Professional Documents
Culture Documents
SMC Basic Pneumatics
SMC Basic Pneumatics
BASIC
NEUMATICS
Indianapolis,
IN 46556
Rev.0100
Copyright1997
Pori # SttlCT-Pl-IX
DO NOT COPYWITT{OUTWRITTENPERMISSION
TAgLE oF cot{tENts
Mainlinefiller 29
l INTRODUCTION 1
Air Dislribution 29
Whatcan Pneumatics do? 1
30
DeadEnd Line
Propertiesot Compr6ss6dAir 2 RingMain JU
Pressur€ I StainlesssteelPipes
CopperTube AE
Prooertiesof Gases 10
RubberTube('Air Hose") 36
lsothermicchange(Boyle'sLaw) 10 Plastictubing 36
lsobaricchange 11
CharlesLaw 11 5 AIRTBEATMENT 38
Lawof Gay Lussac 11 Fillering 38
lsochoricchange 11 StandardFilter 38
Adiabatic(lsentropic)change 12 Air Ouality 40
StandardVolume 12 '
Filteringlevels 40
Flow 12 PressureFlegulation 42
Bernoulli'sEquation 12
StandardBegulator 42
Air Humidity 12
PilotOperatedRegulator M
Relativehumidity 13
Filter-Regulator 45
Pressur€and Flow 15
Characteristics 45
Useof the diagram: 16
Formulae: 16 Sizingol Regulatorsand Filters 46
CompressodAir Lubrication 46
4 AIRCOMPRESSION ANDDISTRIBUTIONI9 Proportional Lubricators 46
Compressors 19 F.R.LUnits 48
ReciprocatingCompressors 19 Siz€and lnstallation rt8
SinglestagePistonCompressor 19
Two stagePistonCompressor 19 6 ACTUATORS 49
Diaphragmcompressor 20 Lin€arCylinders 49
Rotarycompressors 21 SingleActingCylinder 49
Rotaryslidingvanecompressor 21 DoubleActingCylinder 49
Screwcompressor 21 CylinderConstruction 50
Compressorrating 21 Cushioning 9U
VolumetricEtficiency 22 SpecialCylinderOptions 51
Thermaland OverallEfficiency 22 DoubleRod 51
CompressorAccessories 23 Non BotalingBod 51
Air receiver 23 Twin Rod 52
Sizinga receiver 23 FlatCylinder 52
lnletfilter 23 TandemCylinder 52
Air Dehydralion 24 MultiPositionCylinder 53
Altercoolers 24 CylinderMounting 54
Air cooled 24 FloatingJoints 54
Watercooled 24 BucklingStrength 55
Air dryers 26 CylinderSizing 55
Absorption(deliquescent)
Drying 26 CylinderForce 55
Adsorption(dEsiccanl)Drying 27 Th€oreticalForce J5
Hetrigerantdrying 28 BequkedForce 57
- -
TABLE oF Co TENTS
- -
P N E U T , A T I CT E C H N O L O G Y
INTRODUCTION
A fluidpowersystemis one thal transmitsand controlsenergythroughthe useof pressurizedliquidor gas'
In Pneumatics.this mediais air.This of coursecomesfromthe atmosphereand is reducedin volumeby
compression, its pressure.Compressedair is mainlyusedto do workby actingon a pistonor
thus incr€asing
vane-- producingsomeusefulmotiontor instance.
Whilemanytacetsof industryusecompressedair,the generalfieldof IndustrialPneumaticsis considered
here.
The corect use ol pn€umatic controlrequiresan adeguateknowledgeof pneumaticcomponentsand their
functionlo ensuretheirintegralionintoan etficienlworkingsysiem.lt is alwaysthe r€sponsibilityof lh€
d€signerto certifysafetyin all conditions-- includinga failedcondition.As with any otheronergysource,
compressedair can causeharmif not properlyapplied.
Althoughelectroniccontrolusinga programmable sequenceror olherlogiccontrollermay be currenlly
speciliedit is stillnecessarylo knowthe basicfunctionof lhE pneumaticcomponents.
This bookdealswiththe t9chnologyof the componentsin controlsystems,describingtypesand design
teaturesof air treatmontequipment,actuatorsand vafues,methodsof inlerconneclion
and introducesthe
basicpneumatic circuits.
W H A T C A N P N E U M A T I C SD O ?
The applications tor compressedair are limitless,lrom the optician'sgentleuseof low pressureair to test
fluidpressurein the humaneyeball,the multiplicityol linearand rotarymotionson roboticprocessmachines,
Ij to the hightorcesrequiredtor pneumaticpressesand concretebreakingpneumaticdrills.
'
The shortlist belowseNesonlyto indicateth€v€rsatility and varietyof pneumaticcontrolat work,in a
continuously expandingindustry.
. Operationof systemvalvesfor air,wateror chemicals
. Operationof heavy or hot doors
. Unloadingof hopp€rsin building,steelmaking,miningand chemicalindustries
. Rammingand tampingin concreteand asphaltlaying
. Littingand movingin slab moldingmachines
. Cropsprayingand operationot othertractorequipment
. Spraypainting
. Holdingand movingin woodworkingandfumituremaking
. Holdingin jigs and fixturesin assemblymachineryand machinetools
. Holdingtor gluing,heatsEalingor weldingplastics
. Holdingtor brazingor wolding
. Formingoperationsof bending,drawingand flattening
. Spotweldingmachines
. Riveting
. Op€rationof guillotineblades
. Bottlingand fillingmachines
. Woodworkingmachinerydrivesand teeds
. T€strigs
. Machinetool,workor toolfeeding
. Componentand materialconvevortransfer
DO NOT COPYWTTHOUTWRITTENPERMISSION
P EU ATtc TEcHt{oLocY
. Pn€umalicrobots
. Autogauging
. Air separationand vacuumlifiingot thin sheots
. Dentaldrills
. and so muchmore...newapplicationsars developeddaily
SYSTEM
2 T H E B A S I CP N E U M A T I C
Pneumaticcylinders!rotaryactuatorsand air motorsprovidethe forceand movemenlof moslpneumatic
controlsystems,to hold,move,form,and proc€ssmatetial.
To operateand controltheseacluators,olher pneumaticcomponents are requiredi.e. air serviceunilslo
pr€par€lh€compressedair and valvesto controllhe pressur€,tlowand directionof movementof lhe
actualors.
A basicpneumaticsystem,shownin tig 2.1, consislsof two mainsections:
. The Air Productionand DistribulionSystem
. The Air ConsumingSystem
NN D D I S T R I B U T I OS
H E A I B P R O D U C T I OA NY S T E M
O corpr"""o,
pressureis compressedand deliv€redat a higherpressureto the
Air takenin at atmospheric
pneumaticsystem.lt thustransformsmechanical€nergyintopneumaticenergy.
Electrlc Motor
Suppliesthe mechanicalpowerto the comprossor.lt transformselectricalenergyinto m€chanical
€n€rgy.
@ PressureSwltch
Controls thepressur€
theelectricmotorbysensing pressure
in thetank.lt is setto a maximum at
whichit stopsthemotor,anda minimum pressure
atwhichit restarts it.
@ checkvalve
Letsthe compressedair fromth€compressorintoth6 tankand preventsit leakingbackwhenthe
compressoris stopped.
@ranr
Stor€sthe compr€ss€d air. lts size is dofin€dby the capacityof the compressor.The
largerthe volume,th€ longerth€interualsbetweencompr€ssorruns.Mostsystems
shouldbe designedtor a 50o/o dutycycle,providingat least2x syslemdemandin storage.
@ Prcssure
cauge
Indicatesthe TEnkPressure.
@ AutoDrain
Drainsall the walercondensingin the tankwithoutsupervision.
@ s"hty v"tr"
Blowscompressedair otf if th€pressurein the tank shouldriseabovethe allowed pressure.
@ Retrlgerated
Alr Dryer
Coolsthe compressedair to a tew degreesabovefreezingpointand condensesmostof the air
humidity.This avoidshavingwaterin the downstrcamsystem.This devicemusl be pr€cededby an
aftercooler(notshownin the simpledrawing)and not directlyinline withthe compressoror it will be
over-tax€d.ldeally,inletair temperatureshouldbe ambientor roomtemperature.
@ unerlner
Beingin the mainpipe,this filtermusl havea minimalpressuredropand the capabilityof oil mist
r€moval.lt helpsto keepthe linetreefrom dust,wat€r,and oil.
0 alr ServlceUnlt
Conditionsthe compressedair to providecleanair at optimumpressure,and occasionallyadds
lubricantto €xtendthe life of thosepneumaticsystemcomponentsthat ne€dlubrication.
@ Dlrectlonalvalve
Altematelypressurizesand exhauststhe cylinderconnectionsto controlthe directionof movemem.
Shownas an indiMdualdevice,ther€may b6 a numberof directionalvalvesgroupedon a manifold.
6 Adu"to,
Transformsthe potential€nergyof the compressedair intomechanicalwork.Shownis a linearcylinder,
it can alsobe a rolaryactualoror an air tooletc.
@ SpeedGontrollers
Allowan easyand steplessspeedadiustmentot the actuatormovement.
3 C O M P R E S S EADI R T H E O R Y
JNITS
The Intemational Syslemof Unilshasbeenin acceptanceworldwidesince1960,but the USA,UK, and
Japanstillusethe lmperialSystemlo a greatextent.
ll is exir€melyimportanlthat,in this€vershrinkingworld,all measurem€ntsystemsbecomecleady
underslood.The delinitivestudyot pneumaticson an inlernational scalerequiresfamiliarityand competence
witheitherset of units;thereforethis documentwill employbothEnglishand Sl units.
P R E S S UR E
ll shouldb€notedthatthe Sl unitof pressureis th€ pascal (Pa)
I Pa= I N/m2(Newtonpersquaremerer)
This unil is extremelysmalland so, to avoidhugenumbersin practice,an agreementhas been madeto
use lhe bar as a unitot 100,000Pa.
100,000Pa = 100 kPa = 1 lxr
It correspondswithsutticientaccuracyfor practicalpurposeswiththe old metricunit kgf/cm".Moreprecise
equivalentsare I STDatm =14.696psi =1.01925bar =i.03329 kgrt/cm'?.
ln Englishunitspressureis expressedin psl (almostnev€rretenedlo as p.s.i.as one wouldexpect),or
poundsp€rsquarelnch,also relatinga torceto an area.
Atmospheric
II
200 kPa Pressu16 l'' I
100kPa
1050mbar Standard
30 in Hg
14.696psi Vacuum
Flg. 3.4 the varioussystemsof prcssureindication
A pressurein the contextof pneumaticsis assumedas bver-pressurei.e. aboveatmosphericpressure
'and is commonlyreferredto as gaugo (also geg€)pressure(GA or pslg).
A pre*surecan also be expr€ssedas absolut€pressure (ABS or psla) i.e, a pre*surerelativeto a tull
vacuum. In vacuumtechnologya pressurebelowatmosph€ric i.e. under prcssu]a is us€d.
The variouswaysof indicatingpressurear€illustratedin fig 3,4, usinga standardatmosph€ric
pressureof
1013m/baras a reterence.Notethat this is not 1 bar, althoughfor normalpneumaticcalculationsthe
dilferencecan be ignored.
F n o p e n n e so F G A s E s
t S o T H E R M I CC H A N G E( B O Y L E ' SL A W )
the pressureof a givenmassof gas is inverselyproportional
"...withconstanttemperature, to its voltlme",
or: P' Y= constant
v=1i p=1
p , . v . ,= P",V"P"=#
i.e. p"=
to1325m.i.n3
witha gaugepressure
o3n3
TheratioV1^r'2is the"Compression
' { =
of 4 bar,
Ratio"cr
202650Pa
\2
aill=l3 =
1013
a.gs
u
Thetablebelowshowsthe pressureratiofor pressuresfrom 1 to
10 barabs.
p 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 10
cr 0.987 1.987 2.974 3.961 4.918 5.935 6.922 7.908 8.895 9.882
Notethe differencebetweenr€ducinga volumeot atmospheric air to halt,1:2.026and the pressureratioat
a gaugepressureof 1 bar (2 sps),1:1.987!Butthis is theory;- no adiustmentis madetor practicewhenw€
simplyuse gaugepressur€in bar +11
lf volumeV, = 1 ff at a standardabsolutepressureof 14.7psi.is compressed
at constanttemp€rature
lo a
volumeV, = 0.5ft" then:
o1.lA
P,.V, = P"'V" P"=-t
. LA7pd(L fr
i.e. p, = - = 29.4 Psla
P(pslq) 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
cf 1.68 2.36 3.04 3.72 4.4 5.08 5.76 6.44 7.12 7.80
On lh€olher handit wouldbe wrongto use Boyle'sLaw in pneumatics.In the caseof toolsas well as
cylindersthe changeis neverlsothermicbut alwaysAdiabaticchange.(Seefunherbelowand pg. 58 - 61
I S O B A R I CC H A N G E
Charles Law
v1 T1
Y/7= constant,so
w=E and w=+
1: W = 100m3,I1 =9.9, 72=2O.C,W=?
Exampfe
We haveto use the absolutetemperaturesin K, thus
100
;;;=
ztr
v2
:;;,
.tJ
W=
'-:::::
1 n n . ? q -?
273
= 107.326m'
i _>-T
I S O C H O F I CC H A N G E
'at constantvolume,the pressureis proportional
to the temperatur€"
('lsochoric"comestromth€ Greekwordsropo Osad"chora'),for
space,fieldetc. , and roo- , "iso' = equal)
P1.P2 T2
so TT:T,Z ano P=nT1
->T
Wheref is the absolutetemp€rature
in K (Kelvin)or R (Rankine).
The previousrelationships
are combin€dto providethe generalgas equation:
p't v1 pzw
( I S E N T R O P l C )C H A N G E
ADTABATTC
The previousLawsassumea slowchange,so onlythe two considered
magniludesare changing.h praciice,for example-- whenair flowsintoa
cylinder,this is nol the caseand 'adiabaticchang€'occurs.ThenBoyle's
Law ' p.Vis constant" changesto p. lA= constant.
It wouldtake too muchtimeto go intogr€aterd€tail,the diagram
illustratesthe ditferenceclearlyenough:w€see that thereis a lossof
volumewhenpressurebuildsup quickly.We will meetthis law againwhen
discussingthe air consumption of cylinders.
S T A N D A R DV O L U M E
Dueto thesemutualr€lationships betweenvolume,pressureand temperature, it is necessaryto reterall
daia on air volumeto a standardized the
volume, standard cubic meter (m"r), Delined as the air quantityof
1.293kg massal a temperatureof ooC and an absolute pressure ol 760 mm Hg (101325 Pa)-- or the
standardcubic foot (scf) is
which on€ cubicfoot of air at sea l€vel pressure
(absolute of 14.7psi) havinga
temperatureof 680Fand a relativehumidityof 360/o.
FLOW
The basicunitfor volumetlow "O' is the NormalCubicMeterper second(m"%).In pneumaticpractice
volum€sare expressedin termsof lit€rsper minute(l / min)or normalcubicdecimetersper minute(dm?min).
l The usualnon-metricunittor volumetlowis the "standardcubicfoot p6r minute",(sclm).
)
Bernoulll's Equatlon
Bernoullistates:
'lf a liquidof specific
aravityflowshorizontalty
througha tub€withvaryingdiameters,the totalenergyat
point1 and 2 is the same'
AIR HUMIDITY
Atmosphericair alwayscontainsa percentageof watervapor.The amountof moisturepresentwill depend
on the atmospherichumidityand temp€rature.
Whenatmospheric air coolsit will reacha certainpointat whichit is saturaledwith moisture,this is known
\as the dew polnt. lf the air coolsfurtherit can no longerreiainall lhe moistureand th€su|plusis expelledas
Tminiaturedropletsto torm a condensate.
Temperature oC 0 5 l0 l5 20 25 30 35 40
g/m'n *(Standard) 4.98 6.99 9.86 t3.76 18.99 25.94 35.12 4 7 . 1 9 OJ.UJ
3
g/m (Atrnospheric) 4.98 6.E6 9.5t 13.04 17.69 23.76 3t.64 4 1 . 8 3 5 4 . 1 1
Temperrture oC 0 -5 -10 -t5 -20 -25 -30 -35 40
g/m'n (Standard) 4.98 3.36 2.28 1.52 1.00 0.u 0.4 0.25 0.15
g/m (Atmospheric) 4.98 l.6l 1.08 0.7 0.45 o.29 0.18
't5
t0
0.1
€0
Flg. 3.8 Dewpointsfor temp€raturesfrom-€0 to aboul+80"C
Th€boldcurveshowslhe saturationpointsot a cubicmeterat the relatedtemperature,
the thin curveat
standardvolume.
P R E S S U R EA N D F L O W
The mostimportantrelatlonshlptor pnGumatics
is that b€twe€npressur€and flow.
THEYARENOTTHESAME.DO NOTTHINKTHEYARE INTERCHANGEABLE TEFMS..,e.g.a 'Iow
conlrolis nol a regulalor(repeatas r€quiroduntilretained),lt is the relationshiobetweentlow and pressure
that we will nowconsider.
ll thereis no tlow,the pressurein an entiresystemis the sameat everypoint,but whenthereis flowfrom
one Pointto another,th€pressurein the latterwill alwaysbe low€rthatat the first.This differenceis call€d
pressuredrop.ll dspendson threevalues:
. initialpressure
. volumeof f low
. llow resistanceof the connection
The flow resistancefor air has no unit;in electricityits equivalentis Ohm (Q). In pneumatics,th6 opposile
of resislanceis used,the equivalenlflow section(S, kv or C" factor)-- a conductancevalue.The equivalent
tlowsectionS is expressedin mm' and representsthe areaof an oriticein a thin plate(diaphragm)which
crsatesthe samerelationshipb6tw6enpressuresand flow as th6 €lementdetinedby it. Valveshave
complicatedoritic€shapes,thereforelhe flow ratethroughlhe deviceis measuredfirst,and thenthe device
may be assignedthe corresponding equivalentflowsection.An easyapproximation wouldbe that:
C, ol 1= 18Smm',e.g.equivalent orificeof 18 mm' equalstheflowof aC, i.
This relationshipis by dotinitionthe sameas in electricity,wherefuoltagedropequalscurrenttimes
resistance".This can be transformedfor pneumaticsto "pressuredropequalsflowdividedby FlowSection",
only,whilethe electricunitsare dkectlyproportional, lhe relationshiplor air is very complexand neversimply
proportional.In electricity,a cun€ntot 1 A (oneAmpere)creates,overa rosistorof I Ohm,a voltagedropof 1
Volt. Regardlessif this dropis trom 100to 99 or from 4 to 3 volts,the pressuredropoverthe sameobiectand
withthe samestandardvolumeflow varieswiththe initialpressureand alsowiththe temperature.Reason:the
compressibilityof the air.
For definingone ot the four interrelated
data,mentionedpreviously,fromthe oth6rthra6,we requirea
diagram.
10
Sonic Flow
DO NOT COPYWTTHOUTWRITTENPERMISSION
PNEU ATIC TECHNOLOGY
Formu tae:
'
Soundis, after all, vibrating air molerules.Thus the "speedof sound" (sonic condition, Mach #) is the t€rminalvelocity
I for air movemenl For comprcssedair to !!99 therc mustbe a prcssuredrop -- andmaximumflow occursat a certain %
pressuredrop. Therc can be a greaterpressuredrop (up to 100%)but maximumflow (for whatev€rsizeorifice) occursat
46% of pr
tn Imperlal unlts
The formulafor subsonicflow: e = 224€lc."
t,. P
ro!
=
at)
n
e =
' r9
.|l
The resultsare linear,€.g.il the devicein applicationhasa C, ot 2.0 multiplyyour resultlrom tig' 3' 10 by 2, C,
of 0.5 multiplyby one half,etc.
Observ€thatcriticalllow occursat a cgrlainpressuredrop- to discoverthis for yourselffind 100psig on the
diagonalcriticalflowline.Dropstraightdownto the p2 horizontalaxisand notethat p2 is approximately 46
psia.This confirmsthat a pressuredropot (approximatelyl 46%producesmaximumflow.Therecan be a
greaterdropin pressurebut tlow wlll not Increase.
Obsorvethat useof Fig.3.10 requitesa knownpressuredrop.In realworldapplications (withso many
variables)this knowledgeis difficultto comeby, so lhe cautiousindividualwill relyon a safe estimateof whata
desir€dpressuredrop;ught to be. Predictinga system'sactual pressur€ drop is very The NFPA
difficult.
(NationalFluidPowerAssociation, a U.S.standardsgroup)recommends a maximum pressure dropof 15%.
COMPRESSORS
engrgyof an eleclricor combustionmotorinlo the pot€nlialenergy
conv€rtsthe mechanical
A compr€ssor
of comoressedair.
Air compressors and Rotary.
lall intotwo maincategories:Reciprocating
The principaltypesot compressors withinthesecat€goriesare shownin fig 4.1.
Compressors
Displacement
usedfor PneumalicSystems
Fig. 4.1The MainCompressor'types
RECIPROCATINC
GO M P R E S S O R S
SIngle stage Plston Compressor
r pressureis
Air tak€nin at atmospheric
t compressedto the requiredpressurein a single
stroke.
Downwardmov€mentof th€pistonincreases
volumeto createa loweroressurethanthat of
the atmosphere, causingair to ent6rthe cylinder
throughthe inletvalve.
At the end of the stroke,the pistonmoves
upwards,th€inletvalveclosesas the alr is
compressed, forcingthe oulletvalveto open
dischargingair intoa r6c6iv6rtank.
Thistypeot compr€ssor is gen€rallyus€din
systemsrequiringair in the 3-7 bar rang€.
It the finalpressur€
is 7 bar,the firststage
normallycompresses
the air to approximately
3 bar,afterwhichit is
cooled,ll is thenfed
inlo the secondslage
cylinderwhichcom-
Dressesit to 7 bar.
The compressedair
ent€rslhe second
stag€cylinderat a
9reatlyreduc€dtem-
peratur€afterpassing
throughlhe int6r-
cooler,thus improving
etficiencycomparedto
that ot a singlestage
unit.The final delivery Flg. 4,3 Two StagePistonCompressor
temperaturemay be in
th€ regionof 120"C.
Dlaphngm compressor
Diaphragmcompressorsprovidecompressed
air in the 3-5 bar rangetotallytree of oil and are
thereforewidelyus€dby tood,pharmaceutical
+ Output
and similarindustries.
The diaphragmprovidesa changein chamber
volume.This allowsair intakein the downstroke
and compressionin the up stroke.
Smallertypes,witha fractionalHP electric
motorand smallreseryoirmakepossibleportable
compressoci,ideallor spraypainting,
I R O T A R YC O M P R E S S O R S
I
Rotaty stldlng vane comPressor
mounted
This hasan eccentrically
rotorhavinga seriesof vanessliding
in radialslols.
As the rolorrotales,cenldtugal
,orceholdsthe vanesin contaclwith
the statorwall and the space between
th6 adiacentbladesdecreasestrom
the
air inletto outlet,so compressing
air.
Lubricationand sealingis
achievedby inlectingoil intoth€air
streamnearthe inlet.The oil also acts
as a coolantto limitthe delivery Fig.4.5 Van€Compressor
tempe€ture.
9crew compressor
Two meshinghelicalrotorsrotatein opposite
directions.The freespacebetweenthem
decr€asesaxiallyin volumeand this (
compressesthe air trappedbetweonthe rotors
1 (figa.6.). Drive
a
'
Oil floodingprovideslubricationand sealing
betweenlhe two rotatingscrews.Oil separators
remov€this oil fromthe outletair. (
Continuoushighflow ratesin €xcessof 400
m"/minare obtainabletromlhes€machinesat
pressuresup to l0 bar.
Moreso thanthe VaneCompressor, thistype
of compressoroffersa continuouspulse-free
delivery. Flg 4.6 Scr6wComprossorPrinciple
The mostcommonindustrialtype of air
machine,
compressoris stillthe reciprocaling
althoughscrewand vanetyp€sar€tinding
increasingfavor.
C O M P R E S S O RR A T I N G
capacityor outputis statedas StandardVolumsFlow,givenin m3yy's
A compressor or /min,dm13/sor
litors/min. Th€capacitymay alsob€describedas displacedvolume,or 'TheoreticallntakeVolume",a
theor€ticaltigure.For a pistoncompressorit is basedon:
Q (Umin)= (pistonareain dm') x (strokelengthin dm) x (# ot tirststagecylinders)x (rpm)
O (cfm)= ((pistonareain in'?)x (strokelengthin inches)x (# ol lirsi stagecylinders)x (rpm))/ 1728
I onlythe firstsiagecylindershouldbe considered.
In the caseof a two-stagecompressor,
J
The effectivedeliveryis alwayslessdueto volumetricand thermallosses.
The volumeloss is inevitable,as it is not possibl€to dischargeall of lhe compressedair tromthe cylinder
at the end ot lhe compressionstroke,thereis somespacelett,the secalled "deadvolume".
Thermallossoccursdue to the lact that duringcompressionthe air assumesa very hightemperature;
thereloreits volumeis increasedand decreaseswhencoolingdownto ambienttemperature(seeCharlesLaw
in section3).
Volumetrlc Et clency
.. treeair delivered
I ne ratlo: expressedas a p€rcentageis knownas lhe volumelricetficiency,and will vary
-Eii;;;ft;-
with lhe size,type and makeot machine,numberof stagesand ths tinal pressure.The volumetricefficiency
ot a two-siagecompressoris lesslhan that of a singlestag6typ€as bothth€firstand secondstagecylindeis
havg d€advolum€s.
Thermal and Overall Etficlency
roM P R E S S OARC C E S S O R I E S
AIR RECEIVER
An air r€@iveris a pressurevesselot weldedste€lplateconslruction, inslalledhorizontally or vertically
direc y downstream to receiv€ihe compressodair,therebydampingthe initialpulsations
lrom the aftercooler
in lhe air llow.
Its main,unctionsat€io storesutticientair to meettemporaryheavydemandsin excessof compressor
'unloading'ot lhe compressor,but il also providesadditional
capacity,and minimizefr6quent'loading'and
coolingto precipitateoil and moisturecirded ov€rfromthe aftercooler,beforethe air is distributedfurther' To
this end it is an advantageto placethe air receiverin a cool location.
The vesselshouldbe fittedwitha safeg valve,pressur€gauge,drain,and inspectioncoversfor checking
or cleaninginside.
Slzlng a tecelver
Air receiversare sizedaccordingto the compressoroutput,sizeof th€syslemand wh€lherthe demandis
r€latively
constanlor variabl€.
Electrically
drivencompressors in industrialplants,supplyinga network,are normallyswilchedon and otf
b€tweena minimumand a maximumpressuro.Thisaontrolis called"automatic". This needsa certain
minimumreceivervolumeto avoidoverfrequentswitching.
Mobilecompressors witha combustion€nginearc notstoppedwhena maximumpressureis reach€d,bul
the suctionvalvesare liftedso thatlhe air can freelyflowin and out of the cylinderwithoulbeingcompressed.
The pressuredifferencebelweencompressing and runningidle is quitesmall.ln this caseonlya small
IJ receiver
is needed.
'
For induslrialplants,the rul€of thumbfor the sizeof the reservoiris:
Air recelvercapaclty > compr€ssoroutput of compressedair pcl minute, (Not FreeAlr)
Somewouldsuggesta factorof x1.5whensizinga receivertor a largesystem,and as muchas x3 for small
comoressors.
Exampletcompressordelivery600 cfm (freeair)and an outputpressureof 100psi,Whatsize rec€iveris
r€quired?
t P"-
v=l
p1+ 147
Where V = capacityof r€ceiver
Q = compressoroutpul(clm)
Pa = atmosph€ric
plsssurc
P1 = compressoroutsul pressure
=77lf as a minimumnumber,a prudentsuggestionmightbeginwith 120ft".
V = (600'14.7y(10O+14.7)
INLET FILTER
A typicalcityatmosphorecancontain40 millionsolidparticl€s,i.e.dust,dirt,pollen,etc.per m".ll this air
werocompressed wouldbe 320 millionpartsy'ms
to 7 bar,lhe concentration or 7.8 millionparts/ff, An
importantconditiontor th6 roliabilityand durabilityol a compressoris that it mustbe providedwitha suitable
. and efficientfilterto preventexcessivewearof cylinders,pistonrings,€tc.whichis causedmainlyby the
I abrasiveeftectof thes€impurities.
AIR DEHYDRATION
AFTERCOOLERS
Atterfinalcompression, the air will b6 hot and whgncooling,will depositwaterin considerablequantitiesin the
airlin€system,whichshouldbe avoidBd.The mosteftectiveway to removethe maiorpartof this condensate
is to subieclthe air to aftercooling, immediatelyaftercompression.
Aflercoolersare heatexchangers,beingeitherair-cooledor watercool€dunits.
Alr cooled
Consistingof a nestof tubes
throughwhichthe compressedair
flowsand over whicha lorceddratt
of cold air is passedby meansol a
fan assembly.A typicalexampleis
shownin fig.4.8.
The outl€ttemperatureof the
cooledcompressedair shouldbe
approximately15"C (60oF)above
the ambientcoolingair
Flg. 4.8 Principleof an Air CooledAttercooler
temperature.
Water cooled
Essentially,
a st€elshellhousingtubeswith watercirculatingon on€sideand air on the other,usually
arrangedso that the llow is in oppositedirectionsthroughthe cooler.The is shownin fig. 4.9
CoolingWaterOUT
Fig.4.9Principle
ol a WaterCooledAftercooler
A water-cooled
aftercooler
should€nsurethattheairdischarged 1ooo(50oF)
wouldbeapproximately
abovethetemperatureof thecoolingwater.
An automatic
drainattached to or integral
withtheaftercooler
removestheaccumulated
@ndensation.
shouldbeequipped
Attercoolers witha satetyvalve,pressure that
gauge,andit is recommended
themometers to monitorairandwaterlemp€ratur€s
or sensors areincluded.
AIR DRYERS
Aftercoolers
cool the air to within10-1socof the coolingmedium.The conlroland operatingelementsot
th€pneumaticsystemwill normallybe al ambienttemperature(approx.20cC).This may suggestlhat no
lurthercondensatewill be precipilated,and that the remainingmoisturepassesout withthe exhaustair
releasedto almosphere.However,the tomperatureof the air leavingthe aftercoolermay be higherthanthe
sunoundinglemperalurethroughwhichthe pipelinepasses,for exampleduringnighttime.This situationcools
the compressedair turther,thus condensingmoreof the vaporintowater.
The measureemployedin lhe dryingot air is loweringthe d6w point,whichis the temperatureat whichthe
air is fullysalurat€dwith moisture(i.e.100%humidity).The lowerthe dew point,the lessmoistureremainsin
the comoressedair.
Thereare threemaintypesof air dryersavailable,whichoperateon an absorption,adsorplion,or
refrig€rationprocess.
Absorptlon (dellquescent) Drylng
DO NOT COPYWNHOI..TTWRITTENPERMISSION
PNEU$ATIC TECHNOLOGY
ldsorptlon (deslccant)Drylng
Column1 Column2
A chemicalsuchas silica
gel or aclivaledaluminain
granularform is contain€din a
verticalchamberto physically
adsorbmoisturetromthe
compressedair passing
throughit. Adsorptionis a
physicalprocessof a liquid
adheringto lhe surtaceol
certainmaterials(a sponge
absorbs,retainingmoisture
intErnally-- adsorbis a
surfaceetfect).Whenthe
dryingagentbecomes
saturatedit is regenerated by
drying,heating,or, by a flow
of previouslydriedah as in fig.
4.11.
OutputDryAir
Wet comoressedair is
suppliedthrougha directional
controlvalveand passes
throughdesiccantcolumn1. Exhaust
The driedair flowslo the InputWetAir
outletport, Fig,4.11Principle AirDryer
of theAdsorption
Between10-20%of the dry
air passesthroughorifice02 and column2 in reversedirectionto re-adsorbmoisturetromthe desiccantto r€-
generateit,
The dry air entersthe saturatedchamberand expands(droppingthe temperaturefurth€r,makingthe dry
air €ffectively
evenmoredry to facililatethe regeneratingprocess),The regenerating airllowgoesthento
exhaust.Th€directionalcontrolvalveis switchedperiodically by a timeror a sensorto altematelyallowthe
supplyair to one columnand regsn€rating the other,to providecontinuousdry air.
Extrem€lylow dew pointsare possiblewiththis method,for example- 40oC(whichis, oddlyenough,-40
"F).
A colorindicatormay be incorporated in the desiccantto monitorthe degreeof saturation.Microlilteringis
essentlal on the dryeroutleito preventcarryoverof adsorbentmist.Initialand operatingcostsare
comparatively high,but maintenance costst6ndto be low.
DO NOT COPYWTTHOUTWRITTENPERMISSION - 2 7-
P E U m A T t cT E c H N o L o c Y
l V l a i nl i n e f i l t e r
A largecapacityfiltershouldbe installedafter
the air receiverlo removecontamination,oil
vaporsfromthe compressor, and wat€rlrom the
air. Properselectionmustbe sizedaccordingto
the systemflow.ln som€casesthereare lwo
mainlinefillers(onein reservesoryingas FillerCartridge
backupduringthe filterelementchange-- which
shouldbe a r€gularlyscheduledmainlenance
item).
Bowl
Thisfiltermusthavea minimumpressure
dropandthe capabilityto removeoil vaporlrom
the compressorin orderto avoidemulsitication Glass
withcondensation (seenas a white,milkyliquid)
in the line.
It has no deflector,whichrequiresa certain
minimumpressur€dropto tunctionproperlyas DrainValve
the 'StandardFiltei' discussedlaterin the
sectionon Air Treatment.A built-inor an Fi9.4.13TypicalLineFilter
attachedaulo drainwill ensurea regular
dischargeof accumulated waler.
The lilter is generallya quick-change
cartridgetype.
Notethat the propersystempositionfor this deviceis afterthe dryingsystem,notiust atterthe compressor.
[IR DISTRIBUTION
The air mainis a permanentlyinstalleddistributionsystsmcarryingthe air to the variousconsumors.
can be al th€irhighestlevels- whichfosters
Typicallyinstalledat the ceilinglev6l(whereth6 temperatures
entrainedmoisture),the air maincan be a tremendoussourceof contamination processand
in the installation
duringnormaluse.
Duringthe installationprocesscars mustbe takento reducethe metalfilings,pipedope,and otherforeign
materialsthal will be general€dfromassembly.The largesiz€of mostair mainsmakescontamination seem
acceptable( a questionof relalivityat this point),yet whenthe contaminalion
is seenrelativeto the extremely
smalltol€rances in mod6mautomationcomponents(valves,actuators,gripp€rs.....) the eflectcan be
disastrous.
It the air maincomesin contactwithoutsideair temperatures (connecting
two buildings,p€rhapsbeing
routedunderground, etc,)it will serveas a moistureproducer.
As manymainsare ironpipe,rustis the eventualby-product.Careful€xamination shouldbe madewhen
reusingolderpipesto createa new airline.ll the opportunitypresentsitselfand a new airlineis to be cr6ated,
considerthe pipingconfiguration
as well.
Thereare two mainlayoutconligurations: DEADENDLINEand RINGMAIN.Afterexamining4.14and
4.15it shouldbecomeapparentthat the Ringmainconfiguration wouldbe prelerredfor bettersupplyflow.The
pip€)
additionalcost is a one-timeconcem(lorthe additional but lhe advantagescan be enjoyedeverydayot
operation.
DO NOT COPYWTTHOUTWRTTTENPERMISSION
P Eu Atrc TEcHNoLocy
-^ -...
.\.:..
:.._
( \ .
RINGMAIN
:
t ,
I a
i
! ....'
Flg.4.15TypicalRingMain
In a ring mainsvstemmainair can be f€dtromtwo sidesto a pointol high consumption. Thaswlll reduce
I pressur"diop. Howeverthis drivescondensatein anydirectionand sutftcientwatertake-otfpointswithAuto
Drainsshouldbe provided.lsolatingvalvescan be inslalledto dividethe air mainintosections.This limilsthe
ar€athat will be shul downduringperiodsof mainlenanceor repaar.
S E C O N D A R YL I NE S
Unlessan efficientaftercoolerand air dryerare installed,the compressedair distributionpipeworkacts as
a coolingsurfaceand wat€rand oil will accumulatethroughoutits length.
Branchlinesaretakenotf the top of the mainlo preventwaterin the mainpipelrom runningintolhem,
insteadof intodrainagetubeswhichare takentromthe bottomof the mainpipeat eachlow poinlof it. These
shouldbe trequentlydrainedor littedwithan automalicdrain.
Fig4.18showsan electricallydriventype,whichperiodically
purgesthe condensateby a rotatingcam
wheeltrippinga lever-operated
poppetvalve.
It otfersthe advan-
lag6s ot beingableto
work in any orientalion
and is highlyresistant
to vibration,so lending
ilseltto use in mobile
compressors, and bus
or lruck pneumatic
systems.
S I Z I N GC O M P R E S S E D
AIR MAINS
The cost of air mainsrepresentsa highproportionof the initialcost of a compressedair installation.A
reductionin pipediameter,althoughloweringthe investmentcost,will increasethe air pressuredrop in the
system,potentiallythe op€ratingcostswill riseand will exceedthe additionalcost of th€largerdiameter
piping.
Also,as laborchargesconstitutea largepartof the overallcost,and,as this costvariesvery littlebetween
pipe sizes,the cost of installingsay a 25 mm Dia borepipe is similarto that ol a 50 mm Dia pipe. Butthe flow
capacityof the 50mmDia pipewill be tourtimesthat ot 25 mm pipe.This additionalvolumemay equaltwo or
thre€(or more)receivertank volumes,reducingcompressordutycycles.
In a closedloop ring mainsystem,the supplyfor any particulartake-otfpointis fed by two pipepaths.
Whendeterminingpipesize,this dualfeedshouldbe ignored,assumingthat at any time air will be supplied
throughone pipeonly.
The sizeof the air mainand branchesis determinedby th€limitationof th€air velocily,normally
recommended at 6 m/s,whilesub-circuitsat a pressureof around6 bar and a few mete6 in lengthmaywork
at velocili€sup to 20mls. The pressuredropfromthe compressorto the end of the branchpipe shouldnot
exceed0.3 bar.The nomogram(figa.l9) allowsus to determineth€ requiredpipe diameter.
Bendsand valvescauseadditionalflow resistance,whichcan be expressedas additional(equivalent) pipe
lengthsin computingthe overallpressuredrop.Table4.20Oivesth€equiva6ntlengthsforthe variousfittings
commonlyused.
Example(a) To det€tminethe sizeot pip6thatwill pass 16800Uminol free air with a maximumpressuredrop
of not morethan 0.3 bar in 125 m ot pipe.The 2 stagecompressorswitcheson at 8 bar and stopsat 10
bar;the av€rageis 9 bar.
Relerringagainto nomogramin fig 4.19:The pipesize linewill now cut at almoslthe samedia;a
nominalborepipeot 65 mm,withan actualinnerdiameterot 68 mm will be satistactory.
Note:
Th6 possibilityof futureair demandsshouldbe taien intoaccountwhendeterminingthe sizeof mainsfor a
new installation.
2
1.5
1
2.O 0.5
1.75 o.4
1.5
0.3
6t
1.0 1.5". 40
0.9
0.8
6 o.7 , , o . 1 . .25! 35
7 0.6
..-8 0.5 0.05
9: 0.4 0.04
10 0.03
o.3 o.025
11 0.02
'12 0.25
0.015
o::.
0.01
0.15
"p
kPa/m
= bar/100m
PipeLength
T a b l e 4 . 2 1 P i p eS i z e S p e c i t i c a t i o n
Stainless steel pipes
Th€seare primarilyusedwhenvery largediametersin longstraightmainlinesare required.
Copper Tube
Wherecorrosion,heatresislanceand highrigidityar€required,coppertubingup to a nominaldiameterof
40 mm can be used,but will be relativelycostlyovet28 mm. Dia. Compression
fittingsusedwith annealed
qualitytubingprovideeasyworkingtor installation.
Flttlngs ln Systems
pneumatic
In systems, byvariousmethods
areconnected
componenls
5 AIRTREATMENT
As describedpreviously,all atmospheric air carriesbothdustand moislure.Aftercompression, moisture
condens€sout in the aftercoolerand receiverbut therewill always bo some that will be caried over.
Moreovertineparticlesof carbonizedoil, pipescaleand otherforeignmatter,suchas wornsealingmaterial,
tormgummysubstances. All of this is likelyto haveinjuriouseffectson pneumaticequipmentby increased
sealand componentwear,seal expansion,corrosionand stickingvalves.
To removBthesecontaminants, the air shouldbe furthercleaned(tiltered)as nearas possibleto the point
ol use. Air also
treatment includes Pressure Begulationand occasionallyLubrication'
FILTERING
S T A N D A R DF I L T E R
The standardtilteris a combinedwaterseparatorand lilter. It the air has not beende-hydraled
beforehand,a considerable quantityof waterwill be collectedand the lilter will holdbacksolidimpuritiessuch
as dustand rustoarticles,
CleanAir
PilotValve
Baffle Plate
DrainValve
QuietZone
Bowl
BowlGuard
-.'i\-
.7
DrainValve
Symbol SymbolFilter/Separator
Filter/Separator with Auto Drain
Fig. 5.1 TypicalFilter/Water
Separatorand an AutomaticDrainas option
The waterseparationoccursmainlyby a rapidrotationof the air,causedby the detlector at the inlet. The
heavierparticlesot did, walerand oil arelhrownoutwardsto impaclon the wall of the ftlterbowlbetore
runningdownto collectat the bottom.The liquidcanthenbe drainedoff througha manualdraincock or an
automaticdrain.The baffle plate createsa quietzonebeneathth€swidingair, pr€venting the separatedliquid
frombeingre-entrained intothe air stream.
DO NOT COPYWTIT{OUTWRITTENPERMISSION
P N E U A T T cT E c H N o L o c v
Sub-microFiltfrs
A sub-microfilterwill
removevirtuallyall oil and
waterand alsoline
Particlesdownto 0.01of a
micron,to provide
maximumprotectionfor pn€umaticprecisionmeasuringdevices,electrostatic spraypainting,cleaningand
dryingot electronicassembliesetc -- the principleof operationis the sameas a microlilter,but its fifur
elementhas additionallayerswitha higherliltrationefficiency.
Filter Selection
The sizeof air filterlhat is requh€dtor a particularapplicationis dependenton two factorsi
a) The maximumflow of compressedair usedby the pneumaticequipment.
b) The maximumacceptablepressuredropfor the application.
Manufacturers provideflowpressurediagramsto enablecorrectsizingto be done.
A ! FO U A L I T Y
:ILTEBINGLEVELS
Fig5.3 illustratesditferentlevelsof purityfor variousapplications.
Air froma compressorpassesthroughan aftercoolerwithan autodrainto removecondonsate.As the air
coolslurtherin the air receiver,an autodrain,installedon the bottomremovesmoreoondensale.Additional
drainsmay be tittedto all low pointson the pipeline.
The svslemdividesintothreemainparts:
Branches(1 and 2)
provideair directlrom the
air receiver.Branches(3 -
6) useair conditionedby a
retrigeratedtype ot dryer.
Branch7 incorporates an Refdgerated
additionaldryerot the AirDryer
adsorptiontype.
Standardfiltersin sub Compressor
branchesI and 2.
equippedwithautodrains
removecondensate: sub- 3
branch2 beinghigher
buritybecauseof th€
microtilter. Subbranches a MicroFilter 4
-
3 5, use refrigerated dry b Sub-microFilter
air.Thus.branch3
requiresno autodrain, c OdorRemovalFilter 5
branch4 needsno pre d AdsorbtionAir
lihe ng and branch5
givesan improvedlevelot 6
air purityusinga micro
filterand sub microfilter,
the moisturehavingbeen 7
removedby a refrigerated
typeof air dry6r.
DO NOT COPYWTTHOUTWRITTENPERMISSION
P N E U T / t A T I CT E C H N O L O G Y
b n e s s u n eR E G U L A T T o N
Regulationo{ pressureis necessarybecausa at pressures rapidwearwilltakeplacewilh
aboveoptimum,
littleor noincreasein output.Airpressure
thatis too lowis because
uneconomical it resultsin poorefficiency.
S T A N D A R DR E G U L A T O R
Pressureregulatorshavea pislonor AdiustingKnob
diaphragmto balancelhe outputpressure
againstan adiustablespringforce.
Adjusling
Spindle
The secondarypressureis set by lhe
adiuslingscrewloadinglhe settingspringto SettingSpring
holdthe mainvalveopen,allowingllow from
the primarypressurepl inlelportlo the
secondarypressurepz outlotport.Thenthe Diaphragm
pressurein the circuilconnectedto the outlel
risesand actson the diaphragm,creatinga PI p2
littingforceagainstthe springload.
Whenconsumption starts,pAwill initially alve Spring
dropand the spring,momentarily stronger Fig 5.5. Principleot the PressureRegulator
than the liftinglorce {rom p2 on th€
diaphragm,opensthe valve.
lf the consumptionratedrops,p2 willslightlyincrease,this increasesthe forceon the diaphragmagainst
the springforce-- diaphragmand valvewillthen lift unlillhe springforceis equaledagain.The airflowthrough
the valvewill be reduceduntilit matchesth6 consumplionrateand the outputpressureis maintained.
lf the consumptionrateincreases,p2 will slightlydecrease.This decreasesthe forceon lhe diaphragm
againstthe springtorce,diaphragmand valvedropuntilthe springforceis equaledagain.This increaseslhe
airflowlhroughthe valveto matchthe consumptionrate.
Withoul air consumF
tion the valv€is closed.lf
the secondarypressur€
risesabovethe set valu€
by virtueot:
. re-settingthe
regulatorto a loweroutlet
pressure,or Believing
. an eliemal r€verse
thrustfroman actualor,
the diaphragmwill liftto
openth€relievingseatso P1
thal excessoressurecan
be bledoff throughthe
vent holein the rigulator a b
body.
DoNOTrelyonthis Fig. 5.6 RelievingFunction
orificeas anexhaust
flow
I Path.
The mostimportanlparlsar€:
(O Adiustingspindle
@ SettingSpring
O RelievingSeat
@ Diaphragm
@ FlowComoensation
Chamoer
(D FlowCompensation
ConnectionTube
O vatve
@ O-Ringlor Pressur€Compensation
0 ValveSpring
I L O T O P E R A T E DR E G U L A T O R
The piloloperatedregulatoroftersgreateraccuracyof pressureregulationacrossa largetlow rang6'
Thisaccuracyis obtainedby replacingthe seningspringot a standardregulatorwith pilotpressurelrom a
smallpilotregufdorsit6don the unit.
The pilotregulatoron top ol the unitsuppliesor exhaustspilotair onlyduringcorrectionsof the oulput
pressure.Thisenablesthe regulatorto achievevery highllow ratesbut ke6psthe settingspringlenglhto a
minimum.
SettingSpring
PressureRelief
PilolDiaphragm
PilotValve
Diaphragm
P1
MainValve
MainValve
MainSecondary
Pressure
Reliel
F I L T E F . R E GU L A T O R
Air filleringand pressureregulationis combin€din the
singlelilt€rregulatorto providea compactspac€savingunit.
Charccterlstlcs
(bar)
S I Z I N GO F B E G U L A T O R SA N D F I L T E F S
I
FRLelementshaveto be sizedin accordancewiththe requiredflowcapacity.For Regulalols,lhe average
volumellowshouldbe theonein the middleot the regulating range(ll in ti9.5.11a).Thesizeof lhe tilteris
definedby the pressuredrop,For a'StandardFilter/Separator " (nota Line Filte0,a minimumpressuredrop
With maximumflow,AAp (allowableor desirabledeltap)
of about0,2 bar is requiredto €nsurefunctioning.
shouldhoweverb€keptbelow1 bar.
The sizeis theretoredetinedby the requiredflow,not by the connectionsizeof the component.Modular
systemsgivethe capabilitylo adaptthe connectionthreadto lhe availablelube size.
} O M P B E S S E DA I R L U B R I C A T I O N
Lubricationis no longera necessityfor the majorityof modernPneumaliccomponentsare availablepre-
lubricatedfor life.
of modemhighcycling
of thesecomponentsare tullyup to the requirements
The life and performance
processmachinery.
The advantagesol "non-lube'systemsinclude:-
oil levels.
a) Savingsin the cost ol lubricationequipment,lubricatingoil and maintaining
b) Cleanermorehygienicsystems;of particularimportancein foodand pharmaceutical
induslries.
c) Oilfree atmosphere, for a healthier,saferworkingenvironmenl.
To 6nsurethey are continuallylubricated,a certainquantityof
Certainequipmentstillr6quireslubrication.
is
oil added to the compressedair by means of a lubricalor.
' R O P O R T I O N A LL U B R I C A T O R S
ln a (proportional)lubricatora pressuredropbotweeninletand outlet,directlyproportional
to lhe flow rate,
is crealedand littsoil fromthe bowlintothe sightfeed dome.
a greatlyincreasedflow ratewouldcreatean excessivepressuredropand
With a tixedsizeot restriction,
producean air/oilmixturethat had too muchoil,{loodingthe pneumaticsystem.
Converselya decreasedflow ratemaynol createsufficientpr€ssuredropresultingin a mi)durewhichis too
lean.
crosssectionslo producea conitant
To overcomethis problem,lubricatorsmusthaveself-adiusting
mixture.
Air enleringa lubricator(as shownin Fig 5.12)followstwo paths:it llowsov€rthe dampervaneto the
outletand also entersthe lubricatorbowlvia a checkvalve,
Wh6nlhereis no flow,the samepressureexistsabovethe surfaceot the oil in th€bowl,in the oil tubeand
the sighlteeddome. Consequ€ntlythereis no movementof oil.
Whenair llowsthroughthe unit,lhe dampervaner€strictorcausesa prgssuredropb€tweenthe inletand
outlet. The higherthe flow,the greaterthe pressuredrop.
Sincethe sightleed domeis connectedby the capillaryholeto the low-pressure
zon€immediately
afterthe
dampervane, the pressurein the domeis lowerthan that in the bowl.
This pressureditferenceforcesoil up the tube,throughthe oil checkvalveandJlowregulatorintothe
dome.
Once in the dome,the oil seepsthroughthe capillaryholeinlo the mainair streamin the areaof the
highestair velocity.The oil is brokenup into minusculeparticles,atomizedand mixedhomogeneously withthe
air by the turbulencein the vortexcreatedby the dampervane.
WRITTENPERMISSION
DO NOT COPYWTTHOLTT -46-
P EU ATtc TEcHNoLoGY
FletlllPlug
SightFeedDome Capillary
Conn€ction
Oil Thronb
CheckValv€
DamoerVane
Oil Tube
BowlGuard
SinteredBronze
Oil Filler
I' F . R . L . Lub.lcator
UNITS
Modulartilter,pressureregulatorand lubricator
elementscan be combinedintoa serviceunitby
joiningwithspacersand clamps.Mounting
bracketsand olheraccessories can be easilyfitted
in morerecenldesigns.
6 ACTUATORS
Theworkdoneby pneumatic actuatorscanbelinearor rotary.Linearmovement by piston
is obtained
reciprocating
rylinders, rotary
motionwilhan angleupto 270' by vane or rackandpiniontypeactuatorsand
continuousrotation
by airmotors.
I N E A RC Y L I N D E R S
Pneumaticcylindersof varyingdesignsare the mostcommonpowercomponentsusedin pneumatic
automation.Thereare lwo basictypesfromwhichspecialconslructions are derived:
. Singl€-acting
cylinderswithone air inl€tto producea pow€rstrokein one direction
. Double-aciing
cylinderswilh two air inletsto produceextendingand relractingpowerstrokes
I N G L E A C T I N GC Y L I N D E F
A singleactingcylinderdevelopsthrustin one directiononly.The pistonrod is retumedby a fittedspringor
by externalforcefromthe loador spring.
It maybe a 'push'or 'pull"type(lig6.1)
SinteredBronzeFiller Stoo Spring
O U B L E A C T I N GC Y L I N D E R
Withthis actuator,thtustis developedin bothelitendingand retractingdirectionsas air pressureis applied
alternatelyto oppositesidesof a piston. The thrustavailableon the retractingstrokois reduceddue to the
smallerettectivepislonarea,but is onlya considerationif the cylinderis to 'pull' the sameload in both
dir€ctions.
Rod Seal/ Rod ISOSymbol:
DO NOT COPYWTTHOUTWRITTENPERMISSION
P EU ATtc TEcHNoLocy
Cyllnder Constructlon
Blind
Rod End
End
PistonRod
t 1
L (
Tie Rod
ISO Symbol CushionSeal Cushion Tie Rod Nut
Barrel
Flg. 6.3 the componentpartsof a doubleactingcylinderwithair cushioning
Varioustypesof sealsensurethat the cylinderis airtight.
Cushlont ng
Pneumaticcylindersare capableot very highsp€edand considerable shockforc€scan be d€v€lop€don
the end of the stroke.Smallercylindersotlenhavefixedcushioning,i.€.rubberbufters,to absorbthe shock
and preventinternaldamageto the cylinder.Oh largercylinders,the impactetfectcan b€absorb€dby an air
cushionthat deceleratesthe pistonoverthe lastportionof the stroke. This cushiontrapssomeof the
exhaustingair nearthe end of the strokebeforeallowingit to bleedoft moreslowlythroughan adjustable
n€edlevalve(fi9.6.4).
S P E C I A LC Y L I N O E RO P T I O N S
,ouble Rod
ISOSymbol
Fig. 6.5 Principleof lhe doublerod
A doubl€rod makesa cylinderstrongeragainstside load,as it hastwo bearingsat the widestdistance
possible.Thistypeof cylinderis ottenmountedwiththe rodstixedand the cylinderitselfmovingto displacea
oart.
ton Botatlng Rod
The pistonrod of a standardcylinderrotatesslightlyas thereis no guideto prevontthis.Thereforeit is not
possibleto directlymounta tool,e.g.a cuningblade.
Forlhis kindof application,wh€reno
considerable torqueis exercis€don the tool,a
cylindGrwithnon-rotating rod can be used.The
suppliersspecitythe maximumallowabletorque.
As tig. 6.6 shows,lwo flat plan€son the rod and
a fittingguidepreventthe rotation.
It showsalso howa torquecrealesa high
forceon the edgesof the rod profile,whichwill
damageit in the longrun.
Twln Rod
rso:
-'-+i
A
Fig. 6,7 Twin RodCylinder
FIet Cylinder
A cylindernormallyhas squarecoversand,generally,a roundcylinder.By stretchingthe pistonto a
relativelylong rectangularshapewith roundends,it achievesthe sameforceas a conventionalcylinder.The
advantage,of course,is the savingin spaceachievedif they are to be stackedtogeth€r.Suitablefor mostnon
rotatingapplications.
SectlonA-A
rsosymbor,Fll
ISO Symbol:
ISO Symbols:
CYLTNDER
MOUNTING
To ensurethal cylindersare correcllymounted,manutaclurers
oftera selectionot mountingsto meetall
requirementsincludingpivotingmovementusingswiveltype mountings.
BearCl€vis
Floatlng Joints
To accommodate
3(
unavoidable
"misalignment'betweenthe
cylinderrod movementand the
drivenobiect,a lloatingioint must
be fittedto the pistonrod end. Flg 6.12"Floatingjoinf
The investm€ntin thes€
deviceswill insur€longercylinder
life and morereliableoperation--
lar exceedingthe cost of the
deviceitselt.
f,uckllng Sttength
.h
Whenan excesslhrustis applied 2f\
lo a cylinderthe bucklingslrenglh
,M
mustbo takenintoconsideralion. This
excessthrustcan manifestitselfwhen
lhereis -:
1 -: CompressingStr€ss.
's
2 -: lf lhe stressedpart,i.e.a
cylinder, is longandslender.
The bucklingstrengthdepends
greatlyuponthe mountingmethod.
'&
Thereare four maincases:
1. Rigidlyfixedon onesideand
looseat the oppositeend.
M
2. Pivotingon bothends.
3. Rigidlyfixedon one side,
pivoiingon the other.
Fig.6.13 Thefourmounting
4. Rigidlytix6dat bothends.
The above-mentioned conditionsapplyif a cylinderliftsor pushesa load;it is lhen sub.iected
lo
compressing stress.lf a certainspecifiedstrokelengthis exceeded,the cylindercan "br€akout'sidewaysand
seizethus renderingthe cylinderuseless.To avoidunnecessarylossof timeand money,checkwiththe
lengthlable"in the supplier'scatalogue.Th€generalruleof thumbis if the strokeof cylindersabove
mm boreis threetimesthe diameleror, in the caseof smallercylinders,the strokeis tive timesthe bore
the cylinderis pushinga load.
Y L I N D E RS I Z I N G
Y L I N D E RF O R C E
heoretlcel Force
Linearcylindershavethe followingstandarddiametersas r€commended
in ISO:
8, 10,12, 16,20,25,32,40,50,63,80,100,125,140,160,200,250,320 mm
The forcedevelopedby a cylinderis a functionof the pistondiameter,the operatingair pressureand the
resistance.Forthe theoreticalforc€,the thruston a stationarypislon,the frictionis neglect€d.
This,
force,is calculatedusingthe tormulae:
Force(N) Pistonarea1m2)' airpressure(N/m2), or
Force(lbt.) Pistonarea(in2). airpressure
(lbf./in2)
Thustor a double acting cyllnder:
Extending FE= +
strcke: .d- A
lor a singleactlngcyllnder:
It may be quickerlo use a diagramsuchas lhe one in fig. 6.14,showingthe theoreticalforcetor 10,7and 5
bar , or any similarsuppliersinformationto selecta cylindersize.
rooozj 10
-;,2.
500
z
400
300
?50
200
---,7
1 -
I 2
../
150
r25
p : (bar) lq-t- - 7. 5. 7
-.-71--Z 7-,
---------_ 15{)00
100 .z
=:v7- z.
40
30
-4i -2 5000
4m0
-.4
.44
2500
m 2000
1500
12.5
10
===-rt=='-t
-.2-_L-2.
{E
d----
- - r - /
4 .zx.
:2.
6 (mm)
Fig.6.14 Theor€ticalForceof pneumaticcylinders,trom 2.5 to 30 mm (leftand top scales)
and from32 to 300 mm (rightand bottomscales)for 19,.1-a"ng,5bg!.workingpressure
Example: Determinethe theoreticalsizeof a cylinderoperatingat a pressureof 6 bar that wouldgeneralea
clampingforceof 1600N.
ttf
.lequlred Force
The requiredforcedependson lhe massol lhe load,the angleof movementor elevation,lhe triction,the
workingpressureand the ettectivepislonarea,
The loadconsistsof the Weightof the mass(Fig.6.15a), the ForceB representedby the trictionlacior
timesmass(Fig.6.15b) and the requir€dacceleration (Fig.6.15c). The re-partitionof theselorcesdependg
on the angleof the cylinderaxiswith the plane
horizontal (elevation)as shownin tig' 6.15d.
F= G. (sina+
l'-;l
+
@ @ @
Fig 6.15Thecomponentforc€sof the LOAD
A horizontalmovement(elevation= 0") has onlyfrictionto overcome.Frictionis definedby the friction
coetficientU,whichvariesbetweenabout0.1 to 0.4 for slidingmetalparts,and about0.005for iron,rollingon
iron(0.001for ballson the ring in a ballbearing).Thiscoetficiententersthe formulaas a cosine,whichvaries
from 1 tor horizontalto 0 for vertical.
The massrepr€sents a load,equalto itrsweight,whenth6 movemenlis vertical(90'elevation),The weight
is th€forc6creatodby the earth'sacceleration on the mass.The earth'sacceleration equals,on a lalitudeof
450(Standardlor Europeand N. America),9.80629m.s'"or 32.17ft sec?.Witha horizontalmovementthe
weightis a zero loadas it is fullybornby the construction. The entirecylinderthrustis thenavailablefor
The loadof the massvariesthereforewiththe inclinationtrom 0 to 1000/".lts valueas a factoris
sineof the inclinationangle,0 for horizontal,1 for verlical:
LOAD RATIO
DO NOT COPYWTTHOU"T
WRITTENPERMISSION
P N E U A T T cT E c H N o L o c Y
? 60' 30" e
CYL. Dia u: 0.01 0.2 0.01 0.20.01 o.z 0.01 n t
25 2t.2 24.5 30 25 42.5 3 t . 5 2t23 106
32 39.2 45 40.5 5 4 . 8 46.2 77 58.2 3920 196
40 54.5 62.5 56.4 76.3 64.2 107 80.9 5450 272.5
50 85 97.7 88 Il9 100.2 t67.3 126.4 8500
63 135 1 5 5 t39.8 r 8 9 t59.2 265.5 200.5 13500 675
80 zl7.'l 250 225.5 305 256.7 428 323.5 21775 1 0 8 9
100 340.2 390.5 390.8 352 476.2 669.2 505.s 34020 l 7 0 l
Table.6.17Massin kg tor cylinderstrom25 to |00 mm Dia.for a LoadRattoot 85olowilh 5 bar
workingpressure.
P E E DC O N T R O L
The speedof a cylinderis delinedby the extraforcebehindthe piston,abovethe torceopposedby the
load.The loadratioshouldn€varexceed85o/o approx.The ,owerlhe loadratiothe benerthe speedcontrol,
especiallywhenthe loadis subiectto variations.A positivespeedcontrolis obtainedby throttlingthe exhaust
ot the cylinderby meansof a €peed Conlrollef,whichis a combinationol a checkvalve,to allowfreeflow
towardsthe cylinder,and an adjuslablethroftle(needlevalve).An exampleol speedcontrolis shownin the
s€clionon valvesin the chapt€ron AuxiliaryValves.To get a conslantspeed,the Load Ratioshouldbe
apprcx.75"/".
Forc€is mass(Wg) timesacceleration. The unitsarefor torce:kg . m . s'"and for acceleralion:
m . s'. In
EnglishunitsW = lbs and g = 32.17tvsec".
Example:Massof the load 100 kg, workingpressure5 bar,CylinderDia 32 mm, horizontalmovementwitha
friclion coefficientot 0.2. The theoreticalforce is 401.2 N
Table6.16showsthis caseand 90 kg massa load ratiool43.9 "/..
oh.
Thusfor1ooxg:ns.s.$ = 48.8
The Forceof the load is 48.8% of 401.92N = 196 N. Witha cylinderetficiencyof 95%,95 - 48.8%=
46.2o/oof the torceis lettfor the acceleration
of the load.This is 185,7N. The acceleration
is therefore:
. . =
185.7kg m s-2/ 1OOkg 1.857m' s-2.Withoutcontrol,the pistonwouldth€oretically approach2 m/s
afterone second."Theoretically"meansif th€reis no limiiationto the accessof compressedair behind
and no backpressurein fronl of lhe piston.
The limitationof the exhaustairflowcreatesa pn€umaticload,whichis definedby the pistonspeedandth€
volum€tlowthroughthe restrictionof the speedcontroll€r.
Any incr€aseof the pistonspeedincreasesth6
opposingtoroe.This limitsand stabilizesthe pistonspeed.The higherthe pneumaticpartof the toial load is,
the strongerit can stabilizeth€pistonspeed.
Witha loadratiool 8570and a cylinderefficiencyof 95%, 10 p€rcentof the torceis stabilizingthe
pneumaticload.Whenthe mechanicalloadshowsa variationof * 5olothereis a compensation of haltthe
influence.Witha load ratioof tor example50%,thesevariationswill no longerhaveany visibleetfecton the
soeeo.
Nole that tor a subtlespeodcontrol,the flowcapacityof the tube has to be muchhigherthan that of the
speedcontrollersetling.With a tubewhichis too smallin diameterthe tubelor a greatpart,limitsthe flowand
changingthe needlepositionhas littleefiect.
A-
dfn
a K
F-b--'tl
--+' P.19-z
l= /.- s -!-E Y = D 2 ' ! .s.PP'
nres nm2 { rft Frtn rrnqfte
0.336m3ry'min
In ourexample: . 40 cents/ hr = 13.4cents per hour.
1mg/min
The sum of all the cylinderson a machine,calculatedlhal vvay,repres€nts
the air consumption
as energy
cosl,
It shouldhoweverbe notedthat,
. the consumption ligur€sin the abovetabledo not includethe 'dead volume"at eitherend ot the
stroke,il any, northal for the connectingtubes.
. the transferof energyis notwithoutlosses(seefurtherbelow).
Forsizing the valve ot an individualcylinderwe needanotherfigure:the peaktlow. lt d€pendson the
highestcylindersp€ed.The highestsum of the peakflowsol all simultaneously movingcylindersdefinesthe
tlowon whichthe FRL unlt hasto be sized.
We may no longernegl€ctthe thermallosses.In the sectionon the propertyof gaseswe discussed
'adiabatid'change,whichmeansthatthereis no timeto exchangeany heat.Boyle'sLaw,
?.y= constanf is
no longerapplicable,but changesto, ?.lf = constant".The €xponentK (kappa)for air is 1.4.The tableot the
compressionratiotablefrom page7 is reproducedbelowwithan additionalrowfor p.t^ = constantand one
withthe ratiolsothermic/ adiabaticcomoression,
Pabs 1 2 4 5 6 tl I 10
crisothermic 0.987 1.987 2.974 3.961 4.948 5.935 6.923 7.908 8.895 9.882
cl adiabatic 0.991 1.633 2.178 2.673 3.133 3.576 3.983 4.38 4.749 5.136
factor I 1 . 2 1 6 1.365 '1.482 1.579 1.66 1.738 1.80 1.873 1.924
WorkinePr€ssure
in bsr
Piston dis. 3 4 ! 6 1
O= 1.4. (63mmr2
. nr4.500mm. sotrin.
ffiff
.16-66634;1s1
= 453.19s
Umin
By usingthe table,we find 3.021yminper 100 mm skoke.This ligurehasto be multipli€dby 150,tor 5
times100mm strokeand30 timesperminute:150/min.3.021liters= 453.15l/min.
DO NOT COPYWTIHOTJTWRITTENPERMISSION
PTIEU ATIC TECHNOLOGY
horanvA C T U A T O R S
R A C K A N D P I N I O NT Y P E
The outputshatthas an integralpiniongeardrivenby a rackanachedto a doublepiston. Standardangles
of rotationare 90" or '180'.
VANETYPE BOTARYACTUATORS:
Air oressureacls on a
vane, which is attached to the Elastomer
outputshaft. A titiedrubb€r Damper
, seal or €lastomercoating
sealsthe vaneagainst
leakage.
A specialthr€e
dimensionalsealsealsthe
stopperagainstthe shaftand
the housing.The size of the
stopperdelineslhe rotalion
angleof 90, 180or 270'.
Adjustablestopsmay be
providedto adjustany angle
ot rolationof the unit.
I Z I N G R O T A R YA C T U A T O R S
orque and Inartia
Linearcylindershavea cushionto reducethe impactwhenlhe pistonhitsthe cover.The capacityof the
cushioningis the kineticenergyit can absorb.This6n€rgy€quaV! ' vZ.lt is mostimportantwhena loadis
f'
propelledwith littletrictionand highspeed.
rl 2+122
J=m.r 6 J=m. V- c J=m.
a T
I
I v
+I - I
ri
d
J' = m .
r 2
4 a
J=m. ,#,*,
' i l Ea -
!-::-!.
-'d--
mb= n,t r -
a+b
ll
2 . ^ '2
y r=m".**'o.F '
ta2+c2 +lho'oo#"
1 J = n a Ti- 1 2
i
StopperLeveron
souareShaftEnd
c
ShockAbsorbers
Stops
Fig. 624 Stoppinga rotatingarm
The inertiator rotatingobiectsis whatlhe movingmassis to a linearmovement.The energyis dofinedby
its speed.For a rotation,the speedis definedby the ?ngular Speedaf. lt is expressedin radiansper second.
Fig.6.25illustratestheseexpressions.
o-- | rao
' = 7o
1 rad:o= 57.3'
of angularspeed
Fig. 6.25 Definitions
As for the cushioningcapacitytor linearmovements,
tor the maximumallowedenergyto be stoppedby a
rotaryactuatorwe haveto considerthe tinalspeed.An accelerationby compressedair, if not limitedby a
stabilizingback-pressure,may be consideredto be almostconstant.The movementstartsat zeroand
reachesaboutdoublethe averagespeed(Strokepertime)at the end of stroke.
Fortastpneumatic
movemenls, haveto bebasedontwicetheaveragesp€edasfig.6.26
calculations
Low Speed .- FinalSpeed
Hlgh Speed
- AverageSpeed
S P E C I A LA C T U A T O R S
L O C K I N GC Y L I N D E R
A cylindercan be fitted
witha lockingheadin placeof
the standardend cover.
It will holdthe pistonrod in
any position.The locking
actionis mechanical,so
ensuringthe pislonrod is
securelyheld,evenin the
caseof pressurebreakdown.
Fig. 6.27TypicalLockingCylinder
R O D L E S SC Y L I N D E R S
With magnetlc coupllng, ungulded
Cushioning
Tube SealBelt
Piston
Cushioning
Seal
Fig.5.31RodlessCylinderwith mechanicalcoupling
For littingor movingheavierloads,a "slottedcylinder"typeexcludesthe riskot disconnection
of the carrier
fromthe pistonunderdynamicshocks,but it is nottotallyleakfree unlikethe magneticallycoupledtype.
DO NOT COPYWTTHOUTWRITTENPERMISSION
P r { E UA T r cT E c H N o L o c Y
SLIDE UNlTS
The slideunitis a precisionlinearactuatorof compactdimensions,whichcan be usedon robotic
manutacluring
and assemblymachines.
|'rne
l n R o r A T r N cc Y L T N D E R
A so-calledrotatingcylinderis an assemblyot a linearcylinderwitha rotaryactuator.A rotatingarm can be
attachedto the shattand be equippedwitha gripperor vacuumpad to pickup wolk piecesand deposilthem
in anotherlocationafterrotatingthe arm.Thisgivesa "pickand place"uni or materials handling.
Fig. 6.34TypicalRotatingCylinder
\ I R C H U C K( G R I P P E B )
An actuatordesignedto Opened MainPiston
gripcomponentsin robotic
typeapplications.
I The typeshownhas
two opposingpistons,to
openand clos€the iaws.
SecondaryPiston SpeedControlScrew
Fig.6.35TypicalPneumaticFulcrumTypeGripper
Flg. 6,36Typical
Applications
of the
RotatingCylinder
andAir Gripper
7 D I R E C T I O N A LC O N T R O LV A L V E S
V A L V EF U N C T I O N S
A directionalcontrolvalvedeterminesthe tlowot air betwe€nits portsby opening,closingor changingils
internalconnections. The valvesare describedin termsot: lhe numberof ports,the numberof switching
positions,its normal( not operated) positionand the methodot operation.The firsttwo pointsare normally
expressedin the t€rms5/2, 312,2!2elc.The tirstfigurerelateslo th€numberol ports(excludingpilotports)
and the secondto the numberol gosilions.
The mainIunctionsand are:
Symbol Principal Construclion Function Application
4 2 5/2: Switching
betweenoutput Doubleacting
A andB, with cylinders
sePaBte...
exhausts.
5/3,Opencenter: Double acting
As 5/2 but with cylinders,with the
oulputs possibilityto de-
exhaustedin pressurizethe
mid-oosition cvlinder
5/3 Closed Double acting
centenAs 512 cylinden,with
but with rnid- stopping
positionfully possibility
5 1 3 shutoff
PORTlDENTIFICATION
The denominations of the variousporlsare not uniform;thereis moretraditionthan respecledslandard.
Originally,the codespreviouslyusedlhe olderhydraulicequipmenthavebeenadapted.'P" for the supply
portcomesfrom"pump",lh€ hydraulicsourceot fluid€nergy
The outletof a 2/2 or 3/2 valvehas alwaysb€en"A",the s6cond,antivalentoutputporl "8".
The exhausthas initiallybeen"R" from Return(to the oil tank).The secondexhaustport in 5,/2valveswas
th€nnamedS, or the former"R1"and the latt€r"R2".
The pilolport initiatingthe powerconnectionto portA hasoriginallybeencoded"Z (thetwo elitreme
bners in lhe alphabetbelongstogether)and the other.y'.
M O N O S T A B L EA N D B I S T A B L E
Springreturnedvalvesare monostable.
They havea definedprefenedpositionto whichthey automatically
retum.
A bistablevalvehas no preferredpositionand remainsin eitherpositionuntilone of its two impulsesignals
are operated.
VALVE TYPES
The two principalm€thodsof construction.are
Poppetand Slidewitheitherelastic.ormetalseals,Fig.7.3
relatesto the variouscombinations.
Directional
Control
Valves
MetalSeal
DO NOT COPYWTTHOUTWRITTENPERMISSION
P N E U M A T T CT E C H N O I O G Y
P O P P E TV A L V E S
Flowthrougha poppetvalveis controlledby a discor pluglittingat rightanglesto a seat,withan elastic
seal.
Poppetvalvescan be two or threeporl valves,f or a lour or five portvalvetwo or morepoppelvalveshave
A
P F
a ISO Svmbol
operatedpopp€tvalv€
Fig.7.5.Mechanically
Fig7.5 a) showsa NC 3/2 poppelvalveas shownin fig.7.4 b.
ln its non-operaled position(a),theoutletexhauslsthroughthe plunger.Whenoperated(b) the exhaust
porl closesand the airflow'sfromthe supplyport P to the outletA.
Design7.2 c) is a balancedpoppetvalve.The inletpressureacts on equalopposingpistonareas.
NC NO
ISOSymbol
S L I D I N GV A L V E S
Spool,rotaryand planeslidevalvesusea slidingactionto op€nand closeports.
Spool Valves
A cylindricalspoolslideslongitudinally
in the valvebodywilh the air tlowingat rightanglesto the spool
movemenl.Spoolshaveequalsealingareasand are pressurebalanced.
Elastomet seal
Commonspooland seal anangem€nlsare shownin tig. 7.7 and7,8.In fig 7.7 O-ringsare tittedin grooves
on the spooland movein a metalsleeve.Two of themare crossingoutputports,whichare lhereforedividedin
a greatnumberol smallhol6sin the sleeve.
Flg.7,7SpoolValvewithO-Ringsonthespool,crossing thecylinderports
Thevalvein fig.7.8hassealsfittedin thevalvebody,whichar6keptin position
by meansof sectional
spacers
Itetal Seal
Lappedand matchedmetalspooland sleev€valv€shavevery low trictionalresistance,rapidcyclingand
exceptionallylongworkinglife. But 6venwitha minimalclearanceol 0.003mm,a smallinternalleakagerate
of aboutone l/minoccurs.Thishas no consequence as longas the cylinderhasnot to be heldin a positionby
a 5/3 valvewithclosedcenlertor sometime.
EBPEA EBPEA
Flg. 7.10 Principleof the seallessSpooland SleeveValve
,lane Slide Valve
notary Valves
A m€lalporleddiscis manually theportsin thevalvebody.Pressure
rotatedto interconnect imbalance is
employedlo forcethediscagainstits matingsurfaceto minimize
leakage.Thepressure supplyis abovethe
disc.
tffi P F
ISO Symbol
t-vt
A B A B
rT--r]
PEX PEX
ffi
A E T
t--l
IT TI
PEX PEX
I
U A L V EO P E R A T I O N
MECHANICAO
L PERATION
A n n
e
A t-l
On an automatedmachine,
!ol/
mechanically operaledvalvescan -e+ tldt
detectmovingmachineparlsto l:Ez
:
=r :E
:
providesignalstor the automatic
conlrolof lhe workingcycle. Plunger StraighlBoller Square Roller RollerLever
The maindirectmechanical Operators
Fig 7.13The mainM€chanical
operators
areshownin 1i9.7.13
Cate when using Roller Levers
PT: Pre-travel
OT.: Over Travel
TT.:Total
W FollerStroke to
beutilized
Fig. 7.14Carewith RollerLeversand Cams
Th€one way roller (or idle r€turnroller)will only operatewhenthe controlcam strikesthe actuatorwhen
movingin one direction.In the reversedireclionthe rollercollapseswithoutoperatingthe valve.
U I A N U A LO P E B A T I O N
Manualoperationis generally l-r-\ TfI
obtainedby attachingan operator lry E] ,ffi'
head,suitabletor manualcontrol, '
Flush Baised Mushroom
ontoa mechanicallyoperated
valve. Flg. 7.15The mainmonostableManualOperators
Manuallyoperated,monostable(springretumed)valvesare generallyusedtor starting,sloppingand
otherwisecontrollinga pneumaticcontrolunit.
For manyapplicalionsit is
Im \ m
moreconv€nient if the valve l--r \ \ t-,
marntains ftsposi on. Fig.7.t6 E 1+r -1
showsthe moreimoortanltvoes
: :
ol bistablemanualoperators
RotatingKnob Toggle Key
Flg. 7.16BistableManualOperators
AIR OPERATION.
Directionalcontrolvalves,usedas "PowerValves",shouldbe locatedas closeas possibleto ils aclualor
and be swiichedby remolecontrolwith a pneumaticsignal.
A monostsbleair operatedvalveis switchedby air pressureactingdirectlyon one side ot the spoolor on
a pislonand returnedto ils normalpositionby springtorce.The springis normallya mechanicalspring,but is
can also be an "air spring"by applyingsupplypressureto the spoolend,oppositeto the pilol port,or a
combinationof both.In the lattercase,the pilotside requir€sa biggeretfectivearea,whichis providedby a
piston.
Air connection
for Pistonwith twice the ar€a
spnngassistanc€ of th€ spoolal sping side
Fig.7.17 A2 Ait operatedValve,with ah assistedspringretum
Air assistedspringretumgivesmoreconstantswitchingcharacteristics,
and higherreliability.
In fig 7.18an ak springis providedthroughan internalpassagefrom the supplyportto act on the smaller
diameterpislon.Pressureappliedthroughthe pilol portontothe largerdiameterpistonactuatesthe valve.
This methodof returninglhe spoolis oftenusedin miniaturevalvesas it requiresvery littlespace
A ISOSymbol
r
I I
ri I
ir t4
!
I
PA
EAPEB
NFPA labels
EB
Fig. 7.19 Bistable,air operat€d5,/2Valve
JIS lab€ls:
S O L E N O I DO P E R A T I O N
Electropneumatically and electronicallycontrolledsyslemsare discuss€din a laterbookin this seriesand
it is sufficienlat this stageonly to considerthe electricaloperationof directionalcontrolvalves.
In smallsizesolenoidvalves,an ironarmaluremovesinsidean airtighttube.The armatureis finedwith an
elastomerpoppeland is liftedtroma supplyseat in the bodyby the magnetictorce ol the energizedcoil. Fig
7.21a.
P R
ISO Symbol
--=
D t:-_
FlgT,21 a:2J2,b: 3/2 directsolenoid,springretum,poppettypevalve.
A 3/2 valvehas also an exhaustseaton top and the armaturean elastomerpoppetin its top end (Fi9.7.21
b)
Directlyoperated5/2 solenoidvalvesrelyon the electromagneticforceof the solenoidto movethe spool
(1i97.221.
lt can only be a seallesslappedspooland sleevetype withoutfriction.
R2
JIS Symbol
Fi$.7.23 5/2 monostableSolenoidValv€withelastomercoatedspool
JIS Symbol
Fig Z.24.Pilotoperated 5/3 Solenoid Valve with closed center and spring centeringvalve mounting
I R E C TP I P I N G
The mostcommonmethodof connectionto a valveis to screwfittingsdirectlyintothe threadedportsof a
so-calledbodyportedvalve.This methodrequiresone fittingfor eachcylinder,piloland supplyportand one
silencertor eachexhaustporl,All the valvesshownpreviouslyare body-portedtypes,exceptfig. 7,22' whicn
is sub basemounted,.
ANIFOLDS
Manifoldshavecommonsupplyand exhaust Cylinder Ports
channElsior a givennumberof bodyported AandB
valves.The outputrs separatelyto
are conn€cted
eachvalve,
Fig.7.25showsa manitoldwithtourvalvesof
Common
difterenltunctions:a 5,/3.a bistableand two mono-
Supply
stabletypesof the sameseries.
A manifoldshouldbe orderedlo accommodate
the requirodnumberof valves,ext€nsionis not
possible,but usinga blankingkit can sealspare Common
positions. Exhaustsfor
With5 or morevalvesit is recommended that A andB Ports
'
air is suppliedand silencersmountedat bothends, Fig.7.25TypicalManifold
SUB BASES
Valveswithall of theirportson one lace are designedto be gasketmounledon a sub base,to whichall lhe
externalconnectionsare made.Thisallowsquickremovaland replacemenlof a valvewilhoutdisturbingthe
lubing.Generally,a basemountedvalvehas a slightlybetterflow capacitythan a body-portedvalveof the
sametype.Fig.7,22showsa typicalbasemountedvalve.
M U L T I P L ES U B B A S E S
In a similarway to lhe manifold,
multiplesub basessupplyand
exhausta numberol valvesthrough
commonchannels.Alsothe cylinder
portsare providedin the sub base.
Multiplesub basesalso haveto
be orderedlor the reouirednumber
of valvesand are ableto be blanked
otf in the sameway as manifolds.
Fig.7.26showsa manitoldwith
lour basemounttypes3ii2Solenoid
Valves,The commonexhaustports ValveOulputs
are to be equippedwilh Silencers, . (A Porrs)
prelerablyon bothendsto avoid
back-pressure. This is not only Fig. 7.26 MultipleSub Basewithtour 3/2 Valves
recommended tor soundelimination
but also tor dust protection,
G A N G E DS U B B A S E S
GangedSub Basesare assemblies
ol individualbas€s,whichallowany
reasonablenumberto be assemblsd
intoone unit.This systemhasth€
advantageof allowingextensionor
reductionof the unit if the systemis
altered,withoutdisturbingthe existing
comoonents. Thereis stillthe oDtionto
blankotf positions,il required.
Fig.7.27showsa typicala$sembly,
equipp€dwilh one monostableand two
bistablesolenoidvalvesand a blanking
plate.The individualsub basesare
holdtogetherwithclamps.Other
constructionsmayalso haveboltsor tie
rodsfor the purpose.O Rings,inserted
in groovesaroundthe channels,
providea leakagetreeconnectionof Fig. 7.27 GangedSub Basewiththreevalvesand one
supplyand exhaustchannelsfrom end blankedoosition.
to end.
V
t
A L V ES I Z I N G
I N D I C A T I O N SF O F F L O W C A P A C ] T Y
Portdimensionsdo not indicatethe flowcapacityof the valve.The selectionot the valvesizewill depend
on the requiredtlowrale and permissiblepressuredropacrosslhe valve'
The manutacturers provideintormationon lhe flowcapacityof valves.Flowcapacilyis usuallyindicatedas
the so called"standardtlow" On in litersof lree air per minuteal an inletpressureot 6 bar and an outlet
pressureof 5 bar,or witha flowfactor,Cv or kv, or wilhthg equivalentFlowSection"S".Thesefactorsrequire
lormulaeor diagramsto definethe tlowundervariouspressureconditions.
The Cv faclor of 1 is a llow capacityof one US Gallonol waterper minute,witha pressuredropof 1 psi.
The kv factor of 1 is a llow capacityof one literol walerper minutewitha pressuredropol 1 bar.
The equivalentFlow Section "S" of a valveis the flow sectionin mm2ol an orilicein a diaphragm,
creatingthe sam€relationship b€tweenpressureand flow.
All threemethodsrequirea formulalo calculatethe airtlowundergivenpressureconditions.Theyare as
tollows:
C=400'Cv' r_.013)
Q=21.94'kv
LtJ
Q = 2 2 . 2 ' s' .vt (sD- z + r u J . s , | . A' p. '. 1 l\; t; -n-! + e
t-=---:-=-;;-- |
k v =
2 7 . 9 4 . 4 @ 2 + l - 0 1 3 ). A p
S =
222. l@2 + r-013). Ap
1 C v = l kv= rs =
The normalflow Ontor othervarioustlow capacityunitsis: 981.5 68.85 54.44
The Relationshio
betweentheseunitsis as tollows: 1 14.3 18
o.o7 1 1.26
0.055 o.794 1
Note:The outcomeof this calculationgivesin fact not the flow capacityof the valve,as we simplystated
above,but tor the assemblyof lhe valveand the connectingtubesand tilling.To get as muchtlow
capacity,thal of the valvehas to be higher.Howmuchhigher?
Orlllces In series connectlon
Beforewe can determinelhe sizesot valveand tubing,we haveto lookat how pressuredropsovera
numberot subsequentorificesin series.The formulafor the resulting"S" is:
s total= l t 1
s12*sl*"'sn,
To avoidunnecessarilydealingwithsuchtormulaewe looktor a thumbrule.Fig.7.28.1and Fig.7.28.2
showthe relationship
betweena numberof orificesin.seriesconnoctionand the resultingflow.
\i_
--+
c,=1.4
=.x-
-..>---.> ><+<_= _><_><_#
C,=1.4 C,=1.73 c"=1.73 C"=1.73 C"=2 C"=2 C,=2 Q,=2
'i: L
! \
; \ *
20
10
0
0.02 0.05 0.1 o.2 0.5 5 1 0
ube Lengthin m
Fig. 7,29tho equivalentFlowSectionS in mm2of the cunenttubesizesand length
The FlowSectionol littingshas to be specifiedin the catalogues.The totalof a tub€lengthwith ils two
tittingscan be calculatedwilh the tormulaabove.To reducethe needot its use to exceptions,you can tind the
s€ctionsfor the mostcurrenttubeassembli€sin table7.30.
1.6
1.4
P12
1.2 3
0.8
0.6 7
I
o
'10
0.4
1.25 1.5
?p in bar
Fig. 7.32CorrectionFactor"cf'for the Sectionsgivenin Table7.31,for otherpressureconditions
I
A U X I L I A R YV A L V E S
N O N . B E T U F NV A L V E S
A non-returnvalveallowstreeaidlowin one directionand sealsil otf in lhe opposite.Thesevalvesare
also referredto as checkvalves.Non-retumvalvesare incorporaledin speedcontrollersand self-sealtittings
etc.
ISOSymbol
b
I
p e e oc o N T R o L L E B s
I A "speedcontrolle/'consistsof a checkvalv€and a variablethrottlein one housing.lt is also correctly
calleda Flow Control (baseduponits symbol).Manytimesmanufacturers will cali devic€sspeedcontrols
and,in fact,theyare reallyneedlevalves,veriiywiththe symboltobe certain.
Keepin mindthat flow controlscan onlyslowdowna cylinder;they posea restrictonin bolhdirectionsof
air flowand thereloreslowthe responseof the cylinderon boththe extendas well as the retraclstroke.In
mostcasesflowcontrolsshouldbe usedto meterthe exhaustflowot a cylinder.Thiswill providebetter
conlroland a smoothercylinderstroke.
Fig.7.32showsa typicalexamplewiththe flow indicated.In a), air flowslreelyto the cylinder,in b) it flows
backto the exhaustDortof lhe valvewitha restrictedtlow.
ISO Symbol
S H U T T L EV A L V E
This is a three-portedvalvewithlwo signalpressureinletsand on€outlet.The outletis connectedto eith€r
signalinput.lf only one inpulis pr€ssurized,
the shuttlepreventsthe signalpressuretrom escapingthrough
the exhaustedsignalporton lhe oppositeside.(Fig7.35)
ISOSymbol
Fig. 7.35ShunleValve
U I C K E X H A U S TV A L V E S
Thiscomponentpermilsa maximumoutstrokingpistonspeedby exhaustingthe cylinderdirectlyat its porl
witha grealllow capacity,insteadof throughlhe tube and valve.
The rubberdiscclosesoff the exhaustporton the bottomas the supplyair tlowsto the cylinder.Whenthe
direclionalcontrolvalve,connecledto the inletporton top is reversed,the supplytube is exhaust€dand the
opensthe wideexhaustport.
discliftedby the cylinderpressure.lt thencloseslhe inletportand automatically
CYL
ISOSymbol
DO NOT COPYWTTHOUTWRITTENPERMISS]ON
P N E U M A T I CT E C H N O L O G Y
I B A S I CC I R C U I T S
NTRODUCTION
BasicCircuitsare asssmbliesol valveslo pertormcertaintunctions.There area limit€dnumberot
elementarytunclionsof whicheventhe mostsophisticated circuitsare composed.
Theselunctionscan havethe abilityto:
. Control a cylinder,or
. Operateanothervalve
- for remolecontrolfroma Panel,
- to changeone valvefunctionintoanother,
- for safetyinterlocksetc.
The lattertypeof lunctionis also relerredlo as a "logicalfunclion".Thereare four basiclogicalfunctions:
.tdenttty ("YES")
. Negatlonor Inversion ("NOT')
. AND
.OR
We will not dealwith logicalmethodsot switchinghere,but we will usethe lermsas theyclearlydescribe
functionsin a singleword.
: L E M E N T A R YF U N C T I O N S
FLOW AMPLIFICATION
A largecylinderneedsa largeAir Flow.One
can avoidhavingto manuallyoperatea large
valvewithsutficientflowcapacityby usinga
largeair operatedvalveand operatingit witha
smallermanuallyoporatedvalve.Thistunctionis
called"FlowAmplification". This is oflen
combinedwith remotecontrol:the largevalveis
clossto the cylinderbut the smallone can be
Fig, 8.1 Flowamplification
or indirectcontrolof
builtintoa panelfor easyaccess.
S l G N A LI N V E R S I O N
The methodas shownin fig. 8.1 cen alsobe
usedto changethe functionot a valvefrom
normallyopento normallyclosedor vic6versa.
It valve@ in tig. 8.2 is operated,the
pressureon the outputof valve@ disappeaF
and reappearswhenO is released.
Fig.8.2 Signallnversion:
it valve@ is operated,
thepressureontheoutputof valve@ disappears
andre-appears when@ is releas€d
SELECTION
Selectionis achievedby convertingfrom a 3l2 to a 5/2 function.
The initiatingvalveO is a small3/2
manuallyoperatodvalve,th€indir€ctly
op€raledvalve@ is a 5/2 valveof a
sufticienttlow capacitylo actuatea doubJe
actingcylinder.UsingthislunctionFlow
Amplification is also per{ormed.
One positionof the toggleswitch"lightrs"
lhe greenindicator,the othef lights"th€ r€d.
The samefunctionis also usedtor Flg. 8.3 Selectionbetweentwo circuitswithone
selectionbetweentwo circuits:one of the manuallyoperatedmonostable312valve
portsol th€5/2 valvesuppliesfor example
an automaticcircuit,lhe other,valvesfor
manualcontrol.This makessurethat no
automaticactioncan take placeduring
manualoDeration.
M E M O R YF U N C T I O N
A regulartype of
lunctionreouirementis to
perpetuatea momentary
valveoperationby
holdingits signalon, until
anothermomentarysignal
switchesit permanently
otl.
The red indicatoris
"memorizing"that valv€
@ was the last to be Flg. 8.4 Switchingtrom redto greenby trippingvalve@ and from green
operatedand the green to red with valve @
indicatorthat valveO will
give the signalto change
over.
ME FUNCTIONS
A pneumaticdelayis basedon the time requiredto changethe pressurein a fixedvolume,by the airflow
)ughan orifice,As this is a meteringfunction,subjectto changingcondilionsin supplyair,certain
inconsist€ncies shouldbe sxpected.
In addilion,do not relyon Timealonetor circuitsatety-- e.g.thereneedsto be somepositiveindicationof
a partbeingpresent,a processbeingcompleted,anctso on.
lt, witha givenvolumeand
orificewe get the pr€ssure^ime
a in fig.8.5.Eithera
volumeor a smal16r orifice
changeit to b.
In the caseof characteristic a,
timedelavto switcha valvewith
switchingpressureps will be lt,
b it will be increasedlo t2.
In praclice,the pressureot the
is connectedto the pilot
oi a spring retum valve and a
speedcontrolleris usedto varythe
orifice,ils built-incheckvalve
an unrestricted tlow in the
Fig. 8.5 The pressure/ time relationship
of compressedair,
direclionand thereforea flowinglhroughan orificeintoa volume
res€ttime.
ON
Thereare tourditferenttime related InitialSignaloFF .
functions:
1. The delayof switchingON a pressur€ a) delayedat'ON'
signal
2. The delayof swilchingOFFa pr€ssure b) d€layedat 'OFF"
signal c) Pulseat "ON'
3. A puls€to switchON a pressuresignal
d) Pulseat "OFF'
4. A pressurepulseto switchOFF,
Fig. 8.6 The four timefunctions
D E L A Y E D S I ' Y I T C H t N GO N
Fig.8.7 showshow a pressur€
signalcan be delayed.The signalon
the outputport (A) of valve@ appears
E variabletim€atteroperationof the
valve@. This is due to the flow
restrictionvalveand the reservoir
(whichmay be nothingmorethan a
largediametersectionof tubing).
For a veryshortdelay,the
reservoircan be omitted.
D E L A Y E DS W I T C H I N GO F F
The delayedreselof a valveis
achievedin lhe sameway as b€tore,
but insleadof limitingthe air flow
towardsthe pilotportol valveb, its
exhaustis restrictod.
Fig.8.8 showsa delayin
switchinga signalott. Atteroperating
valve(Dthe indicatorimmediat€ly
goeson, bul after releasingthe
valve,the indicatorwill slay on for an
adjustableperiod.
Flg 8.8 Delayedswitchingoff
P U L S E O N S W I T C H I N GO N
lf a signalfrom a valveis passinga
normallyopenvalve,whichis operatedwith
the samesignal,therewill b€no pressureat
the outputof the latlervalve,Howeverif its
operationis delayed,the pressurecan pass
untilthe operaliontakesetfectafterthe delay.
The resultis a pressurepulseof adiustable
durationon the outputof the normallyopen
valve.
In fig. 8.9, a pulseappearsat the outputot
the normallyopenvaNe@, whenthe vatue(D
is switchedon.
Fig. 8.9 Pulseon switchingon
P U L S E O N F E L E A S I N GA V A L V E
,'
Wh€nthe pressurepulsehasto
appearatlerlhe initialsignalhas been
switchedotf,lhe pressurelo produce
it mustcom€fromanolhersource.
The methodis lo simultaneously
operatea normallyopen3Y2Valve@
and pressurizea volume@ withthe
initialsignal.WhenvalveO is
released,vafue@ switchesin its
normalposition,connectingthe
volumewithils oulput.The pr€ssure
lrom the volumewill ebb awayaftera
signal
Fig. 8.10 Pulseon a disappearing
shortperiod,adlustableby meansof
the soeedcontroller.
C Y L I N D E RC O N T F O L
M A N U A LC O N T R O L
Slngte Acttng Cyllnder
.Fig.8.11Directcontrolot a singleactingcylinder
DO NOT COPYWTTHOUTWRITTENPERMISSION
P E U M A T T cT E c H | t o L o G Y
Dirccl Conlrol
The only diflerenc€betweenthe operationof a
doubleactingand a singleactingcylinderis that
a 5,/2valvehas to be usedinsteadof a 3/2. In its
normalposition(notopsrated),port"8" is i
connectedwiththe supplyport "P". lt hasto be i
connectedto the rod sideof the pistonif the i
cylinderis naturallyin the negativeposition.
I
For independent speedcontrolin both
directionsthe speedcontrolleris attachedto both
connections. Theirorientationis oppositeto that
of a singleactingcylinderas the exhaustingair
is throttled.This givesa morepositiveand
sleadiermovementthanthrottlingthe air supply.
Insleadof supplyingiust enoughpow€rto get the
pistonmoving,an additionalloadis addedwitha
backpressure,whichincreaseswith increasing .Flg.8.15 Directcontrolof a doubleactingcylinder
speed,thus compensates variationsin the load.
Holding the end positions
In mostcases,a cylinderhas to maintain
its position,evenafterlhe operatingsignal
has disappeared. This requiresthe
"Memonf functionot fig. 8.4.A bistable
valvewill stay in positionuntilswitchedtrom
the oppositeend.
In Fig.8.16,the outgoingstrokeot a
doubleactingcylinderis initiatedwithvalve
@ and retumedwithvalve@. Valve@
maintainsits positionand thereforealsothat
of the cylinder.
Valve@ will onlyoperatewhenonryone
of the manuallyoperatedvalvesis
depressed.lf both pilotportsare
pressurizedat the sametim€the spool
maintainsits primarypositionas an equal
prcssur€on an equalareacannotoverrid€
the primarysignal.
In circuitryihis phsnomenonis knownas
'ov€rlappingcommands'and is one of the Fig. 8.16 Maintainingthe positionsot a doubleacting
maiorproblemsin circuitdesign.
b e r e c r r N cC Y L T N D P
E oRs t r r o N s
^utometlc Return
Valve@ in the circuitof fig. 8.16can be replacedby a rollerleveroperatedvalve,trippedat the positive
end of the cylinderstroke.Th; cylinderthenswitchesvalveO backby itseltand thus returnsautomatically.
This is reterredto as reciprocation
of a cylinder.
I
I
I
Valve@
siluatedhere
I
I
I
ValveO
situaledh€re
\
|}epeattng Slrotes
By sensingbothendsof the strokewith rollerleveroperatedvalvesand usingthemto switchthe main
valve@ bact-andlorth,the cylinderwill r€ciprocate.ln orderto stopthe motionwe applyan ANDfunctionof
fig. 8.13.Witha bistablemanuallyoperatedvalveconnectedin serieswilh the roller-operaled valvethe
cylinderwill ceas6to cycleif switchO is tumedotf, butas beforeit willalwaysreturnto the negativeposition
@
v
S E Q U E N C EC O N T R O L
H O W T O D E S C R I B EA S E O U E N C E
A few ruleshelpus in describinga cycleof movementsin an extremelyshortbut precisemanner.
Nomenclature
Eachactuatorassumesa capital lett€r.
Its positionot rest,in whicha circuitdiagramis drawn,is definedas "Z€roPosition".The oppositeend
posilionis the "1" posilion.
Pressur€signalsto switchdirectionalcontrolvalvesare called"commands",to distinguishthemfrom other
signals,e,g.from leverrollervalves.A commandfor movinga cylinderfromthe "zero"to the "1" positionis
calt€da 'posilive"command;in the caseof cylinder?', ils codeis simply'A+".Accordingly, th€commandto
refumcylinderA is ?-".
- As the restposilionis called'zero",it is logicalto codethe valvethat sensesthe rest positionof cylinder
wim 'a6". The oppositepositionis thencalled"a1".Forclarity,signalsar€alwayscodedwith lowercase
-J"A"
letters.The sensedpositionis designatedby an index.
S E Q U E N C EO F T W O C Y L I N D E R S
Withthesecodes,we can writea sequenceof two cylinderslor examplewith:
A+, B+, A-, B-
The sequenceof evenlsnow becomespatentlyobvious.
Nowcomesthe queslionof wh6r€thesecommandscomefrom.The answeris quitesimple:lrom the roller
levervalvesthat sensethe endsof the stroke.They alsoneeda cod€,againquiteself-explanatory:
lhe terminalionof a command(A+, B+)will alwaysbe signaledby the roller/l€ver
valvewiththe same
letterand an indexnumber:"at", "bt", a Zero Command A- by ao, etc.
Withthesecodeswe can writethe solutionfor thg abovementionedsequenceas tollows:
A+ -) al .+B+-)bf-+A--+i0+B-*bO
We also ne€da manuallyoperatedvalvetor startingand stoppingthe sequence,it is placedin the lin6
priorto the firstcommand,A+. Shouldthe sequenceneedto conlinuethenthe startvalveshouldbe lettopen,
but it th€circuitis switchedoff in mid-cycleit will continueto operateuntilall ot the movementsin the
sequencehavebeencomplet€dand thenthe cyclewill cometo rest.This meansthatthe lastsignalbo has
app€aredbut it is unableto passthroughthe startswitch(coded"sf). This is anotherapplicationol the
elem€ntary'AND" functionof fig. 8.13.The commandA+ needsbothsignals:bg and"sf. In switchingalgebra
this is writtenas a multiplicationin normalalgebra:"st . b0'.
Slgna,s
Commands
O P P O S I N GC O M M A N D S
Ellmlnatlon wlth a Pulse
T--
I
DO NOT COPYWTTHOUTWRITTENPERMISSION
P N E U M A T t cT E c H N o L o c Y
line groupI
linegroup
The steps of the circuit are now quite easy. The start switch is alwaysinsert€din the line to the first
commandol the cycle.ln the exampleabove,lhe cycleendsat the end ot a group;this is not alwaysthe case
and,as mention€dabovenol necessary.
This will be demonstrated
withone €xample:the givencycleis: A+, B+, A-, C+, D+, IL B- G-
lf we dividethe sequencefrcm the trontwe get the resultas belowa 3 GroupCascade:
lA+, B+,1A-, C+, D+,1D- B- C-.
lf we dividethe sequencefrcm lhe rearwe lind lhal we now haveonly2 groups,as the movementsA+,D-
,B-,C-can all be performedwiththe samegroupair:
A+,1B+, A-, G+, D+,1IL B- C..
The cascadevalvewill be switch€don with al and b6 switchedbackwith dt. The start/ stopvalvewill be
in the connectiontromcOto lhe commandinputA+,
APPENDIX
SYMBOLS
T H E S Y M B O L SF O R F L U I D P O W E RS Y S T E M SA N D C O M P O N E N T S ARE
H
S T A N D A B D T Z EIDN I S O 1 2 1 9 .T H E S T A N D A R DC O M B T N E S Y D R A U L I CA N D
P N E U M A T I CC O M P O N E N T SS. Y M B O L SS H O W T H E F U N C T I O N O F A COMPONENT
B U T D O N O T I N D I C A T ET H E C O N S T R U C T I O NA. S A N E X A M P L E :A C C O R D I N GT O
I N S Y M B O LB E T W E E N
I S O , T H E R EI S N O D I F F E R E N C E A C O N V E N T IONAL
D O U B L EA C T I N GC Y L I N D E RA N D A T W I N B O D C Y L I N D E R ,A L T H O U G HS O M E
M A N U F A C T U R E RH SA V E I N T R O D U C E D T H E I RO W N S Y M B O L S F O F
CLARIFICATION.
A I R T R E A T M E N TE O U I P M E N T
The basicSymbollor Air Cleaningand Air DryingComponentsis a diamondwiththe inpuland output
drawnas a linefromthe lettand rightcorners.The specificlunctionis indicatedinsidethe diamondwith a few
furth€rsymbols.The tablebelowwill€xplainitself.
The basicsymbolfor pressureregulatorsis a squarewiththe inputand outputdrawnin the middleof the
leftand rieht.lide.Airflowis indicatedwithan anow,the settingspringwitha zigzag,crossedby an arrowtor
Th6 rirainsymbolsare:
adjuslirbility.
ISOSYMBOLSfor AIR TREATMENT
+
,A
\I/
Air Heat
+ +
Heater Exchanger
Multistage Lubricator
MicroFilter
Pressure -
Reoulation
-Z- E- ,--E_ A
Ll s fr-++tJ:
Basic Adiustable Pressure Regulator
I
Dift€renlial Pressure
Symbol Setting Regulator with r€lief Pressure Gauge
Spring Regulator
Units
FRLUnit,
FRL Unit.detailed simplitied
)
Fig. A.1 Symbolslor Air TreatmentComponentsISO 1219
ACTUATORS
A linearcylinderis drawnas a simplitied is madebetweenpistonandother
crosssection.Nodifference
typesof cylinders.
A rolaryactuatorhasitsownsymbol;herealso,it appliesforall kinds,withrackandpinion
or van€€tc.
Singl€ActingCylinder, SingleActingCylinder,
pushtype pulltype
t-n
t l l
T-T
DoubleActing DoubleActingCylinderwith
adjustableair
DoubleActingCylinder, RotaryActuator,
withdoubleend rod doubleActing
VALVES
The basicsymbolfor a directionalcontrolvalveis a groupof squares.The inputand exhaust(s)are drawn
on the bottom,the outputson top. Thereis one squarelor eachfunction.As valveshavetwo or moredifferent
mt \
functions,squaresare linedup horizontally,the ruleof thumbis thal eachfunctionis representedby a square:
The mainopeEtorsymbolsare:
' "--t#
O --"'.-6!
Exhaust
V "='z ^na,*ry
rr|
-
H NM o R = lT\ | M
MechanicallyOperated,
normallyclosed312
I
(non-passing)
ValvewithSpringReturn
ainsrpptv \o.,n"r.
6/
Fig. A-3 Howto combineValveSymbols
ctRcurTs
B A S I CR U L E S
A circuitdiagtamis drawnin therestpositionol thecont.olled withthesupplyunderpressure,
machine, but
in lhecaseof mixedcircuits, withoutelectrical power.Allcomponents
mustbedrawnin thepositions
resulting
fromlh6seassumptions. Flg.A- 4 illustrates
this:
fhis cylinderchamberandthe rod sideot
pistonar€undsroressure:rod
Feat cylinder
chamberandthis line
Thisline is in connectionwith
are exhausted
lhe supplylhroughthe valve:
il is oressurized
In resttheE is no solenoid€nergized:
operator As springdefinesposition,
inacliveandvalvepositiondefinsdby the spring thissquareis in function
Flg. A.4 BasicRulesfor composingcircuitdiagrams
REST POSITION
Mechanically operatedvalves,controllingthe restpositionsol the cylinderdrivenparts,are operatedin rest
and haveto be drawnaccordingly:withthe externalconnectionsdrawnto the squareon the operatorsid€.In
a normallyclosed3/2 valv€,the outputis then connectedwiththe supplyand theretoreunderpressure.
Equally,if the signallineto a monostabloair operat€dvalveis underpressure,ii hasto be drawnin the
operatedposition.
Furtherrulesar6:
ruru
ManuallyoperatedValves
delent,mustcorre€pond
wlthvalveposition
no pEssut€ pressure i/ noon,uun \ o*ur"
I I -l.
| | | \---t_ . IT ff- . .
r-l T | \ I^^,
operatedValves
andpneumatically
Electrically
Alr operatedvalves may be operatedIn rest
jg_ejg:s_uP_+,_
operatedValves
Mechanically
No valvewlth lndex'1" ls
C I R C U I TL A Y O U T
In a circuitdiagram,the flowof the workingenergyis drawnfromthe bottomto th€top and the sequenceof
the workingcyclelrom th6 leftto the right.Consequ€ntly, thd air supply(FRL)Unitis situatedin the lowerleft
corner,lhe cylinderlhat pertormsthe firststrokeof the cycl€,in the upperleftcomeretc.
The powervalvesare drawndirectlybelowtheircylinders;th6ytorma 'PowerUnit'thalis codedwitha
capitaffetter(seeNomenclalure). In purelypneumaticcircuits,312rollerfiever valves,controllingthe €nd
posilionsof the cylinderdrivenmachinepartrs, are situat€din a low€rlevel.
Betweenpowervalvesand the powerunilsth€remaybe additionalvalvesto €nsurethe correclsequence
(memorylunction),and,som€times, additionalvalvesto realizec€rtaininterlocksby logicalfunctions.Th6
bloc* diagramot fig. 6 explainsthis moreetfectivelythandescriptions.
LOGICLevel
Memories,
AND's,OR's,
Timingsetc.
,fsrll m tI
SIGNALINPUTLevel Codes:a9, ar ,bo ,br ,% andcl
*{I"il"ilqil
Flg, A€ The basiclayoutof.apneumalic.circuit
diagram.
NOMENCLATURE
Previously,pneumaticcircuitsweredrawn'topographically, withthe roller-operated valvespositionedon
top, drawnas beingoperatedby 'cams'on th6 cylinderrodends.This is the situationwe will haveon the
trainingkit whensimulatinga machinecontrol.In modemmoresophisticated circuits,this leadsto a muttitud€
of crossinglines.The modemand only reasonabl€ methodis to linethe symbolsof theseroller-operatod
valvesup, as in Fig.A-8, and posilionthemto allowverticalsignallines,straightto theirdestination.Their
placeon th€machineis then indicatedwith a selt-explanatory code.
This selFexplanationis achievedby consld€dng certainequipm€ntto form one functionalset.The starting
pointis the "PowerUnit"whichis codedwith a capitallefter.This can be in alphabeticalorder,in the sequence
of the workingcycle,or initialsot th€operation,{or exampbrc" fur clamping;"D" for Drillingetc.
The (mention€d) lunctional sef includesthe actuator,the powervalveand the two roller/lever
valvesthat
detectthe two end positions.
The rest positionis codedwith an indexf0', the fuorkingposition"with a "1". Notethat the restpositionis
the real positionof the movingmachinepartsand not that of the pistonrod.Only in simulationwitha training
kit do we consid€r'rodin" as the rest Dosition.
CIRCUIT
S A M P L ED I A G B A M S
We will lookat this in a samplediagram.DiagramA-10is the circuittor the sequenc€:
"A+, B+, B-, A-".
ll is dividedintothe thr€elevels,the powersectionon top, the signalinputrson the bottomand in between
the 'signalproc€ssing'. This latlerterm means,thatthe signalstromth€machinenegdadditionalsignals
ancuorfogicalinterconnection lo g€tthe rightsequsnce.In this case,a memoryisrequiredto be switchedby
the commands"M+"and "M-".Youwill r€cognizethis valyeas the cascadevalvain tig. 8.25,whichis of
coursea memory,Logicalfunctionsare lhe seriesconnections(ANDfunctions)of lor exampl€the start/stop
valvewiththe memory.The ellect is, that as longas the cylinderA is not backin its rest positionthe startis
not effective.Onlyafteroperationof the rollerlevervalvea6,the memorywill be resetintothe drawnposition
and supplyair to lhe startvalve.This allowsrepeatingcyclesby switchingthe starystopvalve"ON".Resetting
it intothe drawnrest positionwill causethe sequenceto stopaftercompletionof the runningcycle.
POWERLevel
<A-_CommandA-
I
I co'Uand-Ll
LOGICLevel
Signal
staru$op Processing
M-l - -1
Signalbl
and i--- . t
Siqnalao and
CommangEEi I CommandM+
l-
I I
SIGNALLevel
Checkingthe machine
E ,=i,=&!i:il{:?rdtfiiei*
smarterproducts;machinesthat will, on
an elementarylevel,thinkaboutwhat
lhey'redoingand respondto ever
changingcircumstances.Pneumatic
componentswill continueto providelhe
powerto buildthe dreamsof emerging
tuturetechnologies.
The sectionof a machineshownon
the left shouldserveas a reminderthat:
1 . lherewill alwaysbe a needlo
areso manyold
automale.....there
machinesand fixturesthat can be
mademore€fficientand more
productive
generalrule
2. simpleris b€tter.....a
o. safestis notiust th6 bestway-- it is
the ONLYway. Neverdesigna
circuit,usea product,or operatea
machinewithoutsafetyas your
primaryconc6m.
SMC Pneumatics lnc. (Austin) SMC Pneumatics lnc. (Columbus) SMC Pneumatics Inc. (Mnpls.) SMC Pneumatics Inc. (Rochester)
2324-D Ridgepoint Drive 3687 Corporate Drive 990 Lone Oak Road, Suite 162 245 Summit Point Drive
Austin,TX 78754 Columbus,OH 43231 Eagan,MN 55121 Henrietta,NY 14467
Tel: (512) 926-2646 Tel: (614) 895-9765 Tel: (651) 688-3490 Tel:(716)321-1300
FAX: (512) 926-7055 FAX: (614) 895-9780 FAX:(651)688-9013 FAX:(716)321-1865
SMC Pneumatics Inc. (Boston) SMC Pneumatics Inc. (Dallas) SMC Pneumatics Inc. (Nashville) SMC Pneumatics lnc. (S.F.)
Zero CentennialDrive 12801N. StemmonsFrutry,Ste.815 5000 LinbarDrive,Suite 297 85 NicholsonLane
Peabody,MA01960 Dallas,TX 75234 TN 37211
Nashville, San Jose,CA 95134
Tel: (978) 326-3600 rel: (972\ 406-0082 Tel:(615)331-0020 Tel: (408) 943-9600
Fax: (978) 326-3700 FAX: (972) 406-9904 FAX:(615)331-9950 FAX: (408) 943-9111
SMC Pneumatics lnc. (Charlotte) SMC Pneumatics lnc. (Detroit) SMC Pneumatics lnc. (Newark) SMC Pneumatics Inc. (St. Louis)
5029-8 West W.T.Hanis Blvd. 2990 TechnologyDrive 3434 US Hwy.22 West, Ste. 110 4130 RiderTrail North
Charlotte,NC 28269 RochesterHills,Ml 48309 Somerville,NJ 08876 Earth City, MO 63045
Tel: (704) 597-9292 Tel: (248) 299-O2O2 Tel: (908) 253-3241 Tel: (314)209-0080
FAX: (704)596-9561 FAX: (2a8) 293-3333 FAX: (908) 253-3452 FAX: (314) 209-0085
SMC Pneumatics Inc. (Chicago) SMC Pneumatics Inc. (Houston) SMC Pneumatics Inc. (Phoenix) SMC Pneumatics Inc. (Tampa)
27725 Diehl Road 9001Jameel,Suite180 2001 W. MelindaLane 8507-HBenjaminRoad
Warrenville,lL 60555 Houston,TX77O4O Phoenix,AZ85027 Tampa,FL 33634
Tel: (630) 393-0080 Tel: (713) 460-0762 Tel: (623)492-0908 Tel: (813)243-8350
FAX: (630)393-0084 FAX:(713)460-1510 FAX: (623) 492-9493 FAX: (813) 243-8621
SMC Pneumatics Inc. (Cincinnati) SMC Pneumatics Inc. (L.A.) SMC Pneumatics Inc. (Portland) SMG Pneumatics Inc. (Tulsa)
4598 OlympicBlvd. 14191MyfordRoad 14107N.E.AirportWay 10203A East 61st Street
Erlanger,KY 41018 Tustin.CA 92780 Portland,OR 97230 Tulsa.OK 74146
Tel: (606) 647-5600 Tel: (714\ 669-1701 Tel: (503) 252-9299 Tel: (918) 2s2-782O
FAX: (606) 647-5609 FAX:(714)669-1715 FAX: (503) 252-9253 FAX: (918) 252-9511
SMC PneumaticsInc.
P.O.Box 26640, Indianapolis,lN 46226
Tel:(317)899-4440.FAX:(317)899-3102
O 1978-1999SMC Pneumatics,Inc.All RightsReserved.
RevisedOctober1999