THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS

Communication:

Definitions

‘Communication is a transaction whereby participants together create meaning through

the exchange of symbols’,( Fielding, 2004).

This definition stresses 4 major points:

Communication as a transaction i.e it involves two or more people who construct
meaning together, taking one another into account and working together
according to a set of rules.

People working together i.e for people to work together they have to learn to
develop mutual expectations. This enable people to work together.

The creation of meaning i.e people need to ensure that others understand what
they are saying. Effective communication demands people work together to
ensure that the meaning created is the same for all.

The exchange of symbols i.e this exchange enable people to create meanings.
These symbols may be verbal, non-verbal or graphic.

Communication is the exchange of thoughts, ideas, feelings, information, opinions and

knowledge. It involves the mutuality of understanding, (www.

ELEMENTS OF COMMUNICATION
-These are basically the components that help defining communication itself.
-These elements had been used by various authors/authorities to come up with different
communication models.

Sender
-This is the initiator of the communication process.
-The sender has an intention to communicate with another person, this intention is a
result of a stimuli.
-The sender then encodes the message.

Message

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Channel
The message is sent through a channel which can be made of a variety of materials e.g In
written communication the channel consist of paper or any other writing material.

Noise
-The communication channel is subjected to various sources of noise.
-In some contexts noise is referred to as filter
- Normally noise within a channel cause communication breakdown
-Even a solid channel such as paper can be crushed or stained and such phenomena are
noise in the communicative sense.

Receiver
-The intended destination of a messages.
-The receiver decodes the message according to his/her knowledge of the subject, ability
to use and interpret language and past experiences, (Fielding, 2004).

Feedback
-This is the response given by the receiver to the sender.

MODELS OF COMMUNICATION
-Different authorities came up with different communication models
-Earlier versions of communication models failed to deal much on one important element
of communication: feedback.

Shannon-Weaver 1949

-The second model stresses the transactional and continuing nature of communication.
-In this model the sender and receiver are shown to be constantly exchanging messages
until they reach an understanding, (Fielding, 2004).
- This model shows the convergence nature of communication as the sender and receiver
are both encoders and decoders of messages.

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FLOW OF COMMUNICATION IN AN ORGANISATION

-Communication in an organization has a purpose and messages do not float around

randomly.
-Messages have specific audiences and contain a specific content.

NETWORKS
- These are interconnecting lines of communication used to pass information from
one person to another.
-Networks ensure that messages do not flow randomly and aimlessly.
-Networks can be classified as centralized or decentralized
Centralized- depend on one person
Decentralized- do not depend on one person at the centre.

Centralized Networks

The chain

Circle

Wheel

-The wheel structure allows messagesto be sent from the centre to each person on the
outside
-Each person communicates with the centre but is unable to communicate with others
at the same level.
-The chain is similar to the wheel except that the people at the ends can communicate
to one or two people next to them.

Decentralized Network

All-Channel Network

This channel allows all members to send messages to, and to receive messages from,
all other members

Roles Within The Networks

-Within networks individuals have specific tasks/roles that they perform.
-The roles are as follows: Isolate, Liaison, Gatekeepers, Stars and Outside link/
Cosmopolite.

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 Isolate
-This is the person who works on his/ her own because hre/she has been given a task
to do that separates him/her from the group.
-Isolates run the risk of not being able to work properly.

Liaison
-These people form links between various work groups in an organization and they
are critical for the effective working of an organization.
-Liaisons receive more feedback and have more opportunities to deal with others in
their jobs.

Gatekeepers
- They regulate the flow of information within the organization.
- They decide what information will be sent on to other member of the networks.
- Gatekeepers can prevent information overload by screening and filtering
messages, however they can screen out important messages.

Stars
- They are normally the focus of most of the communication within the group.
- Stars have many relationships with other organizational members and they tend to
have a great deal of on-the-job influence with other members.
- They are usually opinion leaders – they are powerful and respected and are
followed without having any formal leadership role.

Cosmopolite/ Outside Link

- This person has a high degree of communication with the organisation’s
environment.
- Cosmopolites bring and give information to surrounding groups or other
organizations.
- Their contacts outside the system bring vital information about the environment
within which the organization works.

(Identify who these people are in organization)

Vertical communication
- The flow of communication up and down the organizational hierarchy.
- Downward communication comprise messages from managers to subordinates
and it can be in form of memos, notices, instructions, appraisals, etc
- Vertical communication comprise of messages from subordinates going up the
hierarchy to managers.
- Upward communication can be in form of proposals, oral and written reports,
suggested.

Lateral/Horizontal Communication
- Communication between people at the same level in an organization eg
managers from different sections of the organization.

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 Informal Communication/ Grapevine
- When staff in organizations find that the prescribed patterns do not give them the
all information they switch on to their own informal channels.
- Informal communication, normally referred to as grapevine is build around social
relationships of members within an organization.

BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION

Muddled Messages
- Effective communication stars with a clear message
- Ambiguous messages distort the process of communication.
- These messages leave the receiver unclear on the intentions of the sender, the
sender can be confused by such vague messages.

Stereotyping
- Stereotyping causes people to typify a person, agroup of people or a thing on
oversimplified conceptions, beliefs or opinions; thus basketball players can be
stereotyped as tall, people raised on diary farms as interested in animals, women
as inferior, etc
- Stereotyping can substitute for thinking, analysis and open mindedness to a new
situation which is not good for a communication process.
- Stereotyping is a barrier to communication when it causes people to act as if they
already know the message that is coming from the sender ; or when they feel the
receiver should not get a particular message because of who they are ; or when
people feel no message is necessary because everyone knows.

Wrong Channel
- Variation of channels help the receiver understand the nature and importance of a
message, e.g Using a training video on cleaning practices helps new employees
grasp the importance placed on animal health.
- When choosing a channel the sender needs to be sensitive to such things as the
complexity of the message ; the consequences of misunderstanding a messages (
medication for a sick person VS a guess about tomorrows weather) ; the
knowledge, skills and abilities of the receiver (a new employee VS a partner in
business) ; immediacy of action to be taken for the messages (instructions for this
morning’s works VS a plan of work for 2010).

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Languages
- Different languages pose a barrier to communication as people will have
difficulties in understanding each other.
-

Lack of feedback
- Feedback is the mirror of communication, it mirrors what the sender has sent.
- Without feedback communication is one way.
- Feedback happens in a variety of ways
Asking a person to repeat what has been said
A subtle stare, a puzzled look, a nod or failure to ask any questions after complicated
instructions have been given
- Feedback should be helpful rather than hurtful.
- Prompt feedback is more effective than saved up until the ‘right’ moment.
- Feedback should deal in specifics rather than generalities.

Poor listening skills

- Listening is difficult; A typical speaker says about 125 words per minute and a
typical listener can receive 400-600 words per minute
- Thus about 75% of listening time is free time but this free time often side tracks a
listener.
- Selective listening is also a barrier to effective communication.
- Listeners should be active listeners rather that passive listeners through some of
the following actions
Giving the speaker undivided attention
Avoid interrupting the speaker
Withholding judgement until the speaker has finished talking
Ask questions

Physical Distractions/Barriers
- Physical barriers in an organization include
Large working areas that are physically separated from each other
Marked out territories, empires into which strangers and other work mates are not
allowed
Closed office doors, barrier screens, separate areas for people of different status
- Research has shown that one of the most important factors in building cohesive
teams is proximity.

Emotions
- One’s emotions could be a barrier to communication if they are engrossed in their
emotions for some reason

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 - In such case one tends to have trouble listening to others or understanding
messages being conveyed to them.
- Some emotional interferences include hostility, anger, resentfulness, fear and
stress.

Lack of subject knowledge

- If a person who sends a message lacks subject knowledge then he/she may not be
able to convey a message clearly.
- The receiver will have difficulties in understanding the message thus posing a
barrier to communication.
- Senders should research much on any subject they have to communicate if they
are not familiar with what that subject entails so that they communicate facts.
- A receiver might also have less knowledge pertaining a particular subject and so
will not understand a good message from the sender. Receivers who do not have
adequate subject knowledge should be given a brief background of the subject so
that they familiarize with the message.

Perceptual barriers
- We all see the world differently , if we didn’t there was no need to communicate.

Cultural barriers
- Cultural differences can be a barrier to communication as people can stereotype
people from other cultures as inferior.
- Differences in culture bring about differences in the way non-verbal
communication acts are interpreted e.g Looking directly into another person’s
eyes is a sign of concerntration in American countries whilst that same gesture is
a sign of disrespect in African countries.

INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION AND GROUP COMMUNICATION

Interpersonal Communication
- This is communication that occurs between people who have known reach other
for some time.
- It involves few participants, interactions are within close physical proximity to
each other and feedback is immediate.
- Interpersonal communication calls good control of language, good listening,
sensitivity to non-verbal communication, and tolerance. It involves a range of
spoken and written messages,(Fielding,2004).

Good interpersonal skills between two people communicating with each other are:
Being assertive rather than aggressive,

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 Clearly stating one’s feelings, perceptions and interpretations of what others have said
and done,
Clearly stating what you intend to do,
Clearly stating the motives behind what you have said or what you plan to do,
Giving and receiving feedback.

The Johari Window

- The Johari Window was designed by Joseph Luft and Harrington Ingham.
- It shows the relationship between what the individual chooses to reveal about
himself or herself and what he chooses to keep hidden.

Known to Self Not Known to Self

Open Blind

Hidden Unknown

- The Open section stresses that we know certain things about ourselves and are
prepared to share them with others. The more we share with others about our
hopes, , fears and expectations, the easier they will find communicating with us.
- The Blind Section shows that there are areas of ourselves that we do not know
about. However others know about these areas, these can be mannerisims that
others find irritating.
- The Hidden section stresses that we are aware of certain things about ourselves
but choose not to reveal them to others.
- The unknown section represents information that we do not know about
ourselves, others do not have this information either.

Group Communication
- A group is a number of people who have gathered together working towards a
certain goal.
- People in groups develop sets of values and norms that help them work together;
interact together , sometimes over an extended period; share a goal; are prepared
to take risks in an group

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Advantages of groups
Groups enable people to:
Get to know each other
Work well together
Exchange information, ideas, opinions and attitudes
Stimulate each other
Become involved in common tasks
Work together to achieve the company’s goals.

Group Implications to Communication

For groups to work well managers and other organizational members need to ensure that:
 Effective listening takes place
 People are sensitive to each others needs
 Individuals are allowed to express themselves freely
 Individuals hear each other out
 A supportive climate is developed
 People value each other
 People express themselves clearly and openly
 People acknowledge each others’ contributions as valuable.

Types of groups
There are two broad types of groups which are :
Formal and
Informal groups.

Informal Groups
- These are casual groups without formal leaders.
- They gather informally for example in a tea room. People simply get together and
engage in an informal chat.
- Informal groups result in the development of informal lines of communication.
- Informal groups are important to organizations as they help people to know each
other better, they develop trust amongst people, and the relationships developed
help form a better working environment.
- Tension releasing groups are an example of informal group. In these groups
people discuss their anger and tension. This serves as an outlet for tensions that
could cause great problems if allowed to continue.

Formal groups
- These groups normally have an appointed instructor or leader who guides the
group.
- Learning groups are an example of formal groups. Through learning groups
people are able to increase their knowledge and learn to:

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 Evaluate ideas
Define problems
Work together
Cope with new information
- Policy making groups are formal groups that work together to:
Decide on company policy
Create rules for the company
Plan for the future
- Problem solving groups are formal groups set up to solve problems.
- Problem-solving groups are highly task oriented and follow certain procedures to
solve problems.
- Decision-making groups are formal groups that have leaders whose task is to see
that policies are put into practice.
- Decision-making groups have to make sure that they have the best information for
making decisions, and some of their decisions may be unpopular for example
deciding on whom to make redundant.

Ineffective groups
- Some groups do not work well
- Such groups have a destructive climate in the group; and have a desire to maintain
group cohesion at all cost.

Destructive climate
- A destructive climate in a group will develop if members do not value each
others’ contributions; listen to each other properly.
- Other characteristics of a destructing culture are:
Being too judgmental on others’ ideas and values
A superior attitude towards others in the group
Rejecting others’ ideas as worthless
Refusal to work with others on an equal basis.

Maintaining group cohesion

- If a group decides to maintain its cohesion at all cost then the group may become
blind to its weaknesses.
- This attitude may lead to:
Refusal to accept any ideas that might change the group’s present position
Acceptance of only the ideas that support the group’s views
Refusal to think critically
An illusion that the group’s position can never be challenged
An assumption that everyone else holds the same beliefs as the group’s

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FORMAL AND INFORMAL COMMUNICATION

Formal communication
- This is communication that takes place through the formal channels of the
organizational structure along the lines of authority established by
management.
- Formal communication is used in professional settings, and it involves the use
of formal language.
- Such communication is generally in writing and may take the form of policy
manuals, procedures and rule books, memos, official meeting reports,etc
- Formal communication result in vertical, lateral/horizontal and diagonal flow
of information in an organization.

Vertical communication
- Vertical flow of communication is crucial for the running of the organization.
- It allows for the giving of instructions and receiving of feedback.
- There are two forms of vertical communication which are upward and
downward communication.

Downward communication
- These are messages sent from managers to subordinates.
- It can be in form of memos, notices, instructions, appraisals, etc
- The purposes of downward communication are:
To describe the company’s goals, philosophies and mission
To describe company’s policies and procedures
To describe the employees relationships with the company
To instruct people on how to do a job
To give feedback on how successful previous jobs have been

Upward communication
- These are messages from subordinates going up the hierarchy to managers
- It can be in form of proposals, oral and written reports,suggestions
- The purposes of upward communication are:
To receive feedback on how well messages have been received
To receive feedback on the progress of tasks
To receive suggestions from staff
To receive proposals from staff

Lateral/Horizontal communication
- Lateral communication implies communication between equals such as
departmental heads, or between similar departments.
- Much of horizontal communication takes place through face to face
discussions. Reports and memos are also used.

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 - In some organizations it is difficult to communicate horizontally without
sending messages upward to let people know what is going on
- Lateral communication enable people in different departments to appreciate
the activities of other departments and reduce rivalry between departments.

Diagonal communication

Informal communication
- This is communication arising from channels outside formal channels and
does not follow lines of authority
- Informal communication is build around social relationships of members in an
organization.
- Its difficult to fix responsibility about accuracy of information within informal
communication channels.
- Informal communication is used in unprofessional setups and involve the use
of informal language such as slang
- Informal communication result in the formation of grapevines which carry
gossip and rumours around the organization
- The grapevine fills an information void

Purpose of informal communication

- To satisfy personal needs
- To prevent boredom
- To provide information about the organization which is not provided by
formal channels. This helps organizational members to make sense of what is
going on in an organization
- It serves as a barometer regarding the organization. It gives vital feedback to
management regarding the organization

There are certain attributes of grapevine that makes it useful and important:
It is fast
Most of the time it is accurate
It carries a great deal of information
- Managers can tell a great deal about the mood of their staff if they pay
attention to grapevine
- Grapevine can allow people to blow off esteem and it boosts morale by
uniting staff
- At its worst grapevine spread rumours within an organization of things that
may not be true, thus motivating some staff members
- The spread of false rumour can result in conflict in the organization

ORGANIZATIONAL CONFLICT

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 - Conflict is inevitable when people work together whether in formal or
informal setups
- Conflict arise because of differences in values, needs and leadership style
- Conflict can be viewed from negative and positive approaches.
- The negative approach to conflict views conflict as destructive and is a sign of
incompetence on part of the organization.
- This negative approach holds that conflict is caused by a few undesirable
people who show their anger, aggression and violent nature.
- The positive approach views conflict as natural in an organization; is helpful
to some degree if properly handled.
- If properly handled, the positive approach asserts that, conflict can lead to
better participation, higher motivation and greater creativity thus leading to
development of procedures for improved management of conflict in the
future, (Fielding, 2004).
- This view also recognizes that conflict can be harmful if people became so
involved that they cannot concentrate on their work
- If conflict is allowed to continue, then people will
 Withhold information
 Stay away
 Leave the company

Managing conflict in an organization

- There are two approaches to management of conflict which are
 Avoiding the conflict
 Confronting the conflict

Avoiding conflict
- People avoid conflict because they feel that they cannot handle it
- They smooth out the differences and hope that the conflict will go away
- People may also postpone resolution of the conflict until the anger has
disappeared but this only help in the short term because this does not allow
people to settle the most important issues.

Confronting conflict
- If conflict has to be resolved people take three major options:
 Try to win without considering the other side (win-lose)
 Attempt a compromise solution (lose-lose)
 Make both sides win (win-win)

Win-lose approach
- This approach is based on power whereby one side uses authority to defeat the
other side
- However this approach is short term and can cause anger on the losing side.

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 Lose-lose approach
- At times referred to as compromise.
- This approach calls for both sides to make concessions, but nobody is
completely satisfied
- This approach is useful in the short term and can lead to dissatisfaction in the
long run

Win-win approach
- This approach stresses that all parties can win if the conflict is well handled
- All parties to the conflict sit on one side and try to solve the problem at hand,
focusing on the problem other than trying to prove who is right or wrong
- The aim is to work towards a towards a common goal that will satisfy
everybody
- This approach creates an atmosphere of trust within an organization.

Implications of conflict for communication

Those involved in conflict need to:

Analyse the type of conflict
Try to create an atmosphere of trust
Strive towards a win-win situation
Encourage effective listening
Acknowledge the values and interests of others

INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION

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NON VERBAL COMMUNICATION

- Non-verbal communication involves the sending of messages without the use

of words
- It is a continuous process and it is the principal means by which feelings and
attitudes are conveyed.
- Awareness of non-verbal cues is necessary to ensure that a mixed message is
not sent and also that there is no contradiction between verbal and non-verbal
messages.
- Peter Drucker noted that ‘The most important thing in communication is to
hear what is not being said’, this stresses the importance of noting non-verbal
cues during communication.

Problems with the interpretations of non-verbal communication

Non-verbal communication can be vague

The meaning of non-verbal communication needs to be established from the total

context, rather from the behaviour itself

Non-verbal communication is culture specific.

THE RANGE OF NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION

- People show their attitudes, moods and emotions through non-verbal actions.
Some of these include the following.

Facial expressions
- Seldom are we expressionless
- Our faces portray a wide range of emotions and reactions such as caring,
disgust or doubt.
- Facial expressions can be used to show that we understand or are in agreement
(smiling or nodding) or we do not understand and need clarification (a
quizzical look, eyebrow tightened).

Eye contact
- Eye contact is used to regulate a conversation in the same way as hand
movements, (Fielding, 2004).
- Meeting one’s glance indicates a sign of involvement or of confidence
- Looking away signals a desire to avoid contact
- Establishing eye contact indicates an interest in what someone is
communicating
- During speeches, speakers should keep a good eye contact with the audience

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 - A person’s comfort level with direct or sustained eye contact is influenced by
that individual’s culture and background. Some cultures value looking down
as a sign of respect.

Touching
- Cultures vary a great deal in their attitudes to touching and people involved in
intercultural communication have to be aware of that.
- People from other cultures may value touching during conversations,
particularly to gain attention or to interrupt.
- Touching is effective for gaining a person’s attention and it may encourage
people to disclose more information than they would normally have. It
expresses an acknowledgement of one’s existence.
- Touches to the cheeks and head are strong signals of affection.
- Touching can convey warmth, understanding, sympathy and compassion
- Touching and one’s comfort with being touched is a very individualized
characteristic.

Distance/ Personal space

- The way people use space is part of no-verbal communication
- Each of us has a variable size of personal space
- There are four distances that we use depending on how we feel towards a
person we are communicating with.

Intimate distance/zone
- Reserved for people whom we feel emotionally close to
- The zone begins with skin contact and ranges out to about 18inches

Personal distance
- This can range from 18 inches to about 4 feet
- The contact is close, but less personal on the intimate distance.

Social distance
- It ranges from 4 feet to 12 feet
- Most business situations occur within this distance

Public distance
- It runs from 12 feet outward. The closer range of public distance is the one
most teachers/lecturers use in the classroom

Gestures and Movements

- In other contexts body movements are referred to as proxemics
- Body movements and gestures convey our feelings and attitudes.
- Gestures can be used to puncture a statement, for example, pointing to
emphasize or signaling to get attention.

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 - Some body movements indicate tension or boredom i.e shifting in one’s seat,
foot tapping, etc are signs of inattentiveness.
- Body movements and gestures affect the ways in which we communicate and
affects how others interpret us

Silence
- Sometimes the absence of words is the most effective form of communicating
- Silence can mean hostility; anger; depression; a show of empathy; concern
and caring; providing time to organize one’s thoughts; offering time for
consideration of ideas or for interpretation; provoking a response from the
other person; respect; etc.
- People may however misinterpret silence, they decide why others are silent
without asking them. They then communicate with them on the basis of
incorrect judgment, (Fielding, 2004).

Clothing and accessories

- Clothing and accessories satisfy our desire for attention, the need to be
accepted as members of a group and for self esteem
- They are also part of communication in an organization, how people dress at
work is an important part of the impression they make on other people.
- People build up impressions of what we think about ourselves, our status, our
interests and personalities from what we wear.

Paralanguage
- This describes the way in which we speak, rather than what we say.
- Paralanguage covers the following aspects of our voices:
The intonations (rise and fall of the voice)
How softly or loudly we speak
How slowly or fast we talk
How harsh our voices are
The level of tension in our voices

- As we listen to paralanguage we make up our minds about people’s :

Age
Emotions
Feelings about themselves and their subject
Attitudes towards us
Intelligence
Level of sophistication.

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ORAL COMMUNICATION

- People in organizations spend most of their time speaking i.e involved in oral
communication
- The forms of oral communication are:
 Planned formal talk- a prepared talk on a given topic
 Unplanned informal talk- oral communication that take
place when people are doing their regular activities in an
organization
 Interviews- these may be arranged for various purposes .eg.
disciplinary, counseling, appointments, etc
 Telephone conversations- a swift and simple way of
passing information both within and outside the
organization
 Other forms include public addresses, conferences, oral
briefings and training sessions

Advantages of oral communication

 Allows instant feedback- i.e questions can be asked and answered
 Allows for instant exchange of ideas, views and opinions
 Easy contribution and participation from all parties is enabled
 It makes it easy to convince, persuade and probe
 Facial expressions and gestures aid understanding (except when talking over the
phone)

Disadvantages of oral communication

 Often there is no written record of what has been said for future reference
 Does not provide enough time to respondents to think through, evaluate or
analyze a message which can have an implication on decision making
 Messages cannot be received in absentia
 More difficult to control when a number of people are involved

SPEECHES AND ORAL REPORTS

Speeches
- Managers are often invited to address the public and their positions require
them to make speeches within their own organizations
- A speech implies three things which are the speaker, the subject and the
audience. A speech is a connection between the three.

Format of a Speech
- A speech has to have an introduction, a body and a conclusion

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 Introduction
- The beginning of a speech is very important as listeners make up their mind
about the speaker’s attitude towards them and towards his/her subject
- The speaker should tell the audience why they are listening and what they will
gain from listening to his/her speech

Techniques used to attract audience’s attention

Invite direct audience involvement through questions and requests.

Example
“Good morning. How many of you have taken any formal studies after finishing full-
time education? It is something that we normally put off; thinking that we don’t have
time to it and wont help any promotion prospects. I would like you to put those
thoughts aside this afternoon, while you listen to my account of the opportunities
available for adult education”

Begin with an unusual statement that attracts the interest of the audience. Surprise the
audience and challenge their assumptions.
Controversial statements that contradict what the audience probably expected you to
say (backed up with explanations later) can be effective in grabbing listeners’
attention.

Example
“I have no academic qualifications whatsoever, and yet I regard myself as an
educated adult.”

Refer to current or recent events that link the topic and give it added interest.
Refer to a specific problem that makes the audience think deeper about the topic
Begin with a static or shocking fact that attracts interest
Show a diagram, picture or object to attract interest

 Your introduction should be short

 Never begin a speech with an apology. Don’t begin a talk by
apologizing your presence although you can apologize for some
indisposition such as cough and cold.
 Do not assume that you can begin every speaking session with a joke.
 Never begin with that ghastly expression, “I’d like to say a few words
about…

Body of the Speech

The middle of the speech is often the weakest part of the talk. Therefore speakers should
ensure that they:
 Attract and re-attract the audience’s attention with good non-verbal
communication.

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  Use audio visual aids to back up their key points
 Organize their talk very well
 Ensure that they present the material coherently with good transition
 Should be careful with criticism and controversy. Sharp criticism must be backed
by solid arguments and evidence. Should a speaker decide to be controversial
he/she should consider carefully how the audience is likely to react and prepare
your response.

Conclusion
- The conclusion of a speech should leave a lasting impression and should be
memorable.
- A speech should be ended on a high note and speakers should not allow the
talk to fade out
- Speakers could select from the techniques below to achieve the impact they
need:
 Summarize and briefly outline the main points
 End with an appeal for action
 Ask a challenging question
 Use a quotation, statistics or vivid illustration to sum up the main idea
 Remind the audience why the key points are important to them
 Pay the audience a sincere compliment

Do not introduce new points in the conclusion. Reiterate in strong memorable words and
phrases the thrust of the whole speech
The following points may also be useful in coming up with a very good and effective
conclusion
 Never end with an apology for going overtime, or for speaking long
 Do not say, “Well, that’s about all I have to say on the subject so I would
conclude now.” Stop but don’t talk about stopping. The end of your presentation
should convey a sense of completeness and finality.
 Round off your talk and do not leave it broken and rough like a jogged rock.
Don’t make the mistake of saying, “Finally…” and later say “In conclusion….”,
adding later “My last point is….”, and “I want to repeat again…”, ending with “ It
only remains for me to say….” If you say its your last point , then there should be
no going back.

Methods of delivering speeches

Manuscript
Writing out a presentation and reading it
- This is the worst method of preparing and delivering a speech

Memorizing
Writing out a speech and committing it to memory.

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Extemporaneous style
- In this method the outline or path of thought is carefully prepared so that the
speaker knows before hand what he/she will speak about
- This method is usually employed by good competent speakers.

Impromptu style
- In this style the speaker prepares neither words nor thoughts before the actual
speaking
- Very little good speaking result from this style
- Impromptu speeches are likely to be loosely built and of slight material

Oral reports
- An oral report is normally based on a written report therefore it follows the
format of a written report
- People normally present reports because they have been instructed to
Investigate a problem
Report on the feasibility of a project
Report on a situation

Format of an Oral Report

Introduction
A brief statement of the Terms of Reference or instructions given to the speaker. (These
are also called a Brief). The instructions should include
 The name of the person who gave the instructions
 Date of the instructions
 The main instructions given

An overview of the summary of the report. This summary should include

 A statement of why the audience need to listen to the report
 A statement of what the audience will gain from listening
 A brief description of the background of the report
 A brief statement of the purposes of the report
 A brief summary of the key findings
 The main conclusions
 The main recommendations

Body of the Report

- A brief statement of the procedure used to gather the information
- The main findings , backed up with visual aids such as overhead projectors,
flip charts etc

21
Conclusion
- These are the insights gained from the facts, and the implications of the facts

Recommendations
- These are the proposed actions to be taken as a result of the findings and
conclusions

Planning for a presentation

A good oral presentation results from careful preparation. The following procedure is
strongly recommended:
 Decide on your purposes. The purpose could be to inform, to persuade, to
entertain
When establishing a purpose start with a general purpose than narrow down to a
specific purpose.

 Analyse the audience

Analyzing the audience will help you to know the level of knowledge of the audience,
their backgrounds as well as their needs. This will help you to gear the content of
your message to the audience type.

 Information search
When the purpose has been established and the audience analysed the next step is to
gather as much information as one could for a presentation.

 Presenting the speech

When all the necessary information has been gathered the speaker should then outline
the ideas in a good sequence for presenting.
A good captivating introduction should always start. Be careful not to take much time
introducing a speech. An introduction should take 10-20% of the allocated time of the
speech.
The body of the speech should be detailed and has to take about 60-80% of the
allocated time.
The conclusion should take 10-20% of the allocated time.

General guidelines on oral presentations

When you present your talk or oral report pay special attention to the following:
 Your non-verbal communication, particularly your voice, eye contact, hand
movements and the way you stand.
 Your dress and general appearance
 Your level of enthusiasm
 Your style of presentation
 The quality of your visual aids and the way in which you use them

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INTERVIEWS
- An interview is a special type of interpersonal communication.
- Interviews may be conducted by one interviewer or by a panel of interviewers

Definition
An interview is a planned conversation between two parties, during which questions
are asked and answered. This conversation is designed to exchange information and
attitudes about a specific subject, (Fielding, 2004).

Types of interviews
Interviews may be grouped into 4 major categories
 The information seeking interview
 The appraisal interview
 The exit interview
 The job-seeking interview

The information seeking interview

- This type of interview takes two major forms
 The market survey where the interviewer chooses individuals from a target group.
These individuals are then questioned to gain information about opinions and
attitudes towards certain products.
A survey is carefully structured with questions that state a clear purpose.
 An interview in which a staff member in an organization has a grievance. A
personnel officer might then interview that person to gain information.
This type of interview is non-structured to allow the complainant to express his/her
grievance.

The appraisal interview

- This type of interview is designed to tell people how they are doing in an
organization
- Its also designed to improve people’s performance on the job and to help them
work towards specific goal
- The interviewer will stat by giving the interviewee information on his/her
performance
- This opening should then develop into a conversation in which the two work
together to plan work goals
- The interviewer should be very careful:

 To stress the person’s performance, rather than criticize the person

 To be very specific about strengths and weaknesses
 To help the interviewee decide on specific reasons for weak performance
 To help the person plan specific future performance to reach specific goals

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 - Althuogh the interviewer is very much in control here, he/she should strive to
make the interview a two way process

The exit interview

- This type of interview is designed to find out why people have resigned from
an organization
- Since there might be some ill-feeling here, the interviewer should try to
establish a pleasant and trusting atmosphere
- The interviewer should plan specific questions to encourage the interviewee to
give honest answers.
- The interviewer should practice active listening
- He/she should use prompting questions to encourage a free flow of
information, opinions and feelings

The job interview

- A job interview is a transaction
- The interviewer and interviewee work together to establish whether the
interviewee is suitable for the job
- The interviewer may also try to find the right job for a person

Important factors in a job interview

 Purposes
 Nature of the job
 Level of preparation
 Perceptions of both parties
 Types of questions asked
 Motivation of both parties
 Listening skills
 Thinking patterns
 Language ability
 Sensitivity to non-verbal communication
 Ability to receive feedback
 Personal bias
 Attitude
 Memory

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MEETINGS
- A meeting is a gathering of two or more persons, acting in unison, to discuss
matters of mutual interest and to decide upon them
- According to Oscar Britzius,(1974:576), a meeting is an assembly of persons,
a coming together for a common lawful purpose of two or more persons.

Purposes of meeting
 To bring together knowledge and experience to solve problems
 To provide, give and obtain information
 To float ideas, proposals and take decision within their sphere of authority
 To generate interest and individual involvement (i.e develop and promote
cooperation and influence attitudes )
 To report back on some activities and exercises done
 To seek assistance and coordinate activities
 To dispel rumor and anxiety
 To air grievances

Types of meetings

Public meetings
- Meetings to which the public in general is invited, or those meetings the
public or a section of the public is admitted
- These meetings include any meeting called for social, religious, political and
non-political purposes

Private meetings
- Attendance to these meetings is limited to membership
- This would include the meetings of registered bodies such as joint stock and
any other companies or trade unions and business meetings of clubs or other
special interest organizations
- Private meetings restricts the admission of the public.

Formal meetings
- These are proper meetings that follow the accepted procedure with an elected
chairman

Characteristics of formal meetings

 They are called by means of a Notice of Meeting

 They have an agenda
 Their proceedings are recorded in Minutes

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  They are run by a designated chairperson, who is helped by a Secretary and
Treasurer
 They are governed by a set of formal rules
 They may have a formal constitution that governs, for example, how often they
are held.

Examples of formal meetings

Annual General Meetings (AGMs)
- As per statute’s requirements these are done annually, usually aonce a year by
every company registered in terms of the Companies Act

Statutory meetings

Board meetings
These are attended by directors, chaired by the chairman of the board with official
paperwork

Informal meetings
- Informal meetings do not have official paperwork, no set patterns of
procedure, no formal chairman and no constitution of standing orders
- These are held most frequently and they permit greater flexibility and
encourage individuality and ideas.
- They promote interpersonal relationships between managers and subordinates
- Informal meetings act as briefing sessions and to receive progress reports
- Examples of informal meetings: Departmental meetings, progress meetings,
working parties, briefing sessions.

Validity of meetings
- In order to be valid a meeting must:
 Well constituted i.e there must be a quorum
 Well convened i.e It must be called by proper authority, eg by the
committee or other executive of the body concerned. All persons entitled
to receive notice of the meeting must be duly served therewith, unless they
have expressly waived their right
 Well conducted- the proper person must be in the chair.

Office bearers at meetings

The Chairperson
The Secretary
The Treasurer

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TELEPHONE TECHNIQUES
- Most of the information which passes in and out of the organization is
conveyed through the telephone.
- Anyone handling telephone calls has a key role in influencing first
impressions, which are frequently lasting, that customers gain about the
organization.
- If the telephone enquirer does not receive a clear and conscious greeting, a
poor opinion of the company as a whole is immediately formed
- What the telephonist says and the tone and manner in which it is said can also
influence the response received from the caller
- Time is money in business, especially when it is spent on the telephone, and it
is important to guard against conducting unnecessarily long conversations.
- Organizations need to create an image of themselves over the telephone that is
Helpful, efficient and friendly

Establishing a good telephone procedure

- Bad telephone techniques can cause problems because
It is easier to be vague and rude over the telephone
The telephone may be seen as interrupting people. They then speak in an irritated
way and make callers angry

- People’s voices are crucial over the telephone as they may create or destroy a
relationship with callers
- People need to cultivate voices that sound:
Friendly
Interested
Concerned
Efficient

- People should avoid the use of slang and other unnecessary expressions such
as “hang on”, “ok”

When answering the telephone

 Always answer promptly when the phone rings and announce your identity
 Establish the reason of the call
 Try not to keep the caller waiting
 Record the message and read it back to the caller
 When an incoming call has to be transferred from one extension to another,
convey the caller’s name and request to the new extension so that the caller
will not repeat the message
 If a delay occurs before a caller can be connected, keep them informed of the
action you are taking
 If you receive a call which is a wrong number, remember the intrusion is not
intentional and that it is just as irritating to the caller as it is to you. The
apology made by the caller should be accepted politely
 End the call on a positive note

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Using the telephone effectively
- When using the telephone it is essential to:
Listen for the total message
Take notes
Use your voice carefully
Show a positive attitude
Be assertive, rather than aggressive or submissive

GROUP WORK

1. Find out the duties of the following office bearers at meetings before, during
and after the meeting
 The Chairperson
 The Secretary
 The Treasurer

2. What is your understanding of the following. Give examples where

necessary.
 Quorum
 Agenda
 Minutes- Verbatim minutes
Narrative minutes
Resolution minutes

3. Come up with a notice of an Annual General Meeting stating the agenda of

the meeting.

4. What are the telephone user’s rights? (Both the receiver and the caller).

5. What is the importance of being assertive, rather than being aggressive or

submissive when answering a phone call.

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WRITTEN COMMUNICATION

- In written communication all messages are in writing. There are no gestures or

facial expressions

Advantages of written communication

 Provides time for evaluation
 It is capable for relaying detailed complex ideas
 It disseminates information to dispersed receivers
 Enables future referencing of messages
 Messages can be received in absentia

Disadvantages of written communication

 Instant feedback is not possible
 Communication tends to be formal distant
 Can cause interpretation problems and may take time to produce
 Can be costly and expensive to produce
 Once dispatched its difficult to modify the information

Forms of written communication in an organisation

 Business letters
 Memoranda
 Notices
 Reports
 Circulars
 Press releases
 Advertisements
 Proposals

BUSINESS LETTERS

- People in organizations write business letters from time to time

- These letters may be in reply to enquiries or acknowledging orders; making or
answering claims; making or answering a complaint; asking for assistance;
asking about a client’s credit worthiness, etc.

Characteristics of a good business letter

 Know what to say- think out what you want to say very carefully
 Clarity and Precision- Arrange your words and sentences so that they
convey exactly what you want to say. Choose words and phrases carefully
and use every word in its full and exact sense. NEVER use ambiguous
terms

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  Style- letters may be used in first person singular form, first person plural
form or an impersonal passive form

The first person singular form

Example: “I thank you for your order for ten suits and I assure you that work
on these commences immediately.”

The first person plural form

Example: “We thank you for your order for ten suits and we are commencing
work on these immediately.”

Impersonal passive form

Example: “Your letter of ten suits has been received and work is commencing
on these immediately.”

- The first person singular is used by a senior executive of a company where

he/she has authority to bind it and where his/her opinions obviously matter.
- A junior member of staff should use the plural whereas the impersonal passive
would be appropriate where the subject being written is formal.

Avoid clumsy expressions

Instead of saying …….. Say …….

We are prepared to offer We offer
Considerable period Long time
We are in agreement with We agree
Owing to unforeseen circumstances Unexpectedly
We have to acknowledge receipt of We have received
Furnish all necessary particulars Give details
Terminate End
Acquaint Tell

Avoid out dated words such as herewith, hereto, thereto, herein

 Courtesy-
 Appearance-

Structuring the body of a letter

- When writing a business letter it must be very short and precise

- When replying to a letter, it is useful to underscore or highlight each part of
the letter that asks for information or which requires comment

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 Opening or Introduction
This should tell:
 Tell the reader immediately what the letter is about
 Summarise key points
 Establish goodwill through its tone
 It should be written to give the reader a good first impression

If responding to a previous communication the first paragraph will acknowledge

any pervious correspondence or provide an introduction to the matter being
discussed

Never apologise in the first paragraph

Middle paragraph
- This section is the main part of the letter
- This is where you give all the information which has been requested or which
the recipient needs to know
- All the facts should be stated in this central section.

Middle paragraphs should:

 Be short and written in a clear and simple style
 Be very well set out using a range of techniques such as headings and lists to
make them as readable as possible
 Have short sentences
 Develop the letter logically, giving the necessary facts.

Final paragraph
- This is a very important paragraph. It should:
 Be written clearly and simply
 Be written with effective tone to generate goodwill
 State what the reader will do next
 State what the writer will do next
 Leave a good final impression
A simple one-line close will usually be required finish off your letter

Examples
 I look forward to hearing from you soon
 A prompt reply would be appreciated
 We apologise again for any inconvenience
 It you require any further information, please let me know

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MEMORANDA

- These are messages written within the organization

- They are organized like letters but vary a great deal in formality
- They may also be set out as reports with numbered headings.
- Memos are used to overcome the problem of distance within a company and
are used for getting information passed around up and down within it
- They are one way for communicating decisions, instructions and policy and
they create a permanent record

Memoranda are used as follows

 To communicate the same information to a group of people who have to
attend a meeting
 To inform people about company policies
 To confirm points made in a conversation or meeting
 To confirm decisions or agreements
 To keep people informed of events in the company

Format of a memorandum

The format of a memorandum is totally different from that of a letter.

Many organizations have standard printed memorandum forms used by everyone in the
organization

NAME OF COMPANY
MEMORANDUM

TO:

FROM:

REF:

DATE:

COPIES TO:

SUBJECT:

The conventions for memorandum writing are as follows

To
- The person being addressed to, and is normally given a courtesy title such as
Mr., Mrs. or Ms only if they are of higher rank than the sender.

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 - At times the job title is used included or used instead of a courtesy title, this
avoids confusion especially in large companies

Copies to
- If the memorandum has to be addressed to a receiver and other people for
information then this section is used
- In some cases it is written as C/C which means a courtesy copy

From
- The write may give a courtesy title such as Mr, Mrs or Ms if they feel the
readers might not know them
- The writer might also write their job title if the company is large and if the
readers do not know him/her

Date
- For future references a date should be given to the memorandum.

Subject
- A clear subject line should be written
- This should announce the title of the memorandum

- It is important to note that memoranda do not have Salutations or

Complimentary Closes

- The writer normally has his/her name typed at the end. He/she could end off
with initials.

Example of a Memorandum

33
 MIDLANDS STATE UNIVERSITY
CATERING DIVISION

TO: All Catering Staff

FROM: Garai Pasi

Catering Manager
REF:

DATE: 14 AUGUST 2009

SUBJECT: CATERING DISPLAY FOR 3 SEPTEMBER

Thank you for agreeing to work over weekends to get the display ready.
So far we have had 30 responses to our invitations. I now need written
statements of your specific needs for 3 September.

Please send me, by the 1st of September, a statement of your needs at the
display stands. I need to know the following:
- The name of your stand
- How many tables you need
- The amount of space that you need
- The number of helpers that you need
- Any specific lighting needs and other special facilities such as
refrigerators.

I look forward to the display. It should be excellent, judging from the

amount of work you have been doing.

G.PASI

PRESS STATEMENTS/ RELEASES

- A press release is a publicity statement or announcement that contain basic

facts about a particular company on some given issues of concern
- The purpose of a press release is to make information known to an
organisation’s stakeholders of what is taking place in an organization

Uses of a news release

A news release is used to announce the following:
 Production of a new product
 Appointment of a new executive

34
  A merger with another organization
 Anniversaries
 Change of address
 Record breaking sales
 Industrial strike action
 Accidents, product failure

Characteristics of a good news release

A good news release must:
 Be newsworthy and credible
 Be very short and precise
 Be very simple, clear and straight forward- it must be written in simple language
 In a position to clarify details of every important aspect or event
 Provide contact details
 Tell the audience the information is intended for them and why they should
continue to read it
 Deal with facts.

Format of a Press Release

A press release is easy to write provided one practice writing it.

Heading
The heading should be appropriate and in relation to the subject. It should be short, brief
yet eye-catching

Introduction
- This should be the summary of the whole story.
- A good opening paragraph is essential to catch the editor’s attention as well as the
readers’.
- The introduction should account for:
 Who did What?
 Where was it done?
 When was it done?
 Why was it done?
 How was it done?
In other words the introduction should answer Who, What, Where, When, Why and How
questions

Body
- The central paragraphs should be short so that they do not affect the purpose
of the release.
- Facts of the story should be stated here clearly in order of importance
- Long overloaded sentences should be avoided

35
Conclusion
Its appropriate to finish by summarizing the most important points or by quoting key
persons or achievements

REPORTS

- A report is an accurate, detailed, factual record of some event or situation

- A report is an informative, fixed-format document normally written because
someone has been instructed to investigate a problem, draw conclusions and
recommend certain actions, (Fielding, 2004).

Purposes of reports
The main purposes of reports are:
 Help people make decisions
 Inform
 Recommend action
 Persuade
 Record facts

Characteristics of reports
 They have clearly defined sections
 They are based on facts
 They are used for making decisions
 They often give detailed technical information
 They should be set out in a highly readable way
 They should be written in a formal, impersonal way

Formal reports
- A formal report is also known as a schematic report
- It is written under specific headings that follow a prescribed scheme.

Format of a formal report

- A full professional report contains the following sections in the order given
below
- Note that the report is divided into two major section
 Preliminaries ( pages numbered with Roman numerals)
 Body of report

It is important to note that each major section starts on a new page

Preliminaries
 Title page

36
  Acknowledgements
 Terms of reference
 Executive Summary
 Table of contents
 List of illustrations
 Glossary (Definition of key terms)

Terms of reference are instructions given writer/ report compiler by his/her superior.
Terms of reference define the following:
 Aim/purpose of the report
 Nature of data /information needed
 Person who requested the report
 When the report was requested
 When the report is to be submitted
 Whether recommendations are needed or not

Body of Report
1. Introduction
2. Methodology/ Procedure used to gather findings
3. Findings
4. Conclusions
5. Recommendations
6. List of References
7. Appendices

ADVERTISEMENTS
- These are used to attract attention
- They are also used to persuade either customers to buy products or in some
cases persuade suitable candidates to apply for a job
- Advertisements are aimed at specific groups in a population and these groups
could have been identified by means of market surveys
- An organization should decide on the best medium to use for example, the
radio, television or print media (newspapers)
- A good advertisement should have an interesting heading, a clear design and
should have a well written copy

AIDA Method of advertising

- Advertisements are normally written organized in four stages as follows
Attention Interest Desire Action

Stage 1
- The first stage is to attract the reader’s, listener’s or viewer’s attention
- This is called the cognitive stage
- The audience start thinking about the advertisement and its content

37
 Stage 2
- At this stage the audience’s interest is aroused
- This is a more emotional approach to the advertisement

Stage 3
- The audience’s desire is now aroused
- This is also an emotional approach to the advertisement

Stage 4
- If the other three stages have been successful, then the audience is stimulated
to action

Advertisers analyse people’s needs, attitudes and desires. They try to teach people
what they want. They do this by:
 Selecting the media such as newspapers, magazines, radio, and television
 Aiming the advertisements at carefully analyzed segments of the population
 Using pictures, words, colours and shapes

Advertisers strive to communicate:

 The existence of products that will satisfy needs, wants and desires
 The qualities of products
 Where products can be obtained

Techniques used in advertising

Advertisers use some of the following techniques to gain and hold the attention of
audience
 Attractive photographs and sketches
 An effective tone
 Imperatives such as ‘buy one now!’
 Challenging statements
 Quotations from famous people
 Something unexpected
 Appeals to people’s desire for health, leisure, success, comfort, more money, etc
 Emphasis on the qualities of the product compared with rival products
 Testimonials from other users
 Repetition of key ideas
 Slogans
 Offers of free samples
 An invitation to action by filling in a reply pad/card
 Evidence from laboratory tests

People in organizations might have to prepare advertisements for local newspaper.

38
These would take the form of Classified advertisements, public announcements, notices
of meetings, etc.
PROPOSALS
- A proposal is a persuasive message which is written to get action
- A proposal should be :
 Well organized so that the reader knows at once what the proposed action
is
 Well set out with clear sections, a numbering system and effective
headings
 Well written in a clear, formal system and simple style

Format of a Proposal
A proposal is set out like a report

Types of proposals
Requested proposal
Is one that the client asks for.

Non-requested proposal
- This one is written because one wishes to generate work for him/herself.
- A problem is identified and proposed actions are derived to solve that particular
problem

Format of a requested proposal

 Title page/ title
 Terms of reference
 Client’s objectives
 Executive summary
 Background to the proposal- this contain
o The need for the proposal
o The need for the solution
o Purpose of the proposal procedure used to set up the proposal
 Statement of the problem
 Importance of the proposal
o Benefits from the solution
o Feasibility of the solution
o Likelihood of success
 Delimitation/ Scope of the report
 The detailed proposal- this should contain
o Methods used to put the proposal into action
o Breakdown of the tasks to be done and their timing
o Time and work schedule
o Detailed costing of proposed action
o Cost and method of payment to proposer.
 Appendices or attachments- These should contain some or all of the following

39
 o Detailed figures to show how any proposed expenditure has been
calculated
o Detailed calculations to back up any technical proposals
o Detailed questionnaires
o The company’s success with other projects

Academic proposals
- These are proposals written by academics/ students prior to any research they
have to do as part of their academic fulfillments of their courses.
- They too have some given format which is almost similar to the requested
proposal’s format

Format of an Academic proposal

 Title/ Title page
 Executive summary
 Background of the study
 Statement of the problem
 Objectives
 Justification of the study
 Assumptions
 Delimitations
 Limitations
 Literature review
 Methodology
 Data presentation and analysis
 Budget
 Appendices

40
VISUAL AIDS

- Visual aids assist the memory to remember what has been said, they enlighten
a message and inspire the audience.
- Visual aids enable a speaker to communicate information more quickly and
listeners to absorb it more easily
- There is one Chinese proverb that says, “One picture is worth a thousand
words.”

Words + visual aids = quick comprehension + long lasting impressions

Types of Visual Aids

Overhead projectors

Advantages
They are very versatile

41