vi) Determining environmental limits.
(vii) Refining market economy.
(viii) Education. .
(ix) Perception and attitude, changes (Paradigm shift).
(x) Social and culture changes.
The Interaction of Whole Economic and Natural Systems : Note in principle that making
environmental protection an "integral part of the development process" is much different from the
traditional pattern of making economic decisions and then correcting the environmental impacts
which may result. It is a critical aspect of sustainable development - that the interaction and
feedback between the economic system and the environmental system be evaluated so that
development can proceed in ways which will prevent and reduce environmental impacts.
A New Economics : The UN World Commission on Environment and (WCED) observes,
"Sustainable development requires a change in the content of growth, to make it less material and
energy-intensive and more equitable in its impact", in a global, open economy,' the interactions
between the economic and natural systems affect transfers at regional level from one region to
another.
 88

The Economist Kenneth Boulding introduced the concept of a "spaceship economy". As the
finite spaceship required the interdependency of the people and systems, a finite world requires
people together within the limits set by the natural system and requires efficiency in our use of
resources and care in our use of the environment.
A compelling goal for sustainable development will be to further integrate environmental,
energy and economic policy to provide "win-win" situations.
There are three components which are essential towards this goal.
1. Adopting a holistic environmental management framework for related environmental
problems and solutions.
2. Fostering a creative combination of regulation, incentives and penalities to guide
consumer, industry and the market place.
3. Research and development initiatives that emphasize the utilization, as well as the
development of energy efficiently and renewable energy technology. The integration of
objectives as well as interaction of economic and nature systems is shown in figures A
and B respectively.

The figure - B illustrates the interactions in terms of :

(1) The kinds of input demands and stresses that the economic system places upon the
natural system; and
(2) The waste outputs and stresses which the economic System places upon the natural system.
 89

With respect to the input demands posed by agricultural, industrial, commercial and
residential economic sectors comprising the whole economic system, there are a few broad categories
of stresses including
(1) the conversion of land and habitat to other uses;
(2) ecological depletion and possible extinction of living species through harvesting, hunting,
fishing and habitat conversion; and
(3) consumption of non-living mineral and fossil fuel resources.
In terms of the outputs the stresses which the economic system places upon the natural
system, again some broad categories are noted, including :
(1) air and water pollutants and solid wastes;
(2) green houses gas, such as carbon dioxide water vapour and other "trace" gases, and
thermal energy;
(3) "altered" land, which may have been cleared, denuded or paved; and
(4) silt, minerals and nutrients, resulting from erosion, runoff and decay products from both
organisms and solid waste.
From the standpoint of sustainable development it should be observed that the importance of
these impacts upon the natural system varies greatly geographically, dependent upon the existing
states of both organisms and solid wastes.
8.4 Ecological and Life Support Issues
1. Species and habitat protection.
2. Global agriculture-emphasis upon feeding the population (not just raising cash crops)
and—agricultural methods which use indigenous and renewable resources and maintain
soil structure and fertility.
3. Tropical rain forests-forest management for suitable economic uses, such as harvesting of
fruits, nuts, hides, plants and lumber (subject to proper management of tree species,
density and location).
4. Global climate change-identifying a continuum of possible environmental management
responses to reduce emissions of greenhouse gases and implementing programs which
make sense to do now for other reasons (e.g. methane gas recovery for fuel, composting
and energy management).
8.5 Operationalising the Sustainabie Development Concept; Important Indicators
(i) The economy and the environment are inextricably linked. No human activity can be
conducted without some connection to the environment, whether the provision of clean
water and food or the latest version of a personal computer.
(ii) We need to take the "long view". The sustainable development framework of policy concept
entails thinking far into the future and how our present actions might affect our ability, to
live a wholesome and fulfilling life. This raises the issue of intergenerational equity.
(iii) Think in terms of systems, feedback loops and boundaries. This can include ecosystems
(both industrial and natural). Total energy systems, social systems and economic
systems. Industrial ecosystems include all those systems necessary for supporting
industrial output; natural, economic, social and technological systems.
 90

(iv) The scale of human activities is important both spatially and temporally. We are
interested in how activities impact not just our own backyard but also the "global
backyard". In addition, activities may have impacts that span decades and beyond or
have impacts that are not felt until future generations. One can look at sustainable
development on a global, regional, national, state, local and even individual scale.
(v) Human actions must grounded in an enhanced understanding of how the world works
and how we can work with the world. Ecological and ecosystem concepts should be an
integral part of decision making.
(vi) Sustainable development occurs within a dynamic and evolving set of interlocking
systems; ecosystems and economic and social systems. These systems coevolve to fill
niches, thus changing dynamically over time. The world and human response to it
(typically which are evolving technologies and belief systems) are not in a static
equilibrium. Change is the norm, not exception.
(vii) Thinking about sustainable development requires an interdisciplinary approach to
addressing environmental and human problems on the earth. No discipline can provide
the particular perspectives, experience, expertise and tools to address the wide range of
challenges in moving toward a sustainable future.
8.6 Features of Sustainable Technology
The application of technology has been the central means of greater human productivity and
consequently increases in standards of living. We need new technologies, from materials to
processes, that we have not even dreamed of yet. Technology focused on sustainable development is
a key to solving problems created in the past and to preventing new ones in the future.
Sustainable technology focuses on pollution prevention and clean technology : Pollution
prevention minwizes undesirable effluents, emissions and wastes from products and process that
obviate the need for treatment and control.
A preventive approach includes using fewer or nonpolluting materials, designing processes
that minimize waste products and pollutants and directing the later to other useful purposes, and
creating recyclable products. Clean technology uses less fuel or alternative fuels to produce energy
and generates little or no waste for Industry, agriculture and transportation.
The Role Government
The role of the government in developing and adopting technology for sustainable
development will be crucial. There is an opportunity to implement policies to stimulate, investment
in new environmentally beneficial technologies and to encourage phasing out of outmoded capital
equipment. Three essential recommendations worthy of consideration relate to regulations effecting
technology, incentives and government-private sector cooperation. Regulatory requirements, thus
can produce innovative solutions to environmental problems, such as the labelling of major
appliances for energy efficiency. Product labelling can increase public understanding and may direct
market forces towards more environmentally benign technologies and products.
8.7 Sustainable Technologies
Deletion of natural resources and environmental damages are continuously overlooked until
pollution and other dangers threaten human health and until native species and eco-systems begin
to disappear. To reverse the ever increasing wastage and toxicity require environmentally sound,
economically feasible and new sustainable technologies. Shifting government policies, embracing a
 91

new ethics of environmentally responsible behaviour will bring a higher quality of life, a healthier
environment and a more vibrant economy for all. '
Selected Sustainable Technologies
(i) Energy
(a) Fossil-Fuel Energy: Integrated combined cycle gasification (ICCG).
(b) Nuclear: fusion power. New reactor designs such as modular high temperature gas-cooled
reactors, liquid metal-cooled reactors, advanced pressurized water reactors etc.
(c) Advanced and Renewable Energy: Photovoltaic, Solar Thermalelectricity, Bio-mass,
Geothermal, Wind energy, Hydro-electricity.
(d) Energy Storage and Application: Batteries, Superconductors, Heat storage, Fuel cells etc.
(ii) Industrial Technologies
(a) Improved Plant Operations
Environmental Audits
Regular Preventive Maintenance
Proper Materials Handling and Storage
Employee Training
In-process Recycling
(b) Process Modification
Process Variable Controls
Improved Cleaning Processes
Chemical Catalysts
Materials and Product Substitution .
Material Separation : Supercritical Extraction, Membrances, Ultrafiltration, Electrodialysis,
Reverse Osmosis, Adsorption Separation operation Precision Fabrication Agricultural
Biotechnologies.
(c) Transportation : Electric and hydrogen vehicle, advanced engine designs, ceramic
engine, improved electronic controls and continuously variable transmission.
8.8 Summary
To conclude, it is important to realize that "sustainability" from the standpoint of either the
availability of natural resources to meet the need of the world's population in an equitable manner or
from the standpoint of environment a protection is really two sides of the same coin, i.e., an integral
part of the solution to both involves finding ways to limit per capita natural resource consumption in
both developed and developing nations and ways to substitute renewable resources and 'waste
products'.
8.9 Modal Question
Explain the concept and significance of Sustainable Development.
8.10 Glossary
Sustainability — The ability/condition to be maintained at a certain level.
 92

Win-Win Situation — Where are participants/aspects get benefitted.

Supercritical — Above a critical threshold
Ultrafilteration — Filteration using a melium fine enough to retain colloidalparticles,
Viruses or large molecules.
8.11 Further Readings
◙ United Nations, World Summit for Social Development, New York, Aug.. 1991.
◙ Simon Dietz & others, Handbook of Sustainable Dev.,Google Book, 2007.
◙ Sonbbotina, T.P., Beyond Economic Growth - An introductionto Sustainable
Development, World Bank, 2004.

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Lesson-9

DEVELOPMENT ADMINISTRATION :
CONCEPT AND SIGNIFICANCE

STRUCTURE
9.0 Objectives
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Concept and Significance of Development Administration
9.3 Basic features of Development Administration
9.3.2 High Degree of Functional and Structural Differentiation.
9.3.3 Highly Specialized and Motivated Personnel.
9.3.4 Development Management.
9.3.5 People's Involvement and Participation
9.3.6 Effective linkages with Environment.
9.4 Summary
9.5 Suggested Readings
9.6 Model Question
9.7 Glossary
9.0 Objectives
After reading this lesson, you should be able to :
• Explain the concept and significance of Development Administration
• List and explain the basic features of Development Administration.
9.1 Introduction
In the previous lessons we discussed the concept of ‘development’ and ‘sustainable’
development. In this one we’ll try to cover the concept and features of ‘Developmetn Administration’
Infact the concept of development administration originated after the second world war and with the
emergence of new countries in the port-colonial era. It was felt that the traditional public
administration was not suitable to tackle the problems of underdevelopment of these countries of
Asia, Africa and Latin America. The traditional administration being mostly a regulatorytype of
administration lacked the capability and orientation to carry out new goals of development.
9.2 Concept and Significance of Development Administration
Development is a dynamic concept. Earlier it was interpreted in the context of individualism.
It meant free enterprise and economic growth in terms of increase in national income and per capita
income. Thanks to the increasing assertion of those suffering from poverty or injustice, the growing
stress on humanism by the recent thinkers and the technological revolution, its meaning has been
broadened very substantially. Its economic aspect today means according to U.N. document :-
(a) Besides accelerated economic growth, a more equitable distribution of wealth income.
 94

(b) Full utilisation of manpower and better utilisation of national resources.

Besides it has a social aspect. Social Development implies :
(a) Social services being made available to all sections of people.
(b) Social welfare services being made available specially to the needy sections of people-
women, children, handicapped etc.
(c) Protection of human environment.
In short, development is "a process of economic and social change from a traditional to a
modern society*.
Administration means implementation of public policies and laws as well as providing advice
and information to policy-makers. Development Administration means administration whose
primary focus is to implement policies and laws concerning development and whose secondary
function is to give advice to policy-makers. Development Administration has been growing in
dimension and complexity very rapidly in the post-war period. This is due to the trend away from
individualism to collectivism which means that state is intervening increasingly with a view to bring
about more accelerated social and economic development in order to deal more effectively with the
problem of the improvement of the quality of life of all section of the people, specially the poor and
lower middle classes. With the bigger and bigger state intervention, the administration has many
more policies and laws to implement than before. It has been very aptly remarked "Development
Administration deals with the governmental administrative capacity which is necessary for assisting
in the formulation of development policies and for carrying out development policies, programme and
projects."
Political and constitutional safeguard have, however, to be adequately provided so that state's
administrative capability for performing more and more developmental functions, does not result in
any administrative tyranies for the citizens.
Administrative capability needs to be improved alongwith political capability to deal with the
challenges of development. By administrative capability we mean its efficiency and effectiveness. By
efficiency is meant the ratio of output to input while by effectiveness is meant the degree of objective-
achievement or target fulfillment. Moreover, administrative capability is also to be judged from the
nature of ultimate effect of administrative performance.
Let us examine the characteristics of a good administrative system which would have the
capability to perform development functions efficiently, effectively and with intended social impact. It
needs to be mentioned that an administrative system comprises an interacting network of many
diverse organizations : each organization itself has an interacting net-work of several components or
units or organs. What we have to mention about the system would also be true in many ways about
a single organization.
9.32 Basic Features of Development Administration
Basic features of efficient and effective Development Administration are :
3.2.1 Effective linkages with environment.
3.2.2 High degree of functional and Structural differentiation.
3.2.3 Highly specialized and motivated personnel.
3.2.4 Development management.
3.2.5 Peoples' involvement and participation.
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9.3.1 Linkages
An administrative system of a particular organization within it should have the capacity to
adapt itself to changing general or contextual environment and to develop meaningful relations with
its task environment which comprises other systems or organizations with which it has input-output
relations or transactions. Administrative capability thus means the flexibility of the system
(organization) to adjust to both types of environment, which, may at times, be characterised by
uncertainties on account of "rapid changes, often of a turbulent nature". Leadership in a system or
organization should understand the environment very well and should have the authority to
manipulate the organization, in such a way that it begins to adjust to the changing environment in
order to gain support for its activities, or at least to neutralist the disturbing effects of a turbulent
and uncertain environment.
There are four types of linkages :
(a) Enabling linkages with organizations responsible for the supervision or control of the
allocation of authority and resources which are necessary to the functioning of an
organization.
(b) Functional linkages with organizations performing complementary functions and service,
including those supplying the institutions with inputs and those using it outputs.
(c) Normative linkages with organizations which incorporate objectives norms and values
relevant to the institution's doctrine and programme.
(d) Diffused linkages with elements in the system which are not a part of a format
organization—(i.e., broad or contextual environment).
The standard of performance of the administrative organization depends partly upon the
quality of these linkages. A good development organization should have strong and meaningful
linkages of all these types.
9.3.2 High-Degree of Functional and Structural Differentiation and Integration
Since the developmental functions to be performed tend to be more and more diverse and
complex, within the development administrative system as a whole as well as within each
organization comprising it, a high degree of division of labour or differentiation takes place to
attempt to cope with such functions efficiently and effectively. This trend is further accentuated by
use of modern technologies. .
By functional differentiation is meant the increasing classification of functions into specialized
types and splitting up some comprehensive functions into specialised sub-type. This process of
division of labour is accompanied by structural specialisation. Within the administrative system
there are strong trends for defining the objectives and functions more specifically than before, and
create additional organization with specific functions if need be by splitting up existing organizations
as well as by establishing new organizations. These new organizations may be of the old development
type or else of a new type, e.g. public corporation and company, commission board. The type of
organization would depend upon the specific functions to be performed. Generally speaking for
undertaking many types of economic and social functions, the existing departmental organization
may be modified and also public corporations and boards may be setup, as the need may arise.
Ordinarily, functional and structural differentiation would provide more expertise in copying
with development functions but this gain may be partially or wholly nullified if various organizations
whose number is even on the increase due to increasing developmental responsibilities, start
 96

functioning at cross purpose. In otherwords, lack of functional co-ordination or integration can

create confusion and disruption. Within an administrative system then there would be a need that
we should have in-built coordinating or integrating structures alongwith structural differentiation.
The integrating structure is not to' be at the top of the administrative system (Cabinet Secretariat for
instance) but there needs to be such a structure in every sector of development administration. The
top co-ordinating structure and the sectorial structures would have to be intimately linked. This
means that the standard of performance of a developmental system not on depends upon adequate
differentiation but also upon the nature of inter- organizational relations within the system.
What has been said above is also applicable to every development organization (be it a
development or public corporation/company or board/commission) which forms a component of the
administrative system. Within a development organization its objectives and functions are to be
defined dearly and specifically not only broadly but also for each part of it, e.g., divisions and
branches. As the need arises, the number of divisions and branches may be increased by the
combined process of splitting up some of the existing ones and creating new ones to handle new
functions or a specialized part of the old ones.
Here also there is a need to ensure that the increased number of divisions and'branches (i.e.
organs} do not function in a disparate or-cross purpose fashion, thereby retarding each other's
performance. The larger the number of organs, the greater the need for effective co-ordination or
integration. This means the suitable organs would be needed at the top and lower levels to bring
about co-ordination.
As an organization grows in size, functions and resources, a need arises for suitable,
decentralization on functions and authority within it. In other words, the process of differentiation
may mean larger decentralization. Centralization may contribute to efficiency and effectiveness of
functional performance provided, again, level of authority does not come in conflict within the other
level within an organization. Hence decentralization is to be viewed in terms of the continuous of
centralization-centralization so that differentiation is complied with co-ordination between different
levels.
In short, differentiation takes place both horizontally and vertically and has to be
supplemented by co-ordination also of both these types. Structural rearrangement would have to be re-
designed to take care of both the vertical and horizontal differentiation and co-ordination integration.
A good development organization, to repeat, is highly differentiated (and also decentralized) as well as
highly co-ordinated (or integrated).
9.3.4 Highly Specialised and Motivated Personnel
Public personnel may be classified into three main categories (a) Professional scientific,
technical and administrative managerial, (b) lower professional and technical, (c) general service staff
concerned with house-keeping and routine functions. In development administration the numerical
strength of professional, scientific technical and mangerial personnel goes up very substantially.
This category diversification takes place as new skills and abilities are needed to cope with issues
concerned with social and economic development. There is some tension even between the
professional and technical personnel and older established general or administrative personnel. Care
has to be taken that the tension does not become too aggravated but can be resolved amicably.
Besides the change in the structure of the personnel, there is always a need for recruiting
larger and larger numbers. If, there is a delay in procuring the larger personnel (especially the highly
qualified), development tempo would suffer in the country. In order to avoid delay in procuring
 97

adequately qualified human resource or personnel for developmental purpose, there is generally
some provision for manpower planning. In'other words and administrative unit or div'sion at the top
level as well as in various sections of administration is given the responsibility to make projections
for the personnel with specific qualifications needed over specific period and point of time. On the
basis of these projections the top administration is to take the decisions as to how to ensure that
such personnel is available from educational and training institutions adequately in time. The more
effective manpower planning and the implementation of manpower plans, the more the possibility of
improvement of administrative performance.
Again, the criteria and methods have to be suitably re-designed to cope with the changing
recruitment needs in terms of number and specialization. This process is, however, to be based upon
the primary principle of merit though at times it may be desirable to supplement it with a secondary
principle of social representativeness of the personnel to be recruited as far as possible. Behavioural
sciences and management science have been advancing in knowledge rapidly. They have provided
some useful clues and insights on the basis of which new recruitment methods and techniques can
be designed. In these words research in personnel field is possible and can facilitate the redesigning
of the existing recruitment methods and techniques. The administration of these techniques would
need the services of specialists. In order to ensure that recruitment goes as objectively as desirable,
the composition and integrity of the recruiting body (e.g. Public Service Commission) have an
important role to play.
Moreover, training arrangements, both Institutional and practical, have to be adequate and of
high standard. Not only the recruited personnel have to be given post-entry training but also periodic
training at appropriate stages or periods of their career in a development organization. The higher
level personnel would need a more sophisticated and well planned training than the middle level
while for lower level employees the training is to be adequately oriented to Its objectives to be clearly
spelled out and is also tailored according to the category and level of employees as well needs
adequate recourses and equipment.
In a country in which the educational system is not well developed there may also be need for
long-term training of those recruited for professional and technical personnel in order to make up for
the inadequacies of facilities for opportunities for learning professional and technical skills in the
educational Institutions. Thus some of training programmes may have to be formulated to
supplement the educational quaifications which a candidate may normally acquire but are not
adequate to make him fit for highly sophisticated position in the development administration.
A well-formulated training programme should include not only requisite knowledge and skills
but also the promotion of requisite attitudes among the public personnel for development. This
means that the personnel should be motivated to cultivate a strong devotion to national
development, a 'sense of mission in the development effort' and a deep understanding of the
importance and urgency of socio-economic modernization which would facilitate re-education and
ultimate elimination of poverty, ignorance and social misery. It has been very aptly remarked
'changes in attitude, orientation and motivation constitute an important area of training in public
administration'.
Though the cultivation of ethical values cannot be made an aim of a short term training
programme, it should find some place in medium-term training programmes and still more so in
long term training extending over a year or more. This has to be more informed and inspirational
than in the way of any formal sermonizing to the trainees..
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The institutional arrangements and methods of training are to be in accordance with the
objectives, needs and time factor. In order to provide a framework of reference for all aspects and
issues of training, it would be highly useful if a country develops a national policy for training.
Adequate motivation of employees who have been appropriately recruited and trained is no
less/one of the key factors in determining the standard of performance by public personnel.
Motivation depends upon two types of incentives material and non- material. Material incentives
include pay and other conditions of service, tenure and security of a career service promotion and
advancement, pension of retirement benefits and the like. It is not easy to find, adequate finances for
payment of reasonable salaries to the rapidly increasing number of public employees. There are
generally financial shortages in a developing country. In which there are many rival claims for
financial allocation for many developmental purposes. Moreover, the public, employees are generally
paid much better than persons in other occupations and professions. Despite the general
considerations a national. Pay policy should on the whole be satisfactory to the various classes of
employees and should be flexible enough to adjust in terms of long-term price fluctuations.
It is less difficult to devise a rational policy in regard to working hours, holidays, leave and
working conditions. Rules and regulations discipline and punishment could be made lees rigid and
more reasonable as well as easier to oe enforced. These should be adjusted within the conceptual
framework of a career public service. In other words, normally a public servant services should not
be terminated as he is expected to have entered a career rather than recruited for a short term. But
while avoiding arbitrativeness in discipline and punishment, too much leniency if adopted can result
in the accumulation of stagnation and irregulants in the administrative functioning.
The promotion or advancement can provide a big incentive for good performance. Promotion
so as to be useful in this respect should be based more upon merit and less on seniority. So far the
emphasis has been on the latter but in development administration it is not so much second-rate
and long administrative experience which is needed but general brightness, high-grounds skill and
achievement-orientation are needed more and more. Promotion on merit would, however, require
well-designed measures for fair appraisal of individual performance in terms of broad organizational
objectives and concrete targets to work entrusted to an employee.
Besides the material incentives, the non-material incentives such as formal appreciation of
work by giving non-financial awards are also important for promoting motivation. Gaining in prestige
among one's professional colleagues can also serve as a spur to an employee to do his best. Then
again mention of good work through media of communication (especially the focus) can provide an
incentive to an employee.
An incentive which is rather of recent origin but no less useful, is that there should be regular
institutional arrangements within administrative system as a whole and also in each of its
component organizations (departments) to provide for regular consultation between the employees
and management regarding conditions of service and working conditions. Besides consultation it
needs to provide for arbitration in case of disputes between the two sides.
If then development administration is to have scientific manpower planning an appropriate
recruitment system, a well-planned training progammes and a policy of providing appropriate
incentives for motivation of employees, then there is a need for an administrative division or
department for overall planning in this respect for public services (or, public personnel) in all sectors
of administration. This planning has to be followed by directives and overall control of
implementation of the policy by different sections of development department (an public
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organization) or within an individual department. Thus development administration generally has a

central personnel office or agency to undertake these responsibilities. This agency provides direction
and coordination to other personnel agencies situated in different organizations comprising the
administrative system.
9.3.5 Development Management
In simple words, management means getting things done through organization. In somewhat
more sophisticated terms management has been defined as "guiding human and physical resources
in dynamic organization units that attain their objectives to the satisfaction of those served and with
a high degree of morale and sense of attainment on the part of those rendering the service". Getting
things done through organized efforts is the essence of management.
Management comprises a number of processes decision-making in regard to policies and
programmes, directing and building the implementation of decisions, supervision and instructing the
personnel in regard to their respective role and functions and the way these should be performed,
motivating the personnel to put in efficient and effective performance co-ordinating and integrating
the performance of various individual employees and organisational units, monitoring the various
stages of performance and evaluating the results achieved in terms of the objectives, and tasks
prescribed and the resources allocated.
Public management or "administration which is concerned with the management of
governmental, policies and programmes is different in several ways from business management
which is concerned with decision-making by private individuals individually or collectively. Public
Administration functions in the context to the administration,, direct responsibility for ail its
decisions and actions to the political executive and legislature i.e. public accountability. On the
other hand, business administration functions in the context of market in which forces of demand
and supply operate.
We are concerned here with that part of public administration or management which relates
to social and economic development. On the whole development management is more complex than
general management relating to non-development affairs. Obviously, since development
administration comprises more diverse and complex organisation and the inter-organizational
relationships are also more complex than ordinarily in general administration. The management
processes though similar in both types of administration, assume more complexity in the case of the
former. For instance, decision-making in development administration (or a development
organization) may require more and precise information than ordinarily required in case of general
administration, information collection, processing and its use is. a bigger operation in development
administration than in genera! administration.
Most of the management processes and methodologies are similar in kind in both type of
administration-general and development. But their complexity and emphasis tends to differ in the
two administrations. Here we review some such differences.
(a) EMPHASIS ON HUMAN RELATIONS APPROACH
In development administration [here is more emphasis upon human relations approach to
supplement the formal approach than is the case ordinarily in genera! administration. Thanks to the
advances in research in Psychology and Sociology, today better knowledge is available about human
personafity, group dynamics or inter-personal relations This has contributed increasingly to the
development of human relations approach in administration or management. It is being recognized
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that for better management of a development organization this approach should increasingly
supplement fannal (or structural) approach to management.
In other words, motivation, attitudes behaviour, inter-personal and inter-group relations
receive more attention in a good development administration than in the past. This is because it is
not only sfcfs or abilities which matter in performance of development plans and programmes but
also the orientation and commitment to the development which play a significant role in such
performance. Moreover, there are likely to be more tensions and even conflicts between individual
groups when they belong to different disciplines, as in the case in a development organization.
Engineers, Scientists and Economists may not be able to reconcile their different viewpoints. Then
again there may be tension between general administrators and the specialists whose number tends
to be considerable in development administration. Thus human relations approach needs to be
adopted by development administrators and managers if these tensions and conflicts within the
organization are to be contained or resolved. Bigger use of human relationites teachniques is thus a
special feature of development administrations.
(b) EMPHASIS ON PARTICIPATIVE MANAGEMENT
Development requires an increasing scare of team-work within an organization. Ordinarily,
work is organized in hierarchical or vertical way and to a lesser extent in polyarchacial or horizontal
way. In other words, functions and authority are allocated in both ways in terms of superior
subordinate position (vertical) and in terms of units on equal footing (horizontal). But hierarchy not
conducive to team work in several cases. We find therefore that development laying more and more
emphasis upon polyarchy and participative management. The participative management is a very
comprehensive term. it means that txictions and authority are vested in a team rather than in
individuals. Each team comprises senior and junior administrators and specialists as well as a
number of those who are of equal rank. In this way, it is coteborative efforts and pooled wisdom (or
judgements) which are used to deal with developmental problems and issues.
An appropriate blend of hierarchical management and participative management (including
polyarchy) is thus a significant feature of development administration.
(c) EMPHASIS ON MODERN MANAGEMENT METHODOLOGY
Management methodology refers to the means adapted far getting things done through
organized efforts. It therefore, includes the techniques and arrangements as well as rules and
procedures. In recent years there have been many advances in technology and several of these have
their Influence and management methodology. In other words, In the field of development not only
various new technologies are being used for production and distribution of goods and services but
several of these are being adapted to serve the primary adjective of management i.e., efficient and
effective performance. Modern Management Technology (MMT) which constitute the essence of
management methodology today "is multidimensional and multidisciplinary in nature and has been
able to solve a large number of (management) problems of great complexity involving many
variables." This means that modern management technology has drawn upon several academic
disciplines for knowledge (economics, engineering, statistics, etc.) and has several dimensions. Its
utility has been proved in dealing with several complex problems created by more than one factor.
It is claimed by the advocates of modern management technology (methodology) that it is a
body of rational and analytical concepts and tools which can provide valuable aid to decision-makers
(and policy-makers) and decision implementers (administrator or managers). Although this
technology has general relevance to both types of administration, (general and development) its use
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is particularly valuable in the field of development administration concerned with problems of goods
and services. This means that the tools and techniques comprising this technology are especially
applicable to those fields of activities which can be quantified precisely or at least broadly.
The well known toole and techniques are :
(i) Cast Benefit Analysis
(ii) Operations Research
(iii) Management Information System
(iv) System Analysis and Planning, Programming and Budgeting System (PPBS)
(v) Input-Output Analysis
(vi) Critical Path Method (CPM) and Programme Evolution and Review, Technique (PERT)
(vii) Electronic Data Processing (EDP) and Computers
(viii) Projection and Forecasting Techniques
(ix) Management Audit
(x) Inventory Central
(xi) Quality Central.
It needs to be mentioned here that there is no best method for management. It has been aptly
painted out that "how a task should be organized and what management techniques should be used
depend on the nature of task, the men and women who are to undertake it and the availability of
necessary resources, as well as the general environment in the country". There is however no doubt
that modern management technology being based on science and reason, is very useful in dealing
with complex management problems. But in the context of this generalization of decision has to be
taken as to what technique is suitable in specific problems in specific situations.
9.3.6 People's Involvement and Participation
The growth of Development Administration increases continuously the scale, scope and
intensity of independence between the administration and the people. The two come into contact
more frequently and intensely. The purpose of this contact or independence is to increase the
general welfare of the people. This can be achieved if there is a good understanding of each about the
other, resulting in constructive Co-operation which would accelerate development.
An American scholar has pointed out that for achieving a better understanding and
purposeful cooperation between the two, administration and people contacts should be organized in
an effective way. In other words, involvement and participation of the people in administrative
activities aiming at some form or the other of development should be meaningful. The following steps
are according to him, useful in this connection :- .
(a) Administrative, contacts with the people should be extensive and continuous and
penetrate to those sectors of the population, most traditional, most probably alienated
and most vital for success of developmental goals.
(b) The administrative contacts should be relevant and lead to greater information and
knowledge, instrumental and substantive about governmental programmes, policies,
plans and goals.
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(c) Administrative contacts should inspire confidence on the part of the public in the
integrity, efficiency, fairness and humanness of administration.,
(d) Administrative contacts should tend to motivate the individual to action and
achievement in the field of development.
(e) Administrative contacts should tend to strengthen the support of increasing number of
persons for governmental programmes and projects of development.
This implies that Development Administrators or specialists should make deliberate and
continuous efforts for the involvement of the people in development programmes by contact with
them in the above mentioned manner a purpose. In other words, their attention is not only to be
confined to operation within the organization but is also to extend to the people outside whose
understanding and support needs to be won if development programmes and projects are to succeed
in an efficient and effective manner.
Several thinkers are of the view that besides people's involvement there should be an
increasing extent of people's participation in development processes for the success of development
programmes. India's five year plans have also laid stress on people's participation in development.
What then is participation ? Some define it "as active participation in the decision making process".
Others think that it means people should take part in administrative operations. There are still
others who interpret it giving opportunity to people to comment freely on the merits of a development
programme and the strategies adopted for its implementation, thereby influencing their modification
or improvement for wider acceptance. It means giving opportunity to people or section of them to
critically examine a development programme and its implementation so as to express their views
about is relevance and utility.
The extent of participation has to be within a few constraints. First, it should not disturb or
disrupt the normal administrative responsibility for decision and operations. Second, it should not
disturb the representative character of governmental system by diluting the responsibility of an
elected representative to critically examine and discuss administrative decisions and operations
undertaken in the field of development. Third, the nature of development progamme itself is
important. If it requires good education among the people to understand its various aspects and
implications then the level of actual education among them would determine the quality and extent
of participation. In other words, participation of half literate persons in highly sophisticated
programme of development would only cause disturbance to programme implementation.
What is needed is selective participation. This is possible if there are opportunities for people
to select committees which can be associated broadly with programme implementation and even in
the formulation of a programme in some cases. This would create a better understanding of a
programme among the general body of people and may also mean improvement in the structure and
implementation of development programme or project. Better understanding of a programme may
mean that people may be less unwilling to accept new productive skill propagated for use among
them by such a programme or else may be more willing to try new ideas and ways in their everyday
life and activity.
Thus a basic feature of development administration is that gulf between the administration
and people should be reduced and that bridges of mutual understanding, co-operation and
adjustment should be built between the two in the interest of maintaining and accelerating the
tempo of social and economic development.
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Self Assessement Exercise

1. What is the basic difference between ‘traditional’ and ‘development’ administration ?

2. Write any three basic features of ‘development administration’.

9.4 Summary
In this lesson we have examined the nature and significance of development administration.
We have noted that ‘development administration’ carries specific features which makes it different
from the traditional public administration. As noted, the development administration is goal
oriented and action oriented administraton rather than a mere regulatory type of administration.
Under the development administration the form in on multifarious development and also to uplift
the administrative capability to effectively carry out the specific tasks for faster growth and
development. The emphasis here is on a changed orientation of public administration with high
degree of functional and structural differentiation, development management, form on objectives
and targets, capacity building, people’s participation, effective environmental linkages and so on.
9.5 Further Readings
1) Maheswari. S. R. Public Administration in India: An Introduction, Macmillan India Limited,
Delhi, (Chapter 22), 2000.
2) Bhattacharya, Mohit New Horizons of Public Administration, Jawahar Publishers and
Distributors, New Delhi, (Chapter XVII), 2001.
3) Fred Riggs, “The Idea of Development Administration in Weidner Development
Administration in Asia, Duke Univ., 1970.
4) UN Publications : Development Administration: Current Approaches and Trends in
Public Administration, U.N. , New York, E. 76/21.
5) Sahib Singh and Swinder Singh – Development Admnistration in India, New Academic,
Jalandhar, 2016.
9.6 Model Questions
Define ‘Development Administration’ . Discuss its significance and main features.
9.7 Glossary
Linkages — The state of being linked to …..
Goal Orientation — forms on objectives and targets rather than on routine.
Cost-benefit Analysis — A relation between cost of a project and the value derived.
PERT/CPM — Techniques for scheduling & Controlling projects
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Administrative Capability — The strength and capacity of administration to carry out

given tasks.
Suggested Answers to SAE Questions
1. Under traditional administration it is merely routine and regulatory admn. whereas under
development admn. the focus is on effectively achieving development goals.
2. Goal orientation, capacity building; structural and functional differentiation
(specialization), people’s participation, environmental linkages.

^^^^^^
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Lesson - 10

ADMINISTRATIVE CAPABILITY
AND DEVELOPMENT ADMINISTRATION

STRUCTURE
10.0 Objectives
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Administrative Capability in Development Administration
(a) Performance is primary
(b) Structure
(c) Environment
10.3 Measuring Administrative Capability
10.4 Obstacles In the way of Administrative Capability
10.5 Suggestions to Improve Administrative Capability
10.6 Integrity in Administration
10.7 Meaning of Integrity
10.8 Causes of the decline of Integrity in Administration
10.9 Existing Legal Framework to check corruption
10.10 Summary
10.11 Suggested Readings
10.12 Modal Question
10.0 Objectives
After reading this lesson, you should be able to :
• Explain the Concept of Administrative Capability
• Understand the obstacles In the way of Administrative Capability and give Suggestions to
Improvement.
• Describe Integrity in Administration.
• Give carries of the Describe of Integrity and existing legal framework of check corruption.
10.1 Introduction
Edward Weidner, an eminent advocate of development administration* defined administrative
capability as an action-oriented, goal oriented administrative system it also, means the process of
guiding an organization toward the achievement of progressive political, economic, and social
objectives that are authoritatively determined in one manner or another. According to Weidner,
development administration is the process of guiding an organization toward the achievement of
development objectives. How far these' objectives are achieved depends upon administrative
capability, integrity and responsiveness of the administrative system. Prof B S Khanna also
 106

considers development administration as an administration geared to the tasks of economic, social

and political development which has been induced by an increasing tempo, momentum and diversity
emanating from the elite and groups of people". Jose Abueva sees development administration as
administration of development progmmmes in the economic, social and political spheres including
programmes for improving the organization management of the bureaucracy as a major instrument
for national development.* In this lesson we are concerned with the improvement of organization and
management (structure, personnel, administrative procedures, etc. i.e., administrative capability).
Development Administration has two aspects, development of administration and
administration of development. By development of administration is meant improvement of the
administrative capability for development administration, capability being "the capacity to obtain
intended results through organization". The administrative brake on development is universally
recognized. During the past more than two decades, several countries whose administrative
capacity must be judged high by any criteria, have instigated comprehens reviews of their
machinery of government, public enterprises arid private sector performance and announced
plans for structural overhaul end rapid expansion man gement and training.
Administrative capacity cannot be taken for granted. It does not arise response to needs.
Necessity is not always the mother of Administrative inventions. A society has to work; hard for
Administrative competence. Fortunately, organizing genius occurs in the most unlikely places under
the most unpromising circumstances and is not dependent on education or experience.
Administrative ability differs markedly between individuals some having a natural instinctive flair,
others never able to grasp the rudiments of Administration too, there seem to have been marked
differences in administrative capacity between societies.
10.2 Administrative Capability in Development Administration
Administrative capability is an increasingly important element though often neglected in
economic and social development. It enters the process of formulating activating, evaluation and re-
adjusting of development plans both at the national and local levels. Problems of plan
implementation have led to deep concern over administrative incapability particularly in the public
sector. Hence national leaders, administrators, and technicians are increasingly, aware of the need
to spend time, money and resources on improvement in administrative capability which itself is a
scarce resource.
Administrative capability may refer to the management capability of government or of the
public sector as a whole, or to the administrative capability of specific organisations or sets of
organizations, or, to the administrative feasibility of specific development projects or programmes. In
reference to the public sector as a whole, administrative capacity means the ability of the
administrative arm of government to perform or achieve its objectives. Administrative capability for
development, therefore, is the ability to achieve development objects.
In its simplest terms 'administrative' capability is the capacity to get results through
organization. The capacity to do this naturally depends to a large degree on administrative capability
in single organization and in various sectors, networks and geographical areas of a country. Hence
administrative capability was'regarded as the capacity to obtain intended through organization,
taking into account the nature of the tasks set and arrangement made. Any attempt to appraise it
would be in tie nature of probability statements 'provided by information on estimates on future
performance in the light of strengths and weakness in an organization structure and the constraints
and opportunities, provided by its environment.
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(a) Performance is primary : It is necessary to know the kind of quantity and quality of
services provided, the costs of providing such outputs, the benefits and damages that flow
from providing them at this cost, also know how to change benefits-output cost relations,
both directly and by changing the structure or the environment.
(b) Structure consists of people and non-human resources as they are organised into
various sub-systems with certain kinds of internal relations among them and operating
under the influence of various codes and some kind of centra! guidance machinery. These
structural variables, in their environmental context, provide the organizational capability
for various kinds of performance.
(c) Environment conditions legitimise and provide or deny resources to organization and
large systems. Performance is vitally affected by relations with the environment and even
definition of the environment. The new rapid and turbulent change in our environment
presents a very great challenge to organization and they must adapt.
The obvious outcome is attention to details like the appraisal of goal attainment, organization
performance and environment relations.
Let us now discuss how administrative capability can be measured.
10.3 Measuring Administrative Capability
Administrative capability can be measured in terms of performances only. There are four
aspects of performance i.e. productivity, efficiency, effectiveness and profitability. In development
administration; administrative capability means the ability to mobilize inputs and increase their
productivity or efficiency. All - these can be measured in quantitative terms* In discussing
improvement of administrative capabilities. Eric Nordlinger suggested that different kinds of
performance' be distinguished efficiency, efficiency and innovation, to; to these is added the fourth,
i.e., efficacy, or achievement of outcome with respect to public needs. Efficiency relates to the
production of output with special attention to how the inputs are used Effectiveness relates to the
production of outputs which are intended to yield certain desired outcomes. Innovation can relate to
the whole process, but its key function is to get more outputs that achieve desired outcomes.
Efficacy deals with their achievement but in extra bureaucratic ways, especially involving inputs so
that the outputs of administration indeed 'match up'with public needs.
Performance in broad sense includes the following aspects :
(a) The acquisition of inputs by an organization or a system from its environment and the
costs involved.
(b) The ways in which the work is organized, the methods used and the cost's involved in
transforming inputs into output.
(c) The quantifying and quantifying of the output, which must be appraised in relation to the
goals and objectives of the system or organization.
(d) Various effects, both beneficial and harmful, of the output, as well as the use of the outputs.
(e) The side effects and ultimate outcome of the activities involved.
10.4 Obstacles In the way of Administrative Capability
The Central problem is the isolation and identification of factors or variables which enhance
or increase capability of administrative organizations to implement programmes. Some of these are
discussed below :-
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(a) Sometimes objectives of orgnnization are not clear. They can be unknown, undefined or
abstract. They can be ideal and beyond man's achievement. Again there may be
contradiction between policies and objectives. Administrative objectives may conflict
societal objectives. This' affects administrative capability.
(b) There is difficulty in evaluating the performance of an organization. The main problem is
how to determine quantitatively social cost and social benefit.
(c) Environmental effect of the working and functions of administratively complex
organization is very difficult to determine. Both the environments, i.e, task environment
and contextual environment affect performance and thus administrative capability.
(d) Sometimes structure of the organization is another drawback to good performance. There
is little doubt that bureaucratic organization develop it tendency towards, centralization
and rigidity and demand conformity from their members.
(e) Lack of effective management system is another problem. According to Luther Gulick, the,
true goals of management are to make the conduct of affairs technically sound, politically
responsible, publicly acceptable professionally approved and socially constructive. Tasks
of management which need attention are; Policy formulation, Decision making, Planning,
Coordination communication. Delegation, Supervision and Public Relations. Attention
must be paid to all of them.
(f) Administrative methods and procedures, collections of data, system of feed back, etc have
a bearing on administrative capability.
(g) Personnel working in the organizations are not properly recruited trained.
(h) Lack of integrity among the members of the staff.
(i) Lack of administrative leadership is another problem which hampers administrative
efficiency.
(j) Administration is not responsive to people's needs, aspirations and demands. As a result
there is lack of people's cooperation in development programmes. A affects performance, i.
e administrative capability.
(k) Lack of cordial citizen-administration relationship.
10.5 Suggestions to Improve Administrative Capability
Having identified the problems of administrative capability, let us now discuss some
important methods of improving administrative capability. These are :-
(a) Objectives of the organizations should be clear, definite and known. These should be well
within the physical capacity of the work to achieve.
(b) Constant evaluation of administrative performance and administrative implementation of
an organization is required.
(c) Social cost and social benefit be taken into account while evaluating overall performance.
This can be done by the latest sociological parameters of measurement and through cost
benefit analysis.
(d) Administrative structure should be streamlined and in tune with a number of factors
such as knowledge explosion, technological explosion, increased professionalism etc.
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(e) The use of management improvident, techniques should be encouraged. Management

Information System should be strengthened. PERT (programme Evaluation Review
Technique). CPM (Critical Path Method). Work Study etc. should be given attention too.
(f) This is an era of highly complex organizations. When the size of organizations grow due to
change in goals or objectives, they give list to certain problems, e.g. co-ordination, span of
control, unity of command, communication, delegation, etc. These problems will have to
be solved in quickest possible manner in order to improve the performance of
organization.
(g) Personnel administration has a direct bearing administrative capability. Therefore, there
is a need of streamlining personnel system. This depends upon proper recruitment
system, adequate training facilities, improved conditions of service and effective
motivation system. Democratic leadership, delegation, of powers and participative
management should be encouraged.
(h) Administrative leadership should be cultivated, developed, and strengthened. Crisis in
administration today is the crisis of leadership.
(i) Administrative integrity and professional ethics should be stressed upon. They have a
direct bearing on administrative capability.
(j) Citizen-Administration relationship should he given-proper attention. Grievances of the
people must be removed in time. In short, administrative development can be achieved
through improved administrative capability which as a system characteristic depends
upon whether there is any inbuilt mechanism within it to affect developmental goals.
Such an inbuilt mechanism is provided through the method of administrative reform,
carefully planned, institutionalized and implemented in a suitable ecological perspective.
The Indian experience, has amply demonstrated that reform measures, if properly
conceived with an indigenous perspective and with the consideration of the multitude of
factors which are involved in development, including individual motives institutionalized
code of conduct and social value patterns, are bound to enhance the system's
administrative capability. This would involve the availability of facilities and procedures to
perform the technically necessary developmental activities.
10.6 Integrity in Administration
One of the very important problems in a developing country is that of administrative integrity.
In a country like India political and administrative integrity is at a very low ebb. Generally, there are
complaints of wide-spread corruption and favouritism. Performance of development administration is
dependent on administrative integrity and capability of administrative system. In India the
government having in the field for disposal much more funds for developmental and other functions
than before. Some of the employees like to use part of these funds for their own selfish purposes.
Moreover, several employees stoop to acceptance of gratifications from the citizens either to expedite
their work which ordinarily get delayed due to arduous procedures of work or to enable them to by
pass some of the government, rules and regulations.
10.7 Meaning of Integrity
The dictionary defines 'integrity' as 'soundness of moral principle; the character of
uncorrupted virtue, uprightness, honesty, sincerity'. The First and Second Five Year Plans attached
the highest priority to integrity in administration.
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Deviation from moral standards or lack of integrity takes various shapes in the form of
corruption, patronage (based oh communalism, sectarianism, nepotism and favouritism, and undue
influence, bribery, misuse of power of influence, black-marketing, profiteering and similar other
malpraotioces commonly associated with administration, politics or business or industry are not all
that is meant by corruption. But lack of integrity includes all these things. In general terms, lack of
integrity means corruption, i.e., deliberate and Intentional exploitation of ones position, status, or
resourcea, directly or indirectly, for personal 'aggrandizement, whether it be in terms of material gain
or enhancement of power, prestige, or influence beyond what is legitimate or sanctioned by
commonly accepted norms to the detriment of the Interest of other persons or the community as a
whole.
Section 161 of the Indian Penal Code defines corruption in legal terms as under: -
"Whoever being or expecting to he a public servant, accepts or obtains, or agrees to accept, or
attempts to obtain from any person, for himself or for any other person, any gratification whatever,
other than legal remuneration, as motive or reward for doing or forbearing to do any official act or for
showing or forbearing to show, in the exercise of his official functions, favour or disfavour to any
person, or for rendering or attempting to reader any service or disservice to any person, with the
Central or any state Government or Parliament or the Legislature of an State, or with any local
authority, corporation or Government company referred to in Section 21, or with any public servant,
as such, shall be punished with imprisonment of either description for a term which may extend to
three years or with line, or with both.
10.8 Causes of the decline of Integrity in Administration
There are various causes of corruption which result in lack of integrity. These can be
discussed under the following headings :
(a) Historical causes : In India, corruption has its roots in the colonial rule of the past.
Earlier administration was not interested in the overall development of the country. All important
positions were filled in by British people and they were paid handsomely. Lower posts were offered to
Indians. Salaries to those posts were very low. So this resulted in corrupt practices.
After World War-ll scarcities led to many types of controls. It gave added opportunities to
these low paid employees to resort to corrupt practices. Then it became habitual. It was during
World War-ll that corruption reached the highest mark in India. The climate for Integrity which had
been rendered unhealthy by war time controls and scarcities was further aggravated by the post war
flush of money and the consequent inflation.
(b) Environmental causes : The second important cause of corruption in public service is
the environment of fast urbanization and industrialization where material possessions, position and
economic power determined the status and prestige or a person in the society. Since salaries are low
and inflation is unabated, poor civil servants in order to keep status in the, society, fall easy prey to
corrupt practices.
(c) Economic causes : Inadequate remuneration of salary scales and rising costs of living
is probably one of the important causes of corruption. In recent years the fast rising cost of living
has brought down the real income of various sections of the community, particulatly the salaried
classes. Though this cannot be pleaded in extenuation of the fall in the standard or integrity, the fact
remains that economic necessity has encouraged those who had the opportunities to succumb to
temptations.
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(d) Lack of strong public opinion against the evil of corruption : People do not report
to government against corrupt officials. Instead they offer bribes to get their illegitimate claims
accepted. If donors are there beggars cannot be eliminated. People must take up cudgels against
corruption and build strong, public opinion against corruption.
(e) Complicated and cumbersome procedures and working of government offices : It
is alleged that the working of certain government department, e.g., the Customs and Central Excise,
Imports and Exports, Railways, Supplies and Disposals, Police, Income Tax, etc., is complicated
cumbersome and dilatory. This has encouraged the growth of dishonest practices like the system of
'speed money'.
(f) Inadequate laws to deal with corruption : Indian Penal Code and other laws which
deal with, corruption cases, are outmoded and provide insufficient penalties. It takes too much time
to get a corrupt official punished under the laws. Summary trials and stricter punishments, should
be awarded to end corruption. So laws will have to be changed accordingly.
(g) Protection given to the public services in India : Article 311 of the Indian
Constitution which provides protection to civil servants as interpreted by our Courts made it difficult
to deal effectively with corrupt public servants. Reluctance of higher officials to take disciplinary
action against corrupt officials due to their collusion has further aggravated the situation.
(h) Collusion of commercial and industrial magnates and order to serve their
individual interest : Big dishonest merchants suppliers and contractors, grease the palms of civil
servants in order to get undue favours from them. Sometimes they share a portion of their ill-earned
profit with the government servants.
(i) Pressure groups : Pressure groups like Indian Chamber of Commerce, Trade
Associations, State, Chambers of Commerce are said to help in breeding corruption through their
activities of getting favours for their communities. They influence ruling elite through dinners,
parties, luncheons, etc.
Punjab Administrative Reform Commission (1965), had mentioned the following as
causes of corruption :
1. Lack of proper education and training of civil servants.
2. Low Salaries.
3. Inadequate and inefficient supervision.
4. Political patronage of officials.
5. Involved procedures.
6. Collection of funds through officials.
7. Opportunities provided for corruption to the officials by the present system of controls,
permits and licenses and multiplicity of inspectors and taxes.
8. Poor public opinion.
9. Political or personal contacts giving immunity to corrupt officials.
10. High cost of living and the desire of officials to raise their standards of living beyond their
means.
11. Lack of example from above.
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12. Unwillingness of the people to complain against corrupt officials because or lack or
education and lack of genuine desire on the part of better placed people to eliminate
corruption.
13. Ineffective action against corrupt officials.
14. Double standards of conduct, one for the officials and the other to the politicians.
15. The tortuous and costly judicial procedure.
10.9 Existing Legal Framework to check corruption :
1. Prevention of Corruption Act, 1947.
2. Section 161 of Indian Penal Code.
3. Civil Servant Conduct Rules.
4. Central Vigilance Commission.
5. State Vigilance Commission.
6. Special Police Establishment.
7. Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI).
8. Lok Ayukata in some states.
9. Lok Pal
The fourth state in the country to sot up the institution of Lok Pal after karnataka, Uttar
Pradesh and Himachal Pradesh was Punjab where the first Lok Pal was appointed on 1st October,
1995.
But these measure have by and large proved abortive and corruption is increasing day-by-
day. Lack of effective public opinion and education and training are the real cause of corruption.
Though the problem of improving administrative integrity is receiving increasing attention
now, it would need more energetic and comprehensive action to deal with effectively. Economic
measures to improve the general lot of the employees, enforcement of professional code of ethics by
the staff association and the propagation of new social values by the intellectual elite are needed
increasingly to supplement the legal and administrative measures to raise the ethical standards
within the Indian administration.
The Santhaman Committee which was appointed in June 1962, to review existing
instruments for combating corruption and to advise practical measures to make anti-corruption
measures more effective, submitted its report on 31st March, 1964. Some of the important
suggestions of the Committee were that Art. 311 of the Constitution should be amended so as to
make the judicial process in corruption cases easy and speedy; that there should be Central
Vigilance Commission with autonomous powers, and that the Government Servants Conduct Rules
should be amended restricting the employment retired government servants by private businessmen.
The Committee also suggested certain amendments in the Defense of India Bill, 1962. But inquiring
into cases involving Ministers of the Governments was not included within the mandate of the
committee. This was a major lacuna which was left in its terms of reference.
On 1st August 1995, the 12-page Vohra Committee Report was\ presented to Parliament. The
five member committee headed by the then Union Home Secretary, Mr. N.N. Vohra was setup on 9
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July, 1993 through a government order to take stock of the available information about the activities
of the crime syndicates which had developed links with government functionaries and politicians.
The Vohra panel had pointed out that growing nexus between crime syndicates, bureaucrats
and politicians in the country. It said: "The crime syndicates have acquired substantial financial and
muscle power and social respectability and have successfully corrupted the government machinery
at all levels. The network of the Mafia was virtually running a parallel government, pushing the state
apparatus into irrelevance. This refers to underworld operation in Maharashtra especially in
Bombay. But what is true of Bombay, is also true of many important cities and town in other parts
of the country." To quote again: "In certain states like Bihar, Haryana and Uttar Pradesh, these
(criminal) gangs enjoy the patronage of local level politicians cutting across party lines and also the
protection of the government functionaries. Some political leaders become the leaders of these gangs
and over the years get themselves elected to local bodies, assemblies and Parliament.
The Administrative Reforms Commission of India, in its interim report recommended to the
Central Government setting up an institution of Lok Pal and Lok Ayukts on the pattern of
Parliamentary Commissioners in the New Zealand and England for redress of public grievances. Lok
Pal was intended to deal with complaints against administrative acts of ministers, Secretaries to
Government at the Central and State level. Lok Ayukts in state and at Centre for dealing with
complaints against administrative acts of specified top officials, As a result in there of a Bill was
itroduced in Lok Sabha in 1968. Lok Sabha passed it but it could not be piloted through Rajya
Sabha as Parliament was dissolved in 1969. Bill was again introduced in 1971 but it met the saine
fate. Lok Ayukts had however, been set up in Maharasghtra, Rajasthan. Bihar and Orissa.
10.10 Summary
Scholars, administrators and politicians agree that one important factor in regard to shortfalls
in the implementation of the development plans is the inadequacy of administrative capability and
integrity in 1966, Government of India set up a high level Administrative Reforms Commission to
look into the various aspects of the administrative system and suggest ways and means to bring
about substantial improvements in the administrative capability and integrity. The Commission
laboured for 4-5 years and submitted 20 reports to the government, each dealing with the critical
examination of an aspect of administration and suggesting ways and means to remove the
deficiencies and to enhance administrative capability and integrity. Some of the relevant
recommendations of the Commission on organizational structure, the personnel, the process and the
procedures are the following.
1. A more rational distribution of work among the departments and ministries as well as
among the executive agencies attached to them.
2. Strengthening and extending the existing arrangements for co-ordination within the
increasing and rapidly growing, administrative agencies which comprise the
administrative system at the federal level and similarly, at the state level.
3. Reduction in the number of administrative agencies and their personnel by a rigorous
rationalisation of administrative functions and operations.
4. Strengthening the top policy making level within the administrative system by
reorganising the cabinet as well as by strengthening the staff agency within a department
so that the minister and the departmental secretary can get equate assistance for policy
making.
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5. Integration of field agencies with secretariat department in order to avoid delays by

cutting down the duplication of administrative work.
6. Reducing the hierarchical levels for the consideration of an administrative proposal or a
case in a government department so that unnecessary delays and expenditure can be cut
down.
7. Delegating administrative authority within the department for speedier disposal of work.
8. Improving personnel management through more effective recruitment, employee
development, programmes, 'interchangeability of personnel at the higher levels,
improvement of promotional opportunities, rationalisation of pay structures and
scientific appraisal of the result achieved, by civil servants.
9. Fixation of definite responsibility for achieving results by, an agency and carefully
evaluating the actual performance.
10. Redress of citizens grievances by improving machinery as well as by the appointments of
new high level functionaries similar to Ombudsman to be called Lok Pal and Lok Ayukts.
Most of these recommendations had been accepted by the government and implemented. As a
result of these measures some improvements had been made in the Administrative capability and
integrity. '
10.11 Suggested Readings
1. Appraising Administrative Capability for Development, United Nations Public
Administration Division Publication, 1969.
2. Development Administration Current Approaches and Trends in Public Administration for
National Development-U.N Public Administration Division. Department of Economic &
Social Welfare, New York, 1975.
3. EUROPA, Ed. Nicholas Henry, Public Administration and Public Affairs, Englewood,
Prentice-Hall, 1976,
4. Aspects of the Evaluation of Public Administration - Experiences and Lessons by Prof.
S.S. Khanna, 1973.
5. Reports of Punjab Administrative Reforms Commissisn, 1966.
6. Reports of Administrative Reforms Commission, "Machinery of Government of India" and
'Procedures of Work', 'Personnel Administration' and "Citizens Grievances',
7. Santhanam Committee Report on 'Corruption'. 1964.
8. Coemparary Issues in Indian Administration by R. B. Jain.
10.12 Model Question
Define Administrative capability. Discuss its significance and measures to enhance it.

****
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Lesson - 11

ROLE OF BUREAUCRACY IN DEVELOPMENT

Structure
11.0 Objectives
11.1 Introduction
11.2 State Positivism
11.3 Bureaucracy-Responding to new Needs
11.4 Bureaucracy and Development Administration
11.5 Bureaucracy as an Instrument of Political Development
11.6 Bureaucracy and Economic Development
11.7 Bureaucracy, Modernization and Social Change
11.8 Role of Engineering, Supervising and Execution-internal Functioning
11.8.1 Role in Policy Making
11.8.2 Innovations within the Government
11.8.3 Bureaucracy as an Information Processing System
11.8.4 Role in Financial Matters
11.8.5 Role in Legislation
11.9 A Synoptic View of the Argument
11.10 Summary
11.11 Model Questions
11.12 Further Readings
11.13 Glossary
11.0 Objectives
After reading this lesson, you should be able to :
• Appreciate the significance of bureaucracy.
• Explain the role of Bureaucracy in Development
• highlight the impact of bureaucracy on policy making.
11.1 Introduction
Bureaucracy is a systematic organisation of tasks and individuals into a pattern, which can
most effective achieve the ends of collective effort. Bureaucracy has certain structural features like
rules, differentiation, etc. but from the purposive point of view, it can be regarded as an orgarzisation
that maxmises efficiency in administration or an institutionalised method or organised social
conduct in the interest of administrative efficiency. Today bureaucracy has to take an active part in
the multidimensional characteristics of development administration. An attempt is being made to
discuss the role of bureaucracy in regard to major societal systemic change and towards
transforming the entire society, enmeshing together its socio-politiced and economic aspects.
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The modern government can be differentiated from its predecessor with respect to the
development of its administrative machinery. No wonder, we hear much talk in the press, in
intellectual circles in the business world end even in the play fields about bureaucracy. The role that
bureaucracy performs today is one of the fundamental importance and it is highly desirable that
there should be a thorough discussion on the issue from all conceivable points of view, with more
insight and understanding. The first question which legitimately arises is What is bureaucracy? No
serious discussion of the role of bureaucracy is possible without referring to the celebrated German
thinker Max Weber whose writing originated the modern study of bureaucracy. Weber indentified
bureaucracy with the following distinct characteristics: first, the allocations as official duties of the
regular activities to fulfil the purpose of the organization: second, the distribution in un orderly and
stable manner of the authority required to discharge these duties and its strict delimitation by rules
concerning the means of enforcement available to officers: third, methodical provision for the regular
performance of these functions by qualified persons. Weber regarded -these three elements as
constituting bureaucratic authority in private enterprise. He further observed in all bureaucratic
structures the hierarchical principle, a reliance on written documents, files, records and the
apparatus of modern office management, the formulation of general rules or practices for
management of the office, these rules comprising techniques in which officers of both public and
private administration must be trained and in which they become expert.
11.2 State Positivism
A revolutionary change has come over the concept of the government and its true functions.
Today duties are not confined to the maintenance of law and order. Today civil service is not working
in a vaccum but forms a part of vibrant pilot insturment for the planning and achievement of well-
defined social objectives, Mr. Aridri Molitor says, "the administrator must keep abreast of
technological and scientific progress. He now, has to face entirely new problems which may be
connected with air transport, nuclear energy, exploration of the stratosphere or even more urgently
with social questions that have come in the wake of the industrial revolution of the nineteenth and
twentieth centuries. Today the problems of administration are not intellectual, but they call for very
high degree sophistication and lays more demands on character, integrity, human sympathy and
personality. Discussing the qualities needed in an administration.Sir Edward Bridges, the then
Permanent Secretary to the British Treasury said that they include much same qualities as are
called for in the academic world, namely the capacity and determination to study difficult subjects
intensively and extensively, with the same disinterested desire to find the truth at all costs, the same
willingness to the face the truth when it turns up in unexpected and what may be for practical
reasons inconvenient: M.A. Chaudhuri makes a very important observation when he says.
"Administration, calls for a capacity for sustained intellectual effort and inquiry, for collecting and
analysing weighing and presenting the facts and data that bear on a given problem or situation
forming intelligent judgement upon the facts and deciding on rational grounds between them; a
belief in the value of orderly reasoning and proceeding from it, the disposition and the courage to
face difficult problems with a sense of intellectual honesty and without evasion, capacity for
intelligent criticism coupled with that for appreciating it when it comes from outside and the power
to see what in the conditions of the moment is relatively permanent and what is transitory and
therefore to judge in what direction and within what limitations development could safely and wisely
be tried, and what essentials are to be maintained and what compromises can, be accepted.
Therefore, the civil servant today has to keep himself abreast of all the prevailing trends in social life,
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the capacity to see them against the proper background a sympathetic understanding of
contemporary tendencies and of the need and aspirations of men, the knowledge that can place facts
in their true relations. Higher civil servants must have a wide outlook, power and quickness in
comprehension, the gift of dealing with people, the readinees to take the initiative and to assume
responsibility."
11.3 Bureaucracy-Responding To New Needs
The coming decades are in no way going to be peaceful and the thrust of*political, economic
and social forces are likely to throw up new tensions and problems. In the new environment of
turbulence and relative uncertainty, we have to reorient and refashion bureaucracy so that it may
cope with the required environmental changes. In the journey involved in a country's progress from a
backward poverty-striken subsistence economy to that engaged in full-development of resources, the
technical postern, in which technical decisions are made must be held by men with specific and
general training and he rest of the administrative structure must rely upon these men for solutions
to specific problems- Again of late, there has been an erosion in the administrative structure and a
departure from Ihe nanow and straight path of rectitude to a subservience to vested interests.
Administration is an essenfal part of the total development process. There is the dilemma of rapid
and accelerating growth in technology. The increased scientific knowledge and specialization has
brought in its wake many problems which have direct impact on the administrative policies and
practices. While dealing with a new administrative challenge Douglas Esminger observed, "Another
need is for the administrative bureaucracy to accept fully, emotionally, as well as intellectually, the
importance of the technician in the administrative structure."
Bureaucracy in developing countries has undergone a good deal of change in response to the
new need. With the new focus of the state activity on the welfare of the people, the orientation and
the behaviour of the civil servant has to change. Lord Hewart said, "In the days of despotic kings the
method was to defy parliament and it has failed". In these days the method is to cajole, to coerce,
and to use parliament and it is strangely successful. The old despotism, which was defeated, offered
parliament a challenge. The new despotism, which is not yet defeated gives parliament an
anesthetic. The strategy is different but the goal is the same. It is to subordinate parliament to
evade the Courts and to render the will or the caprice of the executive imfertered and supreme.
However, the views suffer from factual error because civil servants no doubt enjoy extensive powers
but these powers are used only under the general supervision of the parliament. Laski said, both the
nature of his charge, and the evidence he produced in their support, were rather evidence of his
inability to understand the nature of the modern administrative process than of a deliberate attempt
on the part of civil servants to get power into their own hands.
Today civil servants have to play a crucial role not only in the field of political, economic and
social development but also in efficient runing of government as, well.
The environment in which bureaucracy has to work has been described and now let us
discuss the role of bureaucracy under the following heads.
a) Bureaucracy and Developmental Administration.
b) Bureaucracy as an Instrument at Political Development.
c) Bureaucracy and Economic Development.
d) Bureaucracy, Modernization and Social Change.
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e) Role in Energising, Supervising and Execution-Internal Functioning.

One of the primary characteristics of democratic administration is organised action. Prof.
Appleby has said that person in high position must have a sense of action. They must try to get
things done. The motto of the civil servant should be service at any cost, not power at any price. Due
to the increase of enterpreneurial activities of administration connected with development the
administer will have to play a more positive and dynamic role in order to enlarge peoples'
participation. The environmental changes call for a changed outlook.
11.4 Bureaucracy and Development Administration
To transform the society from its relatively under-developed social, cultural and political
condition to well-developed polity, the transformation must be a planned one in which, "It is the
business of government to be the principal planner, energiser, promoter and director of accelerated
development effort. "Joseph La Palombara gave a caution that the time has evidently come when
public officials are expected to sit on the developmental sidelines, limiting their roles to fixing of
general rules and providing certain basic services in the exciting game of fashioning profound
changes in economic and social system. The governmental organs have to provide incentive for social
change and also remove serious bottlenecks and correct imbalances, which effect the system. The
focus of bureaucracy has therefore to change from the preservation of law a'nd order to the
achievement of targets to accomplish most rapidly with least waste and least failures. To quote the
Fulton Committee Report Technological progress and the vast amount of new knowledge have made
a major impact on these tasks and on the process of taking decisions. Setting a new airport, buying
military supplies, striking the right balance between coal, gas, oil and nuclear powered electricity in
a new energy policy-all these problems compel civil servants to "use new techniques of analysis,
management and coordination which are beyond those not specialty trained in them."
Bureaucracy does not concern with all segments of society and is often confronted with
pressures and counter pressure and differing priorities conflicting tactics and a conglomeration of
demands. It has to function in social milieu and is acted upon by other social institutions, the
bureaucracy has to remove the public feeling of distrust initiate a process of political socialisation
and facilitate planning of strategies and identification of the people with the goals. The results
achieved so far have not been encouraging. Delay and cross references have tended to blunt
initiative and the result, according to J.P Lewis it is "A Jungle of unnecessary committees intelligent
and cautious generaiists administrator charged with deciding technical issues for which they do not
have ihe necessary specialised knowledge, defer to the collective wisdom of a committee of their
peers, most of them fully intelligent' cautious and ignorant of the matter at hand. The Committee
typically appoints a sub committee of the same sort, which typically convenes an advisory committee
likely to include number of distinguished industrialists and academicians. While the latter may be
generally coservant with the subject at hand, they seldom have the intrinsic knowledge of it." Giving
an account of India, Mr. B. G. Verghese in the The Times of India dated November 4,1965, gave an
indication as to what our bureaucracy looks like in the eyes of an independent observer "The audit
system the perambulating file, the proliferating hierarchy, the grossly inefficient budget year the
sacred cult of the general purpose administrator, the administrative denigration of the technocrat
and specialist, a theory of seniority that confuses age and 'experience' and efficiency, the
multiplication of rival cadres, the show, ritual formalities of procedure, attrition through sub
committee, centralisation Parkinson's disease, useless overlapping controls, form-filling.' delay,
indecision, quick turn round of personnel, lateral-promotions, the absence of sanctions for failure
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alias security and undue attachment to precedents all these are in need of a sea change. Public
opinion to must acquiesce in change and not regard initiatives involving departures from procedure
as irregularities. Indians must trust Indians." Thus if we want to steer clear of this state, we must
develop right type of personnel. A development administrator has to be active-motivated and
committed to development ideology and faith and should "more free less adhering to administrative
norms, less attached to importance of hierarchy and status. He being the captain of the team must
be a dynamic coordinator. He has to be analytical as a thinker, creative and dynamic as a goal
setter: pragmatic as a planner and innovative in many directions."
11.5 Bureaucracy as an Instrument of Political Development
This role varies according to state and its policies. In America, the traditional concept was
that the bureaucracy no political role, on the other hand, the former USSR bureaucracy and the
political party could hardly be differentiated in terms of political role. In European States,
bureaucracy had been explicitly regarded as a distinct wing of the government. For example, in
France bureaucracy has always exercised dominant political influence from the days of Napoleon
onwards. In Britain also, bureaucracy has been more or less recognised for its key and important
role in Government affairs. The country which has consistently striven to debureaucratise the state
is the People's of China. In recent years political role of bureaucracy has been highlighted.
Though the concept of political development itself is not very clear, but attempts have recently
'been made to critically examine the role of bureaucracy in political 4 development. The word
political is generally used to cannote bath partisan politics and policy making. Political development
is interpreted as a process of political instituti building and people's participation in it. It is by now
well established and accepted that bureaucracy is an important instrument of policy, in particular,
the bureaucracy as the expert career based system has the responsibility of anticipating the policy
needs of the country, develop the alternatives and evaluate them and suggest a generic cause of
action, or in other words; suggest a policy. Since bureaucracy is the only available instrument to the
state it becomes crucial arbiter in deciding who gets what, when and where. In the ultimate analysis,
the most decisive political role of bureaucracy? Pai Panandikar says: "The extent to which
bureaucracy can playa political role depends to a considerable extent on the nature of the policy
within which it operates. It could be more effective in a dictatorship or in the newly independent
nations. In any case the actual role it can play would depend on the internal strength and character
of the concerned bureaucracy. This cannot always be said and actual experience round the world
bath in democratic as well as other forms of politics demonstrates that the role is not entirely
autonornic."
Eisenetadt tells that all political systems are subjected to pattern of demands and that all of
them have some capacity to deal with increase in demands and organisation that may develop. In
reaction to demands alternatives are also available to authoritative structures in the sense that the
development of demands may be minimized, controlled or manipulated, or absorbed by responding
to them with government policies. A modern democratic system would be one in which there exists'
both a high degree of structural differentiation for dealing with demands as well as reasonable
correspondence between the level of demands and their substantive satisfaction.
1l.6 Bureaucracy and Economic Development
Increasing role of bureaucracy in economic development is the reflection of the dominant
economic rote of government inflow income countries. Double three sectors; developing societies
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have mixed economies with more or less dearly demarcated private and public sector, and there is
often also a third sector called a people's sector. Bureaucracy regulates all these sectors because
government in these sectors always plays an important role in the production and distribution of
goods and services. The role of bureaucracy in economic development can be generally discussed
within two contexts: (a) the ideology of nationalism and (b) the process of planning. Where the
economic base is riot stable, dysfunctional structural consequences are only natural. F.W. Riggs
says:, "Where the economy has not reached a sufficiently high level, a quasi salary mode of
organizing the bureaucracy brings about the mining of resources and the spread of the parasitical
class of sinecurists who reduce productivity and hence diminish range of free choice for their society,
thereby contributing to economic regression and political breakdown." Economic programmes
depend to large extent upon the adoption by government of appropriate administrative and
legislature actions both in the public and the private sectors.
It is also pointed out that the mixture of economic development and national development has
achieved neither economic growth nor political development. The negative role of bureaucracy or the
inadequacy of the bureaucratic set up to rise to the occasion cannot be easily ignored. The general
pattern of inadequacy lies according the Hagen in following practices :-
(a) Bureaucrats are hesitant of granting any permission within regulatory discretion to a
private enterprise. Underlying the practice is pervasive reluctance exercise discretion.
(b) Budgetary practice inherited from colonial days, often persist.
(c) Even more serious is frequent failure to construct any mechanism for coordinated
evaluation of government expenditure.
(d) A practice often harmful to growth is action to protect employment rather than foster
growth.
In the Indian context, Dube has observed, "The major symptoms of the malady are failure to
take decision at the appropriate level, passing the buck, roping in others decision-making, equivocal
recommendation anticipating what the boss wants, rationalization of failures, underplaying the
essentials and magnifying grandiose covering the failure of smaller Utopias and outright
sycophancy."
In the sphere of planning Hanson, Gaibraith and Hirchman have all called on development
planners to consider the role of bureaucracy. In order for a plan to be realistically implemented the
agency which makes the plan must meet three tests: (a) It must have the support of the government,
(b) it must allow all the leading decision-makers in the economy to participate in drawing up the
plan and (c) it must control crucial decision at the stage of implementation.
W. Arthur Lewis wants bureaucracy to play leading role in developing a plan which according
to him includes most of the following :-
1. A survey of current economic conditions, especially national income, productivity, foreign
trade and trends in each major industry.
2. A survey of current social situation, especially population changes education, health,
housing and social security.
3. An evaluation of progress achieved under the preceding plan.
4. A statement of general objective of economic and social policy.
5. Estimates of growth or targets, for each major economic area of the plan.
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6. Suggested measures designed to raise the rate of economic growth, especially measures
to stimulate saving and investment and to increase productivity and measures to
improve the institutional framework of economic activity, such as land reform or
reorganization of the markets for commodities, labour or capital.
7. A programme of government expenditures, capital and resources.
Unfortunately, because of various factors there have been more failures than successes in
implementation of development plans and bureaucracy must accept its share of the blame.
Joseph J. Spengler outlines three fairly distinct roles for bureaucracy in the field of economic:
development. First, it can help to establish and' strengthen the minimum legal and public service
preconditions economic development, namely, law and order and security in general, infra-structural
elements, money banking institutions and legal and administrative structure favourable to the
conduct of economic activities both domestic and foreign enterprise. Bureaucracy is both an element
in and a fomenter of elementary preconditions as well as a force serving to direct some of the existing
achievement motivation into channels favourable to economic growth. Second, the bureaucracy can,
by fixing, on certain general or specific output objectives, play an important role if not a major role in
so modifying the resource structure of a country, together with its exploitation, as to make it more
favourable to economic growth. Third, if private enterprise shows insufficient initiative in exploiting a
country's labour force and resources, equipment in ways deemed essential to the economic
development the bureaucracy may establish public corporations, or mixed public private
corporations alternative organizational firm's to supply the necessary initiative.
11.7 Bureaucracy, Modernization and Social Change
The test of a democratic and development administration is the extent to which it represents
the needs and valuses of the different sectors of society and acts as an instrument of social change.
Efficiency in administration may be desirable, but what is more important is the development of an
admininistrative culture, based on flexibility, freedom and change of traditional forms and
techniques when they are found unsuited and which recognizes public interest as the supreme end
of democratic government and adminiatration. In some of the developing countries, bureaucracy has
to bring about a social revolution of modernise a caste-ridden stratified society. Bureaucracy has to
act as a dynamic force which follows the will of the people as well as leads it. As Waldo puts it, it is a
"part of the cultural complex, and it is not only acted upon, but also acts. The burden of bringing
about planned social change is on the bureaucracy and if it fails, the dreadful alternative is violent
revolution".
In the social sector, modernization process must take into account the difficult task of
inculcation of rational values, building up dynamic group attitudes, creating and channelizing along
constructive lines new citizen-response to absorb change and accelerate its pace. Education in the
present day wrold does not end in the classroom. Apart form proper organization of and education
system bureaucracy has to plan to provide for an immense variety of instruction and healthy
entertainment and wide opportunity for cultivation of the spirit, the mind and the body, which is
necessary for a stable and contented social life and the maximum development of their personalities
by the citizens. Again civil service has to increasingly concern itself with the social conditions and
deal with policies relating to helpless and handicapped sections of the community like the
untouchables, women and children. To crown all, even the question of family planning falls within
its ambit.
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11.8 Role of Engineering, Supervising and Execution-internal Functioning

In any scheme for management, structural refabrication is indeed necessary but so are the
methods and procedures of work. Unless both are changed to suit the particular needs it is
impossible to move the machine towards the determined goal and achieve the desired level of
development. Some of the areas where bureaucracy plays an important role in administration are :
11.8.1 Role In Policy Making : The minister is not expected to know about the work of the
government in general nor the work of any technical nature. He is an amateur. Dowson says "A
parliament composed of butchers, bakers and candle stick makers, chooses some of its members
from the same motely occupations to supervise the important divisions of country's business. A
butcher becomes Minister of Militia a banker assumes control of the Finance Department, while the
candlestick maker supervises the erection of light house, the propagation on fish and the placing a
new gas plant on the St. Lawrence. In short the task of running of government is entrusted to
amateurs whose special knowledge, if it exists lies in quite different fields, it is .difficult to ima the
survival of a bank or railway whose president is chosen because of his knowledge of agriculture of
electricity but such irrelevant" qualifications govern the choice of Cabinet Minister". The Minister,
has to depend upon the permanent staff for, advice guidance to run the administration. That led
Ramsay to remark that bureaucracy thrives under the cloak of ministerial responsibility.
The senior civil servants participate both in the process of setting the goal of development
plan and also in formulating the strategy for attaining goals. In many instances, their "advisory role'
becomes a very important factor in the determmation of policies. Besides participation in making
policies the higher level bureaucracy is also involved in the traditional role of direction and execution
of policy. It is also the responsibility of the senior civil servants to interpret the policy set by
themselves and the political leaderships to the lower levels of bureaucracy to train the latter in the
methods to be adopted in order to achieve development goals.
11.8.2 Innovations within the Government : Innovation is a term of neutral meaning, to change
to something new, a change which may be otherwise prudent or neky. In general terms/innovation is
taken as a sign of progress, innovators are regarded as bold and energetic men disposed more to
experiment than to caution. Normally it has been seen that political and government system tend to
lay emphasis upon stability and continuity, preferring precedent to new departures in policy or
method, Normally government decisions are more often seen as opportunities to minimise risk than
to accelerate: change. Despite the barriers to innovation in political and governmental systems,
governments in the contemporary world are the objects of heavy demands for change, for innovation
both in their policies and in their working. In the governments where there is commitment to
development, there are greater pressures for innovation. The government must adapt the vocabulary
of innovation, having accepted the vocabulary, they are somewhat committed to the practice. Wallace
S. Sayre says, "the bureaucracy has a somewhat ambiguous role in the matter of innovation. Its
precepts and training emphasize its role as the guardian of continuity, stability, coordination,
prudence and precedent. These are qualities, which, however desirable otherwise cut across the gain
of innovation making the bureaucracy, more often a topper, than a sponsor of innovations. Yet the
bureaucracy because of its position in the government system has many opportunities to identify the
need for change, it has the knowledge and the skill to frame alternative modes of innovation and it
has superior strategic assets in pushing forward any proposal to which is committed. If the
bureaucracy ranks low among the main sources of innovation, then this fact is a consequence of its
code, of behaviour; not its lack of opportunity or capacity. The incentive systems of bureaucracies,
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rarely regard 'mavericks or innovators. Recognition and advancement tend rather to go to those who
conform most meticulously to the code of precedent, caution and coordination'.
In "A Handbook of Public Administration" : Current concept and practice with special
reference to Developing Countries, it is obseryed that Trained and competent persons are required to
deal with such difficult and highly specialized matters as economic and social fact finding and
analysis, financial management, bridge and dam construction industrial development,
administration of housing, social welfare health, education or agriculture. A career service based on
merit and fitness lies at the heart of modern public administration."
11.8.3 Bureaucracy as an Information Processing System: The integration of the separate
units of the system into a whole is organised in a well defined manner. Bureaucracy also act as an
information processing system, interacting on the one hand with the public or well defined sections
thereof and on other with the legislative system. A government that wants to mean business will
tend to seek the approval of the public, and a public that is aware of its position of power will seek to
influence legislature through its democratic institutions, political parties and pressure groups. In
order that this triangular system should remain in an equilibrium position that is beneficial to all,
the free flow of information, not only from the public to legislature but also from legislature to the
public and among the individual units of the public is essential. If this communication disrupts
there will be change in the equilibrium position to the benefit of a few. It is the greatest responsibility
of bureaucracy to foster greater understanding of these interactive dependencies at all levels of society.
H.C. Rieger discussing the mechanics of bureaucracy feels that as long as information input
from the client system varies within limits that are more or less precisely given by the construction
of the bureaucratic system's lower and lowest level machinery, the situation can be thought of as
closed loop control continuously adapting to and holding some well defined equilibrium position.
Thus from the view of units up the bureaucratic hierarchy, in effect, no change is taking place. It is
only when information inputs change, either quantitatively or qualitatively in a way that exceeds the
adjustive capacity of the control unit that recognization of the bureaucratic machinery becomes necessary.
11.8.4 Role in Financial Matters : The purse-string of the nation is possessed by the legislature
but preparation of budget is the responsibility of the Chief Executive with the assistance of the office
attached to him. The details of the income and expenditure through which money will be raised are
prepared by the Executive. Being more aware than the politicians about financial resources and
possible expenditure involved in development projects, the experienced civil servants are responsible
i.e., fixing the appropriation policies as well as in allocating funds for the implementation of plans
according to priorities.

Self Assessment Exercise

1. In what ways bureaucracy helps in policy making ?

2. In which major areas bureaucracy plays important role ?

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11.8.5 Role in Legislation : The term legislation in the narrow modem usage stands for the
enactment of rules of law by specialised state agencies comprising the representatives of the people.
In its wider sense legislation includes the rules of general application enacted by executive,
administrative or local authorities. Though in theory legislation is the exercise of powers of those
invested with legislative authority, in practice its form is almost exclusively the creation of civil
servants and its content as well as substantially decided by them. The civil service exerts a great
influence in the field of legislature. The greater part of the Public Acts placed upon the statute book
are departmental measure, suggested by the administrative experience of the officials, and these
sometimes effect the daily life of the people more than the Bills about which controversy rages. The
legislature is too busy these days and leaves the details to filled by administrative departments.
However, civil servants perform this role within the framework of the policies of the political party in
power.
Thus bureaucracy plays a pivotal role in the development of the country but it cannot be
viewed in isolation. It is integral part of a political process and social structure and derives its
strength and weakness from them. While facing challenges bureaucracy will have to be forward-
looking, humane in content and flexible enough while moving forward to keep the momentum of
change going fast enough. Whether civil servants succeeds in his work or not, history sits in
judgement. Success or failure will be measured according to President Kennedy by answer to the
following four questions :
1. Were we truly men of courage?
2. Were we truly men of judgement with prospective judgement of the future as well as the
past of our own mistakes as well as the mistakes of others with enough wisdom to know
what we did not know and enough candour to admit it ?
3. Were'we truly men of integrity?
4. Were we truly men of dedication with an honour mortgaged to no single individual or
group and compromised by no private obligation or aim, but devoted solely to serving the
public good and the national interest ?"
11.9 Synoptic View of the Argument
After discussing the role of the modern government as distinct from the traditional with
emphasis on regulatory function new challenges to administration have been mentioned within the
framework and the environmental setting, the roie of bureaucracy has been discussed with special
reference to :
(a) Bureaucracy and Development Administration.
(b) Bureaucracy as an Instrument of Political Development.
(c) Bureaucracy and Economic Development. -
(d) Bureaucracy, Modernization and Social Change.
(e) Role in Energizing Supervising and Execution-Internal Functioning :
1. Role in Policy Making.
2. Innovations within Government.
3. As an Information Processing System.
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4. Role in Financial Matters.

5. Role in Legislation. .
11.10 Summary
It has been rightly summed up by an expert that "It is of utmost importance that the civil
servants are honest and upright in the discharge of their public duties, particularly, at a time when
clouds of political uncertainty and instability are hovering over our national life. It is at this time
that the civil servants should serve the nation honestly by giving a sense of continuity. If they fail,
the future of the nation may be dark. A dynamic civil society and a professionally trained and
dedicated civil service (insulated from political interference) are the twin pillars of a constructive
relationship between State and society.
11.11 Model Question
☻ Discuss the role of bureaucracy in development particularly in the developing countries.
11.12 Further Readings
For the role of bureaucracy in development, you may further refer to
(a) Farrel Heady, Public: Administration, A Comparative Perspective, Eaglewood Cliffs, 1966.
(b) Peter Slau, Bureaucracy in Modern Society, New York, 1956,
(c) R. Braibanti and J. J. Spengler: Administration and Economic Development Durham,
1963.
(d) N.K. Singh, Bureaucracy, Positions and Persons, Abhinav, 1974.
2. For the Role of Bureaucracy in Political Development, read Joseph La Palombara (ED.)
Bureaucracy and Political Developments, Princeton University Press, 1963. Two papers,
one by Eisenstadt pp. 96-119 and another by Joseph La Palombara pp. 34- 61 are very
rewarding.
3. To discuss the Role of Bureaucracy in Economic Development refer Paper by Joseph. J.
Spengler Bureaucracy and Economic Development in La Paloinbara's Book (pp 199-232).
4. For the Role of Bureaucracy in Social Development, refer to
(a) F.E. Hagen: On the Theory of Social Change, London, Tavistock Publications, 1964.
(b) G.E. Jacob, Policy and Bureaucracy, Princeton New Jersy; 1966.
(c) J.G. March and B.A. Simon: Organization, New York, 1959.
(d) Ralph Braibanti (Ed.) Asian Bureaucratic System Emergent from British Imperial
Tradition Durham, 1966.
5. Indian Institute of Public Administration. Indian Journal of Public Administration, Vol.
XXXVH, No.1, January-March 1991 and No. 4, October 1991.
6. Bribanti, Ralph "Reflections on Bureaucratic. Corruption" Public Administration, London,
Winter 1962.
7. B.K. Dry, Bureaucracy and Economic Development, IJPA, 1966 pp. 343-351.
8. R.N. Haldipur, "Bureaucracy's Response to New Challenges." India Journal of
Administration. Jan.-March, 1976, pp 1-14.
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11.13 Glossary
Institutionalised - Established as a correlation/practice.
State Positivism - A system of rules with positive law based on natural law.
Responsiveness - The quality of reaching quickly and positivity
Innovations - The action or adoption of new innovative methods
Inofrmation Processing - Analysing of raw information/data/generally by computers)
Suggested Answers of SAE Questions
1. By advising, proving information; analyzing of facts figures.
2. Political Development, Economic Dev, Social Dev, Legislation policy making ete.

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Lesson 12

ORGANIZATIONS FOR DEVELOPMENT PLANING

AT CENTRE, STATE AND DISTRICT LEVELS

STRUCTURE
12.0 Objectives
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Genesis of Planning in India
12.3 Organization Structure of Earlier Planning Commission
12.4 Function and Role of Planning Commission
12.5 Planning Commission : A Critique
12.6 NITI Anying
12.7 The National Development Council
12.8 Levels of Planning
12.9 Planning Machinery at the State Level
12.10 Planning at the District and Lower Levels
(a) District as a Planning Unit
(b) Planning and Panchayati Raj Institutions
(c) District Planning Committees ,
12.11 Summary
12.12 Suggested Readings -
12.13 Modal Question
12.14 Glossary
12.0 Objectives
After reading this lesson, you should be able to :
• Discuss the Genesis of Planning in India
• Explain Planning Services at the Centre, State and District Levels
• Highlight the role of NITI Aayog.
12.1 Introduction
Planning for socio-economic development is very much essential for all the countries,
particularly the developing countries. India has any experience of development planning
particularly since the early 1950’s when the planning Commission was established and the
process for Five year Plans was started. This system of development planning continued for over
six decades till the establishment of NITI Aayog in 2015 which replaced the Planning Commission.
In this lesson we’ll discuss the genesis of Planning Commission. In this lesson will discuss the
genesis of planning in India, the set up and functions of Planning Commission, NDC, state and local
planning and the structure and functions of NITI Aayog.
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12.2 Genesis of Planning in India

Let us first go through the genesis of planning in India. India has attempted to bring about
rapid economic and social development of the country through a planned effort. Although awareness
of the importance of planning was manifest in the pre-independence era, realistic and ambitious
planning on an all-India basis could not be started effectively until India had become free in 1947
and its major problems growing out of the partition of the country and task of unification of the
native India States had been resolved.
The first effort at introducing social planning in India was made by an individual noted for his
pioneering zeal and breadth of vision. Dr. M. Vivesyaraya. In 1936, he published an essay
underlining the desirability and feasibility of planning for industrialisation of the country. For the
formulation, implementation and administration of the plan, he had suggested the formation of an
advisory body of 60 with political leaders, economists, businessmen, administrators etc., and a
Planning Commission of 5 to 7 Members for, day-to-day execution. He also recommended the setting
up of a Development Department at the Centre and Economic Councils in the provinces. Though
interesting as an intellectual exercise, this could not directly influence any social action or any
Government move.
In 1937, soon after the assumption of power in the provinces, the Working Committee of the
Indian National Congress initiated planning preliminaries by adopting a resolution, which
recommended to the Congress Ministries the appointment of a committee of experts to consider
urgent and vital problems the solution which was necessary to any scheme of national
reconstruction and social planning. Following this resolution a planning Committee was constituted
by Subhash Chandra Bose, the then President of the Indian National Congress under the
chairmanship of Jawaharlal Nehru. Later in 1944, the Government established a planning and
Development Board and published three private development plans, the Bombay plan, the Gandhi
Plan and People's Plan. A Planning Advisory Board was also constituted in 1946. Planning tends to
bring out a certain unity of approach to the problems of national reconstruction in as much as cash
of these plans mooted not only had certain objective in common but also sought to achieve them
through similar means. All the plan proposals explicitly accepted the rapid improvement of the living
standards of the people as the centre objective of development.
Planning has performed a major service for India's economic development, by setting goals
that have stimulated public enthusiasm for development, creating an awareness of development
problems, and encouraging efforts to contribute to their solutions. More important the plans have
committed the government to major increases in expenditure investment; and the economic
overhead investments of the Government together with the promise of guaranteed demand for the
goods used in the government investment, has provided private business enterprise with a
reasonably firm basis for indicative character of the Plans and their psychological consequences as
much as from the actual government themselves.
Subsequently, India has tried to evolve a procedure of economic planning which is not too
rigid or centralized and yet able to mobilize the willing cooperation of the people for a balanced
programme of rapid economic development. The procedure evolved falls somewhere in between broad
economic policy making and in country like the former USSR. The nearest parallel to it in Western
Europe is the French systam of planning. The main difference, however, is that, unlike France, India
has federal structure of Government and the achievement of a socialist pattern of society in her
avowed objective. India permits private ownership of capital and gives a much larger latitude to the
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operation of" competitive forces in a market economy. It is also felt in India that the widespread
acceptance of the process of planning by the people and the concerned officials is even more
important than the end-result of plinning exercise itself. For, the process of planning essentially
means the application in a comprehensive manner of scientific method in dealing with problems of
economic development and keeping in view the inter-relations of different sectors as well as the
needs of the future. Active participation in this process by the key personalities in the economic life
of the country opens by itself new vistas of thought and action creates a new spirit and ambition
among the people and generates new forces for accelerating the development of the economy and the
society.
Planning in India derives its objectives and social premises from the Directive Principles of
State Policy enrshrined in the Constitution. * The central theme of national planning in India since
independence has been the promotion of balanced economic development so as to provide
foundation for sustained economic growth; for increasing opportunities for gainful employment; for
promoting greater equality in incomes and wealth, and rising living standards and working
conditions for the masses. The Constitution had already in its Directive Principles of State Policy
indicated, inter alia, that India is to be a welfare state, whose economic, social and welfare aspects
were elaborated. The basic principles of economic policy were defined as follows :
1. That the ownership and control of the material resources of the community are so
distributed as best of subserve the common good.
2. That the operation of the economic system doesn't result in the concentration of wealth
and means of production to the common detriment.
The Constitution of India includes the subject of 'social and economic' planning in the
concurrent list. The legal bases for national planning for the country as a whole therefore have been
provided through a parliamentary statute on the subject. The discussion on the setting up of a
planning machinery in 1949 had envisaged the establishment of a Planning Commission and the
creation of a National Development Council which would work as an organ of inter-Government co-
operation in the economic and social fields. Following the recommendations of the Planning Advisory
Board of 1946, the Planning Commission was established by a Cabinet Resolution of 15th March
1950. The National Development Council was later constituted in 1952.
The Planning Commission and the National Development Council were involved in the
formulation of the Five-Year-Plans.
The Planning Commission was established as a staff agency to prepare national plans for
economic development within the framework of a federal Government, a parliamentary democracy
and a welfare state. The Commission was to suggest, coordinate and evaluate policies and
programmes, although the final responsibility to the people's representatives and to the people
remained with the political institutions. Although the States had no Planning Commission of similar
status, they had special planning departments and mixed (official and non-official) advisory boards
to do the planning work.
Especially after the Seventy-third Constitutional Amendment Act, 1993 concerning village
panchayats and the Seventy-fourth Constitutional Amendment Act, 1993 concerning urban local
bodies the merging Panchayati Raj institutions in the villages, the blocks and the districts and urban
local bodies are increasingly being associated with formulation and implementation of plans within
the range of responsibilities assigned to them.
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The National Development Council had the following functions :-

1. To review the working of the National Plan from time to time.
2. To consider important questions of social and economic policy affecting national
development.
3. To recommend measures for the achievement of the aims and targets set out in the
National Plan: including measures to, secure active participation and cooperation of the
people, improve the efficiency of the administrative services, ensure the fullest
development of the less advanced regions and sections of the community and build up
resources ior national development.
In the planning procedure evolved in India the role of the Planning Commission is two-fold: (i)
to originate policies for development, and (ii) to integrate ideas and programmes for economic
development formulated by other agencies in the country into a co-ordinate whole. The Planning
Commission is essentially a non advisory body which makes, recommendations to the Government.
It has no sanctions of its own. Care has been taken to organize it neither as a pure research institute
out of touch with the various political, economic or administrative problems. Nor as an
administrative machinery which is too closely involved in day-to-day affairs and to prone to lack the
perspective and detachment required of a national planning agency.
In pursuance of declared objectives of the Government to promote a rapid rise in the standard
of living of the people by efficient exploitation of the resources of the country, increasing production
and offering opportunities to all for employment in the service of the community. The Planning
Commission was charged with the responsibility of making assessment of all resources of the
country, augmenting, deficient resources, formulating plans for the most effective and balanced
utilisation of resorces and determining priorities. Jawaharlal Nehru was the first Chairman of the
Planning Commission.
The first Five-year Plan was launched in 1951 and two subsequent five year plans were
formulated till 1965, when there was a break because of the Indo-Pakistan Conflict. Two successive
years of drought, devaluation of the currency, a general rise in prices and erosion of resources
disrupted the planning process and after three Annual Plans between 1966 and 1969, the fourth
Five-year plan was started in 1969.
The Eighth Plan could not take off in 1990 due to the fast changing political situation at the
Centre and the years 1990-91 and 1991-92 were treated as Annual Plans. The Eighth Plan was
finally launched in 1992 after the initiation of structural adjustment policies.
For the first eight plans the emphasis was on a growing public sector with massive investment
in basic and heavy industries, but since the launch of the Ninth Plan in 1997, the emphasis on the
public sector has become less pronounced and the current thinking on planning in the country, in
general, is that it should increasingly be of an Indicative nature.
12.3 ORGANIZATION STRUCTURE OF EARLIER PLANNING COMMISSION
The Prime Minister was the Chairman of the'Planning Commission, which worked under the
overall guidance of the National Development, Council. The Deputy Chairman and the full time
Members of the Commission, as a composite body, provided advice and guidance to the subject
Divisions for the formulation of Five Year Plans, Annual Plans, State Plans, Monitoring Plan
Programmes, Projects and Schemes.
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The Planning Commission functioned through several Divisions, each headed by a Senior
Officer. The general Set up is :
a. Chairman
b. Deputy Chairman
c. Minister of State
d. Members
e. Secretary
f. Senior Officials
g. Grievance Officers.
The Planning Commission was a multi-member body and the number of members had varied
from time to time. In the initial years of its inception, the Commission concerned mainly with plan
formulation, it composed of only full-time members. The Prime-Minister as Chairman of the
Commission provided the needed close relation with the central Government. But over the years, the
Commission got involved in a number of administrative matters and also gathered to itself certain
functions of a purely executive nature. The composition of the Commission also underwent a
substantial change and. numberof UnionMinisters were appointed as part-time members of the
Commission.
In April 1967, the Administrative Reforms Commission (ARC) recommended that the Planning
.Commission should work only an expert advisory body, handling functions which are executive in
character. It suggested that no minister should be made part-time member of the Commission, it
also recommended that the Commission should submit an annual report to the Government on Plan
performance which should be placed before Parliament.
The Planning Commission was reconstituted in August 1967, on lines suggested by the ARC,
except that the Prime Minister continued to be the Chairman of the Commission and the Union
Finance Minister its part time member. After its reorganization, it had seven members, two of these
were important ministers, viz, the Prime Minister, and the Minister of Finance. Five were full-time
members who were eminent public men; administrators and technical experts.
The composition of the Planning Commission in 2010 was as follows: Chairman, Deputy
Chairman and: nine other members. The Deputy Chairman, in addition to looking after the day-to-
day work of the Commission, is responsible for plan coordinating, plan evaluation, administration
and servicing and subjects under 'economic group'.
Although the full time members are not ministers as such, they enjoy the status of Ministers
and are invited to attend meeting of the Cabinet when subjects with which they are directly
concerned are taken up for consideration. The Prime Minister in India has been the Chairman of the
Planning Commission ever since its inception. This has added considerably to the prestige of the
Commission and has helped it a great deal in its coordinating functions at the political level. The
Prime Minister, however, attends only the most important meetings of Commission. The day-to-day
work of the Commission is looked by the Deputy Chairman. The staff of the Commission comprises a
number of technical as well as administrative officers and is headed by a Secretary.
The Planning Commission consisted of two Divisions viz. (i) General Divisions, (ii) Subject
Divisions, and (iii) Housekeeping Branches. The work in the first two types of Divisions is primarily
technical and in the third administrate or secretarial.
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The General Divisions either carried out studies relating to the Plan as a whole rather than to
any particular sector or co-ordinate work of the various subject divisions. There are eleven General
Divisions in the Planning Commission.
Among the General Division the Perspective Planning Division is responsible for the
formulation of long period projections and plans, while the other Divisions primarily concern
themselves with work relating to the five year or annual plans.
The Subject Divisions have their counterparts in the various ministries and the State
Government and are responsible for collecting, processing and analysing all relevant information
required for the formulation processing and evaluation of the policies and programmes included in
the Plan. They also organize various research studies which are deemed necessary for the purpose of
planning in their respective fields either on their own or through competent technical organizations
in the country.
While much of the detailed work in connection with planning was thus done in the Working
Groups, there is need especially in an economy of the size and complexity of India, to consult on
general policy, from time to time, other knowledgeable people also, especially non-official experts, at
various stages of formulation as well as implementation of the Plans. These consultations have
necessarily to be at different levels technical, administrative and political. They not only elicit
valuable advice and being fresh views to bear on official thinking but also help in securing from the
Plan a greater public understanding and give it a national character. An attempt is made to have
such consultations, through a number of standing bodies variously known as Council Panels,
Advisory Committees and Consultative Committees.
Type of Divisions
All the Divisions in the erstwhile Planning Commission may be grouped into three types of
Divisions as indicated below :-
i) Administrative Divisions : They render services pertaining to administration, accounts,
library, training and other general services to the employees of the Commission.
ii) General Divisions : These are concerned with certain aspects of the entire economy e.g.
Perspective Planning, Financial Resources, International Economics, Plan Coordination,
State Plans including Multi-Level Planning, Hill Area Development Programme, Labour
Employment and Manpower, Science & Technology, Project Appraisal and Management,
Development Policy and Socio- Economic Research.
iii) Subject Divisions : These are concerned with specific fields of development e.g.
Agriculture, Environment and Forests, Water Resources, Power and Energy,; Industry
and Minerals, Transport; Communication and Information, Village and Small Industries,
Rural Development, Education, Health, Nutrition and Family Welfare, Housing & Urban
Development, Social Development and Women's Programme, and Backward Classes. An
organisation chart of the Planning Commission and programme Evaluation Organization
are given in Figure A & B.
All the Divisions maintain close contacts with the concerned Central Ministries/State
Governments and various non-official agencies, study and examine various problems and issues in
relation to the formulation as well as implementation of the Plan Programmes and Policies in their
respective fields. They also organise research studies, which are deemed necessary for planning
either on their own or through competent external institutions/organisations.
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The senior officers of the Planning Commission have also been designated as Principal Adviser
(State Plans) or Adviser (State Plans) who help the Commission in keeping close touch with the
progress of planning and its implementation in States. Each Principal Adviser (SP) or Adviser (SP)
has a group of States/UTs allotted to him or her and helps in maintaining close liaison between
Central Government and these States/UTs. He/she visits from time to time the concerned
States/UTs, gives necessary advice and guidance to the Planning Commission and Executive
authorities at the State/UT level and brings the diffculties and problems of the latter to the notice of
the Planning Commission and Ministries/Departments at the Centre. The State Plans work is co-
ordinated by Joint Secretary (State Plans).
12.4 FUNCTIONS AND ROLE
The 1950 resolution setting up the Planning Commission outlined its functions as to :
1. Make an assessment of the material, capital and human resources of the country,
including technical personnel, and investigate the possibilities of augmenting such of
these resources as are to be deficient in relation to the nation's requirement;
2. Formulate a Plan for the most effective and balanced utilization of country's resources;
3. On a determination of priorities, define the stages in which the Plan should be carried
out and propose the allocation of resources for the due completion of each stage;
4. Indicate the factors which are tending to retard economic development, and determine
the conditions which, in view of the current social and political situation, should be
established for the successful execution of the Plan;
5. Determine the nature of the machinery which will be necessary for securing the
successful implementation of stage of the Plan in all its aspects;
6. Appraise from time to time the progress achieved in the execution of each stage of the
Plan and recommend the adjustments of policy and measures that such appraisal may
show to be necessary; and
7. Make such interim or ancillary recommendations as appear to it to be appropriate either
for facilitating the discharge of the duties assigned to it, or on a consideration of
prevailing economic conditions, current policies, measures and development programmer
or on an examination of such specific problems as may be referred to it for advice by
Central or State Governments.
ROLE OF PLANNING COMMISSION
In line with the changed economic scenario, the role of the Panning Commission had been
redefined. From a highly centralised planning system, the Indian economy is gradually moving
towards indicative planning where Planning Commission concerned itself with the building of a long
term strategic vision of the future and decided on priorities of national. It worked out sectoral target
and provided promotional stimulus to the economy to grow in the desired direction.
Planning Commission played an integrative role in the development of a holistic approach to
the policy formulation in critical areas of human and economic development. In the social sector
schemes which require coordination and synthesis like rural health, drinking water, rural energy
needs, literacy and environment protection were yet to be subjected to coordinated policy
formulation. It had led to multiplicity of agencies which was not only wasteful but also painful
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because of the long repetitive procedures involved. Many such examples existed in other sectors like
energy, agriculture etc. An integrated approach could lead to better results at much lower costs.
The resources allocation role of Planning Commission had been its predominant characteristic
so far. Now the endeavour was on maximising the output by using our limited resources optimally.
Instead of looking for mere increases in the plan outlays, the effort will be to look for increases in the
efficiency of utilisation of the allocations being made. The priorities, programmes and strategies of
the Plan, therefore, had to take into account all these factors.
With the decline of available funds the resource allocation system between the States and
Ministries of the Central Government was under strain. This required the Planning Commission to
play a mediatory and facilitating role, keeping in view the best interest of all concerned. It tried to
ensure smooth management of the change and help in creating a culture of high productivity and
efficiency in the Government.
The key to efficient utilisation of resources lay in the creation of appropriate self-managed
organisations at all levels. In this area, Planning Commission played a systems change role and
provided consultancy within the Government for developing better systems.
In Order to spread the gains of experience more widely, Planning Commission played
information dissemination role.
12.5 Planning Commission: A Critique
The gap between planning and the implementation of plans, between promise and
performance, between slogans and operational policies has undermined the credibility of planning.
The very relevance and effectiveness of planning and the usefulness of the Planning Commission in
India's socio-economic and political system have begun to be doubted in many quarters. Such
doubts are not in the same class as the protest of the conventional right opinion against any kind of
planning at all of the angry denunciations at one time (heard in late fifties and early sixties), when
economic development made its most impressive gains in India, that the Planning Commission was
assuming the role of a "super cabinet."
The Planning Commission had passed through turbulent times and the Plans drawn by it
have been a major casualty of political uncertainties, pressures and changes. The authority and
prestige of the Commission has been greatly eroded in this process and it has gradually lost the key
role it played in policy-making and enforcement of planning discipline at a time when development
planning was making some headway during the Second and Third Five Year Plans. A body such as
the Planning Commission can only function by securing a broad national consensus behind the aims
and objectives of development planning. It has, therefore, to be an advisory body with technical
competence of a high order capable of presenting national and considered choice to the Government
and the nation. The temptation to make the Commission yet another place for providing berths to
out of work politicians or run it as a department in the Government should be avoided. Many of the
weaknesses and the distortions in the planning process can be rectified if the original concept of the
Planning Commission is revived and it is made a non-partisan expert advisory body with the
Government and has a mark of political commitment to development planning.
12.6 NITI AAYOG (National Institution for Transforming India)
The NITI Aayog (National Institution For Transforming India) is the successor in interest to the
Planning Commission and was formed on 1 January 2015. Radically redefining Centre-State
relationship, NITI Aayog has for the first time, ensured that all States take the lead in providing
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policy interventions to the Union Government. A platform for cooperative federalism, NITI Aayog
facilitates the working together of the Union and States as equals.*
NITI Aayog serves as Think Tank' of the Government. It provides Governments at the Central
and State levels with relevant strategic and technical advice across the spectrum of key elements of
policy.
COMPOSITION
1. Chairperson
The Prime Minister
2. Vice Chairperson
3. Full-Time Members .
4. Ex-officio Members
Minister of Home Affairs
Minister of Finance
Minister of Railways
Minister of Agriculture
5. Special Invitees
Minister of Road Transport and Highways; and Minister of Shipping
Minister of Social Justice and Empowerment
Minister of Human Resource Development.
6. Chief Executive Officer
FUNCTIONS
1. To evolve a shared vision of national development priorities sectors and strategies with
the active involvement of States in the light of national objectives.
2. To foster cooperative federalism through structured support initiatives and mechanisms
with the States on a continuous basis, recognizing that strong States make a strong nation.
3. To develop mechanisms to formulate credible plans at the village level and aggregate
these progressively at higher levels of government.
4. To ensure, on areas that are specifically referred to it, that the interests of national
security are incorporated in economic strategy and policy.
5. To pay special attention to the sections of our society that may be at risk of not
benefiting adequately from economic progress.
6. To design strategic and long term policy and programme frameworks and initiatives, and
monitor their progress and their efficacy. The lessons learnt through monitoring and
feedback will be used for making innovative improvements, including necessary mid-
course corrections.
7. To provide advice and encourage partnerships between key stakeholders and national and
international like-minded Think tanks, as well as educational and policy research institutions.
8. To create a knowledge, innovation and entrepreneurial support system through a collaborative
community of national and international experts, practitioners and other partners.
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9. To offer a platform for resolution of inter-sectoral and inter departmental issues in order
to accelerate the implementation of the development agenda.
10. To maintain a state-of-the-art Resource Centre, be a repository of research on good
governance and best practices in sustainable and equitable development as well as help
their dissemination to stake-holders.
11. To actively monitor and evaluate the implementation of programmes and initiatives,
including the identification of the needed resources so as to strengthen the probability of
success and scope of delivery.
12. To focus on technology upgradation and capacity building for implementation of
programmes and initiatives.
13. To undertake other activities as may be necessary in order to further the execution of the
national development agenda, and the objectives mentioned above.
The Governing Council
The composition of the Governing Council of NITI Aayog is as follows:
1. Chairperson: Prime Minister of India
2. Ex officio Members, NITI Aayog
3. Vice-Chairperson, NITI Aayog
4. Full-time Members, NITI Aayog
5. Chief Minister of all the states and L.G. of Andaman & Nicobar
6. Special Invitees
As per its own official regarding, NITI Aayog was established to actnalise the important goal of
cooperative federalism and to enable good governance in India to build a planning nation state.”
Two key features of Cooperative Federalism are : joint focus on the national development agenda by
the centre and States; and advocacy of State perspective with Central Minister.
It is the constant endeavor of NITI Aayog to evolve a shared vision of national priorities,
sectors, and strategies with the active involvement of States, wherein States are equal stakeholders
in the planning process as well as. ln keeping with this the present Vice Chairman of NITl Aayog, Dr.
Rajiv Kumar committed himself to visit all States, to develop and offer a platform for resolution of
inter-sectoral and inter-departmental issues in order to accelerate the implementation of the
development agenda.
NITI Aayog has also established models and programmes for development of infrastructure
and to reignite and establish Private Public Partnership, such as the Centre-State partnership
model:' Development Support Services to States (DSSS):_(/development-support-services-statesuts-
dsss-infrastructure-projects) and the Sustainable Action For Transforming Human Capital (SATH)
(/sustainable-action-transforming-human-capital-sath) programme which is designed to help States
improve their social sector indicators by providing them technical support.
Further, with the aim of correcting regional developmental imbalance, NITI Aayog has taken
special steps for regions needing special attention and support, like the North Eastern States (/niti-
forum-north-east) Island States (/holistic-development-islands) and hilly Himalayan States
(/sustainable-development-indian-himalayan-region) by constituting special forums to identify their
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specific constraints, formulating special policies to ensure sustainable development takes place in
these regions while also protecting their abundant natural resources.
In the context of government structure, the changed requirements of our country, point to the
need for setting up an institution that serves as a Think Tank, of the government-a girectional and
policy dynamo.” This new organization is expected to provide governments at the central and plate
levels with technical and relevant strategic advice across the spectrum of key elements of policy.
This includes matters of national and international right see economic gront, discrimination of best
practices from within the country and from other nations, the infasious of policy items and specific
issue based support.
NITI Aayog is based on Seven Pillars of Effectve Governance
* Pro-people * Pro-Activity * Participation
* Empowerment * Equality * Transparency
It is still too early to really comment on the impact of the setting up of NITI Aayog. No need to
observe and wait to assess its performance and achievement of its objectives such as forering
comparative Federalism; formulation of follow up plans; inclusive growth; innerative improvements;
technology upgradation; good-governance and capacity building.
12.7 The National Development Council (NDC)
As pointed out earlier the the NDC was constituted in 1952 as an institution to coordinate
plans and policies of centre and states. It was constituted as ahigh foodpolicy coordinating body
comprising of the PM as its Chairman, members of Planning Commission, all the Chief Ministes
and othe members. The Secretary, Planning Commission acted as the Secretary to NDC. It is an
advisory body and over years it acquired a position of high political anthory.
The meetings of the National Development Council are held at least twice a year whereas its
Standing Committee meets frequently. Various specialized Committiees may also be formed. Thus for
example, for the formulation of the Fourth Plan, the Council set up five committees to (i) Resource, (ii)
Social Service, (iii) Development of Hill Areas (iv) Agriculture and Irrigation, and (v) Industry, Power
and Transport. The Council had evolved as an administrative agency to achieve the fullest co-
ordination in planning between the Central and the State Governments and to ensure uniformity of
approach and unanimity in the-working of the National Plan. The main functions of the Council were :
(i) To prescribe guidelines for the formulation of National Plan including the assessment of
resources for Plan.
(ii) To consider the national plan as formulated by the Planning Commission.
(iii) To consider important questions of social and economic policy affecting national
development.
(iv) To review the working of the Plan from time to time and recommend such measures as
are necessary for achieving the aims and targets set out in the National plan.
The National Development Council gives its advice at various stages of the formulation of a
Plan and only after its approval has been obtained that the Plan is presented to the Parliament for
consideration. The Council has been largely responsible for giving Indian Plans a truly national
character and for ensuring a national unanimity in approach and uniformity in working.
Liaison with the States in the field of planning is also though the Programme Advisors
appointed by the Planning Commission. These officers are selected for their intimate knowledge of
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the working of States administrations. The programme advisor assist the Commission in making an
assessment of the implementation of various development programmes and advise it on the
proposals put by different State Governments. These Programme Advisors study first hand the
working of the various development schemes, giving greater attention to more important projects and
those in which the Centra! Government provides specific assistance, financial or otherwise. Of these
programme Advisors, three were for Programme Administration, one each of Resources, Industry and
Minerals, Constructions, Financial, Education, Labour and Employment and Social Planning, Plan
information, Agriculture State plans. Perspective Planning and Irrigation and Power.
Each of three Programme Advisors for Programme Administration had a group of States
allotted to him and helps of maintain close liaison between the Planning Commission and the group
of States with which he is concerned. He also gives advice and guidance to the executive authorities
of the States and bring their difficulties and problems to the notice of the Planning Commission and
the Central Ministries.
12.8 Levels of Planning
Although planning in India has now been in existence since 1950s, but it was heavily loaded
at the national level than at the periphery. We have a big machinery of planning at the Centre led by
the Planning Commission. Such efforts are commendable, but the base on which our planners at the
centre operate is not always very strong. It is only that in some measure the concept of planning has
been introduced at the state and the district levels. The machinery of planning at the State level is
being expanded beyond the framework of Planning Department, which had been hitherto doing
mostly functions of compilation, of various schemes.
At the District level, the responsibility of planning is borne by the head of the District, the
Collector or the Deputy Commissioner, who is already much overworked. Of course, lately in his
efforts he has been assisted by other functionaries like Additional Deputy Commissioners,
Development and Planning Assistants etc. At the block level, the block itself was expected to be the
machinery of planning and development, but in the beginning it never went beyond the Community
Development Programmes and later the specific development schemes entrusted to it. At the village
level, however, village plans have been attempted from time to time. As noted by a civil servant they
have been more the result of compliance with Instructions of higher authorities than serious
attempts of planning based on scientific, compilation and analysis of data which lie beyond the
capacity of most of the village level workers and organizations.
It is obvious that for an integrated approach to planning both Macro-levels (National and State
level Planning) and Micro-level (District and Village level) Planning must complement each other.
Without national or state-level priorities, no micro-level planning is possible. The national and state
plans provide a broad framework within which detailed planning can be done. On the other hand,
micro-level plans can help to fix priorities for different regions depending upon their specific need.
Also without micro level planning, no national plan can be properly implemented. In India we have
gone through the exercise of micro level planning without evolving micro-level plans for
implementation. The dilemmas and contradictions of such planned development have already been
responsible for the unfulfilled hopes through planning efforts.
Regional Planning
In our planning system regional planning is well-high absent. Much emphasis' has been on
sectoral planning rather than spatial. Thus regional or area planning has not been introduced in our
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country so far. The planning mechanism that we have at different levels i.e., State, district, block
and village level, is more often not a break-up of sectoral programmes, the schemes of various
departments at the national level. The difficulty arises from the fact for that the various units of our
administration; like the district or tehsils are not necessarily rational units of planning and still they
are used for planning purposes because of these being administrative units. The identification of
homogenous units for regional planning along with growth areas of river valley areas is a task that is
yet to be attempted in a serious manner in our country.
In another sense regional planning differs from the regular planning not only in respect of the
boundaries of units but also in respect of the fact that it looks at planning from spatial rather than a
sectoral point of view. This involves not only a coordination of various aspects and sectors of the
economy in the region but the planning itself has to be taken as a dynamic process of development
emanating from certain growth centres or central places. This would thus presuppose a hierarchy of
such central places, each linked up with one another. An attempt was made to approach planning
through this view in certain pilot projects on growth centres during the Fourth Five Year Plan.
MULTI-LEVEL PLANNING
Apex planning body at state level is generally State Planning Board comprising Chief Minister
as chairman and finance and planning ministers of the state and some technical experts as
members. Department of planning in State Government provides secretariat for the Board.
The Seventy-third and Seventy-fourth Constitutional Amendment Acts are the culmination of
the evolutionary process as far as decentralisation of democratic power is concerned. With passing of
appropriate legislations by the state governments and the conduct of elections to the Panchayati Raj
Institution, the different tiers of panchayats and municipalities, etc. have been empowered to plan,
fund, and Implement appropriate developmental works at the local level with people's participation.
Consequent to these constitutions Amendment Acts, state governments have enacted enabling
legislation providing for elected bodies, at the village, intermediate and district levels, with adequate
representation from the weaker sections and women. All the states have constituted State Finance
Commissions and State Election Commissions as stimulated.
12.9 Planning Machinery at the State Level
In addition to the national plan produced by the Planning Commission, separate plans are
also prepared for the constituent states of the Indian Union, for Delhi and other union territories.
These are formulated simultaneously with the national plan and by very similar methods. It is one of
the major tasks of the Commission to ensure that all these plans are mutually consistent,
compatible with projected total investment and in conformity with centrally established priorities.
The states and other units, therefore, are essentially subordinate planning authorities even though
Economic and Social Planning figure in the Concurrent List of powers granted to the Union and the
States by the Indian Constitution.
The Commission, however, does not attempt to do a State's planning work for it. The State
has to produce its own draft plan for submission both to the Planning Commission and to its own
legislature. The final state plan, is inevitably a compromise between the State and Centre, worked
out through discussion with the Commission, but it is the State's own planning handiwork that
provides the basis for this discussion. States also produce annual as well a five yearly plans, and
these have to go through a similar if rather simpler form of final processing. The plans of State
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Governments become binding only alter acceptance by the State Cabinets and approval by the State
legislatures. The responsibility for Implementation also rests with the State Government.
Every state, therefore, has some kind of planning machinery in the form of State Planning
Departments, whereby, at the very least, proposals emanating from the various State Ministries may
be gathered together, coordinated, and kept within the total resources likely to be available. To start
with a few state had specific whole-time agencies of planning. In course of time, most of the States
came to establish special departments incharge of planning while most States have small Plan
Evaluation Organization, Bureau of Economics and Statistics, and sections dealing with manpower.
No attempt has been made by the Planning Conmmission to ensure that this machinery is
everywhere the same and constitutionally, of couise, the States are free to do their planning just the
way they like. In general; as stated by Krishnamachari, in every States there is a Cabinet
Commission, which is in close touch with the preparation of the plans made by different Ministries
and supervising implementation in many States, there are Advisory Committees of non-officials
consisting of members of Legislative Assemblies and others whose advice is likely to be useful. While
it is broadly true, but not very enlightening as there is a considerable variety of pattern in different
States.
The State planning machinery in most cases still remains at a somewhat rudimentary level.
Despite the Planning Commission's frequent recommendations for developing an effective state
planning organization through establishing Boards more or less on the pattern of Planning
Commission and the ARC'S recommendation to this effect, the States apparently appear not
convinced of the necessity of having any elaborate planning set up.
12.10 Planning at the District and Lower Levels
The experience of the last two decades in the field of planning has brought home to use the
need for building up Planning from the grass roots level, for intimately associating the people with
the plans and for integrating state, regional, sectoral, district and even panchayat level schemes of
development into a central national plan if our schemes, of progress and prosperity are to succeed
they have necessarily to be woven into an intricate but integrated pattern of multi level planning.
Lower level planning in India, particularly at the district level, is a significant element in our multi-
level planning structure. As the initial endeavours in development planning at the grassroot level
mature, the future roles and capabilities of district planning need to be strengthened in order to
harness the complex development factors.
(a) District as a Planning Unit
The District provides a large enough area for planning although it may not be identical with a
region in most cases a district will form a sub-region or combination of a few sub-regions belonging
to different regions. Yet the practical advantage of selecting a district as a unit of micro-level
planning outweigh its disadvantages. In a long term strategy, if all district are planned and studied
region will emerge from contiguous districts. The district already has a administrative structure for
implementing microlevel plans. Planning and implementation in a district can, therefore, be easily
coordinated. This was definitely one of the recommendations which the Planning Commission had in
mind in recommending the district as unit of planning and development. It is therefore clear that
planning today which is more a micro level process would have to be reoriented to the concept of
"planning from below' through a concerted effort of giving appropriate importance to each levels of
planning activities.
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Programmes and projects are increasingly used in developing countries in the process of
economic and social development. They represent a crucial element in both the formulation and
implementation of development plan. Most of the administration is more directly concerned with
Programmes and Projects. For the reason the ability of the administrative system to formulate viable
programmes an projects, and to implement them successfully becomes a major link in the process of
development.

Self Assessment Exercise

1. In which years the planning Commission and NITI Aayog were established respectively ?

2. Who is the Chairman of NITI Aayog and what is its compositon ?

(b) Planning and Panchayati Raj Institutions

The enactment of the 73rd Constitutional Amendment Act, 1992 marks a new era in the
federal democratic set up of the country bestowed constitutional status to the Panchayati Raj
Institutions (PRIs). Pursuant to the Act, barring the States of Jammu and Kashmir, National Capital
Territory of Delhi and Uttaranchal all the States have enacted the necessary legislation for setting up
of strong, viable and responsible panchayats at different levels in their respective States/Union
Territories. In ail the States panchayats have been constituted according to new laws except in
States of Arulnachal Pradesh, NGT of Delhi and Pondicherry.
As per Article 243 (G) of the Constitution, pros-have to be endowed by the State Governments
with such powers and authority as may be necessary to enable them to function as effective
institutions of local sell-government. The Amendment Act contains provisions for devolution of
powers and responsibilities to the panchayats both for preparation of Plans for economic
development and social justice and for implementation, in reation to 29 subjects listed in the
Eleventh Schedule of the Constitution Pursuant to this, the States are expected to devolve
administrative and financial powers along with the functionaries in respect to these 29 subjects to
the pros. Almost all the States and UTs have stated that they have transferred a number of subjects
to the pros. However only few States like Kerala, Madhya Prardesh have made considerable progress
regarding devolution of powers both financial and administrative to the Panchayats. Most of the
States have not transferred the requisite staff and funds in respect of the subjects transferred to the
Panchayats, which are essential to carry out the responsibilities entrusted to them.
The Government has strived to strengthen financial position of the PRIs. At present
Panchayats received funds from three sources, namely :
(i) local body grants as recommended by the Central Finance Commission,
(ii) funds for implementation of centrally sponsored schemes, and
(iii) funds released by State Governments on the recommendations of State Finance
Commissions.
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Further states are required to enact laws to enable Panchayats to raise tax and non-tax
revenue so as to make them effective institution of local self-government.
The State Governments are required to constitute District Planning Committees (DPCs) as
envisaged under Article 243 (20) of the Constitutional 74th Amendment Act at the district level to
facilitate the process of decentralised planning by consolidating the development Plans prepared by
the Panchayats and municipalities for the district as a whole covering both rural and urban areas.
However, DPCs have been constituted only in few States.
According to Article 243 (A) of the Constitution, the Gram Sabha may exercise such powers
and perform such functions at the village level as the legislature of a State may, by law provide. Most
State Acts have vested in the Gram Sabha responsibilities and functions such as :
i) supervising and monitoring the functioning of the Gram Panchayats;
ii) approval of plans and selection of schemes, beneficiaries and locations, and
iii) mobilisation of voluntary labour contributions, in cash or kind for community welfare
programmes and to promote unity and harmony among all sections of society.
Of late however, as a result of several initiatives of the central government in partnership with
State Governments a view has emerged which favours strengthening of Gram Sabha as the bedrock
of democracy at the grass roots level.
The States have been requested to take the following measures to empower the Gram Sabha :
(i) to ensure that Gram Sabha should meet at least once in each quarter preferably on
Republic Day, Labour Day, Independence Day and Gandhi Jayanti.
(ii) vest powers in Gram Sabhas giving them powers of ownership, management and control
over natural resources, as envisaged under the Provision of the Panchayats (Extension to
the Scheduled Areas) Act, 1996.
(iii) Gram Sabhas should have full powers for determining the priorities for various programmes.
(iv) Panchayats should be made accountable to the Gram Sabha in unequivocal terms.
(v) members of Gram Sabhas be made aware of their powers and responsibilities and steps
should be taken to ensure mass participation, particularly of SCs/STs and women.
(vi) Gram Sabha should have the powers to evolve its own procedures to carry out social
audit of development programmes.
The provisions of the Panchayats (Extension to the Scheduled Areas) Act 1996, extends
Panchayats to the tribal areas of nine States viz; Andhra Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Gujarat, Himachal
Pradesh, Jharkhand, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa and Rajasthan. It strives to enable tribal-
society to assume control over their own destiny to preserve and conserve their traditional rights
over natural resources.
In the light, of 73rd Constitutional Amendment Act, the District Rural Development Agencies
(DRDAs) are also being restructured to work under the overall control and supervision of the Zilla
Parishads. .
In order to make pros a success, a time bound training programme for capacity building has
been initiated for the elected Panchayat representatives especially new entrants, SCs/STs/. Women
and Government functionaries so as to make them familiar with the planning process and
implementation of various programmes, technologies and other requisite information available.
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The Central government has strived to encourage the State Governments to empower pros by
devolving functions, finances and administrative control over functionaries in respect to 29 subjects
given in Eleventh Schedule of the Constitution. However, despite of the efforts of government, pros in
many States continue to remain weak. Recognising the need for taking concrete action to empower
pros, the Government has set up an "Empowered Sub-Committee of National Development Council
on Financial and Administrative Empowerment of PRIs" to look into the whole gamut of issues
related to devolution of powers, functions and financial resources to the PRIs.
(c) DISTRICT PLANNING COMMITTEES
Introduction
The institution of District Planning Committee as envisaged in the 73rd Constitution
Amendment Act (73rd CAA) is the realization of consistent and conscious effort towards
decentralized planning since the process of planned development began in the country. The desire
for decentralized planning was first expressed, way back in the first five years plan (1951-56), when
it was suggested to break the planning process into national, state, district and local community
levels. However, the idea was given a concrete shape with the establishment of the District
Development Council to consolidate plans prepared at the village, block and district level were to
help prepare these plans. However, their role and resources were not clearly defined and as a
consequence the planning process at the grassroots level suffered.
The Administrative Reforms Commission in its report of 1967 stressed on the need for
meaningful planning at the district level especially focusing on local variations in development
patterns. Consequently, the Planning Commission issued guidelines for district planning in 1969;
which led to several states formulating district plans. However, the exercise remained disjointed from
the annual planning process in most states. The widespread suppression and curtailment of powers
of Local Self Governance institutions across the states through the late 1960s and 1970s led to the
choking of district planning process as well. The problem was examined again in 1984 through the
Working Group on District planning headed by C.H. Hanumantha Rao. The Working Group
recommended greater decentralization of functions, powers and resources for meaningful district
planning. It also recommended the setting up of district planning bodies of about 50 members with
Collector as Chief Coordinator. This planning body should be assisted by planning officers and
technical experts at various levels.
Other notable recommendations on strengthening planning and a administration at the
district level came from the G.V.K. Rao Committee on Administrative Reforms for Rural Development
(1985) and the Sarkaria Commission for Centre-State Relations (1988). However all these efforts at
strengthening decentralized planning were met with consistent failure due to several reasons. The
weak nature of Local Self Governance Institutions was one of the main causes. A second major cause
was the continuous growth and multiplication of sectoral departments and parastatal bodies along
with vertical planning, development of sector-specific schemes and vertical rather than horizontal
flow of plan funds.
Given this background of efforts at decentralized planning in India, the 73rd and 74th
Amendments were milestones since they provided the much needed constitutional legitimacy to local
governance institutions, defined their functional domains and provided for financial devolution to
these institutions. The 74th CAA also mandated the establishment of District Planning Committee
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(DPC) as the formal body for preparation of the District Development Plan by consolidating the plans
prepared by the villages and towns in the district.
Article 243ZD at the 74th CAA, on the DPC reads as follows :
It is a matter of concern that even after the lapse of 15 years since the amendments were
made decentralized planning is yet to become effective in the country. While most states carried out
amendments of their reapective state acts in conformation of the 73rd and 74th Amendments, the
implementation of the provisions was not uniform in all cases. Setting up elected bodies in local self-
governance institutions was carried out, and State Finance Commissions were also formed to
provide for financial devolution to these bodies. However, formation of DPCs was on the neglected
aspects.
The issue of decentralized planning was discussed in the Second Round Table Meeting of
State Ministers of Panchayati Raj held in Mysore in 2004. The recommendations that emerged from
the Meeting included the resolution for constituting DPCs in all states by the end of 2004-05. States
were also required to outline their functions and procedures, and to identify agencies which will
assist in the district planning process. The states were recomnended to provided resources in the
form of untied funds to Panchayats and Municipalities to strengthen their finances. The Planning
Commission was also requested to ensure that the Eleventh Plan is based on consolidation of district
plans prepared through DPCs.
The Expert Group for Planning at the Grassroots Level chaired by V. Ramachandran was set
up in 2005 and set forth an action plan in order to strengthen participatory planning in the Eleventh
plan process. It noted with concern the fact that several states had not set up DPCs even after the
resolution taken in the Second Round Table. The Group laid out the modalities off preparing
perspective five-year and annual plans at the district level and gave further suggestions for
strengthening DPCs. The DPC, as per the report, should be a permanent institution provided with a
secretariat to support its functioning. The DPC should be the nodal agency for district level planning,
and district planning tasks, including those relating to Central Plan schemes, need to be routed
through DPCs. The DPC can take the assistance of technical and academic institutions and experts
to perform its functions effectively.
The Group laid out detailed guidelines for the district levet planning-process and the role of
DPCs therein Commission took action on these proposals and communicated to the States that the
approval of Annual plan proposals for 2006-07 will be contingent upon the constitution of DPCs in
all districts. The Annual Plan Proposals must give details of the total fund availability from various
sources down to the Panchayat level. They must indicate the detailed deployment of funds received
from various sources among the districts and must explain the criteria followed for allocating the
resources. The preparation of annual planning exercise under the Eleventh plan is thus expected to
activate the process of district planning across all the states.
Another significant measure to push for the activation of DPCs is the linking of access to the
Backward Region Grants Fund (BRGF) scheme. It is a semi-tied fund available to 250 selected
backward districts with the purpose of catalyzing development of providing infrastructure, promoting
good governance and agrarian reforms, and capacity building for participatory district planning. In
order to avail BRGF funds, states are required to establish DPCs as per article 243ZD, which will
consolidate plans prepared by PRIs and ULBs in the district. These plans will put together resources
from various existing schemes and channelize them to Panchayats on the basis of the district plan.
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BRGF funds will be used by the Panchayats for gap filling and to converge and add value to other
programmes, which provide much larger resources to the same districts. The formula for
disbursement of BRGF funds within the district will also be derived at the local level Decentralized
planning is thus at the core of this programme.
In this scenario of renewed effort towards achieving effective planning at the grassroots level
through the DPCs, it is pertinent to look into the status of the DPCs which have been so far formed
across the states in the country.
(i) Composition of DPCs
The DPCs is generally composed of elected members of the local bodies within the district,
both rural and urban, as well as some nominated members. The number of members varies with the
population size of the districts. The ratio of members from Panchayats and ULBs is based on the
ratio in which the population of the district is divided between rural and urban areas.
(ii) Functions, Role and Responsibilities of DPC
The DPC is envisaged to play a nobal role in the district planning process by consolidating
rural and urban plans prepared by the villages and towns in the district and then preparing a draft
development plan for the district on the basis of the plans so received from within the district. DPC
is thus crucial to .the function of 'planning for economic and social justice', which is now a
mandated local function, in that it provides the vital link between rural and urban plans as well as
sectoral plans. In this respect it is important that DPCs have an understanding of the planning
process and, if required, the assistance of qualified planners and technical experts.
As per Article 243ZD, DPCs should also pay special regard to issues of common interest
between Panchayats and municipalities, such as spatial planning, sharing of physical and natural
resources, infrastructure development and environmental conservation. Since the states have
modeled their own legislative provisions for DPCs on Article 243ZD, the role and functions of DPCs
in the State Acts are similar.
12.11 Summary
India adopted a system of multi-level planning to prepare and implement the development
plans the planning commission at the centre played a significant role for over six decades to faced a
few problems during its journey and it was subsequently replaced by NITI Aayog. In each state
where is a planning machinery (mostly boards). However at the local level we lack an effective
planning ststem.
12.11 Suggested Readings
1. Arora, Ramesh K., and Goyal, Rajni, Indian Public Administration; Institutions and
Issues, Wishwa Prakashan, New Delhi, (Relevant Chapter), 2001.
2. Sahib Singh and Swinder Singh, Development Administration in India, New Academic,
Jalandhar, 2016.
3. Govt. of India, INDIA 2016: A Reference Annual, Publications Division, New Delhi, 2016.
12.13 Modal Question
Describe briefly the Organizations for Development Planning in India and role of NITI Aayog.
 146

12.14 Glossary
Cooperative Federalism – A concept of federation in which centre, state and local government
work together for common cause.
Sustainable Development Goals – Seventeen global goals set up by UN Gen. Assembly
Millenium Development Goals – Eight international Development Goals set by UN to teach by
2015.
Panchayati Raj – Title given to three tier rural local govt. in India.
Suggested Answer to SAE Questions
1. 1950 and 2015
2. PM of India, Vice Chairman, Full Time members and part time members.

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Lesson -13

ROLE OF THE UNITED NATIONS SYSTEM IN DEVELOPMENT

STRUCTURE
13.0 Objectives
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Principal Organs
(i) General Assembly
(a) Functions and Powers
(ii) Security Council
(a) Functions and Powers
(iii) Economic and Social Council
(a) Functions and Powers
(b) Subsidiary Bodies
(c) Relations with Non-Governmental Organizations
(iv) Trusteeship Council
(v) International Court of Justice
(a) Jurisdiction
(b) Membership
(vi) Secretariat
13.3 Secretary-General
13.4 United Nations and Economic and Social Development
13.5 New Global Consensus on International Economic Cooperation
13.6 International Development Strategy for the Fourth United Nations Development Decade
13.7 United Nations Programmes for Economic and Social Development
13.8 Technical Cooperation for Development
13.9 United Nations Development Programme
13.10 United Nations Development Fund for Women ,
13.11 United Nations and New Approaches to Development
13.12 Summary
13.13 Glossary
13.14 Modal Question
13.0 Objectives
After reading this lesson, you should be able to :
☻ explain the United Nations System and Set up
☻ appreciate Role in Economic Development
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☻ describe the role of UN in social and sustainable development

13.1 Introduction
Let us first discuss the United Nations system in brief. The United Nations — is an
organisation of 189 nations — nearly every State on the planet — legally commitmed to cooperate in
supporting the principles and purposes set out in its Charter. These include commibnents to
eradicate war, promote human rights, maintain respect for justice and international law, promote
social progress and friendly relations among natioas, and use the Organization as a centre to
hamonize their actions in order to attain these ends.
The United Nations Charter was written in the closing days of the Second World War by the
representatives of 50 Governments meeting at the United Nations Conference on International
Organization in San Francisco from 25 April to 26 June 1945. The Charter was drafted on the basis
of proposals worked out by the representatives2 of China, France, the Soviet Union, the United
Kingdom and the United States When they met at the Dumbarton Oaks Estate, Washington in
August-October 1944. The Charter was adopted and signed on 26 June 1945, by the representatives
of the 50 States participating in the Conference, and later by a fifty-first State Poland, which had
been unable to attend.
13.2 Principal Organs
The Charter established six principal organs of the United Nations:
(i) GENERAL ASSEMBLY
The General Assembly is the main deliberative organ It is composed of representatives of all
Member, States, each of which has one vote.
Decisions on important questions, such as those on peace and security, admission of new
members and budgetary matters, require a two-thirds majority. Decisions on other questions are
reached by a simple majority.
(a) Functions and Powers
Under the Charter, the functions and powers of the General Assembly include the following :
(a) To consider and make recommendations on the principles of cooperation in the
maintenance of international peace and security, including the principles governing
disarmament and the regulation of armaments.
(b) To discuss any question relating to international peace and security and, except where a
dispute or situation is currently being discussed by the Security Council to make
recommendations on it.
(c) To discuss and, with the same exception, make recommendations on any question within
the scope of the Charter or affecting the powers and functions of any organ of the United
Nations.
(d) To initiate studies and make recommendations to promote international political
cooperation, the development and codification of international law; the realization; of
human rights and fundamental freedoms for all, and international collaboration in
economic, social, cultural, educational and health fields.
(e) To make recommendations for the peaceful settlement of any situation, regardless of
origin, which might impair friendly relations among nations.
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(f) To receive and consider reports from the Security Council and other United Nations
organs.
(g) To consider and approve the United Nations budget and to apportion the contributions
among Members.
(h) To elect the non permanent members of the Security Council, the members of the economic
and Social Council and those members of the Trusteeship Council that are elected to elect
jointly with the Security Council the judges of the International Court of Justice, and, on the
recommendation of the Security Council, to appoint the Secretary-General.
While the decisions of the Assembly have no legal binding force for Governments they carry
the weight of world opinion on major international issues; as well as the moral authority of the world
community.
The work of the United Nations year round derives largely from the decisions of the General
Assembly that is to say, the will of the majority of the members as expressed m resolutions adopted
by the Assembly. That work is carried out :
(a) By committees and other bodies established by the Assembly to study and report on
specific issues, such as disarmament, outer space, peace-keeping, decolonization,
human rights and apartheid.
(b) In international conferences called for by the Assembly; and
(c) By the Secretariat of the United Nations —the Secretary-General and his staff of
ntemadonai cni servants.
(ii) Security Council
The Seony Council has primary responsibility, under the Charter, for the maintenance of
international peace and security.
The Council has 15 members : five permanent members China, france, the Russian
Federafion'tie United Kingdom and the United States — and 10 elected by the General Assembly for
two-year terms.
Each member of the Council has one vote. Decisions on procedural matters are made by an
affirmative vote of at least nine of the 15 members. Decisions on substantive matters require nine
votes indudmg the concurring votes of all five permanent members. This is the rule of "great Power
unanimity', often referred to as the "vote" power. All five permanent members have exercised the
right of veto at one time or another. If a permanent member does support a decision but does not
wish to btook it through a veto, it may abstain.
Under the Charter all members of the United nations agree to accept and carry out the
decisions of the Security Council.
While other organs of the United Nations make recommendations to Governments, the
Council alone has the power to take decisions which Member States are obligated under the Charter
to carry out.
(a) Functions and Powers
Under the Charter, the functions and powers of the Security Council are :
(a) To maintain international peace and security in accordance, with the principles and
purposes of the United Nations.
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(b) To investigate any dispute or situation which might lead to international friction.
(c) To recommend methods of adjusting such disputes or the terms of settlement.
(d) To formulate plans for the establishment of a system to regulate armaments.
(e) To determine the existence of a threat to the peace or act of aggression and to
recommend what action should be taken.
(f) To call on Members to apply economic sanctions and other measures not involving the
use of force in order to prevent or stop aggression.
(g) To take military action against an aggressor.
(h) To recommend the admission of new Members and the terms on which States may
become parties to the Statute of the International Court of Justice.
(i) To exercise the trusteeship functions of the United Nations in "strategic areas".
(j) To recommend to the General Assembly the appointment of the Secretary-General and
together with the Assembly, to elect the judges of the International Court.
(iii) Economic and Social Council
The Economic and Social Council was established by the Charter as the principal organ to
coordinate the economic and social work of the United Nations and the specialized agencies and
institutions—known as the "United Nations family" of organizations.
The Council has 54 members who serve for three years, 18 being elected each year for a three-
year term to replace 18 members whose three-year term has expired.
Voting in the economic and Social Council is by simple majority; each member has one vote.
(a) Functions and Powers
The Functions and powers of the Economic and Social Council are :
(a) To serve as the central forum for the discussion of inter-disciplinary nature and the
formulation of policy recommendations on those issues addressed to Member States and
to the United Nations system as a whole.
(b) To make or initiate studies and reports and make recommendations on international
economic, social, cultural, educational-health and related matters.
(c) To promote respect for and observance of, human rights and fundamental freedoms for all.
(d) To call international conferences and prepare draft conventions for submission to the
General Assembly on matters falling within its competence.
(e) To negotiate agreements with the specialized agencies defining their relationship with the
United Nations.
(f) To coordinate the activities of the specialized agencies by means of consultations with
and recommendations to them and by means of recommendations to the General
Assembly and the members of the United Nations.
(g) To perform services, approved by the Assembly, for members of the United Nations and,
upon request, for the specialized agencies.
(h) To consult with non-governmental organizations concerned with matters with which the
Council deals.
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(b) Subsidiary Bodies

The subsidiary machinery of the Council includes :
(a) Six Functional Commissions: Statistical Commission, Population Commission,
Commission for Social Development, Commission on Human Rights, Commission on the
Status of Women, Commission on Narcotic Drugs.
(b) Five Regional Commissions : Economic Commission for Africa (Addis Ababa, Ethiopia),
Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (Bangkok, Thailand), Economic
Commission for Europe (Geneva, Switzerland.), Economic Commission for Latin America
and the Caribbean (Santiago, Chile) and Economic and Social Commission for Western
Asia (Temporarily located in Amman, Jordan).
(c) Six Standing Committees : Committee for Programmes and Coordination, Committee on
Natural Resources, Committee on Non-Governmental Organizations and on Negotiations
with intergovernmental Agencies, Commission on Transactional Corporations,
Committee on Human Settlements.
(d) A number of standing expert bodies on such subjects as crime prevention and control,
development planning, international cooperation in tax matters, and transport of
dangerous goods.
(c) Relations with Non-Governmental Organizations
Under the Charter, the Economic and Social Council may consult with non-governmental
organizations which are concerned with matters within the Council's competence. The council
recognizes that these organizations should have the opportunity to express their views and that they
often possess special experience or technical knowledge of value to the Council in its work.
Over 900 non-governmental organizations have consultative status with the Council. They are
classified into three categories: Category I organizations are those concerned with most of the
Council's activities: category II organization have special competence in specific fields of activity of
the Council: and organizations on the Roster are those that can make an occasional contribution to
the Council, its subsidiary organs or other United Nations bodies.
Non-governmental organizations which have been given consultative status may send
observers to public meetings of the Council and its subsidiary bodies and may submit written
statements relevant to the Council's work. They may also consult with the United Nations Secretariat
on matters of mutual concern.
(iv) Trusteeship Council
In setting up an International Trusteeship System, the Charter Established the Trusteeship
Council as one of the main organs of the United Nations and assigned to it. The task of supervising
the administration of Trust Territories placed under the Trusteeship System. Major goals of the
System are to promote the advancement of the inhabitants of Trust Territories and their progressive
development towards self-government or independence.
The aims of the Trusteeship System have been fulfilled to such an extent that by November
1994, all Trust Territories including original II Trusteeships and Paiau, in the Pacific Islands earlier
administered by the, United States and mostly in Africa and the Pacific, have attained independence,
either as separate States or by joining neighbouring Independent countries.
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(v) International Court of Justice

The International Court of Justice is the principal judicial organ of the United Nations: Its
Statute is an integral part of the United Nations Charter.
The Court is open to the parties to its Statute which automatically includes all Members of
the United Nations may become a party to the Statute on conditions determined in each case by the
General Assembly upon the recommendation of the Security Council.
All countries which are parties to the Statute of the Court can be parties to cases before it.
Other States can refer cases to it under conditions laid down by the Security Council. In addition,
the Security council may recommend that a legal dispute be referred to the court.
Both the General Assembly and the Security Council can ask the Court for an advisory
opinion on any legal question; other organs of the United Nations and the specialized agencies when
authorized by the General Assembly, can ask for advisory opinions on legal questions within scope of
their activities.
(a) Jurisdiction
The jurisdiction of the Court covers all questions which states refer to it, and all matters
provided for the United Nations Charter or in treaties conventions in force. States may bind
themselves in advance to accept the jurisdiction of the Court in special case, either by signing a
treaty or convention which provides for referral to the Court or by making a special declaration to
that effect. Such declarations accepting compulsory jurisdiction may exclude certain classes of
cases.
In accordance with Article, 38 of its Statue, the Court, in deciding disputes submitted to it,
applies :
(a) International conventions establishing rules .recognized by the contesting States.
(b) International custom as evidence of a general practice accepted as law.
(c) The general principle of law recognized by nations.
(d) Judicial decisions and the teachings of the most highly qualified publicists of the various
nations, as a subsidiary means for determining the rules of law.
(b) Membership
The Court consists of 15 Judges elected by the General Assembly and the Security Council,
voting independently. They are chosen on the basis of their qualifications, not on the basis of
nationality, and care is taken to ensure that the principal legal systems of the world are represented
in the Court. No two Judges can be nationals of the same State. The Judges serve for a term of nine
years and may be re-elected. They cannot engage in any other occupation during their term of office.
The Court normally sits in plenary session, but it may also form smaller units called
chambers if the parties so request. Judgements given by chambers are considered as rendered by
the full Court.
The seat of the Court is at The-Hague, Netherlands.
(vi) Secretariat
The Secretariat an international staff working at United Nations Headquarters in New York
and in the field, carries out the diverse day-to-day work of the Organization. It services the other
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organs of the United Nations and administers the programmes and policies laid down by them. At Its
head is the Secretary General, who is appointed by the General Assembly on the recommendation of
the Security Council for a term of five years.
13.3 Secretary-General
The Secretary -General is described by the United Nations Charter as the "chief administrative
officer" of the Organization. He is, of course, much more than that, Equal parts diplomat and
activist, conciliator and advocate, the Secretary-General stands before the world community as the
very emblem of the United Nations. The task demands great vigour, sensitivity and imagination, to
which the Secretary-General must add a tenacious sense of optimism — a belief that the ideals
expressed in the Charter can be made a reality. The Secretary-General of the United Nations and the
seventh occupant of the post is Kofi Annan who took ofiice on 1 January, 1997.
The work of the Secretary-General involves a cettain degree of inherent, creative tension that
stems directly from the Charter's definition of the job. The Charter empowers him to bring to the
attention of the Security Council any matter which, in his opinion, threatens international peace and
security. It also calf upon him to perform "such other functions' as are entrusted to him by the
Security, Council, the General Assembly and the other main United Nations organs. Thus the
Secretary-General functions as both spokes person for the international community and servant of
the Member States-roles that would seem to guarantee some amount of friction. Far from
constructing his work, however, these broad ouKnes grant the Secretary-General an extraordinary
mandate for action.
The Secretary-General is best known to the general public for using his stature and
impartiality-his "good offices' — in the interests of "preventive diplomacy". This refers to steps taken
directly by the Secretary-General, or his senior staff, publicly and in private, to prevent international
disputes from arising, escalating or spreading. Indeed, as events and crises unfold across the glove,
the Secretary-General's words and deeds can have profound impact.
But his work also entails daily routine consultations with world leaders and other individuals,
attendance at sessions of various United Nations bodies and world-wide travel as part of the overall
effort to improve global understanding regarding the role of the United Nations in international
affairs. Each year the Secretaiy General issues an eagerly, awaited annual report in which he
appraises the work of the Organization and advances his view of its future priorities.
13.4 UNITED NATIONS AND ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
Most of the work of the United Nations, measured In terms of money and personnel, goes into
programmes aimed at achieving economic and social progress in the developing countries, where two
thirds of the world's people live, often in the grip of poverty, hunger, ignorance and disease.
Since its early days the United Nations, carrying out. The pledge in Article 55 of the Charter to
"promote higher standards of living, full employment and conditions of economic and social progress
and development" has supported the development efforts of the poorer countries.
Beginning in 1960, the General Assembly proclaimed four successive United Nations
Development Decades in order to focus international action on policies and programmes to aid
development. The Assembly has also adopted declarations, programmes of action and development,
strategies, designed to, strengthen international cooperation for development.
In the 1960s, both the General Assembly and the Economic and Social Council increasingly
stressed the need for a unified approach to economic and social pianning to promote balanced and
 154

sound development. This culminated in the adoption by the general Assembly of the Declaration, on
Social Progress and Development in 1969. In the 1970s, this approach was carried further through
the adoption by the General Assembly at a special session in 1974 of the New International
Economic Order. Subsequent Assembly resolutions calling for a unified approach to development
analysis and planning were adopted in 1983 and 1986.
In the late 1980s and early 1990s, the emphasis has shifted to more market-oriented
approaches to economic and social development without ignoring the important role of the State in
improving the human condition. Strengthening the relationship between economic growth and
human welfare has become the, principal theme of development for the 1990s through both national
efforts and a supportive international economic environment. This new consensus was reflected by
the General Assembly's adoption in 1990 of the Declaration on International Economic Cooperation,
in particular the Revitalization of the Economic Growth and Development of the Developing
Countries, and of the International Development Strategy for the Fourth United Nations
Development Decade.
13.5 New Global Consensus on Internationai Economic Cooperation
Before the end of the first United Nations Development Decade (1961-1970) the need for a
world plan of action or "strategy" for development became evident. The General Assemby therefore
adopted in 1970, an International Development Strategy for the Second United Nations Development
Decade (1971-1980), an important step in the promotion of international economic cooperation on a
just and. equitable basis.
Four years later, in 1974, the General Assembly adopted the Declaration and Programme of
Action on the Establishment of a New International Economic Order (NIEO), which was based on
"equity, sovereignty, interdependence, common interest and cooperation among States, irrespective,
of their economic and social systems". In furtherance of the NIEO, the General Assembly adopted, in
1974, the Charter of Economic Rights and Duties of States, stipulating that every State has the right
freely to exercise full permanent sovereignty over its wealth and natural resources within its nationhl
jurisdiction.
In 1979, the General Assembly called for the launching of global negotiations on international
economic cooperation for development. These negotiations did not achieve the progress hoped for,
but the Assembly nonetheless adopted by consensus an International Development Strategy for the
Third United Nations Development Decade (1981-1990).
At its special session in 1990, the General Assembly adopted by consensus the Declaration on
International Economic Cooperation, in particular, the Revitalization of Economic Growth and
.Development of the Developing Countries, in which the Member States "solemnly proclaim their
strong commitment to a global consensus to promote international economic cooperation for
sustained growth of the world economy, so as to realize the basic right of all human beings to a life
free from hunger poverty, ignorance, disease and fear".
The Declaration is evidence of a convergence of views among Member States on policies in
support of economic growth and development. Besides addressing the traditional issues such as
external debt, development finance, an open and equitable trading system, and better functioning of
commodity markets, the Declaration emphasizes the importance of a supportive international
economic environment, the adoption of appropriate domestic policies, and human resources
development. Furthemore, it introduces new concerns such as the integration of Eastern Europe in
 155

the World ; economy, protection and enhancement of the environment, reducing military
expenditures, and regional economic integration. The adoption of the Declarationwas an important
stepping-stone which laid the foundation far the adoption by the General Assembly later in 1990 of
the International Development Strategy for the Fourth United Nations Development Decade (1991-
2000).
The importance of the role played by the United Nations System in interhatibnat cooperation
was also stressed in the Declaration and, in 1991, the General Assembly adopted a resolution, on
restructuring 'and revitalization of the United Nations in the economic, social and related fields,
largely aimed at the role and functioning of the Economic and Social Council of the United Nations.
In February 1992, the Economic and Social Council decided to devote three days of its summer 1992
session to a ministerial level discussion of the role of the United Nations system in enhancing
international cooperation for development.
13.6 International Development Strategy for the Fourth United Nations
Development Decade
The International Development Strategy for the Third United Nations Development Decade
had set specific goals and objectives for an accelerated development of the developing countries in
the period 1981-1990. Global economic conditions, however, worsened considerably shortly after its
adoption, rendering many of the goals and objectives of the Strategy unattainable. Although the
General Assembly reaffirmed its commitment to the Strategy, at the mid-decade review it noted that
only modest progress in some areas had been achieved and the key targets had not been met. By the
end of the decade, the general view was that the 1980s had been a decade lost for development for
many developing countries and that a continued development failure in the next decade would be an
invitation to world-wide disorder.
The International Development Strategy for the Fourth United Nations Development Decade,
like its predecessors, aims at attaining accelerated devepment of developing countries, but unlike
them, it does not set specific targets or goals to be reached. Rather, it sets broad goals and objectives
and recognizes that many of them can only be realized in the medium and long term. Still, the
Strategy points out.that sectoral targets for economic and social development have already been set
in various parts of the United Nations-system. It views these targets as being consistent with many
of the elements of the strategy and considers them as valuable in focusing policies and in monitoring
progress.
In order to achieve the principal aim of accelerated development in developing countries and
strengthened international cooperation in the 1990s, the Strategy focuses on the mutually
reinforcing relationship between reactivation of growth and development on the one hand and the
improvement, of the human condition on the other Regarding the latter, the Strategy singles out four
priority areas of development, eradication of poverty and hunger human resources and institutional
development, population, and environment. For the reactivation of growth and development, the
Strategy identifies four prerequisites that need to be addressed urgently; external debt; development
finance; international trade; and commodity markets. Simultaneously, the Strategy recognizes the
need for developing countries to modernize and transform their industrial and agricultural sectors
and make use of advances in science and technology. Overarching the various sectoral issues are the
policy aspects which address both developed and developing countries relating to a supportive
international economic environment and appropriate domestic policies. The Strategy also provides
 156

for a biennial review and appraisal, the first of which was undertaken by the General Assembly in
the Autumn of 1992.
Concern by the United Nations system and the Member States over the critical economic
situation in Africa led to the convening in 1986 of a General Assembly special session on Aferica,
which adopted the United Nations Programme of Action of African Economic Recovery and
Development (UNPAAERD), 1986-1990, which sought to mobilize political and financial support for
economic reforms. In 1988, the Assembly undertook a mid-term review and appraisal and, in 1991,
a final review. It concluded that the critical economc situation of Africa continued, and at its final
review adopted a resolution calling for a New Agenda for the Development of Africa in the 1990s,
with the aim of reinvigorating the continent's development actions and of intensifying international
support for Africa's economic reform and development endeavours.
Over the years, the General Assembly has sought to strengthen international cooperation for
resolving the external debt problems of developing countries. In 1990, for the first time, and again in
1991, the Assembly adopted by consensus resolutions on this subject recognizing the severe and
continuing burden pladed on many developing countries by debt-servicing problems.
13.7 United Nations Programmes for Economic and Social Development
The United Nations family the United Nations itself and the various organizations related to it
is united in a global effort for the economic and social development of developing countries through
programmes ranging from technical cooperation to surveys and studies and to the convening of
international conference, and form comprehensive development planning to special projects
individual fields such as trade, industry and agriculture.
To help Governments to establish a more effective frame-work for development, the United
Nations offers support in the preparation of national development plans which ensure balanced
economic and social progress and the best use of available human, physical and financial resources.
It helps developing countries mobilize the funds needed to pay for development programmes, both by
increasing their export earnings and by attracting outside capital under terms they can afford.
Increasing priority is being given to programmes dealing with social implications of structural
adjustment, human resource development, eradication of poverty, population activities, the
advancement women, drug abuse control, crime prevention, the application of science and
technology to development, and protection of the environment. The United Nations helps
Governments investigate and make maximum use of natural resources, modernize and expand
transport and communications facilities, meet their housing needs and promote urban planning and
rural development. The United Nations family is also helping developing countries to improve
national statistical, budgetary and public administration services.
The United Nations has major programmes geared to population groups-children, youth, the
elderiy, disabled persons, migrants and refugees.
Development projects for individual countries are carried out at the request of the
Governments concerned. Other programmes are implemented on a regional basis, by the United
Nations Economic and Social Commissions-for Africa, for Asia and the Pacific, for Western Asia, for
Latin America and the Caribbean, and for Europe. Still other questions of global concern call for the
convening of international conferences with world-wide representation. Among such global
conferences convened in recent years are the following:
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(a) United Nations Conference on Desertification (Nairobi, 1977).

(b) United Nations Water Conference (Mar del Plata, 1977).
(c) United Nations Conference on Technical Co-operation among Developing Countries
(Buenos Aires, 1978).
(d) United Nation Conference on Science and Technology for Development (Vienna. 1979).
(e) World Conference on Agrarian Reform and Rural Development (Rome 1979).
(f) World Conference on the United Nations Decade for Women : Equality, Development and
Peace (Copenhagen, 1980).
(g) United Nations Conference on New and Renewable Sources of Energy (Nairobi, 1981).
(h) United-Nations Conference on the Least Developed Countries (Paris, 1981).
(i) World Assembly on Ageing (Vienna, 1982).
(j) International Conference on Population (Mexico City, 1984).
(k) World Conference to Review and Appraise the Achievement of the United Nations Decade
for Women (Nairobi, 1985).
(I) United Nations Conference for the Promotion of International Co-operation, in the
Peaceful Uses of Nuclear Energy (Geneva, 1987).
(m) International Conference on Drug Abuse and illicit Trafficking (Vienna, 1987).
(n) United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (Belgrade, 1983, Geneva, 1987;
Cartagena, 1992).
(o) International Conference on the Relationship between Disarmament and Development
(New York, 1987).
(p) Second United Nations Conference on the Least Developed Countries (Paris, 1981, 1990)
(q) Eighteenth special session of the General Assembly, on International Economic
Cooperation for Development (NewYork, 1990).
(r) World Summit for Children (New York, 1980).
(s) United Nations Conference on-Environment and Development (Rio de Janeiro; 1992).
13.8 Technical Cooperation for Development
The United Nations and its family of organizations and agencies have long played a key role
in providing technical cooperation to strengthen the national capabilities of developing countries.
United Nations technical cooperation programmes and projects have helped Governments;
— In the preparation of comprehensive plans to promote balanced economic and social
development and the best use of available human, physical and financial resources;
— In the exploration, exploitation and effective use of natural resources, such as water,
mineral and energy supplies;
— In the improvement of national statistical and public administration systems.
Technical cooperation programmes and projects also focus on population questions, including
the integration of population policies in development planning and on the rehabilitation and
development of housing, urban facilities and social services. Moreover, aid is offered for community
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development; to improve living conditions in both rural and urban areas; to assist in building
national capacity for development; and to help nations deal more effectively with the concerns of
young people, the elderly and the disabled.
Funding for United Nations technical co-operation comes from the United Nations regular
programme of technical cooperation, the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), the
United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA) and other extra budgetary resources which include
contributions provided directly to the executing agencies by multilateral funding organizations
within or outside the United Nations system, other than UNDP, and by unilateral or bilateral
contributions from Governments and non-governmental organizations.
In order to consolidate under one authority the responsibilities and resources within the
United Nations Secretariat in support of technical cooperation activities, the General Assembly, in
March 1978, set up the Department of Technical Cooperation for Development (DTCD). As the
principal operational arm of the Secretariat, DTCD provided technical expertise, training and direct
advice to assist Governments in the formulations implementation and evaluation of country and inter-
regional projects.
In March 1992, DTCD was merged into the new Department of Economic and Social
Development, which consolidated the substantive and technical capabilities of the United Nations
Secretariat in the economic and, social fields. The goal was to eliminate fragmentation and facilitate
new synergies between research and analysis, operational activities and system-wide, coordination
in the economic and social fields, and thus maximize the Impact of the Organization's world in these
areas.
13.9 United Nations Development Programme (UNDP)
The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) is the world's largest multilateral source
of grant funding for development cooperation. It was created in 1965 through a merger of two
predecessor programmes for United Nations technical cooperation. Its funds, which totalled $ 1.5
billion for 1991 come from the yearly voluntary contributions of Member States of the United Nations
or its affiliated agencies. A 48-nation Governing Council composed of both developed and developing
countries approves major programmes and policies decisions.
Through a network of offices in 115 developing countries, and in cooperation with over 30
international and regional agencies, UNDP works with 152 Governments to promote higher
standards of living, faster, and equitable economic growth; and environmentally sound development:
UNDP also works extensively with non-governmental organizations and promotes entrepreneurship
in development. It was providing financial and technical support for over 6,000 projects designed to
build Governments' management capacities, train human resources and transfer technology. These
projects cover such fields as agriculture, forestry, land reclamation, water supply, environmental
sanitation, energy, meteorology, industry; urban management, education, transport,
communications, public administration, health, housing, trade and development finance. Projects
valued at approximately $ 700 million were targeted to activities concerned with environmental
aspects of development.
All UNDP supported activities emphasize the permanent enhancement of self-reliant,
sustainable, development. Projects are therefore designed to :
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(a) Survey, assess and promote the effective management of natural resources, industrial,
commercial and export potentials; and other development assets.
(b) Stimulate capital investments to help realize these possibilities.
(c) Train people in a wide range of vocational and professional skills.
(d) Transfer appropriate technologies that respect and enhance the environment and
stimulate the growth of local technological capabilities.
(e) Foster economic and social development, with particular emphasis on meeting the needs
of the poorest segments of the population.
In each developing country, UNDP also plays the chief coordinating role for operational
development activities undertaken by the whole United Nations system. Globally, UNDP has been
assigned numerous coordinating roles, from administering special-purpose funds, such as those
entrusted to the United Nations Studano-Sahelian Office, the Capital Development Fund, the United
Nations Development Fund for Women (UNIFEM) and the United Nations Volunteers Programme, to
chairing the inter-agency steering committee of the international Drinking Water Supply and
Sanitation Decade (1981-1990). It also focuses on bringing women more fully into the process,
fostering participatory grass-roots development and encouraging entrepreneurship.
UNDP assisted developing-nation Governments and local NGOs and grass roots organizations
to prepare for the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, and continued to
provide support in transforming its Agenda 21, a comprehensive blueprint for global action plans, it
also co-manages with the United Nations Environment Programme and the World Bank New Global
Environment Facility, which provides grants to developing countries for programmes to reduce global
warming and to protect bio-diversity, international waterways and the ozone layer.
13.10 United Nations Development Fund for Women (UNIFEM)
The United Nations Development Fund for Women was established by the General Assembly
in 1976, and in 1985 it became UNIFEM. The Fund was created to provide direct support for
women's projects and to promote the inclusion of women in the decision-making process of
mainstream development programmes.
On a modest budget, UNIFEM has improved the lives of tens of thousands of poor women in
more than 100 African, Latin American/Caribbean, Asian and Pacific countries by providing them
with access to credit, training and technologies.
Allocations from $ US 2,000 to $ US 400,000 have been made for over 550 projects
representing a remarkably diverse range of activity.
Financial support for UNIFEM comes from international, non-government organizations and
private individuals as well as voluntary contributions from over 100 donor Governments.
Beside UNDP and UNIFEM, United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), World Food
Programme (WEP), United Nation Population Fund (UNPF), United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF)
and Intergovernmental Agencies related to the United Nations like the International Labour
Organization (ILO), United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO),
World Health Organization (WHO), World Bank, International Monetary Fund (IMF), International
Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) among several other members of the UN system also play
a significant role in development in various countries :
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Self Assessment Exercise

1. Name the Principal Organs of UNO.

2. Name any four UN Agencies.

13.11 United Nations and New Approaches to Development

A variety of guidelines and principles reflecting the new thinking about development are
highlighted in the action plans of the World Conference. The action plans call for their integration
into policy and programmes formulation at both the national and international levels. These
constitute the basis for evaluation of the Conference accomplishment over time. Some new
approaches to development as reflected by the United Nations system include :
1. Development should be centred on human beings. Because an individual's well-being is
multifaceted, a multidimensional approach to development is essential. Therefore; any
formulation of strategies, policies, national, regional and international actions has to be
based on any integrated and comprehensive approach.
2. Central goals of development include the eradication of poverty; the fulfilment of the
basic needs of all people and the protection of all human rights and fundamental
freedom, the right to development among them. Development requires that governments
apply active social and environmental policies, and the promotion and protection of all
human rights and .fundamental' freedoms on the basis democratic and widely
participatory institutions. Goals of economic growth and social progress in larger
freedom must therefore be pursued simultaneously and in an integrated manner.
3. Investments in health, education and training are critical to the development of human
resources. Social development is best pursued if governments actively, promote
empowerment and participation in a democratic and pluralistic system respectful of all
human rights. Processes to promote increased and equal economic opportunities, to
avoid exclusion and overcome socially divisive disparities while respecting diversity are
also a necessary part of an enabling environment for social development.
4. The improvement of the status of women, including their empowerment, is central to all efforts
to achieve sustainable development in its economic, social and environmental dimensions.
5. Diversion of resources away from social priorities should be avoided and, where it has
occurred, be corrected. The formulation of structural adjustment policies and
programmes should take these considerations into account.
6. An open and equitable framework for trade, investment and technology transfer, as well
as enhanced cooperation, in the management of a globalized world economy and in the
formulation and implementation of macro-economic policies, are critical for the
promotion of sustained, economic growth. While the private sector is the primary motor
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for economic development, the importance of an active role for governments in the
formulation of sodal and environmental policies should not be underestimated.
7. An acceleration of the rate of economic growth is essential for expanding the resource
base for development and hence for economic, technical and social transformation.
Economic growth generates the required financial, physical, human and technological
resources and creates a basis for sustained global economic growth and sustainable
development as well as for international economic cooperation. It is also essential to the
eradication of poverty.
13.12 Summary
United Nations Organization come up for the upliftment of the cause of world place and
progress, to promote human rights and digrity, to harmonize international relations and so on. It is
an organization of nearly two hundred countries and over the years the UNO and its agencies are
contiuously working in various fields of development such as economic progress, sustainable
development, allocation of poverty, promotionof education, health, welfare and so on.
13.13 Glossary
Trusteeship — A socio-economic policy a position of responsibility in which
someone’[s property money managed by someone else.
Standing Committee — Permanent Committees, but members may change
NGO’s — Generally non-profit making, non-governmental organization.
Human Rights — Rights inherent to all human beings, such as right to life &
liberty.
13.14 Model Question
Discuss the organization and functions of UNO. Evaluate its role.
Suggested Answers to SAE questions
1. General Assembly, Security Council, Economic and Social Council, Transfership Council,
International Court of Justice and in Secretariat.
2. WHO, IMF, FAO, ILO, UNDP, UNESCO
Note :- This lesson material is mainly from (a) Basic Facts. About the United Nations, New York,
1992, 1995 and 1998 and World Conference: developing Priorities for the 21st Century,
United Nations, New York, I 997.

:^^^^^^
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Lesson-1
Lesson-14

GENDER AND DEVELOPMENT

Structure
14.0 Objectives
14.1 Introduction
14.2 The Demographic Picture
14.3 Policies and Earlier Scenario for Woman's Development
14.4 Women and Development: Present Scenario
14.5 Report of the Working Group on Empowerment of women for the XI Plan
14.6 Constitutional Provisions
14.7 Legislations for Women
14.8 The National Policy for Empowerment of Women 2001
14.9 The National Commission for Women
14.10 International Commitments and Conventions
14.11 Various Schemes of the Ministry of Women and Child Development
14.12 Scheme for Economic Empowerment
14.13 Additional Schemes
14.14 Support Services
14.15 Implementation of Protection from Domestic Violence Act and other Acts the Ministry
14.16 Draft National Policy for Women 2016
14.17 Modal Question
14.0 Objectives
After reading this lesson, you should be able to :
• Explain various policies for women development and empowerment
• List various laws for women
• Explain various programmes and scheme for women development
14.1 Introduction
Women comprise a large proportion of India's population. It is estimated that there were in
2001 Census 496.4 million females with only 53.67 per cent literacy rate. Hardly a quarter of this
large number lives in urban areas. Despite their big number women continue to be a disadvantaged
section of the population with regard to education, health, employment etc. There is an urgent need
to search for alternative strategies for women's equality and development and to develop policies and
programmes addressed to women's specific problems and needs. In order to understand women's
problems let us first start with their demographic picture.
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14.2 The Demographic Picture

Unlike in most western countries, the number of males exceeds the number of females in
India. According to the 2011 Census, the male population was 623.2 million and the female
population was 587.5 million, adding up to a total of 1210.7 million. A simple index which give a
comparative picture of the growth of male and female population of the sex ratio which is defined in
the Indian Census as the number of females per one thousands males. In India the sex ratio was
927 females per one thousand males in 1991 as compared to 934 in 1981. There has been a
continuous decline in the sex ratio ever since 1901. For example, the sex ratio in 1901 was 972; it
declined to 946 in 1951, 941 in 1961 and 930 in1971. For the first time, in the history of post-
independent India, the sex ratio had increased slightly in 1981.
The census figures from 1951 onwards do indicate that only in 1971-81, the growth rate or
the female population was higher than that of the male population, unlike the situation in the earlier
decades. The overall growth rate of India's population was 22.0 percent during 1971-81; the growth
rate of the male population was 24.77 percent while that of the female population was 22.25
percent.
14.3 Policies and Earlier Scenario for Women's Development
The promotion of women's interests has mainly been the responsibility of the Government.
The committee on theStatus of Women in India (CSWI) had been appointed by the Government in
1971 to undertake a "comprehensive examination of all the questions relating to the rights and
status of women" in the context of "changing social and economic conditions in the country and new
problems relating to the advancement of women". The Committee made the first major attempt to
comprehend the trend of changes in women's status in the light of the Constitutional guarantees to
Justice social, economic and political: Liberty of thought, expression, belief, faith and worship.
Equality of status and of opportunity; and Fraternity-assuring the dignity of the individual and the
unity of the nation, when it submitted its report titled "Towards Equality" to the Government at the
beginning of the decade. Apart from reviewing the Impact of various legal and administrative
provisions for women's advance and their current situation in all sectors, the committee had been
asked to suggest further measures "which would enable women to play their full and proper role in
the building up of the nation."
CSWI did not need to debate the need and value of gender equality, as this principal had been
accepted in India more than half a century earlier, through the fundamental rights resolution of the
Indian National Congress in 1931, and then built into the Constitution of Indian Republic. The
Committee's focus was on diagnosis of social trends and response to the principal of equality, with a
view to identifying more effective strategies for its realisation. In the process, the report raised some
fundamental questions regarding the contradictions that appear when policies aimed at achieving
gender equality have to be pursued with in social structure which rest on unequal power and
resource bases. The hierarchical structure of Indian society, with its divers and complex socio-
economic institutions, organisational patterns and cultural values that sanctify such
institutions/patterns, makes it difficult for uniform strategies to be equally effective with different
groups. Thus legal reform, education and political rights - the three instruments designed by free
India to realise women's right to equality - had failed to benefit the large masses of women affected
by problems of poverty, powerlessness, overwork and illiteracy.
The investigation and the recommendation of CSWI and the guidelines provided the World
Plan of Action at Mexico had provided the basis for most of the debates on strategies,
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instrumentalities and other policy measures to operationalise women's equality. After a full day's
debate on the Report of CSWI. Parliament adopted a unanimous resolution, urging the Prime
Minister to initiate a comprehensive programme of legislative and administrative measures aimed at
removing as far as possible the economic and social injustices, disabilities and discriminations to
which Indian women continue to be subjected.
Same significant outcomes of these policy debates were - a shift in recognition - from viewing
women as targets of welfare policies in the social sector to their emergence as critical groups for
development. This recognition was reflected in the Sixth Five Year Plan (1980-85) which contained,
for the first time in India's planning history, a chapter on Women and Development. This shift
represented reassertion of the principal of women's equality of rights to participate effectively in the
process of development, ensuring there by movement in the direction of the constitutional goals. It is
also a reassertion of an ideology enunciated by the Father of the Nation that the future. India cannot
be built without the willing and conscious participation of one half of its population-women, and his
own belief that it is only through such participation that women could overcome the resistance and
barriers to their own equality and that the community as a whole could transform its own
Institutions. It is therefore, a matter of satisfaction that Indian women today have entered many
fields earlier considered to be only men's preserves many of them have taken to various professions
and have become scientists, lawyers, doctors, engineers, ministers, administrators, entrepreneurs,
managers; etc.
Another significant development is the recognition of women as a group adversely affected by
the process of economic transformation. In this case the Constitutional guarantee of equality would
be meaningless and unreasonable unless their economic status and their rights to economic
independence and recognition as a contributor to the family and the national economy is improved.
This was a major departure from development thinking of the past few decades, which placed women
squarely in the centre of policies for reduction in economic inequalities and eradication or alleviation
of poverty.
The Sixth Five Year Plan emphasised three strategies as essential for women's development.
(a) economic independence;
(b) educational advance; and
(c) access to health care and family planning.
The fact that economic independence was linked with access to resources is recognised in the
following statements :
(i) "the main drawbacks in women's development have thus been mainly preoccupation
with repeated pregnancies without respite, in physical work load, lack of education-
formal and informal - and a preponderance of social prejudices along with lack of
independent economic generation activity or independent assets. The strategy thus has
to be three fold of education, employment and health. They are inter-dependent and
dependent on the total development process. In addition, the voluntary adoption of the
small family norm has to be promoted among all couples"; and
(ii) "economic independence would accelerate the improvement of the status of women.
Government would endeavour to give joint titles to husbands and wives in all
developmental activities involving transfer of assets. This would be taken up for
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implementation to start with in programmes like distribution of land and house sites
and beneficiary-oriented economic units."
That shift in terminology from welfare to development and the extension of women's areas of
concern from the social services sector of education, health and welfare to the critical areas of
economic development-agriculture, rural development, land rights, forest policy and access to
training and investment resources for their participation in independent economic activities-
represented a major gain of the Decade. The first Working Group appointed by the Planning
Commission on women's affairs was the Working Group on Employment of women (1977-78) and the
-first cell on women to be established was in the Ministry of Labour and Employment (1975). The
legislation on women promulgated in 1975 on Equal Remuneration for men and women was later
converted into the Equal Remuneration Act, 1976.
Another important development was the explosion of information about women hitherto
'invisible' to planners and social analysts. CSWI had pointed out that the stock of information
regarding women workers was limited to the six per cent who were employed in the organized sector
of the economy and left out the overwhelming majority who were occupied in agriculture and other
unorganized occupations. The Indian Council of Social Science Research (ICSSR), which had
assisted CSWI's investigation by organising several studies, responded to the Committee's plea for
sustained effort in this direction by sponsoring research programmes on women, under the direction
of a Committee of eminent social scientists drawn from various social science disciplines, including
law. The programme of Women's Studies gave first priority to research on changes in occupational
and employment patterns, particularly of women in the unorganized sector. The lead taken by ICSSR
was followed by a growing body of researchers around the country, bringing to light a massive
amount of information regarding these and educational efforts. Organisations had received
assistance for such activities both from Government agencies such as the Central Social Welfare
Board (CSWB), DST and Ministry of Rural Development, as well as institutions created by various
state governments women's Development Corporations and international agencies like the ILO,
UNICEF, and the UN Voluntary Fund for the Women's Decade. Some bilateral assistance from
various developed countries was also utilised for this purpose.
Government programmes in the Welfare Sector, like ICDS, MCH, the Midday Meals
programmes, balwadie creches, etc., had greately helped in generating vast employment
opportunities for women.
Women's organisations which have multiplied substantially display several characteristics.
The first is an increased degree of concern and protest against the rising incidence of crimes of
violence against women. Organisations have joined in common forum to demand improvement in
laws for the protection for women against rape, harassment and dowry, against discrimination in
employment and against the exclusion of women's issues and concerns from the curricula of
educational institution. Typical examples of such joint forums were the Dahej Virodhi Chetana
Manch (forum to combat the dowry meance), the Forum Against Oppression of Women, the Indian
Association for Women's Studies, and the National Movement for Eradication of Women's illiteracy.
A second significant feature of the new women's movement was the emergence of new militant
and articulate organisations of poor working women which saw development activities not as ends in
themselves but as means to improve women's overall status in the neighbourhood and the political
system. Outstanding examples of this type of Organisation were the Self-Employed Women's
Association in Ahmedabad and the working women's Forum in Channai. Those organisations each of
 166

which used to have a membership of around 20,000 had been responsible for articulating the
problem of poor self-employed women in unorganised occupations who did not enjoy the benefits of
any legislative protection, trade unions or recognition from the community. The effort of those
organizations had resulted in due recognition being given to the major role played by the poor self-
employed women in the survival of their families and in contributing to national economy. The
organisations had also demonstrated the positive role that sympathetic credit institutions can play
in promoting low-cost economic activity by setting up their own cooperative banks. They had created
new functions for credit institutions. The banks not only provided cheap loans to their members, but
also organised training, productivity building, improving market outlets and providing technological
support. They had also taken over bulk purchase of raw materials to protect women from
exploitation by wholesalers. The leadership provided by the credit institutions had helped to
influence the designing and activities of some of the government sponsored Women's Development
Corporations.
The use of development activities to empower women to fight for their right had also helped to
inspire other women's and people's organisations which have begun to work at grass root levels.
There is a new trend among these groups - a shift from doing things for needy women to doing thing
with them - i.e., a move from charitable to the participatory approach. These groups have attracted a
small number of young, highly educated, professional women - as observers, mobilising field cadres,
or trainers in contrast to the earlier tradition among women's organisations that depended primarily
on voluntary effort of middle class women who did not need to earn a living and could engage in
social work.
The Constitution of India directs the State that women shall not only equal rights and
privileges with men but also that the state shall make provisions - both general and special for the
welfare of women. The legal status of women has to be considered from various points of view,
particularly with reference to marriage, divorce, abortion, guardianship of children, maintenance and
inheritance, matrimonial property and criminal law for the protection of women, while it is not
possible to bring about a change in the status of women through legislative action alone, the
importance of an effective legislative policy cannot be under-estimated. Commenting on the 'heavy-
reliance on law to bring about, social change' CSWl had observed that the "task of social re-
construction, development and nation building, all call for major changes in the social order to
achieve which legislation is one of the main instruments". This was particularly true in the case of
removing sex inequality, which had been prevalent in Indian society across generations through a
complex system of social institutions, norms of behaviour and religious prescriptions some of which
were enshrined as statutory laws.
CSWl had also noted the "stress on the removal of discrimination and special protective
legislation for women was necessary because British policy in the field of family law had crippling
effect on women." After reviewing the role of law in bringing about the desired transformation in
women's status through nearly 25 years, CSWl identified the following persistent issues which had
constrained that role. Those were
(i) The continued lacunae and differences in the various systems of personal law in the
absence of a uniform civil code.
(ii) Continuation of certain out-dated provisions in criminal law which bore little relationship
either to the Constitutional directives or -the emerging social reality. ,
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(ii) The absence of adequate enforcement mechanisms which had made many of the taws
ineffective; and
(iv) Inadequate efforts of social organisations to educate women regarding their legal rights.
While illiteracy and poverty constitute the major obstacle to women benefiting from
progressive laws, CSWI regretted the absence of any alternative methods to reach such
information and assistance to women.
Accepting CSWI's line of argument, the National Plan of Action stated: "legislation represents
national intent and policy and is necessary that existing legislation of personal laws be reviewed,
properly amended or new laws formulated to ensure equality before law among the sexes. Equally
important is the need to provide free, legal services to weaker sections, including women in need...
Legislation in itself cannot achieve results unless it is supported by socio-economic changes, an
awareness of rights and responsibilities by the weaker sections, effective legal implementation and
follow-up machinery. "The Plan included specific recommendations for reforms in personal law,
labour laws, criminal law, nationality laws and social security provisions. Review of developments in
the field of law revealed certain significant trends. There had been legislative enactments to reduce
some of the lacunae in personal, criminal and labour laws.
The amendments in personal law have, however, been concentrated in laws relating to the
majority community - the Hindus. This has contributed to a widening of the differences between
different systems of personal law. There are five systems of personal law that govern five religious
communities Hindu, Muslim, Parsee, Christian and Jewish. In addition, there are some Secular
laws, e.g. the Special Marriage Act, 1954, which can be invoked by citizens belonging to any
community.
14.4 Women and Development : Present Scenario
The principle of gender equality is enshrined in the Indian Constitution in its Preamble,
Fundamental Rights, Fundamental Duties and Directive Principles. The Constitution not only grants
equality to women, but also empowers the State to adopt measures of positive discrimination in
favour of women.
Within the framework of a democratic polity, our laws, development policies, Plans and
programmes have aimed at women's advancement in different spheres. From the Fifth Five Year Plan
(1974-78) onwards has been a marked shift in the approach to women's issues from welfare to
development. In recent years, the empowerment of women has been recognized as the central issue
in determining the status of women. The National Commission for Women was set up by an Act of
Parliament in 1990 to safeguard the rights and legal entitlements of women. The 73rd and 74th
Amendments (1993) to the Constitution of India have provided for reservation of seats in the local
bodies of Panchayats and Municipalities for women, laying a strong foundation for their participation
in decision making at the local levels.
India has also ratified various international conventions and human rights instruments
committing to secure equal rights of women. Key among them is the ratification of the Convention on
Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) in 1993.
However, there still exists a wide gap between the goals enunciated in the Constitution,
legislation, policies, plans, programmes, and related mechanisms on the one hand and the
situational reality of the status of women in India, on the other. This has been analyzed extensively
in the Report of the Committee on the Status of Women in India, "Towards Equality", 1974 and
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highlighted in the Natior Perspective Plan for Women, 1988-2000, the Shramshakti Report, 1988
and the Platform for Action, Five Years After - An assessment".
Gender disparity manifests itself in various forms, the most obvious being the trend of
continuously declining female ratio in the population in the last few decades. Social stereotyping and
violence at the domestic and societal levels are some of the other manifestations. Discrimination
against girl children, adolescent girls and women persists in parts of the country The underlying
causes of gender inequality are related to social and economic structure, which is based on informal
and formal norms, and practices.
14.5 Report of The Working Group on Empowerment of Women for The XI Plan
The Planning Commission on 17 April 2006 constituted a Working Group on "Empowerment
of Women" for the 11th Five Year Plan under the Chairpersonship of Secretary, Ministry of Women &
Child Development with the basic objective to carry out a review, analysis and evaluation of the
existing provisions/programmes for women and make recommendations for the Eleventh Five Year
Plan.
The extent of empowerment of women in the national hierarchy is determined largely by the
three factors - her economic, social and political identity and their weightage. These factors are
deeply intertwined and interlinked with many cross cutting linkages which imply that if efforts in
even one dimension remain absent or weak, outcomes and momentum generated by the other
components cannot be sustained as they will not be able to weather any changes or upheavals. It is
only when all the three factors are simultaneously addressed and made compatible with each other
can the woman be truly empowered. Therefore for holistic empowerment of the woman to happen -
social, economic and political aspects impacting a woman's life must converge effectively.
14.6 Constitutional Provisions
Women as an independent group constitute 48% of the country's total population as per the
2001 Census. The importance of women as an important human resource was recognised by the
Constitution of India which not only accorded equality to women but also empowered the State to
adopt measures of positive discrimination in their favour. A number of Articles of the Constitution
specially reiterated the commitment of the constitution towards the socio economic development of
women and upholding their political right and participation in decision making :
1. Article 14 - Men and women to have equal rights and opportunities in the political,
economic and social spheres.
2. Article 15(1) - Prohibits discrimination against any citizen on the grounds of religion,
race, caste, sex etc.
3. Article 15(3) - Special provision enabling the State to make affirmative discriminations
in favour of women.
4. Article 16 - Equality of opportunities in matter of public appointments for all citizens.
5. Article 39(a) - The State shall direct its policy towards securing all citizens men and
women, equally, the right to means of livelihood.
6. Article 39(d) - Equal pay for equal work for both men and women.
7. Article 42 - The State to make provision for ensuring just and humane conditions of
work and maternity relief.
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8. Article 51 (A)(e) - To renounce the practices derogatory to the dignity of women.

14.7 Legislations for Women
The State enacted several women-specific and women-related legislations to protect women
against social discrimination, violence and atrocities and also to prevent social evils like child
marriages, dowry, rape, practice of Sati etc. The recently notified Prevention of Domestic Violence Act
is a landmark law in acting as a deterrent as well as providing legal recourse to the women who are
victims of any form of domestic violence. Apart from these, there are a number of laws which may
not be gender specific but still have ramifications on women :
1. Equal Remuneration Act of 1976 provides for equal pay to men and women for equal
work.
2. Hindu Marriage Act of 1955 amended in 1976 provides the right for girls to repudiate a
child marriage before attaining maturity whether the marriage has been consummated or
not.
3. The Marriage (Amendment) Act, 2001 amended the Hindu Marriage Act, Special
Marriage Act, Parsi Marriage and Divorce Act, the Code of Criminal Procedure providing
for speedy disposal of applications for maintenance; the ceiling limit for claiming
maintenance has been deleted and a wide discretion has been given to the Magistrate to
award appropriate maintenance.
4. The Immoral Traffic (Prevention) Act of 1956 as amended and renamed in 1986 makes
the sexual exploitation of male or female, a cognizable offence. It is being amended to
decriminalize the prostitutes and make the laws more stringent again traffickers.
5. An amendment brought in 1984 to the Dowry Prohibition Act of 1961 made women's
subjection to cruelty a cognizable offence. The second amendment brought in 1986 makes
the husband or in-laws punishable, if a woman commits suicide within 7 years of her
marriage and it has been proved that she has been subjected to cruelty. Also a new
criminal offence of 'Dowry Death' has been incorporated in the Indian Penal Code.
6. Child Marriage Restraint Act of 1976 raises the age for marriage of a girl to 18 years
from 15 years and that of a boy to 21 years and makes offences under this Act cognizable.
7. Medical Termination Pregnancy Act of 1971 legalises abortion by qualified professional
on humanitarian or medical grounds. The maximum punishment may go upto life
imprisonment. The Act has further been amended specifying the place and persons
authorized to perform abortion and provide for penal actions against the unauthorized
persons performing abortions.
8. Indecent Representation of Women (Prohibition) Act of 1986 and the Commission of
Sati (Prevention) Act, 1987 have been enacted to protect the dignity of women and prevent
violence against them as well as their exploitation.
9. The Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act, 2005 provides for more
effective protection of the rights of women guaranteed under the Constitution who are
victims of violence of any kind occurring within the family and for matters connected
therewith or incidental thereto. It provides for immediate and emergent relief to women in
situations of violence of any kind in the home.
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14.8 The National Policy for Empowerment of Women 2001

The National Policy for Empowerment of Women 2001 has as its goal bringing about
advancement, development and empowerment of women in all spheres of life through creation of a
more responsive judicial and legal system sensitive to women and mainstreaming a gender
perspective in the development process. The strengthening and formation of relevant institutional
mechanisms and implementation of international obligations/commitments and co-operation at the
international, regional and sub-regional level was another commitment.
The Main Objectives of the Policy
(i) Creating an environment through positive economic and social policies for full
development of women to enable them to realize their full potential.
(ii) The de-jure and de-facto enjoyment of all human rights and fundamental freedom by
women on equal basis with men in all spheres - political, economic, social, cultural and
civil.
(iii) Equal access to participation and decision making of women in social, political and
economic life of the nation.
(iv) Equal access to women to health care, quality education at all levels, career and
vocational guidance, employment, equal remuneration, occupational health and safety,
social security and public office etc.
(v) Strengthening legal systems aimed at elimination of all forms of discrimination against
women.
(vi) Changing societal attitudes and community practices by active participation and
involvement of both men and women.
(vii) Mainstreaming a gender perspective in the development process.
(viii) Elimination of discrimination and all forms of violence against women and the girl child.
(ix) Building and strengthening partnerships with civil society, particularly womens
organizations.
14.9 The National Commission for Women
Brief History '
The National Commission for Women was set up as statutory body in January, 1992 under
the National Commission for Women Act, 1990 (Act No. 20 of 1990 of Govt. of India) to review the
Constitutional and legal safeguards for women; recommend remedial legislative measures, facilitate
redressal of grievances and advise the Government on all policy matters affecting women.
The Committee on the Status of Women in India (CSWI) recommended nearly two decades
ago, the setting up of a National Commission for women to fulfill the surveillance functions to
facilitate redressal of grievances and to accelerate the socio-economic development of women.
• Successive Committees/Commissions/Plans including the National Perspective Plan for
Women (1988-2000) recommended the constitution of an apex body for women.
• During 1990, the central government held consultations with NGOs, social workers and
experts, regarding the structure, functions, powers etc. of the Commission proposed to be
set up.
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• In May 1990, the Bill was introduced in the Lok Sabha.

• In July 1990, the HRD Ministry organized a National Level Conference to elicit suggestions
regarding the Bill. In August 1990 the government moved several amendments and
introduced new provisions to vest the commission with the power of a civil court.
• The Bill was passed and received accent of the President on 30th August 1990.
• The First Commission was constituted on 31st January 1992 with Mrs. Jayanti. Patnaik as
the Chairperson. The Second Commission was constituted on July 1995 with Dr. (Mrs.)
Mohini Giri as the Chairperson. The Third Commission was constituted on January 1999
with Mrs. Vibha-Parthasarathy as the Chairperson. The Fourth Commission was
constituted on January 2002 and the government had nominated Dr. Poornima Advani as
the Chairperson. The Fifth Commission was constituted in February 2005 and the
government had nominated Dr. Girija Vyas as the Chairperson.
14.10 International Commitments and Conventions
India has ratified various international conventions and human rights instruments
committing to secure equal rights of women. Key among them is the ratification of the Convention on
Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) in 1993.
14.11 Various Schemes of the Ministry of Women and Child Development
The Ministry of Women and Child Development, as the nodal agency for all matters pertaining
to welfare, development and empowerment of women, has evolved schemes and programmes for
their benefit. These schemes are spread across a broader spectrum such as women's need for
shelter, security, safety, legal aid, justice, information, maternal health, food, nutrition etc. as well
as their need for economic sustenance through skill development, education, and access to credit
and marketing.
The schemes of the Ministry like Swashakti, Swayamsidha, STEP and Swawlamban enable
economic empowerment. Working Women Hostels and Creches provide support services. Swadhar
and Short Stay Homes provide protection and rehabilitation to women in difficult circumstances. The
Ministry also supports autonomous bodies like National Commission, Central Social Welfare Board
and Rashtriya Mahila Kosh which work for the welfare and development of women. These schemes
were run in the Tenth Plan. It is proposed to continue some in the Eleventh Plan and also to take up
new schemes.
14.12 Schemes for Economic Empowerment
14.12.1 Swa-Shakti
The Project jointly funded by IFAD, World Bank and the Government of India was launched in
October, 1999 and culminated on 30th June, 2005. The objective of the Program was to bring out
socio-economic development and empowerment of women through promotion of women SHGs, micro
credit and income generating activities. The project was conceived, as a Pilot Project implemented in
335 blocks of 57 districts in 9 states. The Project established 17,647 SHGs covering about 2,44,000
women. This was a Centrally Sponsored Project.
14.12.2 Swayamsiddha
This is an integrated scheme for women empowerment through formation of Self Help Groups
(SHGs) launched in February, 2001. The long term objective of the programme is holistic
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empowerment of women through a sustained process of mobilization and convergence of all the on
going sectoral programmes by improving access of women to micro-credit, economic resources, etc.
This is a Centrally Sponsored Scheme. The Scheme has been able to provide a forum for women
empowerment, collective reflection and united action. The programme is implemented in 650 blocks
of the country. 67971 women SHGs have been formed benefiting 9,89,485 beneficiaries. The scheme
comes to an end in March 2007.
It is proposed to take up Swayamsidha with a wider scope during the XI Plan. It is also
proposed to implement a women's empowerment and livelihood project in four districts of Uttar
Pradesh and two districts of Bihar with assistance from IFAD. The schemes of Swayamsidha and
Swashakti would be merged and implemented as Swayamsidha, Phase-ll in the XI Plan. The Mid-
Term Appraisal Report of the Tenth Plan has also recommended merger of these two schemes as
these have similar objectives. The next phase would be a country wide programme with larger
coverage in States lagging behind on women development indices. Convergence is the basic concept
in Swayamsiddha.
14.12.3 Swawlamban Programme
Swawlamban Programme, previously known as NORAD/Women's Economic Programme, was
launched in 1982-83 with assistance from the Norwegian Agency for Development Corporation
(NORAD). NORAD assistance was availed till 1996-97 after which the programme is being run with
GOI funds. The objective of the programme is to provide training and skills to women to facilitate
them to obtain employment or self employment on sustained basis. The target groups under the
scheme are the poor and needy women, women from weaker sections of the society such as
Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes etc. In order to ensure more effective implementation and
for better monitoring/evaluation of the scheme, it has been transferred to the State governments
from 1st April 2006 with the approval of Planning Commission.
14.12.4. Support to Training and Employment Program (STEP)
This program seeks to provide skills and new knowledge to poor and assetless women in the
traditional sectors. Under this project, women beneficiaries are organized into viable and cohesive
groups or cooperatives. A comprehensive package of services such as health care, elementary
education, creche facility, market linkages, etc. are provided besides access to credit. Skill
development is provided in ten traditional skills amongst women. This is a Central Scheme launched
in 1987. The Ministry is at present getting the program evaluated. Based on the results of the
evaluation, the scheme is proposed to be revamped. Further, the possibilities of providing training
and skills to women both in traditional and non traditional sectors and integrating with Rashtriya
Manila Kosh for credit linkages are being considered. A sum of Rs. 240 crore was proposed for the
scheme in the XI Plan.
14.13 Additional Schemes
14.13.1 Scheme for Gender Budgeting
This has been included in the Eleventh Plan. At present, 56 Ministries/Departments have set
up gender budget cells and a number of Ministries/Departments have reflected allocation for women
in the Gender Budget Statement of the Union Budget.
14.13.2 National Mission for Empowerment of Women (NMEW)
This has been set up with a view to empowering women socially, economically and
educationally. The Mission aims to achieve empowerment of women on all these fronts by securing
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convergence of schemes/programmes of different Ministries/ Departments of the Government of

India as well as State Governments. Alongside the Mission shall monitor and review gender
budgeting by Ministries/Departmeits as well as effective implementation of various laws concerning
women.
14.13.3 Rashtriya Mahila Kosh (RMK)
This was created in 1993 with a corpus fund of Rs. 31 crore. Since, its creation, the RMK has
established itself as a premier micro-credit agency of the country, with its focus on poor women and
their empowerment through the provision of credit for livelihood-related activities. The RMK provides
micro-credit in a quasi-informal manner, lending to intermediate micro-credit organizations (IMOs)
(for example NGOs/voluntary organizations, women development corporations, women's cooperative
societies, and suitable Government/local bodies). The IMOs in turn lend to self-help groups (SHGs),
which in turn, lend to individual members at a rate not above the ceiling prescribed by the RMK, i.e.
18 per cent per annum on reducing balance method.
14.14 Support Services
14.14.1 Construction of Working Women Hostels
Under the scheme, financial assistance is provided to NGOs, Co-operative Bodies and other
agencies for construction/renting of buildings for Working Women Hostels with day care centre for
children to provide them safe and affordable accommodation. This is a central scheme. The
utilization of funds under the Scheme has been unsatisfactory during the Tenth Plan period because
NGOs are not able to avail funds due to strict norms of funding and lack of suitable proposals from
the organizations. In the current scheme, a day care centre is optional. Women with small children
would not prefer to stay in the hostel if the hostel does not have a day care centre attached to it. The
Committee would look into this aspect as well.
14.14.2 Creches
The Ministry runs a scheme of creches that caters to the children of poor working women or
ailing mothers. This provides a great help to women who are working as their children are being
provided a safe environment when they are at work. This scheme is being covered in the Report of
the Working Group on Child Development of this Ministry.
14.14.3 Relief, Protection and Rehabilitation to Women in Difficult Circumstances
(Swadhar)
This Scheme was launched in 2001-2002 for providing relief and rehabilitation to women in
difficultcircumstances. The main objectives of the scheme are as follows :
1. To provide primary need of shelter, food, clothing and care to the marginalized
women/girls living in difficult circumstances who are without any social and economic
support.
2. To provide emotional support and counseling to women.
3. To rehabilitate destitute women socially and economically through education, awareness,
skill upgradation and personality development.
4. To arrange for specific clinical, legal and other support for women/girls in need of those
interventions by linking and networking with other organizations in both Government and
non-Government sectors on case to case basis.
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5. To provide helpline or other facilities.

Benficiaries covered under the scheme are widows deserted by their families, women
prisoners released form jail, women survivors of natural disaster, trafficked women, women victims
of terrorist/extremist violence, mentally challenged, and women with HIV/AIDS etc. At present 129
shelter homes are functional in the country.
The number of homes currently functional in the country is grossly inadequate. The
requirements of women being catered to by the scheme are different. The needs of mentally
challenged women are quite different from that of women rescued from trafficking or women
survivors of disasters. Hence it is proposed to set up different homes for women with different needs .
The recently introduced Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act provides that women
seeking shelter should be accommodated in the shelter homes. These call for increase in the number
of shelter homes in the country. In the XI Plan, it is proposed to set up one home in each district. It
is also proposed to revise the schematic norms.
The root cause of most of problems being faced by women is lack of economic independence
among women. Providing training and skills in various vocations to women living in shelter homes
will facilitate them to obtain employment on sustained basis. Though the scheme in the current form
provides for vocational training, no separate funds are being provided for the purpose. Organisations
are expected to seek convergence of the benefits of schemes, like STEP, Swawlamban etc. In the XI
Plan, it is proposed to allocate funds for vocational training to the women as a part of the scheme.
It is also proposed to revise the'norms for food, medical expenses, clothing, rent etc. under the
scheme. A provision of Rs. 1000 crore is proposed in the XI Plan to set up more shelter homes as
also to revise the norms of the scheme.
14.15 Implementation of Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act and
other Acts of the Ministry
The Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act came into force on 26th October, 2006.
The XI Plan took up the following for effective implementation of the PWDVA :
1. Set up the required infrastructure and requirements to make the Act effective,
2. Provide training, sensitization and capacity building of Protection Officers, Service
Providers, members of the judiciary, police, medical professionals, counselors, lawyers,
etc. on the issue of domestic violence and the use of law (PWDVA and other criminal and
civil laws) to redress the same.
3. Monitoring the appointment of Protection Officers by regular feedback from the various
states.
4. 'Set up an effective MIS to monitor its implementation.
5. Give wide publicity to the Act.
14.16 National Policy for Women 2016
The Government of India, Ministry of Women and child Development in May 2016 issued a
draft "National Policy for Women 2016 : Articulating a Vision for Empowerment of Women."
The Draft Policy for Women 2016 envisages a society in which women attain their full
potential and are able to participate as equal partners in all spheres of life and influence the process
of social change. As well as to create an effective framework to enable the process of developing
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policies, programmes and practices which will ensure equal rights and opportunities for women in
the family, community workplace and in governance.
The Draft Policy points out that the current status of women with respect to human
development parameters, legal rights for women to life and freedom from violence, economic and
social discrimination and their rights to equality and equity shows that a lot still remains to be done.
It is necessary, therefore, to reinforce the rights-based approach for creating an enabling
environment in which women enjoy their rights.
In the coming years, India is expected to gain significantly from it's "demographic dividend" as
the share of its potential productive workforce will increase in numbers as compared to the aging
population of other countries. To what extent the country can size this dividend and benefit from it
will largely depend on how women exercise their rights and entitlements and contribute to the
development process.
14.17 Model Question
Briefly explain various Policies and Programes for development of women in India.
14.18 Glossary
- Empowerment : A process in which making capable to someone of make
him/her accomplish to perform.
- Gender Equality : Equality of all sexes
- Domestic Violence : Abuse by one against other in domestic setting
- Secularism : Equality to all religions : a belief the religion should not
influence making of govt.
- Swayamaidhi : Truism, Self-Determination
- Swavalamban : Self-Reliance

^^^^^^
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Lesson-15

MILLENIUM DEVELOPMENT GOALS AND SUSTAINABLE

DEVELOPMENT GOALS – AN OVERVIEW

Structure
15.0 Objectives
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Millenium Development Goals (MDG)
15.3 MDGs - Outcome
15.4 Sustainable Development Goals (SDG)
15.5 Summary
15.6 Model Question
15.7 Further Reading
15.8 Annexture
15.0 Objectives
After going through this lesson you shall be able to :
 Appreciate the significance of Millenium Development Goals
 Enlist the MDGs
 Describe the Sustainable Development Goals
 Can make a compertson of MGDs and SDGs.
15.1 Introduction
The world over a number of problems have been attracting the attention of various world
leaders and the various UN agencies. These problems, besides other, mainly include the problem of
extreme poverty, under nourisliment, illiteracy particularly among girls), infant and maternal
mortality, death relating problems including HIV/AIDS, Dialaria, TB etc., Problems of safe drinking
water and so on.
It was a feeling that rather then adopting a piece a meal approach there should be definite
time bound strategy and action to tackle of the problems. The result was UN millennium decleration
in Sept. 2000 and sustainable Development Goal declared in 2015.
15.2 Millenium Development goals
In the year 2000, in a UN Meeting the world leaders gathered and to draw a strategy and
visiou to tackle the problem of poverty in different parts of the world. The meeting concluded with
the drawing up a clear vision and cause out with eight Millenium Development Goals (MDGs) to
be achieved by 2015.
These goals were :
Goal 1 : Eradication of Extreme Poverty and Hunger
Goal 2 : Achieve Universal Primary Education
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Goal 3 : Promote Gender Equality and Empower Women

Goal 4 : Reduce Child Mortality
Goal 5 : Improve Matenal Health
Goal 6 : Combat HIV/AIDS, Malaria and other Diseases
Goal 7 : Ensure Environmental Sustainablity
Goal 8 : Develop a Global Partnership for Development.
15.3 MDGs – Outcome
The implementation of MDG strategy was based on the commitment and consistency to attach
the identified problems. As per UNDP and other UN reports the assessment of achievements
indicate positive outcomes.
The final MDG Report found that the 15-year effort has produced the most successful anti-
poverty movement in history :
• Since 1990, the number Of people living in extreme poverty has declined by more than
half.
• The proportion of undernourished people in the developing regions has fallen by almost
half.
• The primary school enrolment rate in the developing regions has reached 91 percent, and
many more girls are now in school compared to 15 years ago.
• Remarkable gains have also been made in the fight against HIV/AIDS, malaria and
tuberculosis.
• The under-five mortality rate has declined by more than half, and maternal mortality is
down 45 percent worldwide.
• The target of halving the proportion of people who lack access to improved sources of
water was also met.
Here we can have a look into the UN report and the MDGs (2015)
As we reach the end of the MDG period, the world community has reason to celebrate. Thanks
to concerted global, regional, national and local efforts, the MDGs have saved the lives of millions
and improved conditions for many more. The data and analysis presented in this report prove that,
with targeted interventions, sound strategies, adequate resources and political will, even the poorest
countries can make dramatic and unprecedented progress. The report also acknowledges uneven
achievements and shortfalls in many areas. The work is not complete, and it must continue in the
new development era.
The report includes goal wise a achievement in the following manner :
GOAL 1 : ERADICATE EXTREME POVERTY AND HUNGER
► Extreme poverty has declined significantly over the last two decades. In 1990, nearly half
of the population in the developing world lived on less than $1.25 a day; that proportion
dropped to 14 per cent in 2015.
► Globally, the number of people living in extreme poverty has declined by more than halt,
falling from 1,9 billion in 1990 to 836 million in 2015, Most progress has occurred since
2000.
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► The number of people in the working middle class—living on more than $4 a day—has
almost tripled between 1991 and 2015. This group now makes up half the workforce in
the developing regions, up from just 18 per cent in 1991.
► The proportion of undernourished people in the developing regions has fallen by almost
half since 1990, from 23.3 per cent in 1990-1992 to 12.9 per cent in 2014-2016.
GOAL 2 : ACHIEVE UNIVERSAL PRIMARY EDUCATION
► The primary school net enrolment rate in the. developing regions has reached 91 per
cent in 2015, up from 83 per cent in 2000.
► The number of out-of-school children of primary school age worldwide has fallen by
almost half, to an estimated 57 million in 2015, down from 100 million in 2000.
► Sub-Saharan Africa'has had the best record of improvement in primary education of any
region since the MDGs were established. The region achieved a 20 percentage point
increase in the net enrolment rate from 2000 to 2015, compared to a gain of 8
percentage points between 1990 and 2000.
► The literacy rate among youth aged 15 to 24 has increased globally from 83 per cent to
91 per cent between 1990 and 2015. The gap between women and men has narrowed.
GOAL 3 : PROMOTE GENDER EQUALITY AND EMPOWER WOMEN
► Many more girls are now in school compared to 15 years ago. The developing regions as a
whole have achieved the target to eliminate gender disparity in primary, secondary and
tertiary education.
► In Southern Asia, only 74 girls were enrolled in primary school for every 100 boys in
1990. Today, 103 girls are enrolled for every 100 boys.
► Women now make up 41 per cent of paid workers outside the agricultural sector, an
increase from 35 per cent in 1990.
► Between 1991 and 2015, the proportion of women in vulnerable employment as a share of
total female employment has declined 13 percentage points. In contrast, vulnerable
employment among men fell by 9 percentage points.
► Women have gained ground in parliamentary representation in nearly 90 per cent of the 174
countries with data over the past 20 years. The average proportion of women in parliament
has nearly doubled during the same period. Yet still only one in five members are women.
GOAL 4 : REDUCE CHILD MORTALITY
► The global under-five mortality rate has declined by more than half, dropping from 90 to
43 deaths per 1,000 live births between 1990 and 2015.
► Despite population growth in the developing regions, the number of deaths of children
under five has declined from 12.7 million in 1990 to almost 6 million in 2015 globally.
► Since the early 1990s, the rate of reduction of under-five mortality has more than tripled globally.
► In sub-Saharan Africa, the annual rate of reduction of under-five mortality was over five
times faster during 2005-2013 than it was during 1990-1995.
► Measles vaccination helped prevent nearly 15.6 million deaths between 2000 and 2013.
The number of globally reported measles cases declined by 67 per cent for the same period.
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► About 84 per cent of children worldwide received at least one dose of measles-containing
vaccine in 2013, up from 73 per cent in 2000.
GOAL 5 : IMPROVE MATERNAL HEALTH
► Since 1990, the maternal mortality ratio has declined by 45 per cent worldwide, and most
of the reduction has occurred since 2000.
► In Southern Asia, the maternal mortality ratio declined by 64 per cent between 1990 and
2013, and in sub-Saharan Africa it fell by 49 per cent.
► More than 71 per cent of births were assisted by skilled health personnel globally in 2014,
an increase from 59 per cent in 1990.
► In Northern Africa, the proportion of pregnant women who received four or more '
antenatal visits increased from 50 per cent to 89 percent between 1990 and 2014.
► Contraceptive prevalence among women aged 15 to 49, married or in a union, increased
from 55 per cent in 1990 worldwide to 64 per cent in 2015.
GOAL 6 : COMBAT HIWAIDS, MALARIA AND OTHER DISEASES
► New HIV infections fell by approximately 40 per cent between 2000 and 2013, from an
estimated 3.5 million cases to 2,1 million.
► By June 2014, 13.6 million people living with HIV were receiving antiretroviral therapy
(ART) globally, an immense increase from just 800,000 in 2003. ART averted 7.6 million
deaths from AIDS between 1995 and 2013.
► Over 6.2 million malaria deaths have been averted between 2000 and 2015, primarily of
children under five years of age in sub-Saharan Africa. The global malaria incidence rate
has fallen by an estimated 37 per cent and the mortality rate by 58 percent.
► More than 900 million insecticide-treated mosquito nets w/ere delivered to malaria-
endemic countries in sub-Saharan Africa between 2004 and 2014.
► Between 2000 and 20.13, tuberculosis prevention, diagnosis and treatment interventions
saved an estimated 37 million lives. The tuberculosis mortality rate fell by 45 per cent and
the prevalence rate by 41 per cent between 1990 and 2013.
GOAL 7 : ENSURE ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY
► Ozone-depleting substances have been virtually eliminated since 1990, and the ozone
layer is expected to recover by the middle of this century.
► Terrestrial and marine protected areas in many regions have increased substantially since
1990. In Latin America and the Caribbean, coverage of terrestrial protected areas rose
from 8.8 per cent to 23.4 per cent between 1990 and 2014.
► In 2015, 91 per cent of the global population is using an improved drinking water source,
compared to 76 per cent in 1990.
► Of the 2.6 billion people who have gained access to improved drinking water since 1990,
1.9 billion gained access to piped drinking water on premises. Over half of the global
population (58 per cent) now enjoys this higher level of service.
► Globally, 147 countries have met the drinking water target, 95 countries have met the
sanitation target and 77 countries have met both.
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► Worldwide, 2.1 billion people have gained access to improved sanitation. The proportion
of people practicing open defecation has fallen almost by half since 1990.
► The proportion of urban population living in slums in the developing regions fell from
approximately 39.4 per cent in 2000 to 29.7 per cent in 2014.
GOAL 8 : DEVELOP A GLOBAL PARTNERSHIP FOR DEVELOPMENT
► Official development assistance from developed countries increased by 66 per cent in real
terms between 2000 and 2014, reaching $135.2 billion.
► In 2014, Denmark, Luxembourg, Norway, Sweden and the United Kingdom continued to
exceed the United Nations official development assistance target of 0.7 per cent of gross
national income.
► In 2014, 79 per cent of imports from developing to developed countries were admitted
duty free, up from 65 per cent in 2000.
► The proportion of external debt service to export revenue in developing countries fell from
12 per cent in 2000 to 3 per cent in 2013.
► As of 2015, 95 per cent of the world's population is covered by a mobile-cellular signal.
► The number of mobile-cellular subscriptions has grown almost tenfold in the last 15
years, from 738 million in 2000 to over 7 billion in 2015.
► Internet penetration has grown from just over 6 per cent of the world's population in 2000
to 43 per cent in 2015. As a result, 3.2 billion people are linked to a global network of
content and applications.
Despite many successes, the poorest and most vulnerable people are being left behind
Although significant achievements have been made on many of the MDG targets worldwide,
progress has been uneven across regions and countries, leaving significant gaps. Millions of people
are being left behind, especially the poorest and those disadvantaged because of their sex, age,
disability, ethnicity or geographic location. Targeted efforts will be needed to reach the most
vulnerable people.
Gender Inequality Persists
Women continue to face discrimination in access to work, economic assets and participation
in private and public decision-making. Women are also more likely to live in poverty than men. In
Latin America and the Caribbean, the ratio of women to men in poor households increased from 108
women for every 100 men in 1997 to 117 women for every 100 men in 2012, despite declining
poverty rates for the whole region.
Women remain at a disadvantage in the labour market. Globally, about three quarters of
working-age men participate in the labour force, compared to only half of working-age women.
Women earn 24 per cent less than men globally. In 85 per cent of the 92 countries with data on
unemployment rates by level of education for the years 2012-2013, women with advanced education
have higher rates of unemployment than men with similar levels of education. Despite continuous
progress, today the world still has far to go towards equal gender representation in private and
public decision-making.
Big gaps exist between the poorest and richest households, and between rural and
urban areas
In the developing regions, children from the poorest 20 per cent of households are more than
twice as likely to be stunted as those from the wealthiest 20 per cent. Children in the poorest
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households are four times as likely to be out of school as those in the richest households. Under-five
mortality rates are almost twice as high for children in the poorest households as for children in the
richest. In rural areas, only 56 per cent of births are attended by skilled health personnel, compared
with 87 per cent in urban areas. About 16 per cent of the rural population do not use improved
drinking water sources, compared to 4 per cent of the urban population. About 50 per cent of people
living in rural areas lack improved sanitation facilities, compared to only 18 per cent of people in
urban areas.
Climate change and environmental degradation undermine progress achieved, and
poor people suffer the most
Global emissions of carbon dioxide have increased by over 50 per cent since 1990. Addressing
the unabated rise in greenhouse gas emissions and the resulting likely impacts of climate change,
such as altered ecosystems, weather extremes and risks to society, remains an urgent, critical
challenge for the global community.
An estimated 5.2 million hectares of forest were lost in 2010, an area about the size of Costa
Rica. Overexploitation of marine fish stocks led to declines in the percentage of stocks within safe
biological limits, down from 90 per cent in 1974 to 71 per cent in 2011. Species are declining overall
in numbers and distribution. This means they are increasingly threatened with extinction. Water
scarcity affects 40 per cent of people in the world and is projected to increase. Poor people's
livelihoods are more directly tied to natural resources, and as they often live in the most vulnerable
areas, they suffer the most from environmental degradation.
Conflicts remain the biggest threat to human development
By the end of 2014, conflicts had forced almost 60 million people to abandon their homes—
the highest level recorded since the Second World War. If these people were a nation, they would
make up the twenty-fourth largest country in the world. Every day, 42,000 people on average are
forcibly displaced and compelled to seek protection due to conflicts, almost four times the 2010
number of 11,000. Children accounted for half of the global refugee population under the
responsibility of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees in 2014, In countries affected
by conflict, the proportion of out-of-school children increased from 30 per cent in 1999 to 36 per
cent in 2012, Fragile and conflict-affected countries typically have the highest poverty rates.
Millions of poor people still live in poverty and hunger, without access to basic services
Despite enormous progress, even today, about 800 million people still live in extreme poverty
and suffer from hunger. Over 160 million children under age five have inadequate height for their
age due to insufficient food. Currently, 57 million children of primary school age are not in school.
Almost half of global workers are still working in vulnerable conditions, rarely enjoying the benefits
associated with decent work. About 16,000 children die each day before celebrating their fifth
birthday, mostly from preventable causes. The maternal mortality ratio in the developing regions is
14 times higher than in the developed regions. Just half of pregnant women in the developing
regions receive the recommended minimum of four antenatal care visits. Only an estimated 36 per
cent of the 31.5 million people living with HIV in the developing regions were receiving ART in 2013,
In 2015, one in three people (2.4 billion) still use unimproved sanitation facilities, including 946
million people who still practise open defecation. Today over 880 million people are estimated to be
living in slum-like conditions in the developing world's cities.
With global action, these numbers can be turned around.
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The successes of the MDG agenda prove that global action works. It is the only path
to ensure that the new development agenda leaves no one behind
The global community stands at a historic crossroads in 2015. As the MDGs are coming to
their deadline, the world has the opportunity to build on their successes and momentum, while also
embracing new ambitions for the future we want. A bold new agenda is emerging to transform the
world to better meet human needs and the requirements of economic transformation, while
protecting the environment, ensuring peace and realizing human rights. At the core of this agenda is
sustainable development, which must become a living reality for every person on the planet.
This is the final MDG report. It documents the 15-year effort to achieve the aspirational goals
set out in the Millennium Declaration and highlights the many successes across the globe, but
acknowledges the gaps that remain. The experience of the MDGs offers numerous lessons, and they
will serve as the springboard for our next steps. Leaders and stakeholders in every nation will work
together, redoubling efforts to achieve a truly universal and transformative agenda. This is the only
way to ensure a sustainable future and a dignified life for all people everywhere.
Views of Sey Gen. (UN) Ban Ki-Moon
The global mobilization behind the Millennium Development Goals has produced the most
successful anti-poverty movement in history. The landmark commitment entered into by world
leaders in the year 2000—to "spare no effort to free our fellow men, women and children from the
abject and dehumanizing conditions of extreme poverty"—was translated into an inspiring
framework of eight goals and, then, into wide-ranging practical steps that have enabled people
across the world to improve their lives and their future prospects. The MDGs helped to lift more than
one billion people out of extreme poverty, to make inroads against hunger, to enable more girls to
attend school than ever before and to protect our planet. They generated new and innovative
partnerships, galvanized public opinion and showed the immense value of setting ambitious goals.
By putting people and their immediate needs at the forefront, the MDGs reshaped decision-making
in developed and developing countries alike.
Yet for all the remarkable gains, I am keenly aware that inequalities persist and that progress
has been uneven. The world's poor remain overwhelmingly concentrated in some parts of the world.
In 2011, nearly 60 per cent of the world's one billion extremely poor people lived in just five
countries. Too many women continue to die during pregnancy or from childbirth-related
complications. Progress tends to bypass women and those who are lowest on the economic ladder or
are disadvantaged because of their age, disability or ethnicity. Disparities between rural and urban
areas remain pronounced.
Experiences and evidence from the efforts to achieve the MDGs demonstrate that we know
what to do. But further progress will require an unswerving political will, and collective, long-term
effort. We need to tackle root causes and do more to integrate the economic, social and
environmental dimensions of sustainable development. The emerging post-2015 development
agenda, including the set of Sustainable Development Goals, strives to reflect these lessons, build on
our successes and put all countries, together, firmly on track towards a more prosperous,
sustainable and equitable world.
Reflecting on the MDGs and looking ahead to the next fifteen years, there is no question that
we can deliver on our shared responsibility to put an end to poverty, leave no one behind and create
a world of dignity for all.
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15.4 Sustainable Development Goals

(www.un.org/development/dera/disabilities/envision.2030.fibral)
In September 2015, the General Assembly adopted the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable
Development that includes Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Building on the principle of
"leaving no one behind", the new Agenda ernphasises a holistic approach to achieving Sustainable
development for all.
(http://www.un.org/development/desa/disabilities/wp-content/uploads/sites/15/2016/
02/sdg-page-001-1-Jpg)
The newly implemented 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development holds a deep promise for
persons with disabilities everywhere.
The year 2016 marks the first year of the implementation of the SDGs. At this critical point, #
Envision 2030 will work to promote the mainstreaming of disability and the implementation of the
SDGs throughout its 15-year lifespan with objectives to :
► Raise awareness of the 2030 Agenda and the achievement of the SDGs for persons with
disabilities;
► Promote an active dialogue among stakeholders on the SDGs with a view to create a
better world for persons with disabilities; and
► Establish an ongoing live web resource on each SDG and disability.
Transforming Our World: 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development Department of Public
Information United Nations.
Three Dimensions of Sustainable Development • Sustainable development has been defined
as development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future
generations to meet their own needs. • For sustainable development to be achieved, it is crucial to
harmonize three core elements: economic growth, social inclusion and environmental protection.
Goal 1 : End poverty in all its forms everywhere United Nations.
Goal 2 : End hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition and promote
sustainable agriculture United Nations.
Goal 3 : Ensure healthy lives and promote well- being for all at all ages United Nations
Goal 4 : Ensure inclusive and quality education for all and promote lifelong learning
United Nations
Goal 5 : Achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls United Nations
Goal 6 : Ensure access to water and sanitation for all 21 March, 2016 United Nations
Goal 7 : Ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy for all
United Nations
Goal 8 : Promote inclusive and sustainable economic growth, employment and decent
work for all United Nations
Goal 9 : Build resilient infrastructure, promote sustainable industrialization and foster
innovation United Nations
Goal 10 : Reduce inequality within and among countries United Nations
Goal 11 : Make cities inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable United Nations
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Goal 12 : Ensure sustainable consumption and production patterns United Nations

Goal 13 : Take urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts United Nations
Goal 14 : Conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas and marine resources United
Nations
Goal 15 : Conserve and sustainably use the life and resources on Land
Goal 16 : Peace and Justice Strong Institutions
Goal 17 : Partnership to achieve the goals Revitatization of global partners in order to
strengthen the means of implementation)
15.5 Summary
The adoption and implementation of MDGs and SDGs are the big efforts on the part of world
leaders at the UN platform. The achievements of MDGs as per UN reports are considerable and
which should continueto the current period if next 15 years and even after that, i.e. 2030.
15.6 Model Question
Discuss the significance of MDGs and SDGs and evaluate the outcome of MDGs.
15.7 Further Readings
 UN publications/sites an MDGs & SDGs.
 UN org./Development/desa…Envision, 2030.
 UN Dept. of Eco. and Social Affairs (Envision 2030)
 www.un.org/milleniumgoals/2015.MDG.

15.8 ANNEXTURE
Viewpoint By Jaffrey D. Sach’s Earth Institute, Columbia University, New York, NY,
USA
From Millennium Development Goals to Sustainable Development Goals
The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) mark a historic and effective method of global
mobilisation to achieve a set of important sodal priorities worldwide. They express widespread public
concern about poverty, hunger, disease, unmet schooling, gender inequality, and environmental
degradation. By packaging these priorities into an easily understandable set of eight goals, and by
establishing measurable and timebound objectives, the MDGs help to promote global awareness,
political accountability, improved metrics, social feedback, and public pressures. As described by Bill
Gates, the MDGs have become a type of global report card for the fight against poverty for the 15
years from 2000 to 2015. As with most report cards, they generate incentives to improve
performance, even if not quite enough incen-tives for both rich and poor countries to produce a
global class ofstraight-A students.
Developing countries have made substantial progress towards achievement of the MDCs,
although the progress is highly variable across goals, countries, and regions. Mainly because of stardi-
ifi economic growth in China, developing countries as a whole have cut the poverty rate by half
between 1990 and 2010. Some countries will achieve all or most of the MDGs. whereas others will
achieve very few. By 2015, most countries will have made meaningful progress towards most of the
goals. Moreover, for more than a decade, the MDGs have remained a focus of global policy
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debates and national polity planning. They have become incorporated into the work of non-
governmental organisations and civil society more generally, and are taught to students at all levels
of education.
The probable shortfall in achievement of the MDGs is indeed serious, regrettable, and deeply
painful for people with low income. The shortfall represents a set of operational failures that
implicate many stakeholders, in both poor and rich countries. Promises of official development
assistance by rich countries, for example, have not been kept.
Nonetheless, there is widespread feeling among policy makers and civil society that progress
against poverty, hunger, and disease is notable; that the MDGs have played an important part in
securing that progress; and that globally agreed goals to fight poverty should continue beyond 2015.
In a world already undergoing dangerous climate change and other serious environmental ills, there
is also widespread understanding that worldwide environmental objectives need a higher profile
alongside the poverty-reduction objectives.
For these reasons, the world's governments seem poised to adopt a new round of global goals
to follow the 15 year MDG period. UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-Moon's high-level global
sustainability panel, appointed in the lead-up to the Rio+20 summit in June, 2012, has issued a
report recommending that the world adopt a set of Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). This
spring, Secretary-General Ban indicated that after the Rio+20 summit he plans to appoint a high-
level panel to consider the details of post-2015 goals, with UK Prime Minister David Cameron,
Indonesian President Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono, and Liberian President Ellen Johnson Sirleaf as co-
chairs. One scenario is that the Rio+20 summit will endorse the idea of the SDGs, and world leaders
will adopt them at a special session of the UN General Assembly to review the MDGs in September,
2013.
The SDGs are an important idea, and could help finally to move the world to a Sustainable
trajectory. The detailed content of the SDGs, if indeed they do emerge in upcoming diplomatic
processes, is very much up for : discussion and debate. Their content, I believe, should focus on two
considerations: global priorities that need active worldwide public participation, political focus, and
quantitative measurement; and lessons from the MDGs, especially the reasons for their successes,
and corrections of some of their most important shortcomings. I have served Secretaries-General Kofi
Annan and Ban Ki-Moon as Special Advisor on the MDGs, and look1 forward to contributing to the
SDGs as well. The following suggestions, which I make solely in my personal capacity, include
priorities for the S DGs and the best ways to build on the MDG successes and lessons.
Why SDGs ?
The idea of the SDGs has quickly gained ground because of the growing urgency of
sustainable development for the entire world. Although specific definitions vary, sustainable
development embraces the so-called triple bottom line approach to human wellbeing. Almost all the
world's societies acknowledge that they aim for a combination of economic development,
environmental sustainability, and social inclusion, but the specific objectives differ globally, between
and within societies. Certainly, as yet, no consensus regarding the tradeoffs and synergies across the
economic, environmental, and social objectives has been agreed. Still, a shared focus on economic,
environmental, and social goals is a hallmark of sustainable development and represents a broad
consensus on which the world can build.
The urgency of the triple bottom line arises from a new realisation brought to global
awareness by earth science and the yearly changes around us. The world has entered a new era,
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indeed a new geological epoch, in which human activity has come to play a central and threatening
part in fundamental earth dynamics. Global economic growth per person, now led by the emerging
economies, and a still-burgeoning population that reached 7 billion last year (and that is expected to
reach 8 billion by 2024) are combining to put unprecedented stress on the earth's ecosystems.
Following the lead of Nobel Laureate Paul Crutzen, one of the discoverers of the chemistry behind
stratospheric ozone depletion, scientists have quickly adopted the new term Anthropocene to denote
the human-driven age of the planet. A closely related notion is termed planetary boundaries—the
idea that human activity is pushing crucial global ecosystem functions past a dangerous threshold,
beyond which the earth might well encounter abmpt, highly non-linear, and potentially devastating
outcomes for human wellbeing and life generally.
The present era is distinguished by the fact that these pressures are both global and local,
and that they impinge simultaneously on several different crucial earth systems, including the
carbon, nitrogen, and water cycles. Humanity faces not only one but many overlapping crises of
environmental sustainability, including: climate change as the result of human-caused emissions of
greenhouse gases; massive environmental pollution (eg, the poisoning of estuaries and other
ecosystems as a result of heavy runoff of nitrogen-based and phosphorus-based fertilisers); the
acidification of the oceans, caused mainly by the increased concentration of atmospheric carbon
dioxide, which is the most important human-produced greenhouse gas; the massive loss of
biodiversity caused by unsustainable demands on forests (eg, logging for timber or wood fuel; figure
1) and the continuing conversion of forests and remaining wilderness into farms and pastures; and
the depletion of key fossil resources, including energy (oil, gas, coal) and groundwater.
In view of these dire and unprecedented challenges, the need for urgent, high-profile, and
change-producing global goals should be obvious. The public is beginning to sense that the
increasing frequency of extreme climate events is indicative of an underlying dangerous trend of long-
term change. The detailed reports of the Inter-governmental Panel on Climate Change have enabled
the world community to keep abreast of the latest scientific findings of anthropogenic interference in
the climate system. Moreover, the growing burdens of high and volatile food prices are confronting
billions of people daily. Beyond the environmental threats, humanity faces other serious threats that
are part of the sustainable development agenda. The human population continues to grow rapidly,
by around 75-80 million people per year, and is on a trajectory to reach 9 billion by the middle of the
21st century, and even 10 billion by the end of the century. Even the medium forecast of the UN
Population Division (which foresees a world population of 10-1 billion in 2100) could well turn out to
be low, since it is predicated on a rather steep decline in fertility rates in low-income countries. These
demographic trends have to be taken seriously, and households in high-fertility settings should be
empowered to adopt rapid and voluntary reductions of fertility to benefit themselves, their children,
and the local and global economy and environment.
The combination of a rising world population and rapidly rising incomes per person in large
emerging economies such as China and India suggests that the demand for food grains and feed
grains will continue to increase, amplified by rising meat consumption in the emerging economies,
against a backdrop of around 1 billion people who are already chronically hungry, mainly in Africa
and south Asia. In the past two decades, many of the key yield-raising technologies of the green
revolution have run their course; increases in productivity of food and feed grains have slowed
worldwide. A substantial share of US maize production has been diverted into biofuel. Increased
grain production is increasingly difficult, and threatens continued destruction of natural habitats,
climate change, water stress, increased fertiliser pollution, decrease in biodiversity, and more. Social
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outcomes could be deeply destabilising, because sharp increases in food prices threaten to push
hundreds of millions of people into chronic hunger.
Another set of challenges surrounds social inclusion or, put more simply, fairness—in the
world's economies. As the world has been stumbling through the intense period of globalisation
since 1980, together with the advent of the digital age, inequalities in income have generally soared.
Gaps in earnings between workers with higher education and those without have widened sharply.
The wages of highly educated and well trained workers have grown substantially, whereas earnings
of lower-skilled workers with fewer years of education have tended to decrease. The fragility of
gainful employment for large parts of the world's labour force, in both rich and poor countries, has
contributed to increased public unrest (figure 2) and even the toppling of governments in the past
few turbulent years, with more unrest expected.
Of course, the increased inequality caused by differences in educational attainment adds to
longstanding inequalities in other dimensions. The goal of gender equality between men and women
and boys and girls (MDG 3) has not yet been met worldwide, even though some progress has been
made on girls' school enrolment and women's participation in politics and business. Minority groups
(ethnic, religious, racial) continue to endure hardships in all countries. Longstanding discrimination
against indigenous popu- lations is stark and in many places intensifying as a scramble for jobs,
water, and arable land increases. Youth also find themselves aggrieved. They have arrived on me
planet at a time of remarkable technological advancement, notably in digital, material, and health
technologies, but seemingly also at a time when technological advance is threatening the access of
many people to good jobs rather than enhancing it.
The triple bottom line plus good governance
The MDGs were targets mainly for poor countries, to which rich countries were to add their
solidarity and assistance through finances and technology. The SDGs will, necessarily, have a
different feel about them. Sustainable development is eluding the entire planet. The SDGs should
therefore pose goals and challenges for all countries—not what the rich should do for the poor, but
what all countries together should do for the global wellbeing of this generation and those to come.
Middle-income emerging economies, such as Brazil, China, India, and others, will be crucial leaders
of the SDGs, and will have their own internal challenges of balancing growth and environmental
sustainability; vulnerabilities to adverse trends such as climate change; and rising geopolitical roles,
regionally and globally.
I would propose organisation of the SDGs into the three broad categories of economic
development, environmental sustainability, and social inclusion, with the proviso that success in
any of these three categories (or subcategories within them) will almost surely depend on success of
all three. The SDGs might have three bottom lines, but achievement of any of them is likely to need
concerted global efforts to achieve all of them. Moreover, the three bottom lines will depend on a
fourth condition: good governance at all levels, local, national, regional, and global.
The economic dimension should build on the MDGs, which have helped to advance the
world's agenda in the fight against poverty, hunger, and disease. Between 2015 and 2030, the world
should aim not merely to achieve the MDGs where they have not been met, but to carry on with the
task initiated at the very start of the UN itself (and represented in the Universal Declaration of
Human Rights): to secure the basic material needs—and I human rights—of everybody on the planet.
To:declare that by 2030, all extreme deprivation—hunger, extreme income poverty, and avoidable
disease and deaths—can be eliminated is both realistic and profound. All individuals should be able
 188

to access safe water (figure 3) and sanitation, electricity, connection to information and
communication technology (figure 4), and primary health "care, and be protected from natural
hazards. Many places will remain poor, but no place should be destitute, unable to meet these basic
needs.
A key challenge is to adopt a meaningful standard of basic needs worldwide. I would propose
the following goal.
SDG 1: by 2030, if not earlier, all the world's people will have access to safe
and sustainable water and sanitation, adequate nutrition, primary health
services, and basic infrastructure, including electricity, roads, and
connectivity to the global information network.
This target might seem optimistic, but it is well within reach. Technological advances and
economic growth are making it possible. One of the notable facts about poverty nowadays is that
well over half of the 1 billion people with a low income are living in middle-income countries, which
means that they are living in societies with the financial and technological means to address their
remaining poverty (as Brazil and China have effectively and notably done in recent years). Although
hundreds of millions of impoverished people still live in the least it developed countries, they are a
dwindling proportion of the world's poorest people, such that small financial and technological
transfers from high-income and middle-income countries can alleviate their plight.
The second pillar is environmental sustainability, usefully conceptualised by the global
planetary boundaries.
SDC 2 : from 2015 to 2030, all nations will adopt economic strategies that
increasingly build on sustainable best-practice technologies, appropriate
market incentives, and individual responsibility. The world will move together
towards low-carbon energy systems, sustainable food systems, sustainable
urban areas (including resilience in (the face of growing hazards), and
stabilisation of the world's population through the voluntary fertility choices
of families supported by health services and education. Countries will adopt
a pace of change during these 115 years, individually and with global
cooperation, that will enable humanity to avoid the most dangerous
planetary thresholds. The world community will help low-income countries to
bear the additional costs that they might entail in adoption of sustainable
systems for energy, agriculture, and other sectors.
I have put the emphasis on the main drivers of human-induced global environmental change:
energy use, food production, urbanisation with its attendant pollution and potential hazards, and
population increase. Food production, for example, is a major driver not only of greenhouse gas
emissions, but also of the loss of biodiversity and increasing stress on fresh water supplies. If
humanity can address these drivers of change in a respectful, civilised, balanced, and evidence-
based manner, through appropriate economic institutions, these challenges will be large but
achievable. If these issues continue to be ignored, they will eventually become calamitous. In my
view, none of the environmental dangers constitutes a fundamental obstacle to dose the technology
and income gaps between high-income and low-income countries. In other words, with improved
technologies and behavioural choices, both development and nature can coexist. SDG 2, as stated
above, begs many questions, especially as to who will help low-income countries to accomplish what
the high-income countries have not yet even accepted.
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The third broad SDG is social inclusion, the commitment to future economic and
technological progress under conditions of fairness and equitable access to public services, and with
the government counteracting social discrimination on the basis of gender, ethnic origin, religion,
and race.
SDC 3 : every country will promote the wellbeing and capabilities of all their
citizens, enabling all citizens to reach their potential, irrespective of class,
gender, ethnic origin, religion, or race. Every country will monitor the
wellbeing of its citizenry with improved measurements and reporting of life
satisfaction. Special attention will be given to early childhood, youth, and
elderly people, addressing the vulnerabilities and needs of each age cohort.
A particular focus should be on early childhood development (ages 0-6 years), the period of
crucial brain development, formation of cognitive skills, and vital health outcomes, all of which have
important lifetime implications. Special care should also be taken for children (aged 6-14 years) and
youth (aged 15-24 years), especially girls, to ensure that all young people can complete secondary
education and make an effective transition from school to skills to the labour market. In a world
where 12% of the population, and 22% of that of more developed regions, will be older than 65 years
by 2030, new targeted programmes and social protections will be needed for elderly people in many
countries.
Traditional measures of economic performance— namely, gross domestic product and
household income— capture only a small part of what determines human wellbeing. Human
happiness, life satisfaction, and the freedom from suffering depend on many things in addition to
meeting of material needs, including social trust, honest government, empowerment in the work-
place, mental health services, and a high level of civic participation. Many countries are adopting
new metrics to measure these determinants of wellbeing and to measure their ultimate bottom line:
life satisfaction of the population. Bhutan has inspired the world with its measure of gross national
happiness. During the 15 years of the SDGs, all governments should agree to introduce new
multidimensional measures of citizen wellbeing and the distribution of wellbeing in the population.
Governance for sustainable development
A fourth basic determinant of the world's ability to achieve SDGs 1-3 will be the quality of
governance at all levels, from local to global, and in the private sector as well as government. At
every level, government and official agencies should be responsive to the citizenry. Companies need
to recognise and act on their responsibility to a wide range of stakeholders. Together, the world's
governments should cooperate to finance and provide essential public goods and protect the
interests of future generations from the short-sighted despoliation caused by the present generation.
I would therefore suggest the following SDG.
SDG 4 : governments at all levels will cooperate to promote sustainable
development worldwide. This target includes s commitment to the rule of
law, human rights, transparency, participation, inclusion, and sound
economic institutions that support the private, public, and civil-society
sectors in a productive and balanced manner. Power is held in trust to the
people, not as a privilege of the state.
Governments represent not only today's generation, but also those to come. They will
introduce political institutions to ensure that the rights of future generations are respected. Societies
will promote the notion of subsidiarity—ie, that governance should be as close to the people as
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functionally possible, giving individuals and families maximum freedom of action. Governments will
share information, exchange ideas, encourage meetings and brainstorming, and work in good faith
across cultures. They will also shape a new sustainable and decent approach towards human
migration, recognising the growing economic and environmental pressures on people to leave their
homelands, and protecting the rights of migrants to resettle their families and meet their basic
needs.
Sustainability requires the leadership and responsibility of the private sector alongside the
public sector and civil society. The private sector is the main productive sector of the world economy,
and the holder of much of the advanced technologies and management systems that will be crucial
for success of the SDGs. Private-sector companies should support the SDGs in practical and
measurable ways, in their policies, production processes, and engagement with stakeholders. They
should refrain from lobbying and political activities that might, endanger the SDGs.
Official development assistance will have a continuing role for low-income countries during
2015-30, but the role of aid will decline as today's low-income countries reach middle-income status
as the result of economic growth. Private philanthropy and volunteering will be encouraged. All but
the poorest countries will share in the financing of global public goods, in relation to their respective
economic capacities and according to the principle of common but difFere-tiated responsibilities.
Official financing for the public goods of sustainable development will be based on secure,
predictable, and agreed formulas to end the non-fulfilment of financial pledges. Governments will
join together to implement international strategies and institutions to ensure the effective and rapid
diffusion of technologies that support sustainable development
Some lessons learned from the MDGs
The SDGs can benefit from both the successes and the shortfalls of the MDGs. The successes
are notable. Unlike many UN goals, the MDGs are still very much with us almost 12 years after their
adoption. This commitment is rare. I believe that three strengths of the MDGs can explain the
longevity of public support and awareness. First, the MDGs were reasonably easy to state—eight
simple goals that fitted well on one poster By contrast. Agenda 21. adopted at the UN conference in
& Rio de Janeiro in 1992, runs to 351 pages. These eight goals were what stuck in the public's mind,
not the 18 targets and 48 indicators. Simplicity has worked effectively in this case from the point of
view of public awareness, mobilisation, advocacy, and continuity.
Second, the MDGs were not a legally binding set of commitments, but rather a set of moral
and practical commitments. Little time was lost negotiating the exact words of the MDGs. Legally
binding commitments are almost universally regarded as the gold standard of international
diplomacy, but the number of years that are often invested in reaching legally binding treaties on
sustainable development are unlikely to counter-balance the heavy transaction costs and delays.
Even when legally binding agreements are reached (as in the case of the Kyoto Protocol), they are
often ignored in practice because of the absence of effective enforcement mechanisms.
Third, the MDGs could be pursued through practical and specific measures adopted by
governments, business, and civil societies worldwide. I do not want to overstate the case—many of
the MDGs will not be met in many countries—yet much progress has been achieved, and the
practical nature of the MDGs has played a powerful part in that success.
As Special Advisor for the MDGs, I have always emphasised very specific and actionable
measures as the keys to success. The UN Millennium Project, which I was honoured to lead,
subtitled its report A practical plan to achieve, the MDGs.' The studies in that project described many
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practical technologies—from antimalaria bednets to high-yield seeds—that taken together could

provide the basis for achievement of the MDGs.
The MDGs have also had their share of weaknesses, and these should be recognised to
improve the performance of the SDGs that will follow. I will mention four domains in which the SDGs
should improve upon the organisation of the MDG effort. First, the 15-year MDG period had no
intermediate milestones. The 15 years of the SDGs should include intermediate objectives and
milestones with clear dates. 15 years is a good stretch for serious policy making, but intermediate
stages along the way would ensure closer feedback between policies and outcomes.
Second, the lifeblood of the MDGs and the SDGs should be data that are accurate, timely, and
available to managers, policy makers, and the public. One of the biggest drawbacks of the MDGs is
that the data are often years out of date. Accurate published information from the past 12 months is
still not available for most low-income countries. This timelag was inevitable when data were
obtained by hand in household surveys, but in the age of the mobile phone, wireless broadband, and
remote sensing, data collection should be vastly quicker. Governments should consciously invest in
a real-time reporting system for the SDGs to produce reliable data with no more than a yearly, if not
quarterly, timelag. This investment would vastly strengthen programmes in several ways: advocacy,
feedback, and real-time management.
Third, the private sector should be crucially engaged from the very start. Neither the MDGs
nor the SDGs will be achieved without the leadership of private companies, large and small.
Multinational companies bring unique strengths: a worldwide reach, cutting-edge technologies, and
massive capacity to reach large-scale solutions, which are all essential to success. Yes, many large
companies are also lobbyists for policies antagonistic to sustainable development, so engagement
with business has to be done cautiously, but it should also be active, forward-looking, and intensive.
Fourth, and finally, the success of the SDGs will need societies worldwide to invest adequately
in their success. Sustainable development is the only viable path for humanity, but it will not be
achieved unless a small part of consumption spending is turned into investments for long-term
survival. The investments for sustainable development (eg, transition to low-carbon energy systems)
will not be heavy, certainly not compared with the massive costs if no investment is made. I have
previously estimated that meeting the major goals of poverty reduction, biodiversity conservation,
climate change mitigation, and primary health for all would need perhaps 2-3% of global income.2
That small amount, if properly invested, would be transformative.
The MDGs relied on voluntary financing mechanisms, notably the foreign aid outlays voted by
each parliament. Experience has shown that free riding on financial assistance is the norm, not the
exception. Only a handful of countries have abided by their promises to give 0-7% of their gross
domestic product as official development assistance. Even specific, timebound pledges (such as the
pledge at the G8 Gleneagles summit in 2005 to double official development assistance to Africa) were
not met. The SDGs should be more focused and realistic with regard to financing than were the
MDGs. Rather than relying on so-called aid voluntarism, in which countries announce their
individual aid promises (and then fail to honour them in most cases), countries should agree to
transparent and specific standards of financing, such as quotas and assessments (eg, International
Monetary Fund quotas and UN dues) related to national incomes, and levies on national greenhouse
gas emissions (eg, a few dollars per ton of carbon dioxide emitted per year). The sums are small,
manageable, and essential for success.
 192

Technology, the private sector, and critical pathways to sustainable development

When it comes to elimination of extreme poverty, the main strategy is to expand the reach of
crucial technologies (including medicines, diagnostics, electrification, high-yield seeds, and internet)
from high-income and middle-income economies to low-income economies. Meeting the SDGs will
be different. The world will need new technologies and new ways to organise human activity to
combine improving living standards and ecological imperatives. Technological and social change will
be paramount, in both rich and poor countries alike.
For this reason, the SDGs need the identification of new critical pathways to sustainability.
Moving to a low-carbon energy system, for example, will need an intricate global interplay of
research and development, public investments in infrastructure (such as high-voltage direct current
transmission grids for long-distance power transmission), private investments in renewable power
generation, and new strategies for regulation and urban design. The task is phenomenally complex.
Market-based strategies (such as carbon taxation) can help to simplify the policy challenge by
steering private decisions in the right direction, but politics, planning, and complex decision making
by many stakeholders will be unavoidable.
The SDGs will therefore need the unprecedented mobilisation of global knowledge operating
across many sectors and regions. Governments, international institutions, private business,
academia, and civil society will need to work together to identify the critical pathways to success, in
ways that combine technical expertise and democratic representation. Global problem-solving
networks for sustainable development—in energy, food, urbanisation, climate resilience, and other
sectors—will therefore become crucial new institutions in the years ahead.
New sodal media and information technology have given the world an unprecedented
opportunity for inclusive, giobal-scale problem solving around the main sustainable development
challenges. Scientists, technologists, civil society activists and others are increasingly turning to
online networks for collaboration, crowdsourcing, group problem solving, and open-source solutions
such as for software and applications. The pathways to sustainable development will not be
identified through a top-down approach, but through a highly energised era of networked problem
solving that engages the world's universities, businesses, non-governmental organisations,
governments, and especially young people, who should become the experts and leaders of a new and
profoundly challenging era.
Conflicts of interest
The author declares that he has no conflicts of interest.
Acknowledgments
I thank Guido Schmidt-Traub, Shiv Someshwar, Erin Trowbridge, Joanna Rubinstein, Lauren
Barredo, and Claire Bulger.
References
1. UN Millennium Project. Investing in development: a practical plan to achieve the
Millennium Development Goals. New York: United Nations, 2005.
2. Sachs JD. Common wealth: economics for a crowded planet. New York: Penguin Press,
2008.

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